Introduction 1

Notes

Introduction 1. Bill Bravman, Making Ethnic Ways: Communities and Their Transfor- mations in Taita, Kenya, 1800–1950 (Oxford: James Curry, 1998),6. 2. Kenneth Wujangi served two nonconsecutive terms as KOYA president. In 1981 Wujangi succeeded Dan Ngula, KOYA’s first president. Wujangi was reelected in 1994. 3. Ada van der Linde and Rachel Naylor put the number of deaths at 15,000, while official reports say 2,000 deaths, though the number is likely much higher. SeeBuilding Sustainable Peace: Conflict, Concilia- tion, and Civil Society in Northern Ghana (Oxford: Oxfam Working Papers, 1999),28, and Jönsson, Julia, “The Overwhelming Minor- ity: Traditional Leadership and Ethnic Conflicts in Ghana’s Northern Region,” Oxford University, Crise Working Paper no. 30 (February 2007), 18. By 1994, Konkomba were thoughttobethe secondlargest group in the Northern Region. Estimates suggest that at the time of the 1994 conflict there were 268,000 Dagomba; 247,000 Konkomba; 134,000 Gonja; and 27,000 Nanumba. 4. See, in particular, James Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986) and Patrick Chabal, Political Domination in Africa: Reflection on the Limits of Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). 5. Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments (Princeton: Prince- ton University Press, 1993), 161. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid., 162. 8. Frederick Cooper, Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, His- tory (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005). 9. See for example, Leroy Vail and Landeg White, “Tribalism in the Political History of Malawi,” The Creation of Tribalism in South- ern Africa, Leroy Vail (ed.)(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 10. Mahmood Mamdani, Citizens and Subjects: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 7, 24, 183. 11. Ibid., 183. 12. Bruce Berman, “Ethnicity, Patronage and the African State: The Politics of Uncivil Nationalism,” African Affairss, 97 (1998), 323. 196 N otes

13. Bravman, 1998, 21. 14. Berman, 1998, 317. 15. Sean Hawkins, “Disguising Chiefs and God as History: Questions on the Acephalousness of Lodagaa Politics and Religion,” Africa, 66, 2 (1996), 202. 16. Berman, 1998, 312; Crawford Young, Ethnicity and Politics in Africa, Critical Themes in Africa Studies Series (Boston University African Studies Center, 2002), 9. 17. Philip Burnham, ThePolitics of Cultural Difference in Northern Cameroon (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institute Press, 1996), 16–17. 18. Mamdani, 1996, 122. 19. Bruce Berman, “ ‘A Palimpsest of Contradictions’: Ethnicity, Class, and Politics in Africa,” International Journal of African Historical Studiess, 37, 1 (2004), 24. 20. Berman, 1998, 317; Sara Berry, No Condition is Permanent: The Social Dynamics of Agrarian Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), 8. 21. Berry, 1993, 29. 22. Kojo Sebastian Amanor, “Customary Land, Mobile Labor and Alien- ation in the Eastern Region of Ghana,” Land and thePolitics of Belonging in West Africa, Carola Lentz and Richard Kuba (eds.) (Boston: Brill, 2006), 138–139. 23. Ibid. 24. Carola Lentz and Richard Kuba, “Land Rights and the Politics of Belonging in Africa: An Introduction,” Land and the Politics of Belonging in West Africa, Carola Lentz and Richard Kuba (eds.) (Boston: Brill, 2006),2. 25. Burnham, 1996,5–6. 26. Under Kwame Nkrumah and the ruling Convention People’s Party, the Northern Territories were divided into three separate regions: Upper East, Upper West, and the Northern Region. 27. Carola Lentz and Paul Nugent (eds.), Ethnicity in Ghana: The Limits of Invention (New York: St Martin’s Press, 2000),9. 28. Terence Ranger, “The Invention of Tradition in Colonial Africa,” The Invention of Tradition, Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (eds.) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 220. 29. Mahmood Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism and the Genocide in Rwanda (Princeton: Princeton Univer- sity Press, 2001), 36. 30. Igor Kopytoff, The African Frontier: The Reproduction of Tradi- tional African Societies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987),5. 31. Carola Lentz, “Dagara Rebellion against Dagomba Rule? Contested Stories of Origin in North-West Ghana,” Journal of African History, 35 (1994), 469. Notes 197

32. Eric Worby, “Maps, Names and Ethnic Games: TheEpistemology and Iconography of Colonial Power in Northwestern Zimbabwe,” Journal of Southern African Studiess, 20, 3, Special Issue: Ethnicity and Identity in Southern Africa (September 1994), 371. 33. Ibid., 372. 34. Sean Hawkins, Writing and Colonialism in Northern Ghana (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002), 24. 35. Jay Oelbaum, “Liberalization or Liberation?: Economic Reform and the Paradox of Conflict in Ghana’s Northern Region.” Paper presented at the 48th Annual Convention of the International Studies Association. Chicago, Il. February 28–March 3, 2007. 36. Peter Skalnik, “Questioning the Concept of the State in Indigenous Africa,” Social Dynamicss, 9, 2 (1983), 21. See also, Artur Bogner, “The 1994 Civil War in Northern Ghana: the Genesis and Escalation of a‘Tribal’ Conflict,” Ethnicity in Ghana: The Limits of Invention, Carola Lentz and Paul Nugent (eds.)(New York: St Martin’s Press, 2001); H.B. Martinson, The Hidden History of Konkomba Wars in Northern Ghana (Accra: Matta Press, 1994); Ibrahim Mahama, Eth- nic Conflicts in Northern Ghana (Tamale, Ghana: Cyber Systems, 2003). 37. See Philip Andrew Evans, “TheLobirifor/Gonja Dispute in North- ern Ghana: A Study of Inter-Ethnic Conflict in a Postcolonial State,” Doctoral dissertation, University of Cambridge, 1983. 38. Susan Drucker-Brown, “Local Wars in Northern Ghana,” Cambridge Anthropology, 13, 2 (1988–1989), 101. 39. Berman, 1998, 312–313. 40. Mamdani, 1996,51. 41. Jeff Grischow, Shaping Tradition: Civil Society, Community and Development in Colonial Northern Ghana, 1899–1957 (Boston: Brill, 2006), 10. 42. Cooper, 2005, 27. 43. Donald Rothchild, Managing Ethnic Conflict in Africa: Pressures and Incentives for Cooperation (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997),7. 44. Grischow, 2006, 2–3. 45. Mamdani, 1996, 15–16. 46. Nina Emma Mba, Nigerian Women Mobilized: Women’s Political Activity in Southern Nigeria, 1900–1965 (Berkeley: Institute of Inter- national Studies, 1982). 47. Anthony Appiah, “A Slow Emancipation,” The New York Times Magazine, May 18, 2007 (New York). 48. Mamdani, 1996, 24. 49. Laura Fair, Pastimes & Politics: Culture, Community, and identity in Post-Abolition Urban Zanzibar, 1890–1945 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2001), 34. 198 Notes

50. Yakubu Saaka (ed.), “Introduction,” Regionalism and Public Policy in Northern Ghana (New York: Peter Lang, 2001), 3–4. 51. Ibid., 4–5. 52. Henryk, 448; Tait, 1961, 35–36. 53. Eric Allina-Pisano, “Resistance and the Social History of Africa,” Journal of Social History, 37, 1 (Fall, 2003), 194.

