Dissertation / Doctoral Thesis

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DISSERTATION / DOCTORAL THESIS

Titel der Dissertation /Title of the Doctoral Thesis „THE RECEPTION OF THE LITURGICAL REFORM OF VATICAN II: A CRITICAL-CONSTRUCTIVE STUDY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF CATHOLIC LITURGICAL BOOKS IN THE ECCLESIASTICAL PROVINCE OF KUMASI (GHANA)“

verfasst von / submitted by ANDREW KWAME TAKYIA, MA

angestrebter akademischer Grad / in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doktor der Theologie (Dr. theol.)

Wien, Juni 2018

Studienkennzahl lt. Studienblatt / A 780 011 degree programme code as it appears on the student record sheet: Dissertationsgebiet lt. Studienblatt / Katholische Fachtheologie field of study as it appears on the student record sheet: Betreut von / Supervisor: Univ.-Prof. Dr. Hans-Jürgen Feulner

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work has become a reality through the integral contributions of many people, whom I hereby show my heartfelt appreciation and deepest gratitude. Even though everyone of them has been dear to me, there are a few outstanding ones that I would like to single out here.

In the first place, I am exceptionally indebted to my beloved late parents, Op. Paul Kwasi Krah and Obp. Mary Adwoa Bour both of Atrensu in Techiman, Ghana. I am grateful to them for their tender parental care, basic Christian faith and financial support from my basic education to the end of my priestly formation and ordination in 1990. I cannot forget the love and care of all my brothers and sisters and my entire maternal family of Konimase and paternal family of Kyidom.

My next gratitude goes to all who contributed to the success of my basic, secondary and tertiary education up to the end of my priestly formation, especially, Most Rev. James Kwadwo Owusu, the late bishop of Sunyani diocese, who ordained me in 1990 and saw to my further education up to the master’s degree in Pastoral Liturgy from the University of London.

My special indebtedness goes to the Most Rev. Dominic Yeboah Nyarko, bishop of the catholic diocese of Techiman, for granting me this exceptional opportunity to pursue this specialisation course in Liturgical Studies and Sacramental Theology. My sincere gratitude goes to my brother priests and religious sisters of Techiman and Sunyani dioceses for the support and encouragement they never ceased to lavish upon me in my course of studies. I would also like to thank, in a special way, the Very Rev. Fr Isaac Ebo-Blay, the Vicar General of the Catholic Archdiocese of Cape Coast for permitting me to do some primary research in the archdiocesan archives. I am equally indebted to the former archivist of the SMA Generalate in Rome, the late Père Pierre Trichet for the singular opportunity granted me to have access to some important data from the SMA archives in Rome.

I am highly grateful to all those who provided me with the necessary data and information for this work by means of interview, email correspondence and text messaging. Outstanding among them are: Most Rev. Peter Kwasi Sarpong, the Archbishop Emeritus of Kumasi, Rev. Bro. Pius Agyemang SVD, Rev. Prof. Dr Stephen Ntim of the Catholic University of Ghana,

Rev. Msgr. Joseph Marfo Gyimah of the diocese of Sunyani, Rev. Augustine Amankwaa Boateng of the diocese of Goaso, Rev. Daniel Aboagye Danso of the diocese of Konongo- Mampong, to name the few. Many thanks to Rev. Fr Dr Stephen Ebo Anan, of Sunyani diocese for painstakingly proof-reading and making the necessary corrections and suggestions for the improvement of this work.

My profound gratitude goes to Cardinal Christof Schönborn, the Archbishop of Vienna, who through the medium of his Auxiliary Bishop Franz Scharl and the office of ARGE, provided me with accommodation, guidance and sustenance to make my residence in the Archdiocese of Vienna and my course of study in the University of Vienna a possibility. My appreciation and gratitude also go to the priests and parishioners of Pressbaum and Sacré Coeur Church for their loving care and encouragement, especially, the parochial vicar Gerhard Kienzl, for his singular assistance in some parts of the work. I am also grateful to the priests and the faithful of the Akan Speaking Catholic Community in Vienna for their prayerful support.

I would exceptionally like to register my sincerest appreciation and gratitude to Univ.-Prof. Dr. Hans-Jürgen Feulner for accepting to be my supervisor and scholarly accompanying and guiding me to reach this level. My heartfelt appreciation and thanks go also to his three assistants, Dr. Daniel Galadza, Dr. Pedrag Bukovec and Dr. Daniel Sepa. I also thank the able secretary Frau Sulz Karin for her singular contribution. My final indebtedness goes to Rev Dr Thomas Francis Poku, a lecturer in St. Gregory Major Seminary in Kumasi and Univ.-Prof. Dr. Chibueze C. Udeani of the University of Würzburg in Germany, for accepting to be my external examiners to provide the assessment of this work. I must, however, admit any further shortcomings of this work to be exclusively my own.

May the good Lord bless all those, who in diverse ways, whether their names were mentioned in these acknowledgements or not, have helped me to bring my studies to this level!

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... I

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... III

GENERAL INTRODUCTION ...... 1

CHAPTER ONE ...... 18

1. Liturgical Reforms in the Roman Catholic Church up to Vatican II ...... 18

Introduction ...... 18

1.1. Liturgical Reform before Vatican II ...... 19

1.1.1. Early Liturgical Development and Traces of Liturgical Books...... 19

1.1.2. The Liturgical Reforms in the Late Middle Ages ...... 23

1.1.3. The Influence of the Protestant Reformation on the development of the Liturgical Books ...... 25

1.1.4. From the Council of Trent to 20th Century ...... 29

1.1.5. From the Liturgical Movement of the 20th Century to Vatican II ...... 32

1.2. Vatican II and Post Vatican II Liturgical Reforms ...... 37

1.2.1. Vatican II and the Sacrament of Baptism ...... 40

1.2.1.1. Children’s Baptism ...... 41

1.2.1.2. Order of Adult Baptism ...... 44

1.2.2. Vatican II and the Sacrament of Confirmation ...... 46

1.2.2.1. The Revision of the Rite of Confirmation ...... 46

1.2.2.2. The celebration of Confirmation ...... 48

1.2.3. Vatican II and the Sacrament of the Eucharist ...... 49

1.2.3.1. Missale Romanum (the Roman Missal) ...... 51

1.2.4. Vatican II and the Sacrament of Penance ...... 54

1.2.4.1. The First Phase of the Reform ...... 55

III

1.2.4.2. The Second Phase of the Reform ...... 56

1.2.4.3. The Sacrament of Penance and its parts ...... 56

1.2.4.4. Reordering of the Celebration of the Sacrament of Penance ...... 58

1.2.4.5. Frequent Use of Sacrament of Penance ...... 61

1.2.5. Vatican II and the Sacrament of the Sick ...... 61

1.2.5.1. Anointing of the Sick ...... 61

1.2.5.2. Continuous Rite ...... 63

1.2.6. Vatican II and the Sacrament of Holy Orders ...... 63

1.2.6.1. The Order of the Episcopate (Bishops) ...... 64

1.2.5.2. The Order of Presbyters (Priests) ...... 65

1.2.6.3. The Order of Deacons ...... 66

1.2.6.4. The Rite for the Ordination of Deacons, Priests, and Bishops ...... 66

1.2.7. Vatican II and the Sacrament of Marriage ...... 67

1.2.7.1. The Rite of Marriage Within or Outside Mass ...... 67

1.2.7.2. Right for the Preparation of a Local Ritual ...... 68

1.2.7.2. Theological Significance of Marriage ...... 69

Conclusion ...... 70

CHAPTER TWO ...... 71

2. Liturgical Books In The Akan Speaking Area Of Ghana Before Vatican II...... 71

Introduction ...... 71

2.1. Traces of the Earliest Efforts of Translation ...... 72

2.1.1. The Roman Missal - Selected Parts of the Mass ...... 73

2.1.2. The “Morning Mass” – Morning Prayers ...... 76

2.1.3. Sunday Service without a Priest – Kwasiada Som A }s]fo] Nka ho ...... 78

2.1.4. Lectionaries – Booklets used by Catechists ...... 82

2.1.5. Para-liturgical Services - Benediction ...... 86

2.1.6. The Sacraments ...... 88

2.1.7. Catechism Books ...... 90

2.2. Problems Related to the Development of the Pre-Vatican II Liturgical Books . 93

2.2.1. The Language Barrier for the Expatriate Priests ...... 93

2.2.2. Lack of Liturgical Materials ...... 94

Conclusion ...... 95

CHAPTER THREE ...... 96

3. The Stages of Translation and Adaptation of the Liturgical Texts in the Akan Language ...... 96

Introduction ...... 96

3.1. The Pre-Vatican II Era ...... 96

3.2. Vatican II and the Post Vatican II Era ...... 100

3.2.1. The National Liturgical Commission ...... 100

3.2.2. Diocesan commissions and Committees ...... 103

3.2.2.1. The Cape Coast Archdiocesan Liturgical Commission ...... 104

3.2.2.2. The Individual Effort of Rev. Fr. Charles Lejeune ...... 107

3.2.2.3. Sunyani Diocesan Catechetical Commission and Translation Committee ...... 108

3.2.2.4. Kumasi Archdiocesan Catechetical Commission ...... 111

3.3. Challenges involved in the Stages of Translation and Adaptation ...... 112

3.3.1. The Lack of Experts in the Work of Translations ...... 113

3.3.2. Lack of Accurate Words and Adaptations ...... 116

Conclusion ...... 119

CHAPTER FOUR ...... 121

4. The Current Editions of the Post-Vatican II Liturgical Books in Ghana ...... 121

Introduction ...... 121

4.1. The Sacraments ...... 121

4.1.1. The Rites ...... 121

4.1.2. The Roman Missal (Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma) ...... 130

4.1.3. Holy Orders – The Rite of Diaconate and Priestly Ordination ...... 142

4.2. Liturgical Music ...... 147

4.2.1. Ay[yie Af]reb] (Sacrifice of Praise) ...... 149

4.2.2. Brother Pius Agyemang ...... 155

4.2.3. David O. Asare-Bediako ...... 160

4.2.4. Catholic Mfantse Ndwom Buukuu (Catholic Fanti Hymnal) ...... 162

4.2.5. Franklin James OHENE AGYEI – Songs of David, Year A, Preface,…...... 166

4.3. Other Books ...... 167

4.3.1. Lectionaries – Asante Akenkans[m Nwoma ...... 167

4.3.2. Nso Wukuada ne Nnaw]twe Kronkron som a Catechist di anim (Ash Wednesday and the Holy Week Services led by a Catechist) ...... 170

4.3.3. Nnaw]twe Kronkron ne Owus]re[ ho som (Holy Week and Easter Celebrations) ...... 174

4.3.4. Mm]fra Badwam Som (Children’s Liturgy) ...... 176

4.3.5. Asante Catechism Nwoma (Asante Catechism Book) ...... 177

4.3.6. A Book of Service ...... 181

4.3.7. Mpaeb] Som (Prayer Service) ...... 184

4.3.8. Asante Mpaeb] Nnwoma (Asante Prayer Book) ...... 184

4.3.9. Akristofo] Kunay] ho Som Nhyehy[e[ (Christian Widowhood Rites) ...... 187

Conclusion ...... 188

CHAPTER FIVE ...... 191

5. Reception of the Liturgical Reforms of Vatican II ...... 191

Introduction ...... 191

5.1. The Church of the Roman Rite ...... 191

5.1.1. Full, Active and Conscious Participation ...... 192

5.1.2. Sacramentality of the Roles ...... 195

5.1.3. Accretion and Duplication...... 197

5.1.4. Implementation of the Liturgical Reforms ...... 198

5.1.5. Reactions to the Changes ...... 200

5.2. Effects of the Liturgical Reforms of Vatican II in the Ecclesiastical Province of Kumasi ...... 204

5.2.1. Introduction of the Ordinary of the Mass in Asante Twi (Akan) ...... 207

5.2.2. Initial Reactions to the Introduction of the Ordinary of the Mass in Asante Twi ...... 209

5.2.3. Later Reactions to and the Effects of the Liturgical Reforms ...... 213

5.2.4. Major Shifts in the Realm of Liturgical Music ...... 216

Conclusion ...... 220

CHAPTER SIX ...... 223

6. Prospects of Liturgical Inculturation in the Ecclesiastical Province of Kumasi ...... 223

Introduction ...... 223

6.1. An Overview of Inculturation ...... 224

6.2. Vatican II and Inculturation ...... 230

6.3. The Church in Ghana and Inculturation ...... 237

6.4. Toward Inculturated Marriage Rite ...... 247

6.4.1. Akan Traditional Rites ...... 248

6.4.2. The Sacramental Rite...... 252

6.4.3. Mergence of the Sacramental and the Akan Traditional Rite of Marriage . 254

6.5. Inculturation of the Widowhood Rites ...... 263

VII

6.5.1. Akan Traditional Rites ...... 264

6.5.2. Christian Widowhood Rites ...... 267

6.6. The Place of Nwomkr] (Traditional Orchestra) in the Liturgy ...... 274

6.7. Possibility of an Inculturated Order of Mass for the Ecclesiastical Province of Kumasi ...... 286

Conclusion ...... 289

SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER ...... 291

A short Introduction and Analysis of the motu proprio Magnum principium ...... 291

GENERAL CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 295 APPENDIX ...... 307 QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 315 ABBREVIATIONS ...... 317 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 318 ABSTRACT ...... 327 ABSTRACT (DEUTSCH) ...... 329 CURRICULUM VITAE ...... 332

VIII

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The Background of the Study

The Catholic faith was planted in the Ghanaian soil around 1880 and its centenary jubilee was celebrated in 1980 with Pope John Paul II as the principal celebrant at its climax at the sports stadium in Kumasi, Ghana. Since people from the whole country attended that Mass, English was the common language used. Nevertheless, the choir which was directed by Rev. Brother Pius Agyemang led the singing in both English and Akan languages. After one hundred and hirty-eight years in Ghana, the Church does not have all the Catholic liturgical rites translated into the native languages, especially in Akan. However, the use of vernacular in the liturgy has been permitted, since 1963, by the Second Vatican Council in its Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy Sacrosanctum Concilium, as part of the liturgical reforms of the Church of the Roman Rite. In this document, the Church officially opened the way for the translation of liturgical texts from Latin into the vernacular languages in this way: The use of the Latin language, with due respect to particular law, is to be preserved in the Latin rites. But since the use of the vernacular, whether in the Mass, the administration of the sacraments, or in the other parts of the liturgy, may frequently be of a great advantage to the people, a wider use may be made of it, […] (SC 36, 1–2).1

It has been 55 years now since this express permission for the use of the native languages in the liturgy was granted. That some liturgical books of the Roman Rite have been translated and others not yet translated after such a long time of the Church’s authorisation for the use of vernacular in liturgical celebrations, suggests some gaps to be filled, namely, lack of adequately translated liturgical texts and lack of requisite experts for the work of translation. Some liturgical books like the Weekday Missal and Lectionary, the Book of the Gospels and the Book of Blessings have, however, not yet been translated into Akan. Two other gaps left to be filled are; lack of liturgical music books containing all the hymns used in the liturgy and the lack of documentary evidence of the practiced liturgical adaptation and inculturation.

1 Austin FLANNERY (ed.), Vatican Council II: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Documents – Sacrosanctum Concilium, Leominster 1981, 13.

Even though the local musicians have composed many liturgical songs, majority of their compositions still subsist in loose sheets of paper and require compilation into books. Some liturgical adaptation and inculturation, in accordance with Vatican II’s promotion of liturgical adaptation and inculturation (SC 37–38)2, have emerged and have been practiced over a long period of time sporadically across the dioceses within the province. However, none of the inculturated elements has been documented, except the Ordination and “Widowhood Rites”3. Some traditional musical instruments have been incorporated in the liturgical services, whereas other traditional orchestras are sparingly used seemingly without any ecclesiastical approval. While some completed rites and the composed music have apparently obtained official approval, others have not.

In the light of the above quotation from SC 36, the translation of liturgical books into the vernacular languages intends to permit the people, in whose language the translation is carried out, to hear and understand the word of God proclaimed to them in their own language and to enable them to participate in the expression of the Church’s prayer to the Lord. The unavailability of translated texts will obviously prevent those people from participating actively, consciously and fully in the liturgical celebration. On the other hand, if all the liturgical texts were rendered in their native language, their comprehension of God’s word and their motivation for active participation would be significantly boosted.

On this background, therefore, the study of the development of the liturgical books in Ghana with an outlook on liturgical inculturation focusing more on the Ecclesiastical Province of Kumasi, where Akan is the predominant language, is necessary.

Paramount in this study is the rendering of the texts of the Roman Catholic Liturgical rites and lectionaries in the native Akan language and culture in fulfilment of the basic liturgical principle of the Second Vatican Council, that is, active, conscious and full participation of the faithful. In this regard, much seems to have been accomplished by commissions, committees and individuals. The second Latin typical edition of the Roman Missal has been

2 Sacrosanctum Concilium, (FLANNERY, Vatican Council II), 14. 3 NATIONAL LITURGICAL COMMISSION, Christian Widowhood Rites, published by Diocesan Catechetical Office, Sunyani 2005.

2 translated into Akan by the Catechetical Office of Kumasi Archdiocese and has been in use since 20044. This translated version, which is commonly called Twi Sacramentary is entitled Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma, the Book of the order of Mass. The production of a new version of it, in accordance with the third typical edition of the Roman Missal, is said to have been in progress since 2011. The Sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, and Marriage, as well as the funeral rite have been translated and compiled into one book by the same office5. The translation and compilation of the Sunday Lectionary have also been completed in three books of cycles A, B and C6. The work on that of the weekdays is said to be still in progress. Many efforts, too, have been done in the realm of liturgical music by some individuals like, Pius Agyemang, David Asare-Bediako, Paul Victor Obosu, Franklin James Ohene Agyei, Daniel Aboagye Danso, Samuel Kofi Adjei, Anthony Atwereboanda and many amateur musicians7. These musicians have composed the ordinary of the Mass and Responsorial Psalms in Akan language. Collections of liturgical music into the “Fante Hymnal” and “Akan Hymnal” in Cape Coast and Kumasi respectively have been made.

