Notes Introduction 1. Bill Bravman, Making Ethnic Ways: Communities and Their Transfor- mations in Taita, Kenya, 1800–1950 (Oxford: James Curry, 1998),6. 2. Kenneth Wujangi served two nonconsecutive terms as KOYA presi- dent. In 1981 Wujangi succeeded Dan Ngula, KOYA’s first president. Wujangi was reelected in 1994. 3. Ada van der Linde and Rachel Naylor put the number of deaths at 15,000, while official reports say 2,000 deaths, though the number is likely much higher. SeeBuilding Sustainable Peace: Conflict, Concilia- tion, and Civil Society in Northern Ghana (Oxford: Oxfam Working Papers, 1999),28, and Jönsson, Julia, “The Overwhelming Minor- ity: Traditional Leadership and Ethnic Conflicts in Ghana’s Northern Region,” Oxford University, Crise Working Paper no. 30 (February 2007), 18. By 1994, Konkomba were thoughttobethe secondlargest group in the Northern Region. Estimates suggest that at the time of the 1994 conflict there were 268,000 Dagomba; 247,000 Konkomba; 134,000 Gonja; and 27,000 Nanumba. 4. See, in particular, James Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986) and Patrick Chabal, Political Domination in Africa: Reflection on the Limits of Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). 5. Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments (Princeton: Prince- ton University Press, 1993), 161. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid., 162. 8. Frederick Cooper, Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, His- tory (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005). 9. See for example, Leroy Vail and Landeg White, “Tribalism in the Political History of Malawi,” The Creation of Tribalism in South- ern Africa, Leroy Vail (ed.)(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). 10. Mahmood Mamdani, Citizens and Subjects: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 7, 24, 183. 11. Ibid., 183. 12. Bruce Berman, “Ethnicity, Patronage and the African State: The Politics of Uncivil Nationalism,” African Affairss, 97 (1998), 323. 196 N otes 13. Bravman, 1998, 21. 14. Berman, 1998, 317. 15. Sean Hawkins, “Disguising Chiefs and God as History: Questions on the Acephalousness of Lodagaa Politics and Religion,” Africa, 66, 2 (1996), 202. 16. Berman, 1998, 312; Crawford Young, Ethnicity and Politics in Africa, Critical Themes in Africa Studies Series (Boston University African Studies Center, 2002), 9. 17. Philip Burnham, ThePolitics of Cultural Difference in Northern Cameroon (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institute Press, 1996), 16–17. 18. Mamdani, 1996, 122. 19. Bruce Berman, “ ‘A Palimpsest of Contradictions’: Ethnicity, Class, and Politics in Africa,” International Journal of African Historical Studiess, 37, 1 (2004), 24. 20. Berman, 1998, 317; Sara Berry, No Condition is Permanent: The Social Dynamics of Agrarian Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), 8. 21. Berry, 1993, 29. 22. Kojo Sebastian Amanor, “Customary Land, Mobile Labor and Alien- ation in the Eastern Region of Ghana,” Land and thePolitics of Belonging in West Africa, Carola Lentz and Richard Kuba (eds.) (Boston: Brill, 2006), 138–139. 23. Ibid. 24. Carola Lentz and Richard Kuba, “Land Rights and the Politics of Belonging in Africa: An Introduction,” Land and the Politics of Belonging in West Africa, Carola Lentz and Richard Kuba (eds.) (Boston: Brill, 2006),2. 25. Burnham, 1996,5–6. 26. Under Kwame Nkrumah and the ruling Convention People’s Party, the Northern Territories were divided into three separate regions: Upper East, Upper West, and the Northern Region. 27. Carola Lentz and Paul Nugent (eds.), Ethnicity in Ghana: The Limits of Invention (New York: St Martin’s Press, 2000),9. 28. Terence Ranger, “The Invention of Tradition in Colonial Africa,” The Invention of Tradition, Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (eds.) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 220. 29. Mahmood Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism and the Genocide in Rwanda (Princeton: Princeton Univer- sity Press, 2001), 36. 30. Igor Kopytoff, The African Frontier: The Reproduction of Tradi- tional African Societies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987),5. 31. Carola Lentz, “Dagara Rebellion against Dagomba Rule? Contested Stories of Origin in North-West Ghana,” Journal of African History, 35 (1994), 469. Notes 197 32. Eric Worby, “Maps, Names and Ethnic Games: TheEpistemology and Iconography of Colonial Power in Northwestern Zimbabwe,” Journal of Southern African Studiess, 20, 3, Special Issue: Ethnicity and Identity in Southern Africa (September 1994), 371. 33. Ibid., 372. 34. Sean Hawkins, Writing and Colonialism in Northern Ghana (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002), 24. 35. Jay Oelbaum, “Liberalization or Liberation?: Economic Reform and the Paradox of Conflict in Ghana’s Northern Region.” Paper pre- sented at the 48th Annual Convention of the International Studies Association. Chicago, Il. February 28–March 3, 2007. 36. Peter Skalnik, “Questioning the Concept of the State in Indigenous Africa,” Social Dynamicss, 9, 2 (1983), 21. See also, Artur Bogner, “The 1994 Civil War in Northern Ghana: the Genesis and Escalation of a‘Tribal’ Conflict,” Ethnicity in Ghana: The Limits of Invention, Carola Lentz and Paul Nugent (eds.)