Chapter 1 1. A.W. Cardinall, The Natives of the Northern Territories of theGold Coast (London: Francis Edwards, 1921), 232. 2. Mamdani, 2001, 166. 3. Ibid., 87. 4. Reinhold Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001), 9. 5. Ibid., 117. 6. Mamdani, 1996, 16–17. 7. J.D. Fage, “Early History of the Mossi-Dagomba Group of States,” The Historian in Tropical Africa, J. Vansina, R. Mauny, L.V. Thomas (eds.)(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964), 177. 8. A.A. Iliasu, “The Origins of the Mossi-Dagomba States,” Research Review, 7, 1 (1970), 107. 9. J.D. Fage, “Reﬂections on the Early History of the Mossi-Dagomba Groups of States,” The Historian in Tropical Africa, J. Vansina, R. Mauny, and L. Thomas (eds.)(Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1964), 179; Iliasu, 1970, 107. On the history of Dagbon, see A.W. Cardinall, “Customs at the Death of the King of Dagomba,” Man, 11, 52 (1921); A.C. Duncan-Johnstone and H.A. Blair, Enquiry into the Constitution and Organization of the Dagbon Kingdom (Accra: Government Printer), 1932; E.F. Tamakloe, A Brief History of the Dagbamba People (Accra: Government Printing Ofﬁce), 1931; Paul A. Ladouceur, Chiefs and Politicians: The Politics of Regionalism in Northern Ghana (London: Longman, 1979). 10. M.D. Iddi states that most writers have erroneously stated that the capital was called “Ya Ni Dabari,” “When the Dagbamba moved to the new site, or to be more precise, were driven under Gonja pressure, they referred to theold site in retrospect as Ya Ni Dabari ‘Ya Ni which is in ruins’ [the deserted Ya Ni].” See M.D. Iddi, “The Musketeers of the Dagbong Army: Dagban-Kombonse,” Masters Thesis, University of Ghana, Legon, 1973, 12. 11. Martin Staniland, The Lions of Dagbon: Political Change in Northern Ghana (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), 4. 12. Nehemiah Levtzion, West Africa Chiefs Under Islam (Oxford:Claren- don Press, 1968),6. 13. Ibid. Notes 199

14. Ibid., 103. 15. Cardinall, 1921, 260. 16. Levtzion, 1968, 87. 17. Iliasu, 1970; Tamakloe, 1931; Skalnik, 1983, 13. 18. Interview with Joseph Ali Kamshegu, Saboba, November 15, 2000. 19. Levtzion, 1968, 87. 20. Jon Kirby, “Peace Building in Northern Ghana: Cultural Themes in Ethnic Conﬂict,” Ghana’s North: Research on Culture, Religion, and Politics of Societies in Transition. Franz Kröger and Kröger, Barbara Meier (eds.)(Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2003), 175. 21. Herbst, 2000, 38. 22. Interview with Moses Mabengba, Tema, January 20, 2001; Hippolyt A.S. Pul, “Exclusion, Association and Violence: Trends and Trig- gers in Northern Ghana’s Konkomba-Dagomba Wars,” The African Anthropologistt, 10, 1 (March 2003), 16. 23. Pul, 2003, 16. 24. R.S. Rattray, The Tribes of the Ashanti Hinterland, Volumes I and II (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1932), 546. 25. Interview with Moses Mabengba, Tema, January 20, 2001. 26. Indeed, although there are Konkomba narratives that describe Konkombaclans migrating from the area, there was a sizable Konkomba population in and around Yendi until the 1994 conﬂict between the Konkomba and Dagomba. 27. Interview with Kaplija Madou, Toma, March 3, 2001. 28. Interview with Joseph Ali Kamshegu, Saboba, January 6, 2001. 29. Interview with Dalafu Omtapii, Tema, March 21, 2001. 30. Presently, the utindaan from Sanguli continues to attend the shrine in Sambul. Interview with Gnafori Dulnya, Sambuli, March 29, 2001. 31. Interview with Joseph Ali Kamshegu, Saboba, January 6, 2001. 32. Ibid. 33. Interview with Kaplija Madou, Toma, March 3, 2001. 34. See Lentz, “Dagara Rebellion Against Dagomba Rule? Contested Sto- ries of Origin in North-West Ghana,” Journal of African History, 35 (1994), 457–492. 35. Martin Klein, “The Slave Trade and Decentralized Societies,” Journal of African History, 42 (2001), 53–55. 36. Saidiya Hartman, Lose Your Mother (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007). 37. Charles Piot, RemotelyGlobal (The University of Chicago Press, 1999),31. 38. Staniland, 1975, 6. 39. See Patrick Manning, Slavery and African Life (Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press, 2006),chapters three and four. 40. See for example, Benedict Der, The Slave Trade in Northern Ghana (Accra: Woeli Publishers, 1998), 11. 200 Notes

41. Ibid., 27. 42. R.O.G. Marville, The Formation of the Protectorates of Northern Ghana, Masters Thesis, University of Ghana, Legon, Institute of African Studies, 14. 43. Tamakloe, 1931, 36. 44. M.D. Iddi, “Chieftaincy in Dagbong,” Unpublished Field Notes, Institute of African Studies, Legon, 1974, 124. 45. Ibid. 46. Tait, 1961, 4. 47. Iddi, 1973, 14. 48. Jagbel is officially noted as Zegbeli, which reflects a Dagbani pronunciation. Konkombarefer to thevillage as Jagbel.Therefore when making a historical reference I use Jagbel unless speaking of the title of the na or the present-day town. 49. Interview with Joseph Ali Kamshegu, Saboba, March 8, 2001. 50. Ibid. 51. Ibid. 52. Pito is a beer made from fermented guinea corn and is popular among manypeople in the northern parts of Ghana. The corn is threshed, and the grain is soaked in a large pot. After four days it begins to germinate and it set out to dry. Next, the grain is ground into a flour and brewed twice over two consecutive days. The liquid is poured into a pot that has yeast sediment. A thick cloth is also placed in the pot to expedite fermentation. The resulting fermented beer is pito. See Zimon Henryk, “Guinea Corn Harvest Rituals among the Konkomba of Northern Ghana”, Anthroposs, 84 (1989), 449. 53. Interview with Joseph Ali Kamshegu, Saboba, March 8, 2001. 54. Herbst, 2000, 56. 55. Kopytoff, 1987, 29. 56. Jean-Francois Bayart, The State in Africa: ThePolitics of theBelly (New York: Longman, 1993),23. 57. R.S. Rattray, The Tribes of the Ashanti Hinterland, Volumes I and II (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1932), 549. 58. Donald Rothchild, Managing Ethnic Conflict in Africa (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute, 1997), 7. 59. Frantz Kröger, “Introduction,” Ghana’s North: Research on Culture, Religion, and Politics of Societies in Transition, Franz Kröger and Barbara Meier (eds.) (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2003), 4. 60. J.C. Myers, Indirect Rule in South Africa: Tradition, Modernity, and the Costuming of Political Power (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2008), 2. 61. Mamprugu, Nanun, and Dagbon are historically, linguistically, and culturally related. Chakosi are a neighboring Akan group that was also politically centralized but did not play a central role in political events related to the Konkombas of the Oti plain. Notes 201

62. Kwame Arhin, ThePapers of GeorgeEkem Ferguson (Cambridge: African Studies Centre, 1974), 116. 63. Throughout Anglophone Africa most Africans use “tribe” when speaking English to refer to sociopoliticalgroupsasopposed to the more academic “ethnic group”. 64. Lentz, 2006, 79. 65. Lentz and Nugent, 2001, 9. 66. Interview with Dalafu Omptapii, Tema, March 21, 2001. 67. Interview with JosephAli Kamshegu, January 6, 2001. 68. Heinrich Klose, “Journey to the North,” Translation of Unpublished Manuscript, African Studies Centre, University of Ghana, Legon, n.d., 150. 69. Ibid., 151. 70. Ibid., 151. 71. Peter Sebald, “Togo 1884–1900,” German Imperialism in Africa: From the Beginnings until the Second World War, Helmut Stoecker (ed.) (London: C. Hurst & Company, 1986), 92. 72. Berry, 1993, 34. 73. Henrika Kuklick, The Imperial Bureaucrat: The Colonial Admin- istrative Service in the Gold Coast, 1920–1939 (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1979), 45. 74. Ladouceur, 1979, 41. 75. Lentz, 2006, 79. 76. FO 64/1650 Colonial Correspondence. 77. Jack Goody, “Political Systems of the Tallensi and their Neighbors, 1888–1915,” Cambridge Anthropology, 14, 2 (1990), 6. 78. Ibid. 79. Ibid. 80. Chabal, 1994, 42. 81. Kuklick, 1979,51. 82. Chabal, 1994, 42. 83. Ladouceur, 1979,58. 84. Martin Klein, “African Participation in Colonial Rule,” Interme- diaries, Interpreters, and Clerks: African Employees in the Making of Colonial Africa, Lawrence, Benjamin, Emily Lynn Osborn, and Richard L. Roberts (eds.) (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2006), 275. 85. Franz, Kroger. “Introduction,” Ghana’s North: Research on Culture, Religion, and Politics of Societies in Transition, Franz Kröger and Kröger, Barbara Meier (eds.)(Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2003),5. 86. Herbst, 2000, 82. 87. Chabal, 1994, 41. 88. Ibid., 42. 89. Frederick Cooper, “Conﬂict and Connection: Rethinking Colonial African History,” American Historical Review, 99 (1994), 152. 202 N otes