The Research Questions In order to fill the aforementioned gaps, the following questions need to be raised:

1. Why have all the Roman Liturgical Rites not been translated into Akan, up to date?

4 CATECHETICAL OFFICE, Catholic Archdiocese of Kumasi, Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma (meaning, The Book of the Order of Mass), Kumasi 2004. 5 CATECHETICAL OFFICE, Catholic Badwam Som Ahodo] Nhyehy[e[ Ahodo] Nwoma (The Rites) Kumasi 2004. 6 IBID., Asante Akenkans[m Nwoma, Kumasi 2002. All three cycles of the Sunday Lectionaries A, B, C, have been completed and are being used across the Kumasi Ecclesiastical Province. 7 The listed names are some of the local liturgical musicians, whose compositions have been in use in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi up to date. Pius Agyemang, who is a Rev. Brother of the Divine Word Missionary Society (SVD), has been the most prolific composer of the liturgical music used in the province. Samuel Kofi Agyei and Daniel Aboagye Danso are priests of Catholic Dioceses of Techiman and Konongo- Mampong respectively. David Asare-Bediako, who is now defunct, was a lay composer, originally from the current Catholic Diocese of Koforidua. Paul Victor Obosu and Franklin James Ohene Agyei are lay musicians, who have been in charge of the Cathedral Choir of the Catholic Diocese of Sunyani until now. Anthony Atwereboanda is also a lay composer at the Cathedral of the Archdiocese of Kumasi. The named musicians and many others have composed many liturgical songs, which are used in and outside the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. If any of them is referred to later in this work, the full citation of his work will be given in the footnotes.

2. How does such lack impede full, active and conscious participation in the liturgy?

3. What are the measures taken to ensure the proper documentation of adapted und inculturated elements in the liturgy?

4. Does the Ecclesiastical province adhere to the required norms that “Translations from the Latin for use in the liturgy must be approved by the competent territorial ecclesiastical authority […]” (SC 36, 4)28?

5. Is there any basis for a perception of a distinctly inculturated Akan Liturgy?

In answering these questions, we will demonstrate, that most of the liturgical books have been translated in the Akan language but not all of them have satisfied the requirements laid down by Vatican II and the subsequent Instructions, guidelines and Apostolic letters, especially, Liturgiam authenticam (LA 1–133)8 and Varietates legitimate (VL 36). It will also be clarified that after one hundred and thirty-eight years of the Catholic faith in the ecclesiastical province, it is about time the liturgy were developed to merge the Akan culture in order to have an inculturated liturgy, documented in the corresponding liturgical books. that (this section will then be the core hypothesis or thesis statement)

Objectives of the Study

The first objective of this study, therefore, is to provoke some awareness in the reader of the need to get all the above-mentioned efforts well documented for scrutiny by liturgical, sacramental, catechetical, scriptural and canonical experts. The second objective is to offer proposals in order to encourage the equipment of the diocesan and provincial liturgical commissions with such expertise, in order that they may be better able to offer the necessary professional recommendations to the competent territorial ecclesiastical authority, whose prerogative it is to approve any new or adapted liturgical elements, after the recognition or the confirmation of the Apostolic See.

8 Liturgiam Athenticam, Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments: Fifth Instruction on Vernacular Translation of the Roman Liturgy (Latin-English Edition), Washington D.C. 2001, 23–167.

Another objective of this work is to ascertain the accuracy of the translated texts in comparison to their original sources. In view of the extensive nature of the work, the comparison will not be with the full texts of every book from cover to cover to cover, but rather a few examples in this regard will be sufficient to prove this point. Since some liturgical books are not yet available in the Akan language, it is yet another objective of the research to raise awareness of the need to get them done in due course. Some of the existing books are just a compilation of the texts of many sacraments and other rites. While some details are missing, the texts appear in smaller prints, making it difficult for smooth and fluent reading. It is yet another vital vision of this research to promote the production of separate books for each sacrament, lectionary and any other liturgical rites, of which the translation is directly from the typical sources in conformity to the guidelines of the Liturgiam Authenticam in more legible font sizes.

Methodology

Due to its retrospective and prospective nature, that is, looking into the past and the future, this research requires a methodology that examines the past and present and projects into the future. Accordingly, this study employs a historical-critical, descriptive, analytical and comparative methodology. The historical-critical and descriptive approaches will be employed, especially in chapters 1 to 4 and parts of Chapter 5, to explore the historical trajectory of the liturgical books, tracing this development in careful detail in an attempt to underscore the efforts that have so far been made. Consequently, as part of the descriptive approach – in view of the primary and inductive nature of this research – we have conducted interviews with 2 experts in liturgical science, 4 living contributors to the translation work and the experimented inculturation in the liturgy and 4 from the Liturgical and Catechetical Commissions. The data collected from these interviews, which are the first-hand narratives and perceptions of the interviewees will be interspersed with the data from books in most of the chapters, especially in chapters 5 and 6 where they will be the main source of information. In this wise, we will be guided by the interview methods of Jochen Gläser and Grit Laudel

5 in “The Expert Interviews and Qualitative Content Analysis”9. With the help of the knowledge we have obtained in this direction, some interview questions were formulated as indicated in the Appendix, subject to review in the course of time with open-ended, factual and probing questions before the interviews were carried out. Prior to the data collection, the strategy was decided. A voice recorder and, where necessary, video recorder and a photo camera were employed for data collection. The translation into the vernacular and the elements of inculturation will be evaluated in compliance with the tenets of the Liturgy and teachings of the Catholic Church, as outlined in the “Fifth Instruction for the Right Implementation of the Constitution on Liturgy of the Second Vatican Council” (SC 36), Liturgiam Authenticam (arts. 10–18), and the “Fourth Instruction for the Right Application of the Conciliar Constitution on Liturgy” (arts. 37–40), Varietates Legitimae (art. 36), respectively.

To situate our study in the overall liturgical-theological tradition of the Roman Rite, we shall also employ the critical and analytical approach in investigating both primary and secondary literature in respect of our present study. Along similar lines, the appropriate liturgical books concerned in this investigation will be analytically and critically examined, comparing them, as the case may be, to their original correspondent, Editio typica, or English/French/German versions. All these will be undertaken in the interest of “fostering the piety and self-awareness of a maturing Christian worshipping community according to a tradition and identity which are authentically Catholic.”10.

9 Jochen GLÄSER – Grit LAUDEL, Experteninterviews und qualitative Inhaltsanalyse, Wiesbaden 2006, 32. 10 George DEVINE, Liturgical Renewal: An Agonizing Reappraisal, New York 1973, 71.

Sources for this study

This research shall be making use of the relevant books written by Ghanaian authors, such as Archbishop Peter Kwasi Sarpong11, Bro. Pius K. Agyemang12, David O. Asare-Bediako13, and the doctoral thesis of Joseph Kwaku Afrifah Agyekum14. We will also peruse some documents issued by the National Bishops’ Conference, for example, Ecclesia in Ghana. In addition to that we shall consider diocesan documents, such as Instrumentum Laboris and the Synodal Decrees and Recommendations of Sunyani diocese, and all available relevant liturgical books in Akan and English. The principal sources of this work will be the Order of Mass in Twi (Mass Af]reb] Kronkron Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma)15 and its English equivalence The Sacramentary16, the Book of Catholic Rites in Akan Language17, The Sunday Lectionary in Asante18, and the Vatican Council II’s Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, Sacrosanctum Concilium. This and other Church documents such as, the Varietates Legitimae and Liturgiam Authenticam will be the springboard and the main yardstick for comparison with the translated texts and any possible elements of inculturation and adaptation. We have availed ourselves to any relevant books, documents, articles, dissertations, from the Library of Catholic and Evangelical Faculty of Theology in the University of Vienna and elsewhere. Personal interviews with select resource persons within and outside Kumasi Province were undertaken. To trace some original copies of the earliest attempts in translation, we visited the Catholic Printing Press in Kumasi, Ghana. Although our recent consultation with the Secretary General of the Ghana Catholic Bishops’ Conference proved the National Liturgical

11 The Archbishop Emeritus of Kumasi Archdiocese has written many books that are relevant to the subject of study, especially on Inculturation. Some of his books that will serve as sources are: “An Asante Liturgy, Kumasi 2011; Peoples Differ: Approach to Inculturation in Evangelisation, Legon-Accra 2002. 12 Pius F.K. AGYEMANG, who is a renowned Liturgical Musician in Ghana has endeavoured to promote inculturation through Music. Even though he has been a Liturgical Musician for a long time, his compositions have been compiled for printing, which is scheduled for completion after December 2014. The researcher has already placed an order for a copy and hopes to get it in due course. Meanwhile his book entitled “The Power of the Eucharist” and his diploma dissertation on “Inculturation: African music in the Service of the Liturgy” will be used in this work. 13 David O. ASARE-BEDIAKO was also one of the two local Liturgical Music composers before his death. He has fortunately left behind six volumes of compiled compositions entitled “Akristofo Momma Y[nto Dwom” meaning Christians, let us sing. One copy will be employed in this study. 14 Joseph Kwaku AFRIFAH AGYEKUM, who is now the Catholic Bishop of Koforidua Diocese is the author of the doctoral thesis “The History of the Liturgical Life of the Church in Ghana”, Rome 1992. He is so far, the only one who has written a little more relevantly on Liturgical Books in Akan Language in Ghana. 15 CATECHETICAL OFFICE [SIC], Catholic Archdiocese of Kumasi, Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma (meaning, The Book of the Order of Mass), Kumasi 2004. 19–21, 371–385, 476–522. The selected pages contain parts of the Liturgy of the Holy Mass, which are central to this study. 16 ICEL, The Order of Mass in: The Sacramentary, Collegeville 1985, 403–542. 17 CATECHETICS OFFICE [SIC], Catholic Archdiocese of Kumasi, Catholic Badwam Som Ahodo] Nhyehy[e[ Ahodo] Nwoma (The Rites) Kumasi 2004. 18 The Sunday Lectionary in Asante Language by the Catechetical Office of the Archdiocese of Kumasi consists of three Cycles A, B, C, only one of which will be employed in this work.

Commission archives not organised enough for a successful trace of any document, we endeavoured to lay hands on something relevant to this course of study from the archives of the Archdioceses of Kumasi and Cape Coast in Ghana and eventually from the Society of African Missionaries (SMA) archives in Rome, too.

The Catholic Church in Ghana has come a long way. It has been 38 years since the Church celebrated its centenary jubilee. That means the Church is now 138 years old in Ghana, which is long enough for it to have the equivalent books of all the liturgical celebrations in the native languages and culture, and where necessary and possible, have its own liturgical rites adapted to the native culture. This, however, is not the case. Kumasi, which is the ecclesiastical province of our scope of work, does not yet have all the catholic liturgical rites written in the native language. Neither have the experimented elements of adaptation and inculturation been included in the texts and rubrics already documented. It is envisaged that the collection, collation and scrutiny of all the available books and scanty efforts of inculturation can spark off the interest in getting proper Akan Liturgical Books corresponding to all the necessary Roman Catholic rites, without deviating from the tenets of the Roman Rite and where necessary including the adapted and inculturated elements in the texts and rubrics of the corresponding books. In other words, the translated and inculturated books must still maintain the unity of the local Church with the Roman Rite. This will lead to the discovery of how the liturgical books in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi have been in conformity to the renewal process of Vatican II in respect of liturgical books.

The Scope of this Research

The effort to bring the liturgy into the native language called Akan did not begin after the Second Vatican Council but rather dates back into the pre-Vatican II period. Some parts of the Mass were translated into Akan before Vatican II, because most of the local faithful were illiterates who neither understood Latin nor English. Due to the difficulties involved with getting the people to commit the Latin responses into memory, the easiest option was to translate the part that belonged to the congregation into Akan in order to enable them to

8 participate better in the liturgy. According to two authorities, Pius Agyemang19 and the Archbishop Emeritus of Kumasi, Most Rev Peter Kwasi Sarpong20, the responses by the people were done in the native Akan language prior to Vatican II. Though the province of Kumasi began as vicariate in 1932, this research is set to begin with the development of liturgical books from the early Church through the pre-Vatican II period. It will also cover the eras of Vatican II and the post-Vatican II until the present day and it seeks to identify and examine analytically and critically the available liturgical books alongside the data gathered from interviews and original research of previously undocumented elements of inculturation and adaptation in Ghana, particularly within the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi, being the targeted locality for this study. This study of the liturgical books with the prospects of liturgical inculturation is inspired by the provision of Vatican II which states: Provided that the substantial unity of the Roman rite is preserved, provisions shall also be made, when revising the liturgical books, for legitimate variations and adaptations to different groups, regions and peoples, especially in mission countries […] (SC 38)21.

Inculturation mentioned here is only an integral part, but not the principal focus of this study. The focus is rather on the development of the appropriate liturgical books, which take into consideration the approved elements of inculturation for use in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi but maintains the unity of the local liturgical rite with that of the Roman Rite. Having captured some of the accepted efforts of liturgical inculturation, while preserving the sound tradition of the Roman Rite, the liturgical books will therefore have to exhibit the identity of the local culture and at the same time the Roman Rite. Some examples like the inculturated marriage rite, priestly ordination, Christian Widowhood rites and liturgical music will be given to underscore the efforts emerging from the reforms of Vatican II.

19 Pius AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 25 June 2014. 20 Peter Kwasi SARPONG (Archbishop Emeritus of Kumasi), a recorded interview, Kumasi 8 July 2014. 21 Sacrosanctum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican II, 131).

Structure of the Work

This work is divided into six chapters covering the period prior to Vatican II, the Reforms of Vatican II and especially the post-Vatican II period, the preview of which will be outlined here.

Chapter one looks into the Liturgical reforms in the entire Catholic Church in the aftermath of Vatican II. To know how the liturgical books in Ghana came into being, we shall first explore the pre-Vatican II period to discover what the entire Roman Catholic Church originally used and in what language it was used. This introductory chapter as an overview will highlight only some of the key points of liturgical reforms from the early Church to Vatican II22 and more extensively the reforms in the area of liturgy after the Second Vatican Council. The liturgy has obviously gone through several reforms in the course of history to reach its current stage. The study will be carried out under the sub-topics of Pre-Vatican II and Post Vatican II Liturgical Reforms. By examining those key points in the history of the liturgy, the salient points in the historical development of the liturgical books in the Roman Rite will obviously be highlighted as the springboard for the study of the liturgical books in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi.

Chapter two then looks into the liturgical books in Ghana before Vatican II. Prior to Vatican II (1962–1965), the Church in Ghana like the rest of the Roman Rite used Latin in the liturgy. Although the illiterates, too, were compelled to learn the responses in Latin, they were able to sing rather than recite them. According to Most Rev. Peter Kwasi Sarpong, however, Asante Twi and English were used in addition to Latin, and some of the books used at the time included Westminster Hymnal, Fante Hymnal, Asante Catechism, and the Missal23. This chapter focuses on the books that were in use and how Catholic Liturgical rites were performed before Vatican II. Owing to lack of documented sources, the work will also

22 This is such a big topic that cannot be treated in detail here. To highlight a few instances here, the following books will be relied on: Marcel METZGER, HISTORY of the Liturgy: The Major Stages, Collegeville 1997; George DEVINE, Liturgical Renewal, New York 1973; John Gordon, DAVIES (ed.), A New Dictionary of Liturgy and Worship, London 1996; Peter E. FINK (ed.), The New Dictionary of Sacramental Worship, Collegeville 1990. 23 Peter Kwasi SARPONG, a recorded interview, Kumasi 8 July 2014.

10 depend on interviews with some people who were or heard from witnesses of this period, as it is the first of its kind without any precedence.

In chapter three, the stages of translation and adaptation of the liturgy in the akan Language and the challenges involved will be investigated.

Due to lack of adequate documentation, this chapter too will be developed out of interviews with individuals and groups who have in one way or another contributed to the development of the liturgical books in Akan language, touching the stages of translation and the challenges or problems that were associated with the process of the work. The development of the books in the periods before and after Vatican II will be examined. Specific examples from individual and group efforts, such as commissions and committees will be employed to highlight the difficulties or challenges encountered in the stages of the development of the books. Some adaptations, for instance, have been made in the rite of priestly ordination, to harmonise it with the local culture. Therefore, some aspects will be underscored to as instances of adaptation and inculturation. Specifically, some of the words used in the dialogue between the ordaining bishop and the candidate will be shown in comparison to the original Latin version and the English translation, at the end of which the difference will be clearly identified. The changes in the presentation of the candidate, in particular, will also be emphasised. The benefits of such adaptations, too, will be underlined.

In spite of the difficulties involved in the process of the development of the liturgical books in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi, the importance of bringing liturgical celebrations into the native language and culture of the local congregation, will be evident in the desire for the promotion of the active participation by the people intended by Vatican II “by means of acclamations, responses, psalms, antiphons, hymns, as well as by actions, gestures, and bodily attitudes” (SC 30)24.

The study continues to the fourth chapter, which is the main chapter of this study. Here, the current editions of the post-Vatican II liturgical books in Ghana will be examined. As pointed

24 Sacrosanctum Concilium, (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican Council II, 128).

11 out earlier on, much effort has been put into the translation of the liturgical texts into the Akan language. Both individual and collective efforts have been made. All the sacramental rites have been translated. They first came out in respective booklets for all the Sacraments, namely Baptism, Confirmation, the Holy Eucharist (the order of Mass), Penance, Matrimony, Anointing of the Sick, and Ordination. Now the Catechetical Office of the Archdiocese of Kumasi has come out with a book of the Rites in Akan entitled Catholic Badwam Som Ahodo] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma, meaning the Book of Catholic Liturgical Rites, bringing together all the sacramental and the funeral rites in one book, with the exception of the rite of Ordination, which is still in a separate booklet. The main Liturgical Book, which is the English version of the Roman Missal, otherwise known as the Sacramentary, has also been translated into Akan by the Catechetical Office of the Archdiocese of Kumasi. The Bible in Asante Twi entitled Anyames[m Anaa Twer[ Kronkron Akan Kasa mu25 has been the main source for readings in the Liturgy of the Word in Akan. Besides there are some liturgical musical books, the first of which is the Fante Hymnal, which is in Fante language but understood and used by all Akans. This book contains only words without any staff notation or tonic sofa. Individual liturgical musicians such as David O. Asare-Bediako, Pius Agyemang B. A. Sarkey, J. P. Johnson, M. K. Amissah and Paul Victor Obosu have made a significant contribution in the area of Liturgical Music in Akan, but only Asare Bediako has so far endeavoured to compile his own compositions into booklets with tonic sofa musical notation26. That of Rev. Brother Pius Agyemang is said to be still at the Press until December 201427. Many more amateur musicians have composed a lot more liturgical hymns and songs, which have not yet been put together in a book form. The composition of the liturgical music in question is a combination of African and Western rhythms in the effort to inculturate the liturgy. It will not be surprising therefore to note that the most significant achievement on liturgical inculturation within the ecclesiastical province in question has been done in the

25 THE BIBLE SOCIETY, Anyames[m Anaa Twer[ Kronkron Akan Kasa mu: The Bible in Twi Asante, Accra 1964. 26 David O. ASARE-BEDIAKO, Akristofo, Momma Y[nto Dwom, vol. 4, Akwatia 1974. The author is said to have compiled his compositions into six volumes. More will be said about this author’s contribution in the main research work. 27 Pius AGYEMANG, Telephone Conversation, 24 March 2014. It was expected to be completed by the mentioned date, but due to some problems beyond control, it is not yet completed.