(New York: St Martin’s Press, 2001); H.B. Martinson, The Hidden History of Konkomba Wars in Northern Ghana (Accra: Matta Press, 1994); Ibrahim Mahama, Eth- nic Conflicts in Northern Ghana (Tamale, Ghana: Cyber Systems, 2003). 37. See Philip Andrew Evans, “TheLobirifor/Gonja Dispute in North- ern Ghana: A Study of Inter-Ethnic Conflict in a Postcolonial State,” Doctoral dissertation, University of Cambridge, 1983. 38. Susan Drucker-Brown, “Local Wars in Northern Ghana,” Cambridge Anthropology, 13, 2 (1988–1989), 101. 39. Berman, 1998, 312–313. 40. Mamdani, 1996,51. 41. Jeff Grischow, Shaping Tradition: Civil Society, Community and Development in Colonial Northern Ghana, 1899–1957 (Boston: Brill, 2006), 10. 42. Cooper, 2005, 27. 43. Donald Rothchild, Managing Ethnic Conflict in Africa: Pressures and Incentives for Cooperation (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997),7. 44. Grischow, 2006, 2–3. 45. Mamdani, 1996, 15–16. 46. Nina Emma Mba, Nigerian Women Mobilized: Women’s Political Activity in Southern Nigeria, 1900–1965 (Berkeley: Institute of Inter- national Studies, 1982). 47. Anthony Appiah, “A Slow Emancipation,” The New York Times Magazine, May 18, 2007 (New York). 48. Mamdani, 1996, 24. 49. Laura Fair, Pastimes & Politics: Culture, Community, and identity in Post-Abolition Urban Zanzibar, 1890–1945 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2001), 34. 198 Notes 50. Yakubu Saaka (ed.), “Introduction,” Regionalism and Public Policy in Northern Ghana (New York: Peter Lang, 2001), 3–4. 51. Ibid., 4–5. 52. Henryk, 448; Tait, 1961, 35–36. 53. Eric Allina-Pisano, “Resistance and the Social History of Africa,” Journal of Social History, 37, 1 (Fall, 2003), 194. Chapter 1 1. A.W. Cardinall, The Natives of the Northern Territories of theGold Coast (London: Francis Edwards, 1921), 232. 2. Mamdani, 2001, 166. 3. Ibid., 87. 4. Reinhold Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001), 9. 5. Ibid., 117. 6. Mamdani, 1996, 16–17. 7. J.D. Fage, “Early History of the Mossi-Dagomba Group of States,” The Historian in Tropical Africa, J. Vansina, R. Mauny, L.V. Thomas (eds.)(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964), 177. 8. A.A. Iliasu, “The Origins of the Mossi-Dagomba States,” Research Review, 7, 1 (1970), 107. 9. J.D. Fage, “Reflections on the Early History of the Mossi-Dagomba Groups of States,” The Historian in Tropical Africa, J. Vansina, R. Mauny, and L. Thomas (eds.)(Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1964), 179; Iliasu, 1970, 107. On the history of Dagbon, see A.W. Cardinall, “Customs at the Death of the King of Dagomba,” Man, 11, 52 (1921); A.C. Duncan-Johnstone and H.A. Blair, Enquiry into the Constitution and Organization of the Dagbon Kingdom (Accra: Government Printer), 1932; E.F. Tamakloe, A Brief History of the Dagbamba People (Accra: Government Printing Office), 1931; Paul A. Ladouceur, Chiefs and Politicians: The Politics of Regionalism in Northern Ghana (London: Longman, 1979). 10. M.D. Iddi states that most writers have erroneously stated that the capital was called “Ya Ni Dabari,” “When the Dagbamba moved to the new site, or to be more precise, were driven under Gonja pressure, they referred to theold site in retrospect as Ya Ni Dabari ‘Ya Ni which is in ruins’ [the deserted Ya Ni].” See M.D. Iddi, “The Musketeers of the Dagbong Army: Dagban-Kombonse,” Masters Thesis, University of Ghana, Legon, 1973, 12. 11. Martin Staniland, The Lions of Dagbon: Political Change in Northern Ghana (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), 4. 12. Nehemiah Levtzion, West Africa Chiefs Under Islam (Oxford:Claren- don Press, 1968),6. 13. Ibid. Notes 199 14. Ibid., 103. 15. Cardinall, 1921, 260. 16. Levtzion, 1968, 87. 17. Iliasu, 1970; Tamakloe, 1931; Skalnik, 1983, 13. 18. Interview with Joseph Ali Kamshegu, Saboba, November 15, 2000. 19. Levtzion, 1968, 87. 20. Jon Kirby, “Peace Building in Northern Ghana: Cultural Themes in Ethnic Conflict,” Ghana’s North: Research on Culture, Religion, and Politics of Societies in Transition. Franz Kröger and Kröger, Barbara Meier (eds.)(Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2003), 175. 21. Herbst, 2000, 38. 22. Interview with Moses Mabengba, Tema, January 20, 2001; Hippolyt A.S. Pul, “Exclusion, Association and Violence: Trends and Trig- gers in Northern Ghana’s Konkomba-Dagomba Wars,” The African Anthropologistt, 10, 1 (March 2003), 16. 23. Pul, 2003, 16. 24. R.S. Rattray, The Tribes of the Ashanti Hinterland, Volumes I and II (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1932), 546. 25. Interview with Moses Mabengba, Tema, January 20, 2001. 26. Indeed, although there are Konkomba narratives that describe Konkombaclans migrating from the area, there was a sizable Konkomba population in and around Yendi until the 1994 conflict between the Konkomba and Dagomba. 27. Interview with Kaplija Madou, Toma, March 3, 2001. 28. Interview with Joseph Ali Kamshegu, Saboba, January 6, 2001. 29. Interview with Dalafu Omtapii, Tema, March 21, 2001.