Chapter 2 1. ADM 56/1/368, Informal Diaries, Southern Province, 1926. 2. Ibid. 3. ADM 56/1/368, Yendi District Commissioner Diary, 1926. 4. Cooper, 1994, 1517. 5. Annual Report on Togoland under British Mandate for the Year, 1929. 6. Adolf Ruger, “The Colonial Aims of the Weimar Republic,” Ger- man Imperialism in Africa: From the Beginnings until the Second World War, Helmut Stoecker (ed.)(London: C. Hurst & Company, 1986), 301. 7. R. Bagulo Bening, “Administrative Boundaries of Northern Ghana, 1898–1951,” Regionalism and Public Policy in Northern Ghana, Yakubu Saaku (ed.) (New York: Peter Lang, 2001), 23. 8. ADM 56/1/211, Annual Report, Yendi District, February 1916. 9. ADM 56/1/204, Handing Over Report, Yendi Station, December 1920. 10. ADM 56/1/211, Letter from Captain Short, DPO Yendi, to CCNT, January 7, 1916. 11. ADM 56/1/211, Letter from CCNT to A.W. Cardinall, Acting Yendi District Commissioner, October 23, 1916. 12. ADM 56/1/211, Annual Report, Yendi District, February 1916. 13. Ibid. 14. ADM 56/1/204, Handing Over Report, Yendi District, October 25, 1916. 15. ADM 56/1/211, Proceeding of the Palaver Held at Yendi, June 30, 1916. 16. ADM 56/1/211, Letter from CCNT to District Commissioner Short, July 2, 1916. 17. ADM 56/1/211, Letter from the CCNT to A.W. Cardinall, Acting District Political Ofﬁcer Yendi October 23, 1916. 18. ADM 56/1/211, Letter from CCNT to Yendi District Commis- sioner, May 9,1917. 19. ADM 56/1/229, Yendi District Ofﬁcial Diary,May 1919. 20. Ibid. 21. Tait, 1961, 128. 22. Tor Aase, “Introduction: Honor and Revenge in the Contempo- rary World,” Tournaments of Power: Honor and Revenge in the Contemporary World (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2002),1. 23. Christopher Boehm, Blood Revenge: The Anthropology of Feuding in Montenegro and Other Tribal Societies (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1984),65. 24. Tait, 1961, 89. 25. A.W. Cardinall, InAshanti and Beyond (London: Seeley Service and Company, Ltd., 1927), 119. Notes 203

26. Interview with Ujorn Dimaba Akonsi, Wapuli, March 6, 2001. 27. Interview with Daniel Jobor, Wapuli, April 19, 2006. 28. Interview with Mary Bukari, Saboba, January 4, 2001. 29.Ibid. 30. Isabel Hull, Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and Practices of War in Imperial Germany (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005),11. 31. ADM 56/1/380, Letter from DC W.E. Gilbert to Acting Chief Commissioner of the Southern Province. March 22, 1926. 32. ADM 56/1/368, Informal Diaries, Southern Province, 1926. 33. Ibid. 34. Ibid. 35. ADM 56/1/204, Handing Over Report, Yendi Station, G.E. Poole to Harold Branch December 1920. 36. A.I. Asijawu, “Law in African Borderlands: The Lived Experience of the Yoruba Astride the Nigeria-Dahomey Border,” Law in Colonial Africa, Kristin Mann and Richard Roberts (eds.) (Portsmith, NH: Heinemann, 1991), 224. 37. Ibid., 228–229. 38. A. Adu Boahen, African Perspectives on Colonialism (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), 66. 39. ADM 56/1/229, Ofﬁcial Diary, January 24, 1918. 40. Ibid. 41. ADM 56/1/229, Ofﬁcial Diary, January 24, 1918. 42. Terrence Ranger, “Connections between ‘Primary Resistance’ Move- ments and Modern Mass Nationalism in East and Central Africa,” Journal of African History, 9 (1968), 437–453. 43. Cooper, 1994, 1520. 44. Kristen Mann and Richard Roberts (eds.), Law in Colonial Africa (Portsmith, NH: Heinemann, 1991), 4. 45. Berry, 1993, 338. 46. Mamdani, 1996, 110. 47. Mamdani, 1996, 110. 48. Berman, 1998, 314–316. 49. NRG 3/4/3, Native Administration—Development Programme. W.E. Gilbert, District Commissioner. February 3, 1930. 50. Thomas Spear, “Neo-Traditionalism and the Limits of invention in British Colonial Africa,” Journal of African History, 44 (2003), 4. 51. Mann and Roberts, 1991, 4. 52. ADM 56/1/300, Yendi District Native Affairs. 53. Ibid. 54. Native Tribunals Ordinance, 1932. 55. Amanor, 2006, 144. 56. Quoted in Myers, Indirect Rule in South Africa, 11. 57. Ibid. 204 Notes

58. NRG 3/4/3, Native Administration—Development Programme. February 8, 1930. 59. Hawkins, 2002, 29. 60. ADM 67/4/8, Criminal Court Record Book,Yendi. 61. Ibid. 62. ADM 67/4/6, Criminal Court Record Book, Yendi. 63. Ibid. 64. Ibid. 65. ADM 67/4/5, Commissioner of Gold Coast Police Versus Njonam Konkomba, Bardouc Konkomba and Onukpili Konkomba, April 24, 1942. 66. ADM 67/4/7, Criminal Court Record Book, Yendi, 1953. 67. ADM 56/1/380, Memo from W.E. Gilbert to Commissioner of the Southern Province, January 21, 1929. 68. Ibid. 69. ADM 56/1/380, “Inquiry into the Death of T.S. Quarshie2nd Division Surveyor and Wounding of His Wife and Two Labourers”. 70. Ibid. 71. ADM 56/1/380, Memo from W.E. Gilbert to Commissioner of the Southern Province, NT, January 21, 1929. 72. Ibid. 73. Ibid. 74. Boahen, 1987, 76.

Chapter 3 1. The village is ofﬁcially recognized as Zegbeli, which corresponds with the Dagbani pronunciation. In Likpakpaaln it is Jagbel. I use Jagbel in reference to the village and Zegbeli Na to refer to its Dagomba chief. 2. Chatterjee, 1993, 163. 3. Ibid. 4. Michael Fisher, Indirect RuleinIndia: Residents and the Residency System, 1764–1858 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991),1. 5. Ibid., 2. 6. Myers, 2008, 1. 7. Vail and White, 1989, 13; see also Mamdani, 1996, 8. 8. Myers, 2008, 3. 9. Fisher, 1991, 11. 10. NRG 4/3/2, Memo from District Commissioner Eastern Dagomba to the Commissioner of Southern Province, Northern Territories, July 21, 1928. 11. NRG 8/2/20, Letter from Chief Commissioner of the Northern Territories to Chief Commissioner Northern Province, October 20, 1928. Notes 205

12. NRG 8/2/4, Preliminary of Native Administration Ordinance. 13. NRG 3/4/3, Chief Commissioner Walker-Leigh, Letter to the Com- missioner of the Southern Province, December 27, 1928. 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid. 16. As quoted in James Lance, “Seeking the Political Kingdom: British Colonial Impositions and African Manipulations in the Northern Ter- ritories of the Gold Coast Colony,” Doctoral Dissertation, Stanford University, 1995, 161. 17. NRG 8/2/28, Progress Report Upon the Re-Establishment of the Positions of Chiefs in the Dagomba Constitution, May–September 1930. 18. NRG 3/4/3, Memo to the Commissioner of the Southern Province from the Chief Commissioner of the Northern Territories. 19. ADM 11/1/1379, Political Conference Held at Tamale, January 3, 1929. 20. James Merriman Lance, “Seeking the Political Kingdom: British Colonial Impositions and African Manipulations in the Northern Ter- ritories of the Gold Coast Colony,” Doctoral Dissertation, Stanford University, 1995, 168. 21. Ibid. 22. Staniland, 1975, 78. 23. Stanley Shaloff, “Indirect rule in the Gold Coast: The Internal Debate, 1935–1939,” Unpublished Paper, African Studies Centre, University of Ghana, Legon, 1978. 24. Donald Cameron, Native Administration Memoranda Tanganyika Territory: Principles of Native Administration and Their Application (Dar es Salaam: The Government Printer, 1930),7. 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid. 27. Staniland, 1975, 83. 28. Carola Lentz “Colonial Ethnography and Political Reform: The Works of A.C. Duncan-Johnstone, R.S. Rattray, J. Eyre-Smith and J. Guiness on Northern Ghana,” Ghana Studiess, 2 (1999), 121. 29. NRG 8/2/38, Proposed Ordinance for the Introduction of Indirect rule, May 14, 1930. 30. NRG 11/1/1379, A.C. Duncan Johnstone, Notes on Policy and Standing Orders to Political Ofﬁcers, Southern Province, Northern Territories, 1930. 31. Ibid. 32. See Lentz, 1999. 33. Ibid., 137. 34. Ibid., 122. 35. NRG 3/4/3, Native Administration—Development Programme February 3, 1930. 206 N otes