12 area of liturgical music. Though not many have been compiled, the research will delve into all available books and booklets to identify the significant reforms that have been effected.

This part of the study intends to make enquiries into the current editions of the liturgical books, the progress of the unfinished work, its proximity to the original English texts, and the difficulties and challenges involved with the translation. It also seeks to identify any reforms or changes that have taken place so far. The “Akan Sacramentary” was published in 200428, only a few years before the International Commission on English in the Liturgy (ICEL) came out with the latest revised English edition of the Roman Missal in 201129. Since the latter is based on the third typical Latin edition of 2008, there have been several changes, which called for attention with the Akan version of the Sacramentary too. The work on a new Akan edition on the basis of the 2011 English edition of the Roman Missal has therefore been underway since 2011. A collection of individual compositions of liturgical music has been compiled and published in the Archdiocese of Kumasi under the title Ay[yie Af]reb]30 (Catholic Akan Hymnal). The content is a mixture of only the words of Fantse and Asante hymns without any musical notation. Similarly, a new edition of the Fantse Hymnal with staff notation, compiled in the Archdiocese of Cape Coast is used in Kumasi Province31.

Efforts are also being made to translate the lectionaries into Akan. However, only the Sunday readings have been completed. The translation of the weekday lectionary is said to be still in progress. To the best of our knowledge, there isn’t yet any book of the Gospels in the Akan language. The main devotional book is the “Asante Mpaeb]” meaning, “Asante Prayers”, which is also worth considering since it contains the order of Mass and some other sacraments in Asante Twi.

28 CATECHETICAL OFFICE, Catholic Archdiocese of Kumasi, Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma (The Book of the Order of Mass), Kumasi 2004. This book is commonly referred to as the “Twi or Akan Sacramentary”. 29 INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION OF ENGLISH IN LITURGY (ICEL), The Roman Missal: English Translation According to the 3rd Latin Typical Edition of 2008, Washington DC 2011. 30 T. Abraham ANTHONY – Dominic ADU MENSAH (eds.), Ay[yie Af]reb] [Catholic Akan Hymnal], Kumasi 2008. 31 ARCHDIOCESE OF CAPE COAST, Catholic Mfantse Ndwom Buukuu [The Book of Catholic Hymns in Fantse], Cape Coast 2007.

The study progresses to the fifth chapter, which investigates the reception of the liturgical reforms of Vatican II. This chapter will also be developed through a study of available data and interviews with people who have had some experience of the transition between the pre- and post-Vatican II eras in order to determine the different forms of reaction to the liturgical reforms resulting from the Vatican II. With critical approach our research will endeavour to delve into the effects of the reforms on the Church in general and the kinds of reaction that emerged among the faithful and even from the clergy as a result of the introduction of the Mass in Asante Twi. Naturally, the reactions could be initially diversified but with time the renewal would appear to be accepted. Similarly, the introduction of elements of inculturation, traditional instruments and symbols into the Mass would generate mixed reactions from the people.

Finally, in Chapter Six, the Prospects of Inculturation in the Ecclesiastical Province of Kumasi, will be examined. Though inculturation is not the main focus of this study, it is indispensable, since the production of liturgical texts into the native language involves adaptation into the local culture in accordance with the local pastoral needs. In this chapter, we will give an overview of inculturation according to the official teaching of the Church in Sacrosanctum Concilium and Varietates Legitimae32 and that of the Church in Ghana. In the course of the years a number of instances of inculturated Akan Liturgical rites have emerged, of which only the Ordination and “Christian Widowhood”33 rites have so far been written down. The following examples will be given as a case study; the possibility of merging the Akan traditional and sacramental marriages into one ceremony, the Christian Widowhood Rites and the possibility of inclusion of the traditional Nnwomkro music in the liturgy. Marriage is considered here because of the apparent confusion it creates among the Akan Catholics. So far, the traditional marriage is considered as a prerequisite to the sacramental marriage. Therefore, the Catholics end up going through two different rites of marriages before being admitted to the Sacrament of the Holy Communion. Most young people

32 Varietates Legitimae, Fourth Instruction for the Right Application fo the Conciliar Constitution on the Liturgy (nos.37–40), Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, Vatican City 1994. 33 NATIONAL LITURGICAL COMMISSION, The Christian Widowhood Rites, published by the Diocesan Catechetical Office, Sunyani 2005.

14 imitating their peers in other denominations would like to have both rites on the same day, the traditional rites early in the morning followed by the sacramental rites in the Church. This never works well, since the couple end up late for the sacramental marriage, thus keeping the parishioners, the priest and invited guests uncomfortably waiting for a long time. It is hoped that the mergence of the two into one Christian ceremony will solve this and other problems, and lead to a deeper understanding of the Christian marriage in the local cultural context. Some more examples will equally be descriptively, critically and constructively presented in this study. It is on the basis of the results of the interviews and collected data that projections into the future will be possible regarding the feasibility of inculturated Akan liturgy, which is directed towards a deeper personal religious experience of the local people.

State of the Research

The only prior research in our area of study was done by Bishop Joseph Kwaku Afrifah Agyekum, who, by a historical-liturgical and critical approach, traced the original translation of some liturgical texts in the Archdiocese of Cape Coast, the formation of liturgical commissions, the introduction of the mass in Asante Twi and resultant reactions, and liturgical musical composers. Since his study was only a beginning34 and covered a wider spectrum it did not explore much further than the historical-liturgical, critical level.

Adopting his approach, however, we intend to take it much further as follows: to investigate more into the reactions to the introduction of the Mass in Asante Twi and the possible lessons they convey; to encourage the completion of the translation work on the remaining liturgical rites; to explore possible ways of promoting compilation of liturgical music in Asante Twi; to highlight some useful elements of inculturation in the light of their pastoral, liturgical, or theological significance, and the need to include them in the rubrics and texts of the liturgical books for an onward approval of the competent ecclesiastical authority.

34 AFRIFAH AGYEKUM, 12. Introducing the relevance of his study, Bishop Afrifah states that his “study is only a beginning. If it will in a long run provoke future research into definite aspects of the liturgical life of the Church in Ghana, then our aim will have been achieved”.

Clarification of Terms Liturgical Books: The term liturgical books, according to John Gordon Davies, “are those used in the performance of Church services. Both in manuscript and printed form, they are an essential source of information for the worshipping practice of any group of believers”35. In this work, therefore, the term refers to the books and booklets containing the Roman Catholic liturgical rites, which are basically the sacraments of Baptism, Holy Eucharist, Confirmation, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Matrimony and Holy Orders. The books also include other liturgical rites such as: profession of vows, funerals, widowhood, liturgical music, lectionaries, catechism, prayer books and the book of blessings, Breviary, Pontifical and Ceremonial. To be more specific we intend to consider the available books on all the Sacraments, Lectionaries, Widowhood Rite and Liturgical Music.

Akan: It is one of the major ethnic groups in Ghana. The language of this ethnic group is also called Akan, which is one of the 79 languages beside English, the official language of Ghana. It is the most widely spoken native language in the entire country and consists of the dialects namely: Asante, Brong, Akuapem and Fante. Even though some examples could be drawn from the two others, this study will concentrate more on the area where Asante and Brong are spoken for better access to the relevant data. The area under study is composed of two political administrative regions of Brong/Ahafo and Ashanti, forming the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi, one of the four ecclesiastical provinces of the Catholic Church in Ghana. The three others are Accra, Cape Coast and Tamale. (See the Appendix for the map of the catholic dioceses in Ghana.)

Kumasi Province: The ecclesiastical province of Kumasi is located in the middle of Ghana, comprising the Archdiocese of Kumasi, and the Dioceses of Techiman, Sunyani, Goaso, Obuasi and Konongo/Mampong (see the Appendix). This Kumasi Province was created in

35 John Gordon DAVIES (ed.), A New Dictionary of Liturgy and Worship, London 1996, 96.

1932 out of the “Apostolic Vicariate of Gold Coast” as the “Apostolic Vicariate Kumasi”36. Until 1973, all the Dioceses within the current province formed part of the original Kumasi Diocese. It is easier to consider this province in this work because all the Dioceses involved share a common culture, custom and language under the broad Akan ethnic group. They all share the same liturgical books with the same language, Asante Twi, or in a more generic term, Akan. Even though not many changes may have taken place prior to Vatican II, certainly in the post conciliar era many efforts have been made to bring the liturgy into the local language. This was in a bate to make the liturgy better understood ensuring the maximum active, conscious and full participation of the faithful in accordance with the provisions of Vatican II, which states: It is very much the wish of the Church that all the faithful should be led to that full, conscious, and active part in liturgical celebrations which is demanded by the very nature of the liturgy […] (SC 14)37.

It is for this same purpose that translation of the liturgical books into Akan language began even prior to Vatican II. Since the Catholic Church in Ghana has the Roman Rite as its general liturgical form, one may therefore not expect any extraordinary change or reforms in the liturgical rites with the exception of translation, adaptation into the Akan language, and instances of undocumented liturgical inculturation. In the area of liturgical music, a number of individuals have composed many songs and hymns in the vernacular, some of which have been compiled38 while others have not. There is therefore a need for the collection of the individual efforts into common liturgical music books to ensure uniformity in singing throughout the province, notwithstanding the declaration of Vatican II that “[e]ven in the

36 CATHOLIC ARCHDIOCESE OF KUMASI. URL:http://www.kumasicatholic.org/pages/archdiocese.php [Accessed: 16 October 2014]. The original Apostolic Vicariate of Gold Coast, which was coterminous with the present-day Ghana, currently consists of 19 dioceses and 1 vicariate, while the Apostolic Vicariate of Kumasi is now the Ecclesiastical Province of Kumasi. 37 Austin FLANNERY (ed.), Vatican Council II: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Documents – Sacrosanctum concilium (A completely Revised Edition in Inclusive Language), New York 2007, 124. 38 Some of the individual efforts compiled into books are: T. Abraham ANTHONY – Dominic ADU MENSAH (eds.) Ay[yie Af]reb] [Catholic Akan Hymnal], Kumasi 2008. – ARCHDIOCESE OF CAPE COAST, Catholic Mfantse Ndwom. Buukuu [The Book of Catholic Hymns in Fantse], Cape Coast 2007. - David O. ASARE- BEDIAKO, Akristofo Momma Y[nto Dwom [Christians, Let us Sing], Akwatia 1974.

17 liturgy the church does not wish to impose a rigid uniformity in matters which do not affect the faith or the well-being of the community” (SC 37)39.

CHAPTER ONE

1. Liturgical Reforms in the Roman Catholic Church up to Vatican II

Introduction

This chapter provides a brief review of liturgical reform in the history of the Roman Rite with particular focus on the development of liturgical books. For, the liturgical books developed alongside, or out of the liturgical reforms. It can be asserted, therefore, that the history of the development of liturgical books cannot be separated from that of the liturgical reforms. The two go hand in hand. In the Roman Catholic Church, some major changes took place in the twentieth century. The most relevant of those changes to our field of study is the liturgical reform which culminated in the new order of Mass referred to in Latin as Novus Missae. According to Nicola Giampietro, “the Novus Missae has been referred to mistakenly as one of the ‘fruits of the Second Vatican Council’. In fact, the history of the liturgical reform that led to the promulgation of the New Mass predated Vatican II by several decades”40. In other words, many reforms in respect of the liturgy preceded the period of the Second Vatican Council. From the early Church in the first century AD through the Middle Ages, the Catholic liturgy went through a series of reforms. Not all of them, however, are necessary for this study, but rather those that affected the development of the books that were officially approved for use in the liturgy.

39 Sacrosanctum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican II, 131). 40 Nicola GIAMPIETRO. URL: http//www Liturgical reform did not start with Vatican II: The Development of the Liturgical Reform: As seen by Cardinal Fernando Antonelli from 1948 to 1970, by Roman Catholic Books, 2011 [Accessed: 3 February 2015].

1.1. Liturgical Reform before Vatican II

Under this topic, the study is set to find the traces of the development of liturgical books from the early centuries of the growth of the Church through the reforms in the late Middle Ages, the Council of Trent and the liturgical movements from the twentieth century to the Second Vatican Council. This historical research is to help identify the liturgical books that were developed for use in the Roman Rite in the pre-Vatican II.

1.1.1. Early Liturgical Development and Traces of Liturgical Books

The fundamental acts of the Church’s worship namely, the celebration of the Eucharist, the rites of the Sacraments, prayer in common and the liturgical sermon, have their origin in the express command of Jesus or are, at least, based on his example and commendation. The liturgical rituals and practices obtained from him were carried out in the Early Church. The whole worshiping community joined in singing and recitation of the acclamations or hymns that were proper to them and only the language of the people was used. Noteworthy in the early Church was the communal aspect of the liturgy. It was “most often celebrated at a table, and the community stood around the table as the celebrant, facing them, led them in the communal exercise of Eucharistic worship”41. As the worship continued to be handed down from one generation to another, liturgical books developed alongside. The canon of the Mass, which is today known as the Eucharistic Prayer, is likely to have been developed in the fourth century and as Joseph Jungmann observes, “‘by the turn of the fifth century’ we find the ‘framework of the Roman Mass’ established”42. This framework did not contain any detailed format or rite as indicated in the reply of Pope Saint Gregory the Great to the question of Saint Augustine of Canterbury quoted by the Venerable Bede: My brother, you are familiar with the usage of the Roman Church, in which you were brought up […] Select from each of the Churches whatever things are devout, religious, and right; and when you have bound them, as it were, into a Sheaf, let the minds of the English grow accustomed to it.43

41 George DEVINE, Liturgical Renewal. An Agonizing Reappraisal, New York 1973, 8. 42 Joseph Andreas JUNGMANN, The Mass of the Roman Rite: Its Origins and Development Missarium Solemnia (trans. Francis A. BRUNNER), vol. I, Dublin 1986, 58. 43 The Venerable BEDE, A History of the English Church and People, Harmondsworth 1983, 73.

That was an evidence of the early stages of the development of the liturgy. There were, however, no books regarding the order of the liturgy. George Devine records that “earliest sources indicate that the basic structure of our present Mass-liturgy (e.g., invitatory, Eucharistic prayer, communion) was in widespread use by about A.D. 150”44. In spite of this structure, there were no fixed formularies by the third century. George Devine notes further that “by the fourth century, in the West, Latin had replaced Greek as the language of the liturgy because it had replaced Greek as the vernacular”45.

In the course of time, the development of the liturgy became more and more evident. According to Alcuin Reid, “at the close of the sixth century we find developed liturgical rites that are themselves sacred, yet capable of further development: a living, nevertheless objective, Tradition”46. The first liturgical book to be completed was the Sacramentary. This was not the same as the Missal, which was yet to be developed. The Sacramentary was a book used by the priest, a bishop or the pope in saying Mass and it is best described by Eric Palazzo as follows: During the High Middle Ages, the principal book for the celebration of the Mass is the sacramentary. It contains all the texts of orations and prayers needed by the celebrant whether a parish priest, a bishop, or the pope, for everyday of the liturgical year. This material comprises an unchanging part (the canon of the Mass) and a part that varies from one day to the next (the formularies of the temporal and Sanctoral Cycles, as well as votive Masses).47

The development of the Sacramentary, as the first liturgical book of the Roman Rite, is said to have reached its final form in the era of Pope Gregory the Great and his immediate successors as observed by Theodor Klauser: The Liturgy of the Roman Church had, in its new Latin form, been gradually developed by the labours of the popes in writing prayers, in particular by Saint Leo the Great and Gelasius I [492-496]. Under Gregory the Great and his immediate successors, it received its final form, which found its concrete embodiment in the so-called Gregorian Sacramentary, the so-called Gregorian Antiphonary, the Capitular evangelorium, and the Ordines. The Sacramentary contains the prayers to be recited by the celebrant at

44 DEVINE, Liturgical Renewal, 8. 45 DEVINE, Liturgical Renewal, 9. 46 Alcuin REID, Organic Development of the Liturgy: The Principle of Liturgical Reform and Their Relation to the Twentieth-Century Liturgical Movement Prior to the Second Vatican Council, New York 2005, 21. 47 Eric PALAZZO, A History of the Liturgical Books: from the Beginning to the Thirteenth Century (trans. Madeleine BEAUMONT), Collegeville 1998, 21.

Mass throughout the liturgical year, and those to be said at the administration of the Sacraments […]. The Ordines give directions to the clergy and containing the ritual procedure to be observed at each liturgical function.48

The Sacramentary had at this time taken shape but there was still more room for improvement as the texts were said to be inadequate. Many other liturgical books were arranged at the time when the Sacramentary was being developed, namely the Gospel Book, Lectionary, the Acts of the Martyrs read of their feast days, the book of Psalms written separately for singing, the Gradual or Antiphonary. Hymns were introduced into the Roman Rite about the fifth or sixth century. Those of the Mass were written in the Gradual, those of the Divine Office at first in the Psalter or Antiphonary. The books of Sacraments (Baptism, Confirmation, Penance, Marriage, Extreme Unction), and Rites such the Visitation of the Sick, the Burial Service, all manner of blessings, were written in a very loose collection of little books.

The ordo, which is a directory that describes the details of the ceremonies and their manner in which they are to be performed, too, appeared concurrently. Eric Palazzo records that, “in the fifth and sixth centuries, the first rulings for the principal Christian celebrations appeared: baptism, Eucharist, dedications of churches, offices of Holy Week, and so on”49. In general, such documents were said to have been written in small booklets called libelli, considered as the intermediary link in the evolution from the period of improvisation to the liturgical book. Eric Palazzo defines libelli as “small books, pamphlets with only a few pages, containing some liturgical texts: formularies for one or several Masses, a selection of various orations, the needed texts for a specific action (ritual, ordines)”50.