36. NRG 8/2/28, Progress Report Upon the Re-Establishment of the Positions of ChiefsintheDagomba Constitution, May–September 1930. 37. Barbara Bush, Imperialism, Race, and Resistance: Africa and Britain, 1919–1945 (New York: Routledge, 1999), 36. 38. NRG 8/2/33, H.A. Blair, Assistant District Commissioner Activities Report for July 1931. 39. Lentz, 1999, 138. 40. Ibid., 145. 41. R.S. Rattray, The Tribes of the Ashanti Hinterland, Volumes I and II (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1932). 42. Ibid.,549. 43. Carola Lentz, “Histories and Political Conﬂict: A Case Study of Chieftaincy in Nandom, NorthWestern Ghana,” Paideuma, 39 (1993), 477. 44. Sean Hawkins, “Disguising Chiefs and God as History: Questions on the Acephalousness of LoDagaa Politics and Religion,” Africa, 66, 2 (1996), 208. 45. Lentz and Nugent, 2000, 9. 46. Berry, 2002, 644–645. 47. Ibid. 48. ADM 47/32, The Native Authority(Northern Territories) Ordinance No. 2, January 30, 1932. 49. Mamdani, 1996, 122. 50. Berry, 1993, 32. 51. NRG 3/4/3, Native Administration—Development Programme, February 3, 1930. 52. NRG 8/2/88, Report on Konkomba Disturbances by the Director of Veterinary Services, March 18, 1941. 53. NRG 8/2/88, Letter from Chief Commissioner of the Northern Territories to Colonial Secretary September 17, 1940. 54. Tait, 1961, 7. 55. NRG 8/2/88, Letter from Chief Commissioner of the Northern Territories to Colonial Secretary September 17, 1940. 56. Ibid. 57. NRG 8/2/88, Letter from W.J.A. Jones, Chief Commissioner of the Northern Territories, to DC Dagomba and SOP Tamale, November 2, 1940. 58. Ibid. 59. Gold Coast Census Report 1948, 309. 60. Ibid. 61. NRG 8/2/88, Memo from Director of Veterinary Services to the Chief Commissioner of the Northern Territories, February 28, 1941. 62. NRG 8/2/88, Letter from the Chief Commissioner of the Northern Territories to Colonial Secretary September 17, 1940. N otes 207

63. NRG 8/2/88, Report on Konkomba Disturbances by the Director of Veterinary Services, March 18, 1941. 64. Ibid. 65. Ibid. 66. The Gold Coast 1948 Census of Population, Report and Tabless, 294. 67. Ibid. 68. Staniland,1975, 212. 69. NRG 8/4/94, Informal Diary of the DC Eastern Dagomba, 1947. 70. Ibid. 71. Tait, 1961, 11. 72. NRG 8/2/206, Letter from Guthrie Hall, Acting Chief Commis- sioner of the Northern Territories, to Colonial Secretary, Accra, September 6, 1946. 73. NRG 8/2/97, A. W. Davis, DC Yendi, Opening of Saboba Station, February 18, 1947. 74. Ibid. 75. Ibid. 76. NRG 8/2/97 Letter from Chief Commissioner Ingram to Colonial Secretary, June 19, 1947. 77. NRG 8/2/97, James Anderson Asst. DC Saboba, Memorandum on KonkombaPolicy, July 2, 1949. 78. Ibid. 79. Ibid. 80. NRG 8/4/103, Informal Diary James Anderson, District Commis- sioner, Saboba, 1947. 81. Ibid. 82. G.N.E. Charles, “The Effect of Civilization on the Primitive Tribes of the Northern Territories,” February 1948, Unpublished Report, Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana, Legon. 83. Tait, 9. 84. As quoted in Bening, “Administrative Boundaries in Northern Ghana,”28. 85. Ibid. 86. Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York: Vintage, 1993), xii. 87. Chatterjee, 1993, 159. 88. Ibid., 161. 89. Ibid., 162.

Chapter 4 1. Zanzibar is a useful example. See Laura Fair, Pastimes & Politics: Culture, Community, and Identity in Post-Abolition Urban Zanz- ibar, 1890–1945 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2001). Rwanda presents a more extreme exampleof new racism anddiscrimination. 208 N otes

See, for example, Mahmood Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001). 2. Etienne Balibar, “Is there a ‘New-Racism’?”, Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identitiess, Etienne Balibar and Immanuel Wallerstein (eds.) (New York: Verso, 1991), 21. 3. Jonathan Glassman, “Slower Than a Massacre: The Multiple Sources of Racial Thought in Colonial Africa,” American Historical Review, 109, 3 (June 2004), 730. 4. Der, 2001, 118. 5. Quoted in Benedict Der, Regionalism and Public Policy in Northern Ghana, Yakubu Saaka (ed.) (New York: Peter Lang, 2001), 117–118. 6. Christine Oppong, Growing Up in Dagbon (Accra: Ghana Publishing Corporation, 1973), 68. 7. NRG 8/4/14, Letter from J.A. Kaleem, February 24, 1945. 8. Oppong,72. 9. NRG 8/3/167, Annual Report on the Dagomba and Nanumba District for the Year 1949–1950. 10. Interview with Daniel Jobor, Saboba, November 15, 2000. 11. Carola Lentz, “Unity for Development’: Youth Associations in North- Western Ghana,” Africa, 65, 3 (1995), 397. 12. Interview with Anthony Adams Bukari, Saboba, November 16, 2000. 13. The students enrolled in Yendi Primary School were adolescents, few would have been younger than twelve and many were signiﬁcantly older. Interview with Daniel Neina Jobor, Wapul, January 5, 2001. 14. Interview with Anthony Adams Bukari, Saboba, November 16, 2000. 15. Interview with Yao Wumbei, Saboba, March 7, 2001. 16. Chabal, 1994, 40. 17. Ibid. 18. R. Bagulo Bening, A History of Education in Northern Ghana, 1907– 1976 (Accra: Ghana University Press, 1990), 29–32. 19. Interview with Mary Bukari, Saboba, April 19, 2006. 20. NRG 8/3/167, Annual Report on the Dagomba and Nanumba Dis- trict for the Year 1949–1950. For a detailed account of the experience of Assemblies of God missionary activities among Konkomba during the period, see the ﬁrst two in a series of three E. Charlese Spencer’s memoirs, Welcome Madam (Tucson, AR: Iceni Books, 2006) and Around the Baobab Tree: A Christian Missionary Nurse Recounts Her Experiences in Africa (Tucson, AR: Iceni Books, 2006). 21. Interview with Mary Bukari, Saboba, April 19, 2006. 22. Ibid. 23. Interview with Marita Gladson, Fullerton, California, May 29, 2007. 24. Ibid., 69. 25. Spencer, Welcome Madame!, 143. 26. Ibid., 69. 27. Spencer, Around the Baobab Tree, 96. N otes 209

28. Ibid. 29. Asof May 2006, the mission house and clinic continue to beoperated by Americans, although there were Ghanaian nurses and assistants on staff. 30. Interview with Yao Wumbei, Saboba, March 6, 2001. 31. Interview with Dalafu Omptapii, Tema, March 21, 2001. 32. Berman, 2004, 28. 33. Claude Meillassoux, Urbanization of an African Community: Volun- tary Associations in Bamako (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1968),69. 34. Philip Zachernuk, Colonial Subjects: An African Intelligentsia and Atlantic Ideas (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2000), 108. 35. Jean Allman, The Quills of the Porcupine: Asante Nationalism in an Emergent Ghana (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1993),31. 36. Richard Rathbone, Nkrumah and the Chiefs: The Politics of Chieftaincy in Ghana, 1951–60 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2000), 23. 37. Allman, 1993, 32. 38. Lentz, 1995, 395. 39. Thomas Hodgkin, African Political Parties: An Introductory Guide (New York: Penguin Books, 1971),47. 40. Ibid., 48. 41. See, for example, E.A. Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria, 1814–1942 (London: Longman, 1966) and Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya (London: Vintage Books, 1962). 42. Crawford Young, ThePolitics of Cultural Pluralism (Madison: Uni- versity of Wisconsin Press, 1979),28. 43. “The Historical Background of the Konkomba Youth Association,” Unpublished pamphlet of the Konkomba Youth Association (n.d., circa 1994). 44. Interview with Anthony Bukari, Saboba, Janaury 3, 2001. 45. NRG 8/5/102, Minutes of the Dagomba District Council, 1952– 1955. 46. Berman, 1998, 326–327. 47. Ibid. 48. Chatterjee, 1993, 26. 49. Ladouceur, 1979, 192. 50. Interview with Kpalija Madou, Toma, March 3, 2001. 51. Interview with Dan Ngula, Accra, April 5, 2001. 52. Interview with Anthony Adams Bukari, Saboba, March 28, 2001. 53. Interview with Dan Ngula, Accra, April 5, 2001. 54. NRG 8/5/276, Memo to Region Chief Executive, Region Ofﬁce Tamale from the District Administrative Ofﬁcer-in-Charge, April 14, 1968. 55. Ibid. 210 Notes