Since the libelli preceded the sacramentary, the books of chant, the pontifical and the like, they are considered as their ancestors. They permeated the Middle Ages and found their way into the books that followed the sacramentary, such as the missal. Alcuin observes that “one

48 Theodor KLAUSER, A Short History of the Western Liturgy: An account and some reflections (trans. John HALLIBURTON), Oxford 1979, 45. 49 PALAZZO, History of Liturgical Books, 173. 50 IBID., 37.

21 of the earliest printed missals, if not the first, was published in 1474 and is thought to be precisely that following the use of the Roman Curia”51.

Another liturgist, Marcel Metzger observes a general beginning of the liturgical books, without referring to any particular contributor as do Alcuin and Klauser. In his view, they developed according to certain ministries exercised in the assembly. According to him, “the first were the catalogues of the biblical periscopes to be read, the Bible being the only book indispensable for the celebration. Then, the very texts of the readings, excerpted from the Bible, were assembled―arranged according to the calendar―in lectionaries: the epistle book for the sub-deacon, the gospel book for the deacon”52. He goes on to highlight some of the contents of the sacramentary as he writes: The prayers and instructions were gathered in the Sacramentaries, and the sung pieces destined for the schola (choir), in the antiphonaries and graduals. The formularies for baptisms, ordinations, reconciliation of penitents, and blessings were written at their places in the annual cycle, on the corresponding days (the catechumenate during Lent, the reconciliation on Holy Thursday, baptism at the paschal vigil, and so on).53

Metzger is able to locate a specific period of history, in which, the liturgical books that had been subsisting in accordance with certain special ministries were compiled into fewer books. He writes: Beginning in the tenth and eleventh centuries, people began to regroup the elements of the different ministries into complete books, organized by celebrations: in the altar missal were gathered the readings, the texts of the sung pieces, and the prayers for the Mass, components that used to be distributed in four books: epistle book, gospel book, sacramentary, and antiphonal. The multiplication of private Masses […] seems to have strongly influenced this development: as the priests were now performing all functions by themselves, a single book was made available to them, containing, besides the tests pertaining to them, what in the assembly was the charge of the readers and cantors.54

Though he situates the above evolution in time frame, he does not mention names of people who undertook this work. He further mentions other books which were developed out of similar reorganizations. An example of such books is the Pontifical which “contained a selection of formularies for the celebrations presided over by the bishop (ordinations, solemn

51 REID, Organic Development, 29. 52 Marcel METZGER, History of the Liturgy: The Major Stages, Collegeville 1997, 119. 53 METZGER, History of the Liturgy 119. 54 IBID., 119.

22 reconciliation of penitents, dedication of churches, coronations, and so on)”55. Furthermore, Metzger recounts that “from the fourteenth century on, rituals appeared; they were manuals destined for priests with liturgical texts they needed in their pastoral charge (baptism, marriage, anointing of the sick, blessings, and so on)”56. Though the development of the liturgy was in line with the Roman tradition, it was also opened to adaptation. It therefore took on some aspects of the local tradition of the Carolingian Empire (which was an early indication of liturgical inculturation) as Metzger observes: After Roman books had been adopted, the churches of the Carolingian Empire mixed certain of their own traditions with those borrowed from the Church of Rome. This produced hybrid rituals, Romano-Frankish, as for ordinations, whose ceremonial has preserved rites which were Gallican in origin (introductory directions, rituals of investiture, presentation of the instruments corresponding to each ministry, and so on). Later on these same rituals were adopted by the Church of the city of Rome at the time of the Gregorian reform (Gregory VII, 1073–1085), under the influence of Popes of Germanic descent. Thus…the liturgical books that had left Rome, taking along the usages proper to that city, returned, bringing back hybrid rituals compiled in the Frankish churches. After this the rituals of the Roman church did not evolve much: they were stabilized in their principal forms. In contrast the evolution would bear on the way they were understood and put into practice.57

It is clear from the foregoing that with the Roman rite that developed in the Carolingian era, liturgical unity was achieved as expressed by Josef Andreas Jungmann that “in the West, liturgical unity was achieved […].”58

1.1.2. The Liturgical Reforms in the Late Middle Ages

Marcel Metzger notes that “as early as the eleventh century, liturgical unity had been elevated to the level of an ecclesiological principle by the Gregorian reform, promoted by Pope Gregory II”59. Klauser, delineates the period between 1073 and 1545 as another epoch in Western Liturgical history outlined as follows: From Gregory VII (1073–1085) onwards, the popes took firmly into their own hands once more the task of leadership in the realm of the Roman Liturgy which for almost three hundred years they had left to rulers and bishops on the northern side of the Alps. Gregory himself […] now demanded that the episcopal sees of the Western Church

55 IBID., 119–120. 56 IBID., 120. 57 METZGER, History of the Liturgy, 121. 58 JUNGMANN, Mass of the Roman Rite vol.1, 97. 59 METZGER, History of the Liturgy, 122.

should follow exclusively the liturgical customs of the Roman see and rigidly obey all liturgical prescriptions from this source.60

The popes from that time on took on the charge of the liturgy. Uniformity in the realm of the liturgy became necessary to guard the church against heresies. For example, “Roman customs were imposed to replace local practices that had become the object of suspicion, as happened in Spain in the eleventh century”61. The liturgical development within this period tended to focus on unity or uniformity in conformity to the rites of the Church of Rome. As Alcuin Reid observes, “the centrality of the rite of the Church of Rome in the Western Church was further facilitated by the advent of the mendicant orders, who adopted the liturgical books of the Roman Curia, in part because of their convenient size, and spread them widely”62. This is more elucidated by Theodor Klauser thus: Through the agency of the Franciscan itinerant preachers, these serviceable editions, principally the Missale and the Breviarium of the Roman Curia, became well known, were received with respect, and as is only natural, were copied everywhere in the world of that time. Thanks to the disciples of Saint Francis, therefore, the Western Liturgy received a measure of unification which was not merely a theoretical or legislative unification, but one which was carried out in practice. To a great extent it was thanks to the Franciscan Order that the Western world was prepared in the age of printing for a short-codified form of the Roman Liturgy which was to be binding on all, a Liturgy moreover which on the whole was readily accepted.63

The appearance of printed missals in the fifteenth century thus accelerated the spread of the Roman rite. As pointed earlier in this work, one of the earliest, if not the first, was published in 1474. They replaced the Sacramentaries due to the custom of low Masses and the need to make all texts available in one book. At Low Mass the celebrant had to supplement personally what was normally chanted by the deacon and sub deacon or sung by the choir. In other words, the celebrant obliged to repeat what was said by someone else to himself in a low voice. Since the texts necessary for the execution of this function were not all available in the old sacramentary, a need arose for a larger book to include the readings and the chants of the choir. A caution is sounded by Eric Palazzo: It is impossible to speak of a linear evolution that would lead to a ‘rudimentary’ form of missal to an elaborate book. Nonetheless, the eleventh marked a decisive turn in the

60 KLAUSER, Short History, 94–95. 61 METZGER, History of the Liturgy, 122. 62 REID, Organic Development, 28. 63 KLAUSER, Short History, 95.

history of the missal: at that time, the sacramentaries and libelli missarum yielded to complete manuscripts which specialists call “plenary missals […].64

The missals had completely replaced the old Sacramentaries by the twelfth century. In his footnote number 7, George Devine describes the evolution of liturgical books as follows: “The separate books for various liturgical functions (e.g., sacramentary, lectionary) exist again today. The Missale Romanum came into being out of necessity for the ‘one-man’ Mass or ‘low Mass’ when the celebrant had to take the parts of deacon, sub deacon, schola cantorum, etc.”65. The proliferation of missals, however, necessitated a liturgical uniformity in diversity as outlined by Alcuin Reid: The desire for liturgical uniformity that arose in this period must, then, be understood as one that simultaneously respected authentic local diversity. Where a venerable local rite flourished, it continued to do so. Where there was a need or a desire for reform, the rite of the Roman Church, now conveniently to hand, was frequently adopted. The operative principle was: The Western Church follows the rite of Rome unless venerable liturgies are in place.66 The printed missals appeared as a result of the liturgical reforms, such as the Gregorian and the Tridentine reforms, and as their use came to be accepted in many places in Europe, it was rather the Roman rite that was adopted as the uniformed rite for the Western Church. Since one reform appears to have had an influence another, the protestant reformation which preceded the Tridentine reforms cannot be left out in this equation. At this juncture, it is expedient to examine a short survey of the protestant reformation in order to identify its possible impact on the development of the Catholic liturgical books.

1.1.3. The Influence of the Protestant Reformation on the development of the Liturgical Books

It is commonly acknowledged that the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century was initiated by Martin Luther, Zwingli and other reformers. However, the term “reformation” was rarely used to denote their type of reform until about one and a half centuries later. It

64 PALAZZO, A History of Liturgical Books, 108. 65 DEVINE, Liturgical Renewal, 10. 66 IBID., 29.

25 was in the 18th century when, after the term had been extended to describe the reform movements following the work of John Calvin, that the term ‘reformation’ came to be used to designate the rise and growth of Protestantism in the 16th century67. It was the desire of the early reformers, that led to the evangelism, which was later referred to as the reformation, as Thomas Gale rightly puts it: “[…] the early evangelism of Luther, Zwingli and others was the result of their search for religious truths that occurred within an orthodox context”68.

The first among those early reformers was Martin Luther, who began as an Augustinian monk. After his doctorate in theology at Wittenburg, he took over the chair of biblical theology in 1513 as professor of exegesis69. All this while he was going through some spiritual crisis regarding the doctrine of the indulgence and the true interpretation of the word of Paul in Romans 1:17, “the just man shall live by faith”. As opposed to his earlier misunderstanding of the justice of God to mean, ‘the justice by which God rightly punishes sinners’, he came to the following understanding: […] it is not through our merits that we are saved but through the unfaithomable mercy and boundless generosity of God, who justifies us in spite of our sins. Our part in this whole process is not active but passive.70 It was with this doctrine of justification by faith that Luther “became convinced during the indulgence controversy that the Roman Catholic Church held a diametrically opposed theology–basing justification on the works of man, on self-sanctification, and therefore leaving the individual in the state of doubt and despair”71. This conviction made him feel obliged to oppose the Catholic Church with his distinctive theology of ‘justification by faith’, which formed the basis of the subsequent reformation theology72. In this wise, the Reformation in Germany is seen to have had its orgin in Luther’s campaign against indulgences73. His radical teaching was against the Catholic Church’s system of indulgence, claiming that the Church was betraying the Gospel of Jesus Christ by teaching people that

67 Thomas GALE (ed.), New Catholic Encyclopaedia, 2nd Edition, Washington D.C., 2003, 12. 68 Thomas GALE (ed.), New Catholic Encyclopaedia, 12. 69 Thomas BOKENKOTTER, A Concise History of the Catholic Church, New York 2005, 210–211. 70 IBID., 211. 71 IBID., 211. 72 IBID., 212. 73 GALE (ed.), New Catholic Encyclopaedia, 15.

26 heaven could be purchased by good works and by so doing giving the impression that heaven was something that could be bought like anything else74. Put in other words, he taught that good works did not make a man righteous, but that one who had been made righteous performed good works75.

Basically, Luther’s attack on the Roman Catholc Church entrenched in his ninety-five theses published in 1517, involved new radical conception of the visible Church, which had existed for fifteen centuries. In a nutshell, the attack denied the divine origin of the Church and the papal primacy or the infallibility of the general councils. Instead, Luther declared that “Scripture alone was the supreme authority in religion” and from then on, this phrase became the rallying cry of all Protestants76. All the while, there did not seem to be any official doctrinal response from the papacy to those revolutionary manifestos of Luther and his symphathisers, except the bull, Exsurge Domine, issued on June 15, 152077. It is the only papal document, until the Council of Trent, that condemned the writings of Luther as ‘heretic and scandalous and offensive to pious ears’78, without any sense of precision with regards to the details of the Church’s doctrine that are overturned.

We do not intend to go through the details of Luther’s theology, since our focus is rather on how the reforms that resulted from his theological inclinations affected the development of the Catholic liturgical books. Among Luther’s immdediate supporters in the course of the Reformation were Urlich Zwingli, who began the reform of Zurich’s church establishment in 1518, Andreas Karlstadt and Thomas Muntzer, who championed more extreme ideas than those of Zwingli.The initial stage of the Reformation was directed towards the translation of the liturgy into the vernacular, reform of the sacraments, establishment of biblical preaching and abolishment of monastic institutions79.

74 BOKENKOTTER, A Concise History, 214. 75 GALE (ed.), New Catholic Encyclopaedia, 15. 76 BOKENKOTTER, A Concise History, 217. 77 IBID., 218. 78 IBID. 79 GALE (ed.), New Catholic Encyclopaedia, 17.

At this juncture, it is necessary to limit this part of the study to the effect of Luther’s reform on the liturgy. He translated the Catholic Mass into German, being the language of the local people. He stripped the Mass to its bearest essentials, making it easier for the congregation’s understanding and participation. The faithful were taught to sing lively songs, some of which were composed by Luther himself. The sermon, which was adapted to be more lively and attractive, became the central point of the service. The congregation were now allowed to drink the wine and receive the bread of the Eucharist in their own hands80. Luther also translated the entire Bible into German in his hideout at the Wartburg castle81. It was the first German vernacular Bible, the language of which was easy to understand by the less educated people. According to Mark Elvins, “the language of the liturgy in the Catholic Germany, however, remained exclusively Latin until 1959, when the Cardinal Joseph Frings, Archbishop of Cologne, requested permission from Rome to read the Epistle and Gospel in German after they had been said or sung in Latin”82. The reformed and translated liturgy of Martin Luther was adopted as one of the hallmarks of the territorial reformation.

The reformers who followed Martin Luther became even more divided on doctrinal basis. To cite only a few examples here on the interpretation of the Holy Communion, Luther retained the real presence of Christ in the Holy Eucharist, while Zwingli, who initiated the protestant reformation in Switzerland, insisted on just the symbolic presence and the two could not be resolved. This doctrinal difference led to the formation of Zwinglianism as expressed by Gale; “His insistence upon the mere symbolic presence of Christ in the Eucharist could not be resolved with Luther’s retention of the doctrine of the real presence, and the two eventually parted company”83. On such theological issues, Protestantism had to admit that it was a divided house, and the division got more exaggerated in the course of time. The main divisions that emerged were the Lutheran, the Anabaptists, Quakers, Baptists and the Calvinists84. Accepting and codifying Luther’s theology, John Calvin made some shifts in

80 BOKENKOTTER, A Concise History, 219. 81 GALE (ed.), New Catholic Encyclopaedia, 16. 82 Mark Twinham ELVINS, Towards a People’s Liturgy: The Importance of Language, Leominster 1994, 16. 83 IBID., 19. 84 BOKENKOTTER, A Concise History, 223.

28 emphasis. For example, he rejected Zwingli’s position of symbolic presence of Christ in the Eucharist, while maintaing Luther’s notion of the real presence, insisting that after the reception of the sacrament, Christ’s spiritual presence came to suffuse the believer85. Luther, Zwingli and Calvin upheld the majesty of God; however, Calvin’s theology emphasized the creator’s remoteness from his creatures. Both Luther and Calvin stressed the ‘principle of sola scriptura (scripture alone)’86. In spite of the doctrinal differences most the reformers agreed on the common principle of ‘scripture alone’.

The Reformation resulted in a theological confusion, which was ‘in a large part resolved by the Council of Trent (1545–1563)’87. Even though the Reformation led to divisions in the Christendom, it served as a wake-up call for the rectification of the abuses and errors that had taken place until then. In our opinion, it remotedly prepared the way for the revision of the Catholic liturgical books and more especially, the use of vernacular in the liturgy later permitted by the Second Vatican Council. Significant to our course of study is the reform of the liturgy, which inevitably necessitated the revision of the liturgical books, taken up subsequently by the Council of Trent.

1.1.4. From the Council of Trent to 20th Century

The Council of Trent (1545–1563) considered the question of uniformity in the liturgical books and appointed a commission to examine it. It was held to address some abuses which were denounced by the reformers. These surely needed to be corrected by the Council. The commission, however, found the work of unifying so many and so varied books impossible at the time, and therefore left it to be done gradually by the popes. The liturgical books that were developed by the popes in the Tridentine era included the Breviary and Roman Missal of Pope Pius V, the Roman Martyrology and the Pontifical of Pope Gregory XIII (1596), the Bishops’ Ceremonial of Urban VIII and the Roman Ritual published in 1614.88

85 GALE (ed.), New Catholic Encyclopaedia, 20. 86 GALE (ed.), New Catholic Encyclopaedia, 20. 87 IBID., 21. 88 REID, Organic Development, 45.

Many of the abuses, at the time, resulted from the prevalence of low Masses and the multiplicity of private Masses. For instance, “one thousand Masses would be said for a deceased person” and “it became necessary to forbid priests to celebrate more than thirty per day. Second, to satisfy the considerable demand for Masses, some priests resorted to the ‘twofold or triple Masses’: they repeated two or three times the first part of the Mass up to the preface but said the canon (Eucharistic Prayer) only once, while receiving two or three stipends”89.

According to Marcel Metzger, the Council of Trent, therefore, “undertook the correction of the abuses denounced by the Reformers concerning the way of celebrating and understanding the Mass […]. But the decisions taken in the liturgical domain did not produce any modification either in the organization of the rituals or in the exclusive use of the Latin language, whereas the Protestant Reformers had profoundly reworked the Eucharistic ceremonial and had adopted vernacular language”90. Trent condemned the protestant departures from the living tradition of the Church. It did so by the decree of its twenty-second session on the Sacrifice of the Mass (17th September 1562). The Council also “called for new editions of the missal and the breviary, the completion of which the twenty-fifth session entrusted to the pope in 1563”91.

Implementing the decrees of the Council of Trent, Pope Pius V published the Roman Missal in 1570, not as a new Ceremonial but as a restoration of ancient tradition.92 This Missal, which was also named after him, was only a revision of the one that was used by the Roman Curia in 1474, thus maintaining the tradition. It eventually became the one that was officially recognized in the universal Church. Though it became the missal that was to be used uniformly throughout the Roman Rite, some local dioceses and religious congregations were permitted to continue using their own Missals, which had been in use for around two hundred

89 METZGER, History of the Liturgy, 127–128, 90 IBID., 23. 91 REID, Organic Development, 40. 92 METZGER, History of the Liturgy, 127.

30 years. In spite of the fact that the “liturgical reforms of the Council of Trent no doubt made the practice of the Christian worship much sounder, […] they did not allow for the active participation of the Christian people in the liturgy, which Vatican II proclaimed four centuries later”93.

The liturgy, which from the beginning was a community affair, had been privatized at this time of history. That means the active involvement of the Christian people in the celebrations had dwindled. The liturgical attention had become more priest-centered. The change was not only with “private Masses, but private baptism, private penance, and the whole way of celebrating which relied upon the activity of an authorized priest and the more or less passive presence of a congregation that was more a collection of individuals than an organic unity”94. Individuals at Mass had practically nothing to do than to be more engaged in private prayers and devotions while the priest carried on with the Mass at the altar.

It is observed by Mark Searle that the rubrics of the Mass of the sixteenth century “were exclusively concerned with the priest”. He describes them as follows: When the priest is duly vested, he takes the chalice in his left hand… and carries it in front of him, his right hand resting on the burse which is placed on top of the chalice; and, making a reverence to the Cross, or to an image thereof, in the sacristy, he proceeds to the altar with his head covered and with the server going before him with the Missal and whatever else might be necessary […].95

The above quotation is one of the many instances of rubricism that is said to have followed the Council of Trent. As the word “rubric” signifies, that was a period in which the Church became concerned with issuing directions for the conduct of the liturgical services or administration of the sacraments inserted in the liturgical books. Pope Clement VIII ordered the restoration of the original 570 Roman Missal, with enhancement and expansion of its rubrics in the year 1604. Furthermore, a new edition was promoted by Pope Urban VIII in 1634 with an improvement of the linguistic form of the rubrics and a change in the texts of the hymns. As Alcuin continues, “these liturgical books were regarded by the Sacred

93 METZGER, History of the Liturgy, 129. 94 Mark SEARLE, Liturgy Made Simple, Collegeville 1981, 22–23. 95 SEARLE, Liturgy Made Simple, 23.

Congregation of Rites, established by Sixtus V in 1588 with the explicit purpose of overseeing their exact implementation and of providing official interpretations and new texts as the need arose”96.

1.1.5. From the Liturgical Movement of the 20th Century to Vatican II

The twentieth century was a major phase in the reform of the liturgy and of the development of liturgical books. It was a period characterized by the Liturgical Movement and Reform preceding the Second Vatican Council. The concept of the Liturgical Movement, presented by Giuseppe Alberigo and Joseph Komonchak in their first volume of the history of Vatican II as follows: The period just before the first world war [sic] saw the birth, in Belgium, of a Liturgical Movement. Originating with the Benedictines, it experienced considerable growth first in Germany and then in France, before moving more or less easily into other areas of the Catholic world. Like its biblical counterpart, with which, it cultivated close relations, this Movement aimed at transcending what it called the rubricism of the preceding century with its fussiness and rigidity and its demand for uniformity. This Movement, too, turned back to the early church with a view to restoring venerable ways and putting an end to the countless later additions, a work of learned dust removal that occupied many monasteries. The Movement also attempted to derive from all this work a theology of prayer […]. Finally, this Movement made an effort to change passive believers into active participants, both by emphasizing the principal rites at the expense of the others and by explaining them and even celebrating them in the language of the people.97

According to Alcuin Reid, however, the above account speaks more about a post conciliar thinking of revisionism than the Liturgical Movement. Liturgical Movement, for him, neither stem from rubricism nor “was it fundamentally antiquarian or vernacularist. It was […] a movement that sought to return liturgical piety to its rightful place in the Church. Only later, and secondarily, would questions of appropriate reform arise”.98

The Liturgical Movement began and spread through the efforts of the monastic centres and some individuals. It sprang out of the wish to provide the Church the necessary piety in the

96 SEARLE, Liturgy Made Simple, 45. 97 Guiseppe ALBERIGO, Joseph A. KOMONCHAK (eds.), History of Vatican II, vol. 1: Announcing and Preparing Vatican Council II towards a New Era in Catholicism, Maryknoll 1995, 86–87. 98 REID, Organic Development, 73.

32 liturgy. In other words, it arose from the need to restore the liturgy to its original practice. It was not produced by the Holy See but rather promoted by it. Pope St. Pius X issued the famous motu proprio “Tra le Sollecitudini” in 1903 condemning numerous abuses in the liturgy, principally those trends which isolated the laity from participating intelligently in the Mass. One of these was bad liturgical music, which had degenerated into an irrelevant concert99. One author, Marc Aillet, is convinced that the first positive gain from the liturgical movement is “the connection between the liturgy and the lives of the faithful as the source of an authentically Christian life, referring to this as what Pius X aimed at in his motu proprio ‘Tra le Sollecitudini’, where he recommended a more active participation of the faithful―and hence once more fruitful for their Christian life―in the Mysteries of worship”100. The words “active participation” were said to have been taken up by one Belgian Benedictine, by name Lambert Beauduin, as quoted by Adolf Adam and Winfried Haunerland: “These words of ‘active participation’ of the faithful in the Liturgy were grabbed by a Belgian Benedictine Lambert Beauduin (1873–1960) from the Kaisersberg Abbey and made them the key words of his pastoral liturgy work”101.

At an opportune time, his proposed developments were unanimously accepted at public presentation on the Catholic Day of the Archdiocese of Mecheln in 1909, namely: “the propagation of vernacular translations of the texts of Sunday Masses and Vespers, the rectification of total piety in the Liturgy and annual retreat for church choirs”102. This “Mechelen event” is considered to be the birth time of the classical Liturgical Movements. A little later a kind of popular Mass book, in the form of a monthly magazine, was said to have been published by Beauduin. Since 1911, the subsequent issues were known as Sunday

99 DEVINE, Liturgical Renewal, 17. 100 Marc AILLET, The Old Mass and the New: Explaining the Motu Proprio Summorum Pontificum of the Pope Benedict XVI, San Francisco 2010, 35. 101 Adolf ADAM–Winfried HAUNERLAND, Grundriss Liturgie, Freiburg – Basel – Wien 102014, 70. My English translation from German: „Dieses Wort von der ‘tätigen Teilnahme’ (Paticipatio actuosa) der Gläubigen an der Liturgie wurde von dem Belgischen Benediktiner Lambert Beauduin (1873–1960) aus der Abtei Kaisersberg aufgegriffen und zum Leitwort seiner pastoralliturgischen Arbeit gemacht“. 102 ADAM–HAUNERLAND, Grundriss Liturgie, 70. This is my personal translation from the following original German to English: „Verbreitung volkssprachiger Übersetzungen der sonntäglichen Mess- und Verspertexte, die Ausrichtung der gesamten Frömmigkeit an der Liturgie und jährliche Exerzitien für Kirchenchöre“.

Missal and in 1910 the first liturgical week was held at the Kaisersberg Abbey with a large number of participants and radiant enthusiasm103. The essence of liturgical piety was articulated and fostered by St. Pius X and his successors. The Cardinal Secretary of State is said to have “communicated the ‘cordial satisfaction’ and ‘joyful expectations’ Benedict XV with regard to the regional liturgical conference being held at the Abbey of Montserrat, once again restating the importance of liturgical piety”104.

The subsequent popes continued with such encouragements. Under Benedict XV (1914– 1920) the Roman Missal was further developed. The decree of the Sacred Congregation of Rites led to the improvement of the rubrics, reduction of the “Missae propriae pro aliquibus locis”, the inclusion of new prefaces and so on105. In 1919, two new prefaces (of St. Joseph and of the Requiem Mass) were added to the Missal. Another two were added in 1925 (Christ the King) and in 1928 (the Sacred Heart), respectively. In 1922 the Sacred Congregation of Rites admitted the permissibility of the dialogue Mass. Pius XI himself celebrated a dialogue Mass in St. Peter’s on 27th May106. In 1928 Pope Pius XI issued an apostolic constitution Divini cultus marking the twenty-fifth anniversary of the Tra le Sollecitudini of Pius X. By this document, he encouraged the implementation of the Liturgical reforms of Saint Pius X, asserting the “close connection between dogma and the liturgy and between Christian worship and the sanctification of the faithful”107. His explanation of the relationship of popes to the liturgy is quoted by Alcuin Reid in this way: No wonder, then, that the Roman pontiffs have been so solicitous to safeguard and protect the liturgy. They have used the same care in making laws for the regulation of the liturgy, in preserving it from adulteration, as they have in giving accurate expression to the dogmas of the faith.108

103 ADAM–HAUNERLAND, Grundriss Liturgie, 70. 104 REID, The Organic Development of the Liturgy, 126. 105 Hans-Jürgen FEULNER, Der Ordo Missae von 1965 und das Missale Romanum von 1962, 110, in: Helmut Hoping, Mein Leib für euch gegeben: Geschichte und Theologie der Eucharistie, Freiburg, Basel, Wien 2015, 302–309. 106 REID, Organic Development, 127. 107 IBID., 126. 108 IBID., 126.

Pope St. Pius X insisted on a return to the spirit of the liturgy in the early centuries, not out of antiquarianism for its own sake, but in the hope that this would put the Church back onto a sound tradition in her expression of worship. In this way the Church. would remain in connection to its origin and keep the tenets of the faith.

In 1919, a new edition of the traditional Liturgy of the rite of Braga, which was “the ancient Portuguese use of the Roman ritual family originating between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries”109, was published with the authorization of Pope Benedict XV. The Pope approved of the initiative taken by the archbishops of Braga. He did so by issuing the Apostolic Constitution Sedis huius, which “affirmed the legitimate ritual diversity within the Roman rite, referring to the veneration to be shown to such rites by virtue of their antiquity and to the opportuneness of reviving this rite ‘dating from remote antiquity’”110. This restoration of the rite of Braga, was made possible because the Pope who is the Bishop of Rome, confirmed the initiative of a local bishop, recognizing and restoring a traditional rite that had largely fallen into disuse.

In 1930 Pius XI established the Sectio Historica of the Sacred Congregation of Rites, part of whose mandate was to prepare for reform, emendation, and the issue of new editions of liturgical texts and books. This was intended for the continuation of the reform initiated by Saint Pius X in 1911.

Before 1948, this Sectio Historica issued only one consultation document on the reform of the rite of confirmation. In 1945, Pius XII permitted, though he did not impose, in the publication or private use of the breviary a new translation of the psalter prepared by the Jesuits of the Pontifical Biblical Institute. In doing so he acceded to the desires of the scholars and of some clergy for a translation that was considered more accurate in the light of developments in the historico-critical method of biblical scholarship111.

109 REID, Organic Development, 128. 110 IBID., 128. 111 IBID., 131.

Up to 1948 the Holy See increasingly granted permission for the use of the vernacular in some rites. The occasional use of the Czech language was permitted from 1920. A new edition of the Roman Missal for use in Dalmatia was published in 1927 […]. The use of a non-Latin Roman Missal in this region has a history dating back at least to the seventeenth century. A Croatian edition of the Roman ritual, which also traces its origin to the seventeenth century, was republished in 1929. In 1933, the Sacred Congregation of Rites approved a ritual in Slovenian. A mostly German-language ritual was approved in principle 1943. The permission for the community Mass, the Betsingmesse and the German High Mass was announced by the Papal Secretariat on 24th December 1943. The account of it is recorded by Adams and Haunerland as follows: On 24th December 1943, the Papal Secretary of State announced that the Bishops would like to prohibit any arbitrary acts, and at the same time allowed community Mass, the recited-sung Mass, and the German High Mass, in which, the corresponding German songs are simultaneously sung.112

A mainly French edition followed in 1946 and bilingual rituals were approved for Liège in Belgium in 1948113.

With the promulgation of the Encyclical Mediator Dei by Pope Pius XII, the Liturgical Movement was considered to have finally obtained an official Catholic recognition. It is said to have paved the way for the liturgical reforms prescribed in Vatican II’s Sacrosanctum concilium.

The last four decades before Vatican II saw the most significant changes in the development of the Catholic liturgical books ever since that of 1570. In the middle of the 20th century, many national rituals, with increasing use of vernacular, among which the German “Collectio Rituum” of 1950114 were said to have been given a special attention. The Easter Vigil liturgy and the whole of the Holy Week liturgy were reformed during the papacy of Pius XII. As

112 ADAM–HAUNERLAND, Grundriss Liturgie, 74. This is my personal translation from the following German words to English: „Am 24. Dezember 1943 teilte das Kardinalstaatssekretariat in versöhnlicherem Ton mit, die Bischöfe möchten weiterhin alle Eigenmächtigkeiten unterbinden, und erlaubte gleichzeitig die Gemeinschaftsmesse, die Betsingmesse und das „deutsche Hochamt“, bei dem der Zelebrant zwar alle Teile lateinisch spricht, gleichzeitig aber entsprechende deutsche Lieder gesungen werden“. 113 Charles R. A. CUNLIFFE (ed.), English in the Liturgy: A Symposium, London 1956, 4. 114 ADAM–HAUNERLAND, Grundriss Liturgie, 75.

Adolf Adam and Winfried Haunerland note, the decree on the reform of the Easter Vigil liturgy and its removal from Holy Saturday morning to the beginning of the Easter night was promulgated on 9th February 1951. It was initially circumscribed cautiously as an experiment, whereby every bishop was granted the permission of a comfortable implementation in his own diocese. “So could the mother of all vigils attain a high significance in the awareness of the faithful”115. This was done to raise the significance of the mother of all vigils to the awareness of the faithful. The reform of the Easter vigil liturgy was implemented on 16th November 1955, followed by the rearrangement of the entire Holy Week liturgy, and it became obligatory for the whole church from 1956. The appearance of the Instruction of the Sacred Congregation of Rites De musica sacra et sacra liturgia in 1958 paved the way for the drive for further reforms116.

1.2. Vatican II and Post Vatican II Liturgical Reforms

The time arrived when all the efforts made in the course of the history of the liturgical development found fulfillment in the Second Vatican Council, which took place between 1962 and 1967. The time was ripe for the fundamental and general reforms of the liturgy when Pope John XXIII called for the general council on 25th January 1959. Efforts were made prior to the Council, to avoid any radical reform of the Liturgy. As Adolf Adam and Winfried Haunerland agree, the hasty publication of the Codex rubricarium of 27th July 1960 can be considered from this angle117. This document was expected to anticipate the decisions of the forthcoming Vatican II but eventually did not have much to do with them. A new editio typica of the breviary appeared on 5th April 1961. On 23rd June 1962, a new edition of the Missale Romanum was published. They were both produced by the Sacred Congregation of Rites with the same intention as that of the Codex rubricarium. They were supposed to help influence the decisions that would be made by the Council. According to Adolf Adam and

115 ADAM–HAUNERLAND, Grundriss Liturgie, 76. My own English translation from the following German words, “ So konnte die ‚Mutter Aller Vigilien‘ im Bewusstsein der Gläubigen wieder einen hohen Stellwert gewinnen”. 116 ADAM–HAUNERLAND, Grundriss Liturgie, 76. 117 IBID.

Winfried Haunerland, during the preparation for the future Liturgy Constitution, there were tensions and efforts to impede the concrete reform conclusions of the Council, but such oppositions were only overcome within the Council itself118.

Actual preparations for the Council took more than two years, and included work from 10 specialised commissions, people for mass media and Christian Unity, and a Central Commission for overall coordination.

It was not only for the history of the Liturgy, but also a meaningful event for the entire Church, that on the 4th day of December 1963, exactly 400 years after the conclusion of the Council of Trent, the Sacred Constitution on the Liturgy Sacrosanctum concilium (SC) was adopted as the first document of the Council with 2147 affirmative votes and 4 negative votes119. With this document, the Council would not only renew the Liturgy, but also the whole Church and its members. The scope of the constitution in terms of liturgical renewal is wider than what we intend to consider in this research. A quick mention of the liturgical orders and books that emerged during and after the Council will not be out of place. Thereafter the relevant topics will be taken one by one. The first six instructions that appeared were as follows: ‘Inter oecumenici’ 1964; ‘Tres abhinc annos’ 1967; ‘Liturgicae instaurationes’ 1970; the instruction ‘Musicam sacram’ (1967); the instruction on the translation of liturgical texts for celebration with the people ‘Comme le prévoit’ (1969).120

Additional books and orders include the following; the Roman Missal, Liturgy of the Hours, the Pontifical (Book of Ordination of Deacons, Priests and Bishops, Order of Confirmation, Order of the Blessing of the Oils of Catechumens, Sick and the Chrism, Book of Institution of Lectors, Order of Dedication of a Church and Altar, Bishop’s Ceremonial), Rituals (Order of Baptism, Order of Celebrating Marriage, Order for Funeral Celebration, Order of

118 ADAM–HAUNERLAND, Grundriss Liturgie, 76–77. This is my own translation from German to English. Here is the original German version: „Auch in der Vorbereitung der späteren Liturgiekonstitution gab es Spannungen und Bemühungen, konkrete Reformbeschlüsse des Konzils zu verhindern; aber auch diese Widerstände konnten auf dem Konzil selbst überwunden werden“. 119 Reiner KACYNSKI (ed.), Sacrosanctum concilium, in: HThK Zum Zweiten Vatikanischen Konzil, Bd 2 Freiburg 2004, 199. 120 IBID., 78.

Religious Profession, Order of Christian Initiation of Adults, Order of the Sacrament of the Sick, Order of Penitential Service, of Blessings) and the Calendars121.

One of the first issues considered by the council, and the matter that had the most immediate effect on the lives of individual Catholics, was the revision of the liturgy. The central idea was that there ought to be greater lay participation in the liturgy. In the mid-1960s, permissions were granted to celebrate most of the Mass in vernacular languages, including the canon from 1967 onwards. The amount of Scripture read during Mass was greatly expanded, through the introduction of multiple year lectionaries. Neither the Second Vatican Council nor the subsequent revision of the Roman Missal abolished Latin as the liturgical language of the Roman Rite: the official text of the Roman Missal, on which translations into vernacular languages are to be based, continues to be in Latin and it can still be used in the celebration. With regards to the use of Latin in the Liturgy, the Council’s decree was emphasised that “the use of the Latin language is to be preserved in the Latin rite”122. Therefore, Latin still remains the official language of the Church, from which translation into vernacular languages is permitted by the Second Vatican Council.