56. NRG 8/5/276, Memo to Region Chief Executive, Region Office Tamale from the District Administrative Officer-in-Charge, April 14, 1968. 57. NRG 8/5/276, Memo from Principle Local Inspector, April 24, 1969. 58. NRG 8/5/276, Minutes of August 23, 1968 Meeting of the Town Development Committee. 59. Joshua Teye Tetteh, “Ethnic Conflict and Development Resource Allocation,” Doctoral Dissertation, American University, 1998, 82. 60. As cited in A.C. Smock and R. Smock, The Politics of Pluralism, The Politics of Pluralism: A Comparative Study of Lebanon and Ghana (New York: Elsevier, 1975), 248. 61. Hippolyt A.S. Pul, “Exclusion, Association and Violence: Trends and Triggers in Northern Ghana’s Konkomba-Dagomba Wars,” African Anthropologistt, 10, 1 (March 2003), 17. 62. Skalnik, 1983, 19. 63. ADM 5/4/121, Gold Coast Land Tenure Volume I, 1953. 64. 1962 Statistical Yearbook (Accra: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1964). 65. Skalnik, 1983, 19. 66. Ibid., 15. 67. Ibid. 68. Paul Nugent, Big Men Small Boys and Politics in Ghana (Accra: Asempa Publishers, 1995), 75. 69. Kirby, 2003, 185. 70. Chabal, 158. 71. Ibid., 160. 72. Ibid. 73. Chatterjee, 1993, 5.

Chapter 5 1. See Mamdani, 1996. See also, chapter above. 2. Interview with Daniel Ngula, Accra, December 19, 2000. 3. Oelbaum, 2007, 60. 4. Ibid., 7. 5. Horowitz, 1985, 22. 6. Ibid., 34. 7. Lentz, 1995, 398. 8. Their presence in Saboba is testament to the role that the Yendi School played in building a Konkomba ethnic consciousness. Although Sabobaishistoricallythe center of the Bichabob clan, Anthony Bukari Adams, for example, was Nakpantiib. 9. Interview with Daniel Ngula, Accra, December 19, 2000. 10. “The Historical Background of the Konkomba YouthAssociation,” Unpublished pamphlet of the Konkomba Youth Association. N otes 211

11. KOYA Constitution, Saboba, 1977. 12. “The Historical Background of the Konkomba YouthAssociation,” Unpublishedpamphlet of the Konkomba YouthAssociation. 13. Interview with Daniel Ngula, Accra, December 19, 2000. 14. Interview with Ousmanu Tamalbe, Accra, October 26, 2000. 15. Interview with Daniel Ngula, Accra, December 19, 2000. 16. Peter Barker, Peoples, Languages, and Religion in Northern Ghana: A Preliminary Report (Accra: Asempa Publishers, 1986), 177. 17. Interview with Daniel Ngula, Accra, December 19, 2000. 18. “The Historical Background of the Konkomba Youth Association,” Unpublished pamphlet of the Konkomba Youth Association. 19. Interview withAnthony Adams Bukari, Saboba, March 28, 2001. 20. Berry, 2002, 641. 21. Interview with Joseph Kamshegu, Saboba, November 16, 2000. 22. For example, Konkombainformants claim that in one case in which two families claimed a girl as a wife the Bimbilla Na judged in such a way as to claim the girl for himself. 23. Interview with Joseph Kamshegu, Saboba, November 16, 2000. 24. Ibid. 25. Evidently, Joseph Kamshegu was misrepresenting his role to the district administrator through a technicality. Historically, there were no institutions similar to courts among Konkomba. Yet there were practices related to resolving disputes, which Konkombas in Bimbilla sought to incorporate. So, while he was not technically presiding over cases, within the Konkomba context he was performing the equivalent role. 26. Interview with Ousmanu Tamalbe, Accra, October 26, 2000. 27. Interview with Dan Ngula, Accra, April 5, 2001. 28. Interview with Omtapii Dalafu, Tema, March 21, 2001. 29. Interview with Joseph Ali Kamshegu, Saboba, March 30, 2001. 30. Ibid. 31. “Seven Killed in Fighting,” Daily Graphic (Accra), Tuesday April 28, 1981. 32. “Nanumba Youths Call for Peace,” Ghanaian Timess, April 30, 1981. 33. Mahama, 2003. 34. Interview with Daniel Jobor, Wapuli, April 19, 2006; Anthony Adams Bukari, Saboba, March 28, 2001. 35. Interview with Daniel Jobor, Wapuli, April 19, 2006. 36. Interview with Daniel Jobor, Wapuli, April 19, 2006; Anthony Adams Bukari, Saboba, March 28, 2001. 37. “Konkombas, Nanumbas to Smoke Peace Pipe,” Daily Graphic (Accra), Tuesday, July 14, 1981. 38. “Lesson for all Who Love Peace,” Daily Graphic (Accra), Thursday, July 23, 1981. 39. “Kpandai—The Next Hot Spot,” Daily Graphic (Accra), June 22, 1981. 212 Notes

40. Interview with Dan Jobor, Wapuli, April 19, 2006. 41. “Kpandai—The Next Hot Spot,” Daily Graphic (Accra), June 22, 1981. 42. Evans, 1983, 316. 43. “Run for Your Life,” Daily Graphic (Accra), Tuesday, July 7, 1981. 44. “Dagombas Asked to Stay Out of the Conflict,” Ghanaian Timess, Thursday, July 9, 1981. 45. “House Calls for a Commission of Enquiry,” Daily Graphic (Accra), Wednesday, July 8, 1981. 46. “Nanumba Area Now Disaster Zone,” Daily Graphic (Accra), Wednesday, July 8, 1981. 47. “Nanumba Regent’s 3 Conditions for Peace,” Ghanaian Timess, July 24, 1981. 48. “Handle Nanumba-Konkomba Conflict with Maturity—President,” Ghanaian Timess, Monday, July 13, 1981. 49. “Be Alive to Your Responsibilities,” Daily Graphic (Accra), Monday, July 13, 1981. 50. Interview with Ken Wujangi Saboba, November 14, 2000; Daniel Ngula, Accra, April 5, 2001. 51. Horowitz, 1985, 26. 52. Oelbaum, 2007, 30. 53. Ibid. 54. Ibid, 40. 55. Jack Goody, Cuisine and Class: A Study in Comparative Sociology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982),49. 56. For an analysis of modern chieftaincy disputes in Dagbon, see Evans, 1983; Staniland, 1975. 57. Julia Jönsson, “The Overwhelming Minority: Traditional Leader- ship and Ethnic Conflicts in Ghana’s Northern Region,” Oxford University, Crise Working Paper No. 30 (February 2007), 2. 58. Bogner, 2001, 190. 59. P.Y. Dibabe and G.Y. Mabe, Konkomba Position Paper to the Perma- nent Negotiation Team into Conflicts in the Northern Region, July 1994, 10–11. 60. Mahama, 2003, 23. 61. As quoted in Mahama, 2003, 15. 62. Naylor and van der Linde, 1999, 21. 63. Mahama, 2003, 9. 64. Ibid, 7. 65. Ibid. 66. Unpublished Konkomba Position Paper, July 1994 to the Permanent Negotiation Team. 67. Naylor and van der Linde, 1999, 27. 68. Mahama, 2003, 93. 69. Ibid. N otes 213

70. Bogner, 2001, 186. 71. There was indeed a small group of Konkombathat sought to incorporate Kekpakpaan into theRepublic of Togo but they remained on the fringeof Konkomba political activities during the 1980s and 1990s. Interview withAnthony Adams Bukari, Saboba, January 3, 2001. See also, Mahama, 2003. 72. Many of the reports and analyses of the conﬂicts depict Konkomba as migrants from Togo. Academic scholarship also presented Konkomba as foreigners. See for example, Mahama, 2003; H.B. Martinson, The Hidden History of Konkomba Wars in Northern Ghana (Accra: Matta Press, 1994). 73. Oelbaum, 2007, 19. 74. Ibid., 34. 75. Paul Nugent, Bid Men, Small Boys and Politics in Ghana (Accra: Asempa Publishers, 1995), 278. 76. Kirby, 2003, 173. 77. Saboba Surveys, 2007. 78. Ibid. 79. Ibid. 80. Oelbaum, 2007, 11. 81. Ibid. 82. Kirby, 2003, 174. 83. “Provide Bimbilla Security Personnel With Logistics—Government Urged”, Ghana News Agency, January 15, 2007. 84. Ibid. 85. Dwayne Woods, “The Tragedy of the Cocoa Pod: Rent-Seeking, Land and Ethnic Conﬂict in Ivory Coast,” Journal of Modern African Studiess, 41, 4 (2003), 648–649. 86. Ibid., 651.