Under Pope John Paul II, the Congregation for Divine Worship announced on 3rd October 1984, without any doubt to the orthodoxy and validity of the 1970 Roman Missal, that the Bishops had the option of allowing the use of the1962 edition of the Roman Missal in places where people continue to have some dependency on the so-called “Tridentine Rite”123. At the same time, it was expressly announced that under no circumstances should the texts of both the new and old rites be mixed up in a celebration.

Pope Benedict XVI took it a little further, when on 7th July 2007 he decreed the readmitting of the 1962 liturgical books as the usus extraordinarius (extraordinary form) of the Roman Rite124. Most Sacraments and Sacramentals too could be celebrated in accordance with the

121 ADAM–HAUNERLAND, Grundriss Liturgie, 79–81. 122 Sacrosanctum concilium, (cf. FLANNERY (ed.), Vatican Council II: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Documents, vol.1, New York, 2004, 13). 123 ADAM–HAUNERLAND, Grundriss Liturgie, 83. 124 IBID., 84.

39 liturgical books of 1962 and before. The pope went ahead that the extraordinary form of the Roman Rite remains not only legally but factually. For the pope, this unprecedented solution of the admittance of the two-fold development stages of the same Roman Rite in the liturgical history was about internal reconciliation. He was with the conviction that “there is no contradiction between one edition and the other of the Roman Missal”125. The dreaded schism in some individual communities did not come true. Some people who were still accustomed to the old order of the liturgy were very grateful for the huge opportunity granted them126.

At this juncture, a special attention must be drawn to the key points of the directives of Vatican II on the sacramental rites of Baptism, Eucharist, Confirmation, Penance, Sick, Holy Orders and Matrimony. These key points are set to highlight the changes prescribed by Vatican II with regards to the celebration of these sacraments.

1.2.1. Vatican II and the Sacrament of Baptism

Baptism, Confirmation and Holy Communion are the three Sacraments of initiation. The first of these Sacraments of initiation is Baptism through which one becomes a member of the Church. Raymond Topley, a Professor in the Pontifical University, Maynooth College in Ireland, defines baptism as “the basis of the whole Christian life, the gateway to life in the Spirit and the door which gives access to the other sacraments”127. It is basically the Sacrament that opens the way for participation in all the other Sacraments. Raymond Topley elucidates further on this sacrament as he writes: “Through baptism, we are freed from sin and reborn as children of God; we become members of Christ; are incorporated into the Church and made sharers in her mission”128. It is indeed the doorway to life and to the kingdom of God. Several articles were devoted by the Vatican II’s Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy Sacrosanctum concilium to this first

125 ADAM–HAUNERLAND, Grundriss Liturgie, 84. 126 IBID. 127 Raymond TOPLEY, Lecture notes on Parents and Baptism, Maynooth College, Maynooth 1996, 5. 128 IBID., 5.

40 foundational sacrament. The conciliar constitution ordered the revision of the rite of children’s baptism, the restoration of adult baptism, and the blessing of baptismal water.

1.2.1.1. Children’s Baptism

It was decreed by Vatican II that the rite for infant baptism was to be revised and adapted. The declaration on the revision of the infant baptism, the adaptation to local circumstances of the baptised and the drawing up of a new rite of admission of validly baptised converts to full communion of the church has been vividly summed up in the Documents on the Liturgy compiled in memory of Annibale Bugnini as follows: Vatican II decreed that the rite of baptism for children in the Roman Catholic Ritual was to be revised in order that: the rite might be better adapted to the actual condition of children; the role and responsibilities of parents and godparents might be more expressed; suitable adaptations might be made for the baptism of a large number of people; suitable adaptations might likewise be made for a great number of recipients or for baptism administered by catechists in mission areas or by others in circumstances when the ordinary minister is unavailable; a rite would be composed to make it clear that children baptised according to the shorter rite have already been received into the Church (SC art. 67–69).129

The revision of the rite of baptism for children was done, and a new rite was issued to replace the rite given in the Roman Ritual. The new rite was published under the authority of Pope Paul VI. This was carried out by the means of the Decree Ordinem Baptismi parvulorum, promulgating the editio typica of the rite of baptism for children, on 15th May 1969 […]. The Sacred Congregation, acting under the express mandate of the Pope, promulgated this new rite and set 8th September 1969 as its effective date130. When the need arose, a second typical edition was published on August 29, 1973 under the declaration Cum necesse sit131. It arose from the necessity to revise and amend the previous edition as it is clearly stated: “since there is need for a second printing of the Ordo baptismi parvulorum, published in 1969, it seemed

129 Annibale BUGNINI (ed.), Documents on the Liturgy, 1963˗1979, Conciliar, Papal and Curial Texts: International Commission on English in Liturgy, Launching the Reform, Collegeville 1982, 718. 130 BUGNINI, DOL, 718. 131 IBID., 719.

41 opportune to prepare a second, emended and expanded edition of this rite”132. The necessity for a new edition presupposes changes, additions and subtractions. The most important of the changes made are outlined in the Documents of Vatican II thus: 1. Page 7 no. 2: instead of a native hominum condicione [from their natural human condition] the text is de potestate tebrarum erepti [rescued from the power of darkness]. 2. Page 8 no. 5: after the word hones [people] the text adds, ab omni culpae labe, tum originali tum personali abluit eosque [washes away every stain of sin, both original and personal, and makes us […]. 3. Page 15 no. 1: the words habere et [to have and] are deleted. 4. Page 85 no. 221: instead of a potestate tenebrarum [from the power of darkness] the text has ab originalis culpae labe nunc [from the stain of original sin you now]. Some other, less important emendations have been introduced into titles and rubric in order that there might be a closer correspondence to the words and style found in the liturgical books published since 1969. By his authority Pope Paul VI has approved this second edition or the rite of baptism for children. The Congregation for Divine Worship now issues it and declares it to be the editio typica. Incorporation of the emendations and additions made in the rite of baptism for children into future vernacular editions is entrusted to the responsibility of the conferences of bishops. All things to the contrary notwithstanding.133

Those were the major corrections and additions made in the new edition. The contents were very much the same. One outstanding sub topic that needs to be mentioned here is the structure for the baptism of children. The structure is given in two orders; order of baptism celebrated by the ordinary minister and the shorter rite designed for the use of catechists in the absence of a priest or deacon.

The first order mentioned above is designed to “be celebrated by the ordinary minister and with the full rite when there is no immediate danger of death”. The order can be summarised in the following manner: The rite begins with the reception of the children. This is to indicate the desire of the parents and godparents, as well as the intention of the Church, concerning the celebration of the sacrament of baptism. These purposes are expressed in action when the parents and the celebrant trace the sign of the cross on the foreheads of the children. Then the liturgy of the word is directed toward stirring up the faith of the parents, godparents, and congregation and toward praying in common for the fruits of baptism before the sacrament itself. This part of the celebration consists of the reading of one or more passages from holy Scripture; a homily, followed by a period of silence; the general intercession, with its concluding prayer, drawn up in the style of an exorcism, to

132 BUGNINI, DOL, 719. 133 BUGNINI, DOL, 719.

introduce either the anointing with the oil of catechumens or the laying on of hands […] the solemn prayer of the celebrant […] the renunciation of Satan on the part of parents and godparents and their profession of faith, to which is added the assent of the celebrant and the community; and the final interrogation of the parents and godparents […]. The completion of the sacrament consists, first, of the anointing with chrism, which signifies the royal priesthood of the baptised and enrolment into the company of the people of God: then of the ceremonies of the white garment, lighted candle, and ephphetha rite (the last of which is optional).134

The highest point of the sacrament consists of the washing in water by way of immersion or infusion, depending on the local custom, and the invocation of the blessed Trinity. The minister confers the sacrament by either emersion or infusion, while pronouncing the following words: “I BAPTISE YOU IN THE NAME OF THE FATHER AND OF THE SON, AND OF THE HOLY SPIRIT”135.

The shorter rite of baptism designed for the use of catechists consists of the reception of the children, the celebration of the word of God, or the instruction by the minister, and the general intercessions. Instead of the anointing with chrism after the baptismal washing, an adapted prayer is recited and the conclusion is done in the customary way. The exorcism, the anointing with the oil of catechumens and with chrism and the rite of ephphetha are, therefore, omitted136. A provision is made for this shorter rite of a child’s baptism in danger of death in the absence of an ordinary minister. The structure of such a rite is twofold: 1. At the moment of death or when there is urgency because of imminent danger of death, the minister, omitting all other ceremonies, pours water (not necessarily blessed but real and natural water) on the head of the child and pronounces the customary formulary. 2. If, however, it is prudently judged that there is sufficient time, several of the faithful may be gathered together and, if one of them is able to lead the others in a short prayer, the following rite may be used: an explanation by the minister of the sacrament, a short set of general intercessions, the profession of faith by the parents or one godparent and the pouring of the water with the customary words. But if those present are uneducated, the minister of the sacrament should recite the profession of faith aloud and baptize according to the rite for use in danger of death.137

134 BUGNINI, DOL, 728. 135 IBID., 723. 136 IBID., 729. 137 IBID.

The above form or the rite can also be used by a priest or a deacon in case of necessity when a child is in danger of death. Should there be enough time and availability of sacred chrism, “the parish priest (pastor) or other priest enjoying the same faculty should not fail to confer confirmation after baptism. In this case, he omits the postbaptismal anointing with chrism”138.

1.2.1.2. Order of Adult Baptism

By means of the Decree Ordinis Baptismi adultorum, the new rite of Christian initiation of adults was promulgated on 6th January 1972. Through it Vatican II fostered the revision of the rite of adult baptism and the restoration of the catechumenate. The contents of the decree are presented in the Documents of Vatican II as follows: The Second Vatican Council prescribed the revision of the rite of baptism of adults and decreed that the catechumenate for adults, divided into several stages, should be restored. By this means the time of the catechumenate, which is intended as a period of well- suited instruction, would be sanctified by liturgical rites to be celebrated at successive intervals of time. The Council likewise decreed that both the solemn and simple rites of adult baptism should be revised, with proper attention to the restored catechumenate. In observance of these decrees, the Congregation for Divine Worship prepared a new rite for the Christian initiation of adults, which Pope Paul VI has approved. The Congregation now publishes it and declares the present edition to be the editio typica, to replace the rite of baptism of adults now in the Roman Ritual. It likewise decrees that this new rite may be used in Latin at once and in the vernacular from the day to be appointed by the conference of bishops after it has prepared a translation and had it confirmed by the Apostolic See.139

This rite of Christian initiation of adults, shortly known as the RCIA, includes the rites of the sacrament of baptism and confirmation, as well as the rite of Catechumenate, endorsed by the ancient practice of the Church and adapted to the contemporary missionary work throughout the world. The initiation of catechumens, which is a gradual process, is structured in three stages: First stage [catechumenate]: at the point of initial conversion, they wish to become Christians and are accepted as catechumens by the Church. Second stage [final preparation]: when their faith has grown and the catechumenate is almost completed, they are admitted to a more intense preparation for the sacraments.

138 BUGNINI, DOL, 729. 139 IBID., 735.

Third stage [sacraments of initiation]: after the spiritual preparation is completed, they receive the sacraments of Christian initiation. These stages, “steps”, or “gateways” are to be considered as the major, more intense moments of initiation and are marked by three liturgical rites: the first by the rite entrance into the order of catechumens, the second by the election or enrolment of names, and the third by the celebration of Christian initiation.140 These three stages are enshrined in four continuous periods namely, pre-catechumenate, catechumenate, purification and enlightenment and postbaptismal or mystagogy. The first period, which is the pre-catechumenate, is a period of enquiry marked by the first preaching of the Gospel. It ends when the candidate enters the order of catechumens. The second period begins with the entrance into the order of catechumenate. It is a time chosen for full catechesis and may last for several years. It ends on the day of election. The third period, which is the period of purification and enlightenment, coincides with the Lenten season. Though short in length, the period is marked by intensive spiritual preparation and ends with the celebration of the sacraments at Easter. The fourth period is that of postbaptismal catechesis or mystagogy. This “final period goes through the whole Easter season and […] it is a time for deepening the Christian experience, for gaining spiritual fruit, and for entering more closely into the life and unity or the community of the faithful”141.

When the catechumens are admitted into order of the elect, they are known as the “elect”. They are also called competentes (competitors), since they compete with each other to receive Christ’s sacraments and the gifts of Holy Spirit. Another name for them is “illuminandi (those to be illuminated), because baptism itself has the name “illumination”, and sheds the light of faith on the newly baptised”142.

The rite of Christian initiation of adults comprises three sacraments, baptism, confirmation, and Holy Communion. These together are the “final stage in which the elect come forward and, with their sins forgiven, are admitted into the people of God, receive the adoption of the

140 BUGNINI, DOL, 736–737. 141 BUGNINI, DOL, 737. 142 IBID., 741.

45 children of God, are led by the Holy Spirit into the promised fullness of time, and, in the Eucharistic sacrifice and meal, have a foretaste of the kingdom of God”143

Like the rite of baptism for children, a provision is also made for the rite of initiation of an adult in danger of death. One who is a catechumen needs to promise to continue the catechetical instruction upon recovery. The one, who is not a catechumen, must show enough sign of conversion to Christ. He or she must also make a promise of going through the complete cycle of initiation upon recovering. Provisions are equally made for the initiation of children of catechetical age. A rite is also provided for the reception of baptised converts into full communion with the Church. Noteworthy is also the liturgical rite for the catechesis of the baptised, consisting of the Rite of Welcome into the Community, Liturgies of the Word, Presentation, Penitential Service, the Sacrament of Penance, (and Confirmation) and Eucharist144.

1.2.2. Vatican II and the Sacrament of Confirmation

The sacrament of confirmation is traditionally the second of the sacraments of initiation. This sacrament is preceded by baptism. In other words, baptism is a prerequisite for confirmation as it is clearly laid out in the Documents on the Liturgy: “The persons to receive confirmation must have already received baptism. Moreover, the person possessing the use of reason must be in the state of grace, properly instructed, and capable of renewing the baptismal promises”145.

1.2.2.1. The Revision of the Rite of Confirmation

In compliance with the decree of the Constitution on the Liturgy on the revision of the rite of confirmation, some measures were taken for the revised rite to be published in 1971. The decree of the Constitution on the Liturgy states that “the rite of confirmation is to be revised and the intimate connection which this sacrament has with whole of Christian initiation is to

143 BUGNINI, DOL, 741. 144 IBID. DOL, 762–764. 145 IBID., 774.

46 be more clearly set forth; for this reason, it is fitting for candidates to renew their baptismal promises just before they are confirmed”146. It further decrees that this sacrament of confirmation may be conferred within the Mass as long as it is convenient. When it, however, takes place outside Mass, the introduction of the rite must be a formula drawn up for this purpose.

The major change that resulted from the revision of the rite of confirmation was with the formulary. The old Byzantine formulary was preferably adopted since it “expresses the Gift of the Holy Spirit himself and calls to mind the outpouring of the Spirit on the day of Pentecost (see Acts 2:1-4, 38)”147. The purpose for adoption of this formulary was further justified and the adopted formulary followed immediately: Therefore, in order that the revision of the rite of confirmation may, as is fitting, include even the essence of the sacramental rite, by our supreme apostolic authority we decree and lay down that in the Latin Church the following are to be observed for the future. THE SACRAMENT OF CONFIRMATION IS CONFERRED THROUGH THE ANOINTING WITH CHRISM ON THE FOREHEAD, WHICH IS DONE BY THE LAYING ON OF THE HAND, AND THROUGH THE WORDS: BE SEALED WITH THE GIFT OF THE HOLY SPIRIT.148

Furthermore, it was emphasised that no change was done to the old gesture of laying on of hand on the candidate prior to the anointing, and that it was to be maintained. This, according to the fathers of the Council, “is still to be regarded as important, even if it is not of the essence of the sacramental rite: it contributes to the complete perfection of the rite and to a more thorough understanding of the sacrament”. The revised edition was completed by the Congregation for Divine Worship and approved by Pope Paul VI in the Apostolic Constitution Divinae consortium naturae of 15th August 1971; “the Congregation for Divine Worship has published the new Rite of Confirmation. It is to replace the rite now in use in the Roman Pontifical and Ritual. The Congregation declares the present edition to be the editio typica”149. Another notable change is with the sponsorship. As prescribed in the new edition, it is preferable that the godparent at baptism, if available also be the Sponsor at

146 Sacrosanctum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican II, Vol. 1, 22). 147 BUGNINI, DOL, 770. 148 IBID., 770. 149 IBID., 771.

47 confirmation. The reason for this change is that it elucidates more the link between baptism and confirmation. It also renders the function and responsibility of the sponsor more effective. Nevertheless, the option of choosing a special sponsor for confirmation is not excluded. Even the parents themselves have the right to be the sponsors of their children. The local ordinary possesses the right to “determine the diocesan practice in the light of local conditions and circumstances”150.