Conclusion 1. Mamdani, 1996, 286. 2. Mamdani, 1996. See also, Chapter 2 of this book. 3. Peter Geschiere and Stephen Jackson have deﬁned autochthony as literally implying “of the soil and meaning a direct claim to territory although in the meaning and currency of autochthony change according to context. See Geschiere and Jackson, “Autochthony and the Crisis of Citizenship: Democratization, Decentralization, and the Politics of Belonging,” African Studies Review, 49, 2 (September, 2006), 2. 4. Geschiere and Jackson, 2006, 3. 5. Mamdani, 1996, 293. 6. Ibid., 288. 7. Ibid., 296. 214 N otes

8. A shakereisadried andhollowed calabash(gourd) coveredbybeads strung on a mesh. It serves as a rattleand in some instances a drum. 9. Niebuhr, 2001, xxxi. 10. Ibid., 6. 11. Young, 1994, 9. 12. Ibid., 4. 13. Chatterjee, 1993, 165. 14. Cooper, 2005, 62. 15. Ibid., 80. 16. Mamdani, 1996, 285. 17. Ibid., 286. B ibliography

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NRG 8/2/78 Report on Konkomba Riot in French Territory, March 25, 1935 NRG 8/2/88 1. Reports on Konkomba Disturbances 2. Correspondence between Chief Commissioner and theColonial Secretary Regarding Konkomba Disturbances, 1940 NRG 8/2/88 Reports on Konkomba Disturbances by the Director of Veterinary Services, 1941 NRG 8/2/88 Letters from the Chief Commissioner to Colonial Secretary, 1940 NRG 8/2/88 Letters from theChief Commissioner to the Director of Veterinary Services, 1940 NRG 8/2/88 Letters from W.J.A. Jones, Chief Commissioner, to the District Commissioner and SOP of Tamale, 1940 NRG 8/2/88 Memos from Director of Veterinary Services to the Chief Commissioner, 1941 NRG 8/2/97 1. Memoranda on KonkombaSub-District, 1947 2. Memorandum on Konkomba Policy, James Anderson Asst. DC Saboba, July 2, 1949 3. Dagomba Jurisdictions in Konkombaland NRG 8/2/99 Letters to the Colonial Secretary, Accra, from W.A. Jones, Chief Commissioner, 1940 NRG 8/2/206 Correspondence Regarding Konkomba Disturbance at Sambuli, 1946 NRG 8/2/206 Letters from Guthrie Hall, Acting CCNT, to Colonial Secretary, Accra, 1946 NRG 8/3/141 Annual Report Dagomba District, June 20, 1947 NRG 8/3/167 Annual Report on Dagomba and Nanumba Districts, 1949–1950 NRG 8/3/173 Report on the Dagomba District, 1950–1951 NRG 8/3/202 Annual Report Dagomba District, 1955–1956 NRG 8/4/94 Informal Diary of theYendi District Commissioner, 1916–1947 NRG 8/4/94 Informal Diary of the District Commissioner Eastern Dagomba, 1947 NRG 8/4/97 Informal Diary of the Eastern Dagomba District Commissioner, 1947 NRG 8/5/102 Minutes of the Dagomba District Council, 1952–1955 NRG 8/4/103 Informal Diary of James Anderson, Assistant District Commissioner, Saboba, 1947 NRG 8/5/276 Saboba Affairs NRG 8/5/325 Minutes of the District Secretariat Meetings, 1969–1973 NRG 8/5/415 1. Minutes of the Emergency Meeting of Chiefs in the Nanumba Traditional Area, September 10, 1982 218 B ibliography

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1981 Konkomba-Nanumba conﬂict, social structure, 13, 15 1–2, 4, 17, 137–8, 144–6, yam trade and, 155, 159 160–70, 177–8, 181–2, 184, Asantehene, 32, 34, 40, 123, 174–5 188–9 Asante Youth Association, 122–3 1994 conﬂict (Guinea Fowl War), Asijawu, A. I., 60 1–2,4,17, 144, 146, 166, Assemblies of God Mission, 115–20, 168–84, 188–9, 191, 193 139n20 autochthony, 24–8, 45, 69, 144, Abdulai I, Ya Na, 33, 35 146–51, 180, 184–5, 190n3 Accra, 117, 154, 163, 166, 183 British government in, 8, 36, 44, Baabey Konkomba, 72 81–3 Babatu, 31 Ghana archives in, 17 Balamo Konkomba, 70 Ghana independence celebration Balidin, E. N., 159 in, 191, 193 Bawa, Isaac, 114, 125–6, road through, 167, 179 128–30, 151 yam market in, 155–6, 159, 179 Bekou Konkomba, 72 Acheampong, Ignatius, 134–5, belonging 146–7, 149, 151, 155 community of, 1, 5, 50, 76, 122, Adam Nanumba, 70–1 140, 183, 200 Administrative Ordinance of dual system of, 145–6, 169 1902, 43 national, 200 Agbogbloshie, 159 notions of, 3–4, 8, 21, 30, 58, Alhassan Committee, 146–9, 110, 114, 143, 170, 187, 155, 166 189–203 Alhassan, Ya Na,53 question of, 144, 184–5 Allman, Jean Marie, 10 Berman, Bruce, 5–6, 122, 126 Amanor, Kojo, 66 Berry, Sara, 7, 40, 105,156 Anderson, James, 101–5, 116 betrothal, infant, 57–8, 69, 118–19, Anglo-Asante War (1874), 34–6 154, 156 Appiah, Anthony, 13 biborb (headmen), 33, 105, 122, Armitage, C. H., 50–5, 59–61 124, 134, 153, 155, 163. Asante See also Ubor British and, 15, 20–1, 30–6 Bichabob clan, 26, 28–9, 33, 99, expansion, 30–6 104–5, 126n8 236 I ndex

Bikaem, Budale, 114 Christianity and Christian Missions, Bilidou, Johnson, 121, 125–6, 76, 110, 116–19, 153, 191 133, 151 citizenship, 8, 13, 140, 161, 180–1, Bimbilla Na, 69, 134–7, 155–60, 189, 194, 202 163–8, 179n22 Clifford, Hugh Charles, 44 Bimopkem (clan), 55, 61, 78, 99 cocoa farming, 167 Bingini, 68–70 colonialism. See Great Britain Binka, F. K., 91 Committee on Youth Blair, H. A., 84–7 Organizations, 123 Boahen,A. Adu, 61 Convention People’s Party, 123, Branch, Harold, 59 196n26 Bravman, Bill,5 Cooper, Frederick, 4, 11, 49, Brong-Ahafo, 136–8, 156, 163, 63, 191 167–8, 176 Cotin, Alfred, 151 Bukari, Anthony Adams, 151 Culture and Imperialism (Said), 107 Bukari, Isaac Bawa, 151 customary law, 9, 50, 63–7, 135, Busia, Koﬁ, 133–4 184, 193, 203 Butun, 47, 65–6, 97 custom, interpretations of, 1, 7, 19, 21,40, 189, 202