1.2.2.2. The celebration of Confirmation

The rite of confirmation presents two symbolisms: The laying of hands on the candidates by the bishop and the concelebrating priest presents the biblical gesture by which the gift of the Holy Spirit is invoked and in a manner well suited to the understanding of the Christian people. The anointing with chrism and the accompanying words express clearly the effect of the giving of the Holy Spirit. Signed with the perfumed oil, the baptised receive the indelible character, the seal of the Lord, together with the gift of the Spirit that conforms them more closely to Christ and gives them the grace of spreading the “sweet odor of Christ”.151

The celebration of confirmation, therefore, essentially consists of the laying on of hands by the celebrant and the concelebrants, followed by the anointing on the foreheads of the candidates by the celebrant with the oil of chrism, while pronouncing the words, “be sealed with the gift of the Holy Spirit”. The sacrament of confirmation can be celebrated within or outside Mass. It is normally carried out in the course of Mass. As a rule, it takes place “within Mass in order that the fundamental connection of this sacrament with all of Christian initiation may stand out in clearer light. Christian initiation reaches its culmination in the communion of the body and blood of Christ. The newly confirmed therefore participate in the Eucharist, which complete their Christian initiation”152. On the other hand, however, the rite of confirmation takes place outside Mass, if the candidates “are children who have not received the Eucharist and are not being admitted to first communion at this liturgical

150 BUGNINI, DOL 772. 151 IBID., 774. 152 IBID., 774.

48 celebration or if there are other circumstances”153. In case of confirmation within Mass, it is appropriate that the minister of the sacrament of confirmation be the principal celebrant of the Mass, or better concelebrates it. The primary minister, according to the rite, is the bishop as it explains further: Normally a bishop administers the sacrament so that there will be a clearer reference to the first pouring forth of the Holy Spirit on Pentecost: after the apostles were filled with the Holy Spirit, they themselves gave the Spirit to the faithful through the laying on of hands. Thus, the reception of the Spirit through the ministry of the bishop shows the close bond that joins the confirmed to the Church and the mandate received from Christ to bear witness to him before all.154

Besides the Bishop, the law also permits other ministers of the sacrament namely: the apostolic administrators, who are not bishops, prelates or abbots, vicars and prefect apostolic, vicars capitula; priests, who in virtue of an office they hold, baptise an adult or a child old enough for catechesis or receive a validly baptised adult into full communion of the Church; pastors, parochial vicars and associate pastors, in danger of death, provided the bishop is not easily available. In case of a large number of confirmation candidates, the bishop may allow the following priests to assist in the administration of the sacrament; vicars general, episcopal vicars, or delegates, district or regional vicars, or who by mandate of the ordinary are counted as equal to these ex officio; or the pastors of the place of the confirmation, pastors of the home parishes of the candidates, or priest who have had a special part in the catechetical preparation of the candidates155.

1.2.3. Vatican II and the Sacrament of the Eucharist

The Sacrament of the Holy Eucharist or the Holy Communion is the third and final sacrament of initiation. It is the only one of the three that one can be received repeatedly, even daily provided it is possible to do so. In Holy Communion, the Christians consume the Body and Blood of Christ, which unites them closely to him and helps them grow in grace by living a more Christian life. The origin of this food of love, unity, unity and of grace is outlined by Vatican Council II thus:

153 BUGNINI, DOL, 775. 154 IBID., 772. 155 IBID., 773.

At the last Supper, on the night he was betrayed, our Saviour instituted the Eucharistic sacrifice of His Body and Blood. He did this in order to perpetuate the sacrifice of the cross throughout the centuries until he should come again, and so to entrust to his beloved spouse, the Church, a memorial of his death and resurrection: a sacrament of love, a sign of unity, a bond of charity, a paschal banquet in which Christ is eaten, the mind is filled with grace, and a pledge of future glory is given to us.156

The above description refers to the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass or the Eucharistic Celebration, in which the participants are taught the word of God, fed with the Body and Blood of Christ, and together give thanks to God through, in and with Christ and in the unity of the Holy Spirit. For such a great event, the maximum participation of the faithful is very much required. It is for this reason that Vatican II emphasises the earnest desire of the Church “that Christ’s faithful, when present at this mystery of faith, should not be there as strangers or silent spectators; on the contrary through a good understanding of the rites and prayers they should take part in the sacred action conscious of what they are doing with devotion and full collaboration”157. Far from being passive at such a gathering, they should pay attention to the instruction given through the word of God, share in the Eucharistic meal, give thanks to God for the opportunity to be part of the offering, and learn to offer themselves to be ever more in union with God and with one another.

All this said and done they fulfil the Church’s desire for the promotion of liturgical instruction and active participation of the faithful namely, “Mother Church earnestly desires that the faithful should be led to that fully conscious, and active participation in liturgical celebrations which is demanded by the very nature of the liturgy”158. It was for this reason that the Council decreed that “the rite of the Mass is to be revised in such a way that the intrinsic nature and purpose of its several parts, as also the connection between them, may be more clearly manifested, and that devout and active participation by the faithful may be more easily achieved”159.

156 Sacrosanctum Concilium, (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican II, Vol.1, 16). 157 IBID. 158 IBID., 7. 159 IBID., 17.

In compliance with those basic principles laid down by Vatican II, the Roman Missal was revised and the new Missal was published by Pope Paul VI on 3rd April 1969, with November 30, 1969 scheduled as the effective date for its implementation160.

1.2.3.1. Missale Romanum (the Roman Missal)

The Roman Missal underwent a revision as prescribed by Vatican II. The revised edition of 1969 came out with a prefix known as the General Instruction of the Roman Missal (GIRM), which contained the new regulations for the celebration of Eucharistic sacrifice. The GIRM was meant to replace the following preliminaries of the then Roman Missal: Rubricae generalis; Ritus servandus in celebration et concelebratione Missae; De defectibus in celebration Missae occurrenentibus161. These regulations consisted of the rites, ministers’ and participants’ functions, furnishings and the liturgical space. Many changes were made to the Missal, the principal of which were acknowledged in the promulgation as follows: It must be acknowledged that the chief innovation in the reform concerns the Eucharistic prayer. Although the Roman Rite over the centuries allowed for a multiplicity of different texts in the first part of the prayer (the preface), the second part, called the Canon actionis, took on a fixed form during the period of the fourth and fifth centuries. The Eastern liturgies, on the other hand, allowed a degree of variety into the anaphoras themselves. On this point, first of all, the Eucharistic prayer has been enriched with a great number of prefaces ― drawn from the early tradition of the Roman Church or recently composed ― in order that the different facets of the mystery of salvation will stand out more clearly and that there will be more and richer themes of thanksgiving. But besides this, we have decided to add for the facilitation of concelebration, we have ordered that the words of the Lord be identical in each form of the canon. Thus in each Eucharistic prayer we wish those words to be as follows: over the bread: Accipite et manducate ex hoc omnes: Hoc est enim Corpus meum, quod pro vobis tradetur; over the chalice: Accipite et bibite ex eo omnes: Hic est enim calix Sanguinis mei novi et aeterni testamenti, qui pro vobis et pro multis effundetur in remissionem peccatorum. Hoc facite in meam commemorationem. The words Mysterium fidei have been removed from the context of Christ’s own words and are spoken by the priest as an introduction to the faithful’s acclamation.162

Since Vatican II permitted concelebration, the Eucharistic prayers in the new Roman Missal were ordered to facilitate it. Besides the above mentioned major changes, other minor

160 BUGNINI, DOL, 458–460. 161 IBID., 461. (The General Instruction of the Roman Missal would appear in the revised Missal as a preliminary replacing the treatises on rubrics and rites in the present Roman Missal). 162 BUGNINI, DOL, 459.

51 changes too were made with regards to the order of Mass and the readings. In accordance with the provisions in the Sacrosanctum Concilium, the order of Mass was to be simplified as a precaution for the preservation of the substance of the rites and for the active participation of the faithful. This provision was expressed as follows: The rite of the Mass is to be revised in such a way that the intrinsic nature and purpose of its several parts, as well as the connection between them, may be more clearly manifested, and that devout and active participation by the faithful may be more easily achieved (SC 50).163

The essence of the above quotation is captured in the Documents on the Liturgy as follows: In the order of Mass, the rites have been “simplified, due care being taken to preserve their substance”. “Elements that, with the passage of time, came to be duplicated or were added with but little advantage”, have been eliminated, especially in the rites for the presentation of bread and wine, the breaking of the bread, and communion.164

Some other elements were also restored “to the tradition of the Fathers, for example, the homily, the general intercession or the prayer of the faithful and the penitential rite or act of reconciliation with God and community at the beginning of the Mass, which thus, as is right, regains its proper importance”165.

In response to the provision of Vatican II that the word of God be lavishly expounded to the people in a prescribed number of times, the readings of Sundays and Holidays of Obligation were arranged in a cycle of three years. Moreover, it was also arranged that on Sundays and Holidays of Obligation, the epistle and gospel readings be preceded by an Old Testament reading or, at Easter, by readings from the Acts of the Apostles. This arrangement was “meant to provide a fuller exposition of the continuing process of the mystery of salvation, as shown in the divine revelation”166. It was to awaken among the faithful a greater need for God’s word, that this plan was made. It was also envisaged that the priests and people of God might be prompted by the Holy Spirit to meditate deeply on and be nourished by the word of God. In compliance with the teachings of Vatican II “all will thus regard the Sacred Scripture as

163 Sacrosanctum Concilium (cf. Flannery, Vatican Council II, 17). 164 BUGNINI, DOL, 459. 165 IBID., 459. 166 IBID., 460.

52 the abiding source of spiritual life, the foundation for Christian instruction, and the core of all theological study”167.

Apart from the above-mentioned changes in the new Roman Missal, some corrections and considerable modifications with some of its components were reportedly made. Such changes and modifications affected “the Proper of Seasons, the Proper of Saints, the Common of Saints, ritual Masses, and Votive Masses. In all of these changes, particular care has been taken with the prayers. Their number has been increased, so that the new forms might better correspond to new needs, and the text of older prayers has been restored on the basis of the ancient sources. As a result, each weekday of the principal liturgical seasons, Advent, Christmas, Lent, and Easter, now has its own, distinct prayer”.168 No changes are said to have been done to the texts of the Graduale Romanum (the Roman Gradual) with regards to music. However, in Masses that are not sung, the “responsorial psalm (which St. Augustine and St. Leo the Great often mention) as well as the entrance and communion antiphons have been revised for use”169.

Bearing witness to the rule of prayer of the Roman Catholic Church and guarding the deposit of faith handed down by the later councils, the new Roman Missal in turn marked a major step forward in the liturgical tradition. The liturgical norms of the Council of Trent has been completed and improved in many respects by those of Vatican Council II. Though the Council of Trent recognised the great catechetical value of the celebration of the Mass, it was unable to bring out all its consequences for the actual life of the Church. What Trent did not do, Vatican II was able to do. Trent did not give in to the people’s agitation for permission on the usage of the mother tongue in the Eucharistic celebration. The Second Vatican Council, however, acknowledged that “the use of the mother tongue frequently may be of great advantage to the people” and gave permission for its use170. Vatican II has brought the efforts of the last four hundred years to move the faithful closer to the sacred liturgy into

167 BUGNINI, DOL, 460. 168 IBID. 169 IBID. 170 Sacrosanctum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican Council II, 13).

53 effect, especially the efforts of recent times and above all the zeal for the liturgy promoted by St. Pius X and his successors.

1.2.4. Vatican II and the Sacrament of Penance

The sacrament of penance was instituted by the Lord Jesus Christ. It was instituted as a special sacrament for the forgiveness of sins committed after baptism due to human weakness (see Jn. 20:21–22). The Church has since faithfully celebrated it in the course of history. Though the Church celebrated it in varied ways, she has kept its essential elements. In the Sacred Constitution on the Liturgy, Vatican II decreed that “the rite and formulas for the sacrament of penance are to be revised so that they more clearly express both the nature and effect of the sacrament”171. In response to this decree, a new Rite of Penance was prepared by the congregation for Divine worship “so that the celebration of the sacrament may be more fully understood by the faithful”172. Remarkable in this new rite is that: The Rite for Reconciliation of Individual Penitents, a Rite for Reconciliation of Several Penitents has been drawn up to emphasize the relation of the sacrament to the community. This rite places individual confession and absolution in the context of a celebration of the word of God. Furthermore, for special occasions a Rite for Reconciliation of Several Penitents with General Confession and Absolution has been composed in accordance with the Pastoral Norms on General Sacramental Absolution, issued by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, 16 June 1972.173

Reinhard Meßner in the “Sakramentliche Feiern” notes among the Council’s announcement that above all the laying on of hands as far as possible should be restored as the sign of reconciliation with the Church through the action of the Holy Spirit; besides, the virtually superfluous words, “ab omni vinculo excommunicationis (from every bond of excommunication) […]” in the formula for absolution could be deleted174.

171 Sacrosanctum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican Council II, 22). 172 BUGNINI, DOL, 956. 173 IBID., 956. 174 Reinhard MESSNER, et al. (eds), Feiern der Umkehr und Versöhnung, mit einem Beitrag von Robert Oberforcher, Reiner Kaczynski, in: Feier der Kranking Salbung (Gottesdienst der Kirche, 7/2), Regensburg 1992, 211. Personal translation, of which the original German words are: „Vor allem sollte die Handauflegung als Zeichen der Versöhnung mit der Kirche durch das Wirken des Hl. Geistes nach Möglichkeit wiederhergestellt werden; daneben könnten in der Absolutionsformel die so gut wie immer überflüssigen Worte „ab omni vinculo excommunicationis[...] gestrichen werden“.

1.2.4.1. The First Phase of the Reform

The first stage of the reform on the sacrament of penance concerned the form for absolution. It is reported by Reinhard Meßner that the group set up for the revision of this sacrament from 1966 to 1969, of which the leader was J. Lécuyer, drafted a proposal for one rite of individual confession with three possible absolution formulas, from which every local bishops’ conference was to make a choice. It recommended an individual confession in the context of a general penitential service and one form with the general confession and general absolution. After a long discussion in November 1969, this proposal for the three absolution formulas was approved by the Liturgy Council175. All the three bring up the restoration to communion with the Church and the action of the Holy Spirit. The first one retained the “Ego te absolvo” meaning, “I absolve you”, while the second was optative and the third annunciative. They were formulated as follows: (1) In the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and in the power of the Holy Spirit, I absolve you from your sins and restore you fully in the peace of Church. (2) Our Lord, Jesus Christ, who has sacrificed himself up for us and for the Father and has empowered his Church to forgive sins through the grace of the Holy Spirit. I absolve you from your sins and restore you into the peace of the Church. (3) Our Lord Jesus Christ, who, by his suffering and resurrection, has reconciled the world to the Father, forgives you through my ministry by the grace of the Holy Spirit, and restores you completely into the life of the Church.176

175 MESSNER, 211. 176 MESSNER, Feiern der Umkehr und Versöhnung, 211. The original Latin: (1) In nomine Domini Jesu Christi et in virtute Spiritus Sancti ego te absolvo a peccatis tuis et in Ecclesiae pacem plene restituo. (2) Dominus noster Jesus Christus, qui seipsum Patri pro nobis obtulit immolandum, quique Ecclesiae potestatem contutlit remittendi peccata, ipse te gratia Spiritus Sancti a peccatis tuis absolveat atque in perfectam Eccelesiae pacem retituat. (3) Dominus noster Jesus Christus, qui passion et resurrection sua mundum patri reconciliavit, Spiritus Sancti gratia per ministerium meum peccata tua remittit, et in plenam Ecclesiae vitam restituit.

The English translation of these texts is my own personal translation as I did not find any equivalent English version. The Vatican II’s formulary for absolution is found in: INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY ON ENGLISH IN LITURGY, The Rites of the Catholic Church vol. I, Collegeville 1990, 546–547, and it is quoted on page 35 of this work.

Finally, the proposal of the first committee that, at the celebration of the sacrament of penance in the context of communal liturgy of the word, a general absolution be imparted to all was rejected. The faithful must receive the absolution from the priest, before whom they make their confessions.

1.2.4.2. The Second Phase of the Reform

A second committee, of which Pierre Jounel was the leader, was formed. This second committee worked relatively faster on the foundation laid down by the first committee and issued a new order of penance known in Latin as Ordo Paenitentiae, which was promulgated on 2nd December 1973 and published in February, the following year. The basic decisions for the new Ordo clearly toed the line of the Scholastic –Tridentine Theology of Penance; the ritually enriched private confession before a validly ordained priest, sacramentally representing Christ, as the only decent way of reconciling a sinner with God (and the Church), accordingly an absolution formula with the “Ego te absolvo” (I absolve you), the possibility of general absolution without private confession in dire need and exceptional case; What is new is, at least, the special service for the general absolution with its own formula for absolution and the recording of the penance celebration in an ecclesiastically approved liturgical book177. In the sacrament of penance, the faithful obtain from God’s mercy pardon for having offended him and at the same time reconciliation with the Church, which they have wounded by their sins and which by charity, example and prayer seeks their conversion178.

1.2.4.3. The Sacrament of Penance and its parts

Conversion is a necessary prerequisite for confession. In other words, prior to the sacrament of penance, the penitent must have experienced an inner conversion and sorrow for the sins committed. This is clearly expressed in the Documents on the Liturgy as follows:

177 MESSNER, Feiern der Umkehr und Versöhnung, 217. 178 BUGNINI, DOL, 958.

Followers of Christ, who have sinned by whom by the prompting of the Holy Spirit come the sacrament of penance, should above all be wholeheartedly converted to God. This inner conversion embraces sorrow for sin and the intent to lead a new life. It is expressed through confession made to the Church, due expiation, and amendment of life. God grants pardon for sin through the Church, which works by the ministry of priests.179 The parts of the sacrament of penance are, therefore, contrition, confession, act of penance and absolution. This classification is done in the Documents on the Liturgy as follows:

a. Contrition

The most important act of the penitent is contrition, which is “heartfelt sorrow and aversion for the sin committed along with the intention of sinning no more”. “We can only approach the kingdom of Christ by metanoia. This is a profound change of the whole person by which we begin to consider, judge, and arrange our life according to the holiness and love of God, made manifest in his Son in the last days and given to us in abundance” (see Heb. 1:2; Col. 1:19; Eph. 1:23). The genuineness of penance depends on this heartfelt contrition. For conversion should affect a person from within toward a progressively deeper enlightenment and an ever-closer likeness to Christ.

b. Confession

The sacrament of penance includes the confession of sins, which comes from true knowledge of self before God and from contrition for those sins. However, the inner examination of heart and the outward accusation must be made in the light of God’s mercy. Confession requires on the penitent’s part the will to open the heart to the minister of God and on the minister’s part a spiritual judgement by which, acting in the person of Christ, he pronounces his decision of forgiveness or retention of sins in accord with the power of the keys.

c. Absolution

Through the sign of absolution, God grants pardon to sinners who in sacramental confession manifest their change of heart to the Church’s minister; this completes the sacrament of

179 BUGNINI, DOL, 959.

57 penance. For in God’s design the humanity and loving kindness of our savior have visibly appeared to us and so God uses visible signs to give salvation and to renew the broken covenant180.