Cameron, Donald, 84 Dagbon Youth Association, Cameroon, 51 164, 172 Cardinall, A.W., 19, 36,53–6, 87 Dagbon Youth Congress, 164 cassava farming, 156, 167 Dagomba Chabal, Patrick, 3, 45, 156 British relationship with, Chagbaantiib subclan, 29 9, 29–31, 35–46 Chakosi, 9, 16, 36, 41–2,50, 162, centralized political system of, 16 172n61 chieftaincy of, 20–1, 26, 49, 99, Chambas, Mohammed Ibn, 177 146, 149 Charles, G. N. E., 105–6 Demon Na, 34, 48, 53, 97–100, Chatterjee, Partha, 3–4, 78–9, 103, 108 127, 140 Gonja conflicts with,40 Chief of Police v. Baabey history of, 20–36, 40–1, 45–6, Konkomba, 72 51,54, 67 chieftaincy Kekpakpaan and, 30–5, 44, 53–4, British emphasis on, 8–11, 14, 75, 86–7, 106, 131, 149 16, 40, 44, 87, 96, 99, 106 political sway of, 81 Dagomba, 20–1, 26, 49, 99, precolonial, 148 146, 149 Dalafu, Omtapii, 159 indirect rule and, 80, 84 Damanku, 132, 137, 163, 166, Konkomba and, 105, 128–34, 178–9 137–9, 141, 144, 145–9, Davis, A. W., 66, 100–1 165–71, 176–83, 189–92 Demon Na (Dagomba chief of Chieftaincy Act of 1971 (Act 370), Demon), 34, 48, 53, 97–100, 133–4 103, 108 I ndex 237 direct rule, 79 Gonja Djar, Kpalbor, 78, 96–100, 105, British tribal model and, 9 108, 114 burning of Konkomba Duncan-Johnstone,A.C., 84–7 compounds, 174 Dagbon conflicts with,40 education, 17–18, 63, 83, 110–24, dominance of, 2, 124, 135, 167, 128, 140, 145–6, 150–5, 178 171, 177 ethnicity, 3–7, 10–11, 14, 108, 110, Guggisberg and, 51, 81 127–30, 133–40, 143–7, 151, Konkomba migration into, 96, 168, 170, 177–83, 188–93 156, 167–8 Nawuri conflict with, Fage, J. D., 40 169–70 farming, 2, 5, 26–8, 34, 102, 113, political structure of, 16, 130, 132–9, 150–9, 164–9, 36,41 173, 176–81. See also Yam political sway of,81 farming and trade Slater’s plan and, 82 Ferguson, George Ekem, 36–7 as slave raiders, 34–5 feuds and feuding, inter-clan, 1, 25, yam farming and, 145,156, 48–75, 92, 97, 110, 120–5, 167–8 141, 154, 162, 177, 183 Gonja YouthAssociation, 169 First Republic of Ghana, 123 Goody, Jack, 41 Fisher, Ann, 120 Great Britain Fisher, Michael, 79 Fourth Republic of Ghana, 177 Asante and, 15, 20–1, 30–6 France, 18, 49–51,59–61 chieftaincy emphasized by, 8–11, 14, 16,40, 44, 87, 96, Gbagbo, Laurent, 202 99, 106 Gbewa, 39 colonial policies of mid, 1940s, German East Africa, 51 4, 185 Ghana’s independence, 17, 19, 26, early colonial rule of, 4, 50–5, 108, 122–3, 127–30 58–62, 75–6 Ghana’s independence, fiftieth indirect rule of, 11–12, 17, anniversary of, 204, 193–4 21, 27,59, 62–4, 67, 77, Gilbert, W. E., 48,58, 61–2, 64, 96–114, 134, 171 73–5, 82–3 prescriptions for political Glassman, Jonathan, 110 legitimacy, 14 Gold Coast Colony, 81, 86, 107 question of belonging for, civil servants in, 100, 115 144,184 education policy in, 112, 115 records of interactions with governors of, 15, 39, 44, 135 Konkomba, 17–18 indirect rule in, 9, 40, 63, 67, 85 relationship with Dagomba, 40, migration to, 61 29–31, 35–46 Northern Territories of, 37, 43–4, tribal model of, 9, 86, 184 48, 50–4, 63, 66–7, 79, 135 Grischow, Jeff, 10–11 transition to independence, Gruner, Dr, 38–9 123, 131 Guggisberg, Gordon, 51, 81 238 I ndex

Guha, Ranajit, 108 Kamshegu, Joseph Ali, 157–60, Guinea Fowl War, 1–2, 4, 17, 144, 211n25 146, 166, 168–84, 188–9, Kekpakpaan 191, 193 British and, 17, 50, 53–4, 59–60, 93–5, 102–6 Hailey, Lord, 107 Dagomba authority in, 30–5, Hall, Guthrie, 100–2 44,53–4, 75, 86–7, 106, Hamidu (Sunson Na), 171 131, 149 Hanno, Alfa, 35 geographyof, 60–1 Hawkins, Sean, 6, 10, 67 Konkomba and, 26, 102, 131, Herbst, Jeffrey, 3, 45 147–50, 153–9, 171–2, 174 historical memory, 7, 13, 17–19, Saboba Primary School in, 121 26–30, 36–46, 111, 127, Kete-Krachi, 38, 132, 176 148, 189 Kidikuri Konkomba, attack on, 71–2 Hodgson, Arnold, 93 Kirby, Jon, 25, 177, 179 Hodgson, Frederick Mitchell, 39 Klein, Martin, 44 Horowitz, Donald, 150 Klose, Heinrich, 38–9 houses of chiefs, 2, 133–4, 151, Kokaah, 68–9 156, 165, 170–1. See also Konkomba National House of Chiefs Armitage and, 50–5 Asante expansion and, 30–6 Ibrahim, Abdulai, 177 autochthony and, 24–8, 45,69, Iddi, M. D., 40, 33n10 144, 146–51, 180, 184–5, India, 4, 79–80 190n3 indirect rule, 11–12, 17, 21, 27, 59, 62–4, 67, 77, 80–89, 99, chieftaincy and, 169–70 105–8, 134, 171 Christianity and, 76, 110, infant betrothal,57–8, 69, 118–19, 116–19, 153, 191 154, 156 claims of their immigration from Ingram, W. H., 100, 102 Togo, 144, 171, 176, 184 Italy, 202 community of belonging, 183–91 Ivory Coast, 61, 180, 203 cultural and geographic context, 15–16 Jagbel, attack on village of, 77–9, earlypolitics, 97–106 94, 100–1, 106–8 economic development, 166–9 Jobor, Daniel Neina, 114, 121, education, 17–18, 63, 83, 125–6, 151 110–24, 128, 140, 145–6, Johnson, Ruby, 117–18 150–5, 178 Jones, William Andrew, 84–7, 93–5, feuds, 1, 25, 48–75, 92, 97, 110, 101, 111–12 120–5, 141, 154, 162, 177, 183 Kaasiitiib subclan, 28–9 historical memory, 36–45 Kabre, 188 history of autonomy, 39–47 Kaleem, J. A., 111–13 indirect rule, 62–72, 101 Kambekye, 68–70 Jagbel attack, 107–114 I ndex 239

Kekpakpaan and, 26, 102, 131, Lagos Youth Movement, 122 147–50, 153–9, 171–2, 174 land rights, 8, 13, 65, 135, 155, 175 KOYA’s call for a paramount ruler land tenure, 135–41, 143–4, 146, for, 2, 155, 168, 170–3, 175, 154–5, 169, 186 177–8, 181 Land Tenure Act of, 1979, 135, politicallegitimacy for, 14, 30–1, 144, 154–5, 169, 186 50, 97, 100, 106–13, 124, League of Nations, 51 141, 144–9, 183–6, 190–2 Lentz, Carola, 3, 9–10, 29, 37, as primarily farmers, 194 86–8, 123, 190 social change in context, 16–18 Levtzion, Nehemiah, 40 social relations, 183–94 Liberia, 116, 203 tradition and, 96, 106, 109–11, Likanli, Joseph, 151–2 142 Limann, Hilla, 135, 155, 165–6 Lugard, Frederick, 80, 84 Konkomba Improvement Luro, Ya Na, 24–6 Association, 121–7, 134, 138, 139–144, 151–2, 154, 175 Mahama,Aliu, 204 Konkomba Youth Association Mahama (Demon Na), 97, 99–100 (KOYA) Mahama, Ibrahim, 173 constitution of, 152–3 Mamadu (Bimbilla Na), 156–7, earlygoals of, 124, 137, 145, 160, 163 147, 151–2 Mamdani, Mahmood, 3,5,7, founding of, 151 11–12, 20–1, 63–4, 193 Land Tenure Act and, 155 Mamprusi, 15, 26, 41, 43, 51, 82, meetings with Nanumba Youth 128, 155, 177, 189 Association, 160, 165 Mandated Territory of British membership of, 151–2 Togoland, 48, 50–1, 60–1, Ngula and, 151–2, 154–5,165n2 83, 136 petition for a Konkomba Mankron, Samson, 114, 117, 121, paramount ruler, 2, 155, 125–6 168, 170–3, 175, 177–8, 181 Mann, Kristin, 65 tradition and, 151–61 Marville, R.O.G., 32–3 yam farming and, 155–9, 167, McNutt, Marita, 116–17, 120 175, 181 McNutt, Mel, 116–17, 120 Kopytoff, Igor, 9, 35 memory, historical, 7, 13, 17–19, 26–30, 36–46, 111, 127, Kpalbtiib clan, 27–9, 33–4, 78, 148, 189 99–100 Milner-Simon Agreement, 51 Kpandai, 132, 169–70, 173, 176 Moral Man and Immoral Society Kpasa, 135–9, 155, 161–3, 194 (Niebuhr), 189 Kugnau, 47–8, 96–7 Moreton, P. C.,52 Kuklick, Henrika, 42 Morris, Arthur Henry, 43 Kumasi, 13, 32–5, 39, 40, 58, 116, 159, 175 Namibia, 57 Kuntcha, 47–8, 65 Namuel, Nakoja, 114, 121, Kwaku, Samuel, 151 125, 151 240 I ndex

Nanumba Nigeria, 12, 32, 40, 60, 67, 80, 84, 1981 conflict with Konkomba, 1, 124, 203 160–6, 170, 184 Nkrumah, Kwame, 126–30, 196n26 1994 conflict and, 170–80, 184 nkwankwaa (young men or in Bimbilla District, 152, 156–7, commoners), 123 159–60 Northcott, H.P., 39–43 British domination of,50 Northern Ghana Youth and as centralized, 16 Development Association chieftaincy of, 9 (NORYDA), 175 Northern Regional dominance of, 123–4, 135–6, Administration, 131 153, 155, 157 Northern Youth Association (NYA), Konkomba immigration to, 96 123–4 population of, 136 Nteh Nanumba, 70–1 tensions between Konkomba Nugent, Paul, 9, 190 and, 1–2 Nyagse, 40 Traditional Area, 136–7, 157–8 yam farming and, 155,158–9, Oelbaum, Jay, 10–11, 150, 179 166, 179–80 Oti River, 19, 33, 47, 61–2, 65–6, Nanumba Youth Association, 160 73, 78, 137, 162–3, 174 National House of Chiefs, 2, 109, 139–40, 150, 153, 156, 170–1, Parker, John, 10 173–4, 183. See also Houses Peace and Preservation of chiefs Ordinance, 93 National Liberation Council (NLC), pito, 34, 57, 70–1, 121, 158, 160, 133, 147–148 187n52 National Redemption Council, 147 Pogucki, R. J. H., 136 Nation and Its Fragments, The political legitimacy (Chatterjee), 3 British prescriptions for, 14 Native Authorities, 44, 62–6, 70, Dagomba chieftaincy as model 81–2, 86–9, 93, 112, 184, for, 20, 99, 146, 149 193, 201 ethnic identities and,5,145 Native Authority Ordinance, 66, historical narrative and, 45–6 106 Konkomba and, 14, 30–1,50, 97, Native Tribunal Ordinance of, 100, 106–13, 124, 141, 66, 1932 144–9, 183–6, 190–2 tradition and, 7, 106 Nawa, Wajus, 193–4,204 Poole, G. A.,59 Nawuri-Gonja conflict, 169–70 Power, Gerald, 112 Nawuri Youth Association, 169 primary resistance movement, 63 Nayiri, 39, 41–2, 82, 134,168 proxies, African, 7–8, 12 Netherlands, 202 Ngula, Daniel, 151–2, 154–5, Quarshie, T. S. murder of, 72–5 165n2 Ngula, Kwame, 159 Ranger, Terrence, 9, 63 Niebuhr, Reinhold, 20, 189 Rattray, R. S., 26, 35, 87–8 I ndex 241

Rawlings, Jerry John, 2, 166, 177 Konkomba migration to, 2 Read, Moutray,41 Konkombaordered to leave, Read, Ozella, 117 163–4 Roberts, Richard, 65 KOYA in, 137, 151, 165 Rwanda, 20, 149, 180n1 Regional Administration in, 132, 137, 160 Saboba, 28, 38, 94, 101–6, roads through, 167, 179 115–21, 125, 128–34, 137, school for boys in, 116 140, 151–6, 159–60, 170–4, Tanzania,51 179, 183 tendana, 16 Saeed, Salifu, 179 Third Republic of Ghana, 137 Said, Edward, 107 Thomas, Shenton, 81 Sambuli, 27–8, 47, 65, 94, 97 Tiribii, 68–9 Sambultiib (subclan), 27, 38, 65–6 Togoland Sanguli, 28, 130n30 British, 48,50–1, 60–1, 83, 136 Sansanne-Mangu district, 37–41 French,59–1 Scott, James,3 German, 50–1, 61 Second Republic of Ghana, Togo (Togolese Republic), 18, 32, 133, 134 37, 39, 144, 161, 163, 171, Short, Yendi District Commissioner, 176, 184n71–2 52–3 Toure, Samori, 31, 37 Sitobu, 40 tradition skin debt, 33 British colonialism’s focus on, 8, Slater, Alexander, 81–2, 84 21, 30, 40, 43, 45, 49–50, slave raiding, 19, 31, 35, 106 64, 106, 144 slavery and slave trade, 13–15,19, challenges to, 140, 161–6 26, 30–6, 46, 112, 150 discrimination/exclusion Smith, G. H., 174 and, 156 Society of Missionaries of Africa, 116 ethnic hierarchy and, 139, 168, Spear, Thomas, 64 176, 206 Spencer, E. Charlese, 118–20 Sunson Na,52–3, 87, 100–5, 126, interpretation of, 106, 126 128–30, 171 invented, 4, 6, 9, 105, 151–61 Supreme Military Council invention of ethnicity and,3 (SMC), 151 Konkomba perceived as lacking, Swahili, 15 96, 106, 109–11 Konkomba’s developing, 142 Taita, Kenyan community of, 5 land and, 143 Tait, David, 33, 55, 57, 99, 106 marginalization and, 127 Tamakloe, E.F., 33 modernity and, 122 Tamalbe, Ousmanu, 159 political legitimacy and, 7, 106 Tamale tribal model, 9, 86 attack on, 174–5, 178 Tribes of theAshanti Hinterland,The British government in, 85,87 (Rattray), 87 British jails in, 96 tribes, British concepts of, 87 Ghana archives in, 17 Twumalam, 68 242 I ndex ubor (headman), 33, 99, 104, 178. authority of, 68–9, 77, 108, 135, See also Biborb 148–9, 151, 155, 170–1 Uchabobor (chief of Saboba), biborb and, 134, 147 104–5, 117, 147, 170–3 Dariziegu, 40 Uka, George, 151 division of Dagbon and, 41 uninkpel (oldest village inhabitant or Djar and, 97–8, 100 clan member), 16, 37–8, 56, Gilbert and, 83 65–6, 68, 98–9, 104, 113–14, indirect rule and, 106 124–5 influence of, 125–6 KOYA petition and, 168, 171–2, Vail, Leroy, 80 177–8 Volta River Project, 136–7 Luro, 24–7 von Massow, Valentin, 39 Nambir’s allegiance to, 103 Nyagse as first, 40 Walker-Leigh, A.H., 48, 82–3 Oti plain controlled by, 135 restored power of, 45 Watherston, Alan Edward, 112, 116 Yani, E. A., 121, 134–5 White Fathers Mission, 115–16 Yendi Whittal, P. F., 83 District, 44, 48–59, 65–6, 77, 82, witch villages, 179–80 92, 100, 103, 106, 125, 142 Worby, Eric, 10 precolonial history of, 19, 42 World War I, 16,51 roads through, 38, 137, 167, World War II, 124 174, 179 Wujangi, Kenneth, 2, 165 Saboba made separate from, 134 Wulensi, 69–71, 162–3, 166 See also Cardinall, A. W. Gilbert, Wumbei, Yao, 120–1 W. E Yendi Primary School, 111–14, Yakubu, Malik, 180 121n13 yam farming and trade, 13, 74, 106, Young, Crawford, 190 145, 150, 155–9, 166–9, 175, youth organizations, 122–4, 169, 179–81, 188–91, 194 172, 175. See also Konkomba Ya Na Youth Association (KOYA) 1994 conflict and, 174–5 Abdulai I, 33–5 Zabzugu-Saboba Dispute, 147–150 on adultery, 67 Zanzibar, 15 Alhassan, 53–4 Zegbeli Na, 53, 77, 107, 108, 204n. Asante capture of, 32 See also Jagbel