The theological significance of this sacrament can be summed up in the following words of the Documents on the Liturgy: In the sacrament of penance, the Father receives the repentant children who come back to him, Christ places the lost sheep on his shoulders and brings them back to the sheepfold, and the Holy Spirit resanctifies those who are the temple of God or dwells more fully in them. The expression of all this is the sharing in the Lord’s table, begun again or made more ardent; such a return of children from afar brings great rejoicing at the banquet of God’s Church […]. In order that this sacrament of healing may truly achieve its purpose among the faithful, it must take root in their entire life and move them to more fervent service of God and neighbor. The celebration of this sacrament is thus always an act in which the Church proclaims its faith, gives thanks to God for the freedom with which Christ has made us free, and offers its life as a spiritual sacrifice in praise of God’s glory, as it hastens to meet the Lord Jesus.181

1.2.4.4. Reordering of the Celebration of the Sacrament of Penance

The order of penance consists of three different forms, in which the sacrament of penance can be celebrated, namely, the rite for reconciliation of individual penitent, the rite for reconciliation of several penitents with individual confession and absolution, and the rite for reconciliation of penitents with general confession and absolution. The third form is only allowed in time of need and exceptional cases. Besides these there is also a short rite that can be used in case of emergency, which consists of the essential words of absolution. Reinhard Meẞner notes that through the preliminary decision that private confession was the only way for reconciliation, the faithful are certainly still precluded from the center of the celebration of the sacrament of penance (private confession and absolution). So one can still not talk about a liturgy of the sacrament of penance, with exception of the third form which is permitted only in emergent and in exceptional cases. Finally, what is new is only a liturgical context of the private event182.

180 BUGNINI, DOL, 959–960. 181 IBID., 960. 182 MESSNER, Feiern der Umkehr und Versöhnung, 219.

The three forms have the same basic structure. The most important element besides the actual reconciliation (confession and absolution) is a liturgical service: greetings/opening and praise/dismissal enshrine the celebration. The essential elements in the structure are compared by Reinhard Meßner in the following way: Form A Form B Form C 1. Eröffnung 1. Eröffnung (bis inclusive Gewissens- Gruß Gesang erforschung wie Form B) Kreuzzeichen Begrüßung Ermunterung Gebet 2. Wortgottesdienst 2. Wortgottesdienst Lesung (fakultativ) Schriftlesung(en) Gesang Homilie Gewissenserforschung 3. Beichte und Versöhnung 3. Beichte und Versöhnung 3. Beichte und Versöhnung Ermahnung Allgemeines Sündenbekenntnis Zeichen der Reue Allgemeines Sündenbekenntnis Bekenntnis Einzelbekenntnis Zuspruch Auferlegung der Buẞe Reuegebet Absolution/Handauflegung Absolution/Handauflegung General-Absolution /Handausstreckung 4. Abschluß 4. Abschluß 4. Abschluß Lobpreis Lobpreis Gottes Lobpreis Gottes Dankgebet Entlassung Segen und Entlassung Segen und Entlassung183

To sum up the above in English, the three forms consist of almost the same essentials. Form A contains, the opening, greeting, sign of the cross, words of encouragement, reading (optional), confession and reconciliation, encouragement, imposition of penance, act of contrition, absolution with imposition of hands, praise and dismissal. Forms B and C have most in common, with exception of the song at the beginning, prayer after the greeting, song and homily after the scripture reading, general confession and absolution as opposed to individual confession and absolution in the Form A.

183 MESSNER, Feiern der Umkehr und Versöhnung, 220.

The Order of Penance also contains two new forms of absolution, one for private or individual absolution, while the other is for general absolution. The form for the private absolution goes like this:

Deus, Pater misericordiarum, God, the Father of mercies, Qui per mortem et resurrectionem through the death and resurrection Filii sui of his Son mundum sibi reconciliavit has reconciled the world to himself et spiritum Sanctum effudit in and sent the Holy Spirit among us remissionem for the forgiveness of sins; peccatorum, through the ministry of his Church permisterium Ecclesiae may God give you pardon and indulgentiam tibi tribuat et pacem. peace, Et ego te absolvo a peccatis tuis in and I absolve you from your sins in nomine the name of the Father, and of the Patris et Filii et Spiritui Sancti184. Son and of the Holy Spirit185.

The second form for absolution is for a number of penitents, who in case of emergent needs cannot otherwise have private confession and absolution. The essentials are almost the same with exception of the general confession and general absolution with hands outstretched, instead of the imposition of hands in the case of individuals. The final words of the general absolution are, “Ego vos absolvo a peccatis in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti. Amen”186. Since it is a communal absolution, the plural form or you, “vos”, instead of “te”, is used. Another important element worth noting is the gesture of “outstretched hands”, instead of “imposition” of hands. It is supposed to be an epicletic gesture of impartation of the Spirit187.

184 MESSNER, Feiern der Umkehr und Versöhnung, 222. 185 INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON ENGLISH IN LITURGY, The Rites of the Catholic Church, vol. I, Collegeville 1990, No.45, 546–547. 186 MESSNER, Feiern der Umkehr und Versöhnung, 224. My own personal translation is: I absolve you (pl) in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. Amen. 187 IBID. 224. Original German words: Es handelt sich um eine epikletische Geste der Geistmitteilung [...].

1.2.4.5. Frequent Use of Sacrament of Penance

It was acknowledged that confession was not frequently patronized by many Catholics and that, however, was not the mind of the Church. The new rite recommended “frequent confession, portraying it as renewed commitment to increase the grace of baptism and as the occasion and stimulus for a closer conformity to Christ and of increasing docility to the voice of the Holy Spirit. Also as Pope Paul VI underlined in his apostolic exhortation on Christian joy ‘frequent confession remains a privileged source of holiness, peace, and joy’”188. A special emphasis was also placed by the Pope on children’s confession, especially their first confession, which was set as necessary prerequisite for their first communion. Evangelization must begin from the earliest years in order to make the support of the living faith in them for their celebration of the sacrament and a consistent way of living the Christian life.

1.2.5. Vatican II and the Sacrament of the Sick

1.2.5.1. Anointing of the Sick

Vatican II decreed that the Anointing of the sick, which until that time was known as “Extreme unction” be revised. The decree states: “Extreme unction”, which may also and more fittingly be called “anointing of the sick”, is not a sacrament for those only who are at the point of death. Hence, as soon as any one of the faithful begins to be in danger of death sickness or old age, the fitting time for him to receive this sacrament has certainly already arrived. In addition to the separate rites for anointing of the sick and for viaticum, a continuous rite shall be prepared according to which the sick man is anointed after he has made his confession and before he receives viaticum. The number of anointings is to be adapted to the occasion, and the prayers which belong to the rite of anointing are to be revised so as to correspond with the varying conditions of the sick who receive the sacrament.189 Those were the words that Vatican II added to the sound tradition of the pastoral care of the sick. The biblical foundation of this sacrament is Mark 6:13, “They cast out many demons and anointed with oil many who were sick and cured them”190. Evidence from the Scripture

188 BUGNINI, DOL, 977. 189 Sacrosanctum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican II, Vol. 1, 22). 190 Holy Bible: New Revised Standard Version. With Deuterocanonical Books, New York 1983, 1873.

61 is that of James the apostle, who recommended to the faithful and made known: “Is there anyone sick among you? Let him send for the presbyters of the Church and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord. The prayer of faith will save the sick man and the Lord will raise him up. If he has committed any sins, they will be forgiven” (James 5:14-15)191.

In the course of the centuries the Church carried out this sacrament of anointing. As time went on, different formularies were added to accompany the anointing. In the tradition of the Church of Rome, during the Middle Ages, the sick were anointed on the senses with the formulary: Per istam sanctam Unctionem, et suam piissimam misericordiam, indulgeat tibi Dominus quiquid deliquisti, with the name of each sense added192. Before Vatican II, detailed teaching about the sacrament of anointing was made by the ecumenical Councils of Florence and Trent. The Council of Trent in particular declared that it was of divine institution, basing itself on the above quotation from James: This reality is in fact the grace of the Holy Spirit, whose anointing also raises up and strengthens the soul of the sick person, arousing a great confidence in the divine mercy; thus sustained, the sick person may more easily bear the trials and hardships of sickness, more easily resist the temptations of the devil ‘lying in wait for his heal’ and sometimes regain bodily health […] this anointing is to be given to the sick, especially those who are in such a serious condition as to appear to have reached the end of their life. For this reason, it is also called the sacrament of the dying […] the presbyter is the proper minister of the sacrament.193 Basing itself on the apostolic authority, Vatican II established that the following sacramental rite was to be observed in the Latin rite: THE SACRAMENT OF ANOINTING OF THE SICK IS GIVEN TO THOSE WHO ARE SERIOUSLY ILL BY ANOINTING THEM ON THE FOREHEAD AND HANDS WITH BLESSED OLIIVE OIL OR, ACCORDING TO CIRCUMSTANCES, WITH ANOTHER BLESSED PLANT OIL AND SAYING ONCE ONLY THESE WORDS: “THROUGH THIS HOLY ANOINTING MAY THE LORD IN HIS LOVE AND MERCY HELP YOU WITH THE GRACE OF THE HOLY SPIRIT. MAY THE LORD WHO FREES YOU FROM SIN SAVE YOU AND RAISE YOU UP”.194

191 BUGNINI, DOL, 1051. 192 IBID., 1051. 193 IBID., 1051–1052. 194 IBID., 1052.

By so doing the Council touched on who the recipients, the form and matter of this sacrament of the sick. It also declared that one sick person may receive it more than once, that is after recovering and falling sick again, or if during the same illness the person’s condition deteriorates more seriously. Affirming the teaching of Trent, Vatican II declared the priest to be the only proper minister of the anointing of the sick.

1.2.5.2. Continuous Rite

In danger of death, the Christian does not only have the right to the sacrament of anointing but also those of penance and the Eucharist as declared in the Documents on the Liturgy: For special cases, when sudden illness or some other cause has unexpectedly placed one of the faithful in proximate danger of death, a continuous rite is provided by which the sick person may be given the sacraments of penance, anointing, and the Eucharist as viaticum in a single celebration. If death is imminent and there is not enough time to celebrate the three sacraments in the manner already described, the sick person should be given an opportunity to make a sacramental confession, even if it has to be a generic confession. After this person should be given viaticum, since all the faithful are bound to receive this sacrament if they are in danger of death. Then if there is sufficient time, the sick person should be anointed. The sick person who, because of the nature of illness, cannot receive communion should be anointed.195

A provision is also made for the sick in danger of death to receive the sacrament of confirmation, in which case there could be a continuous reception of four sacraments in one single celebration. In the absence of the bishop, the priests who are permitted by law may administer the sacrament of confirmation in addition to the above three in a single celebration. This is what is known as the continuous rite.

1.2.6. Vatican II and the Sacrament of Holy Orders

Vatican II ordered the revision of ordination rite and the use of vernacular in the course of the celebration. In the Sacred Constitution on the Liturgy, it declares that: Both ceremonies and texts of the ordination rites are to be revised. The address given by the bishop at the beginning of each ordination or consecration may be in the mother tongue.

195 BUGNINI, DOL, 1058–1059.

When a bishop is consecrated, the laying of hands may be done by all the bishops present (SC 76).196

One is always inclined to think that the Sacrament of Holy Orders refers only to the rite of ordination of priests. However, it refers to three sacramental orders namely, the other of the Episcopate (bishops), the order of Presbyters (priests), and the order of Deaconate (deacons). The Council said some important things about each of the three. What it had to say was in the hierarchical order: Among the rites of ordination, the first to be considered are those that constitute the hierarchy through the sacrament of orders, conferred in its several degrees. “The divinely ecclesiastical ministry is exercised at different levels by those who from antiquity have been called bishops, presbyters and deacons”.197

1.2.6.1. The Order of the Episcopate (Bishops)

It was affirmed by the Council that “a bishop is ordained to the fullness of the Sacrament of Orders. By his ordination a bishop becomes a member of the college of Bishops and assumes responsibility not only for his own local Church but also for the universal Church”198. Considering the rank of the Episcopate in the hierarchical order, the Council declared the episcopal consecration as being able to confer the embodiment of the fullness of the sacrament of Holy Orders and the fullness of the power of governance. Here is what it had to say: […] episcopal consecration bestows the fullness of the sacrament of orders, that fullness of power, namely, which in both the Church’s liturgical practice and the language of the Fathers is called the high priesthood, the summit of the sacred ministry. But episcopal consecration, together with the offices of teaching and governing, offices that of their very nature can be exercised only in hierarchic communion with the head of the college and its members. For from tradition, expressed especially in liturgical rites and in the usage of the Church of both East and West, it is clear that the laying on of hands and the words of consecration bestow the grace of the Holy Spirit and carry on the role of Christ himself as teacher, shepherd, and high priest and act in his person.199

196 Sacrosanctum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican II, Vol.1, 22). 197 BUGNINI, Documents on the Liturgy, 816. 198American Catholic Newsletter, Vatican 2 Today: Seven Sacraments, One Mystery. Update Your Faith. URL: http://www.americancatholic.org/Newsletters/VAT/aq0504.asp [Accessed: 13 June 2015], 4. 199 BUGNINI, DOL, 817.

The Council further made provisions for many important doctrinal points regarding the apostolic succession of bishops and their functions. To ensure that these themes, even if they were present, were more properly expressed in the ordination of bishops, it was judged “appropriate to take from the document called the Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus of Rome, written at the beginning of the third century. This consecratory prayer is still used, in large part, in the ordination rites of the Coptic and West Syrian liturgies”200. The incorporation this tradition into the episcopal ordination constitutes a witness to the harmony of tradition in the East and West with regards to the apostolic office of bishops.

1.2.5.2. The Order of Presbyters (Priests)

The council affirmed the subordination of priests to bishops, their linkage to them in priestly dignity and their ministry. The act of the Council is quoted in the Documents on the Liturgy as follows: Even though they do not possess the fullness of the priesthood and in the exercise of their power are subordinate to the bishop, priests are nevertheless linked to the bishops in priestly dignity. By virtue of the sacrament of orders, in the image of Christ the eternal High Priest (see Heb. 5:1–10 and 7–24, 9:11–28), they are consecrated to preach the Gospel, to shepherd the faithful and to celebrate divine worship as true priests of the New Testament […]. By ordination and the mission, they receive from the bishops, presbyters are promoted to the service of Christ, the Teacher, Priest and King. They share in his ministry of unceasingly building up the Church on earth into the people of God, the Body of Christ, and the temple of the Holy Spirit.201 In spite of the fact that the mission and grace of the priest as a helper of the order of bishops were clearly described in the former Roman Pontifical, it seemed necessary for the Council to reduce the entire rite. The rite had been divided to into many parts, to a greater unity and to express more clearly the core of the ordination, that is, the imposition of hands and the prayer of consecration.

200 BUGNINI, DOL, 817. 201 IBID.

1.2.6.3. The Order of Deacons

Until 1967 when the motu proprio Sacrum Diaconatus came into being, the order of deacons was only transitory, that is, a stage through which candidates passed to the order of Presbytery. A few changes had to be made by the Council in the ordination of deacons in order to satisfy the then prescriptions regarding the “diaconate as a distinct and permanent grade of the hierarchy in the Latin Church or to achieve a greater simplicity and clarity in the rites”202. Thus, the Council restored the diaconate order into a permanent ministry in the Church, permitting married men to be ordained deacons. Since then there have been plenty of permanent deacons all over the world. There is no evidence, however, that transitory diaconate was abolished as a result. In this way, the Council permitted two types of diaconate in the Church, that is, permanent and transitory.

1.2.6.4. The Rite for the Ordination of Deacons, Priests, and Bishops

The Bishops of the Council, having established from the tradition of the Church that the sole form for ordination of deacons, priests and bishops was the laying on of hands, made a firm decision on the essentials of the rite to be followed. This was in order to forestall any future confusion and controversy. The form and matter for conferring each of the three orders of diaconate, presbyterate, and episcopate were thus declared: In the ordination of deacons, the matter is the laying of the bishop’s hands on the individual candidates that is done in silence before the consecratory prayer; the form consists in the words of the consecratory prayer, of which the following belong to the essence and are consequently required for validity: LORD, SEND FORTH UPON THEM THE HOLY SPIRIT, THAT THEY MAY BE STRENGTHENED BY THE GIFT OF YOUR SEVENFOLD GRACE TO CARRY OUT FAITHFULLY THE WORK OF THE MINISTRY. In the ordination of presbyters, the matter is likewise the laying of the bishop’s hands on the individual candidates that is done in silence before the consecratory prayer, of which the following belong to the essence and are consequently required for validity: ALMIGHTY FATHER, GRANT TO THESE SERVANTS OF YOURS THE DIGNITY OF THE PRIESTHOOD. RENEW WITHIN THEM THE SPIRIT OF HOLINESS. AS CO-WORKERS WITH THE ORDER OF BISHOPS MAY THEY BE FAITHFUL TO THE MININISTRY THAT THEY RECEIVE FROM YOU, LORD GOD, AND BE TO OTHERS A MODEL OF RIGHT CONDUCT.

202 BUGNINI, DOL, 818.

Finally, in the ordination of a bishop, the matter is the laying of hands on the head of the bishop-elect by the consecrating bishops, or at least by the principal consecrator, that is done in silence before the consecratory prayer; the form consists in the words of the consecratory prayer, of which the following belong to the essence and are consequently required for validity: SO NOW POUR OUT UPON THIS CHOSEN ONE THAT POWER WHICH IS FROM YOU, THE GOVERNING SPIRIT WHOM YOU GAVE TO YOUR BELOVED SON, JESUS CHRIST, THE SPIRIT GIVEN BY HIM TO THE HOLY APOSTLES, WHO FOUNDED THE CHURCH IN EVERY PLACE TO BE YOUR TEMPLE FOR THE UNCEASING GLORY AND PRAISE OF YOUR NAME.203

This rite was published by Pope Paul VI on 15th August 1968 to be used in conferral of these orders in place of the one found, at the time, in the Roman Pontifical. The effective date for its implementation was scheduled for 6th April 1969.

1.2.7. Vatican II and the Sacrament of Marriage

The Council ordered the revision of the rite of marriage to clarify its sacramental significance and the duties of the spouses: “The marriage rite now found in the Roman Ritual is to be revised and enriched so that it will more clearly signify the grace of the sacrament and will emphasize the spouses’ duties” (SC 77)204. In the Ordo celebrandi Matrimonium, which promulgated the editio typica of the rite of marriage on 19th March 1969, it was affirmed that the revision of the rite of marriage had been accomplished in accordance with the norms of the Constitution on the Liturgy, “in order that this rite might be enriched, more clearly signify the grace of the sacrament, and impart a knowledge of the obligation of the married couple”205.

1.2.7.1. The Rite of Marriage Within or Outside Mass

In the rite of marriage, the Council allowed some flexibility of choice depending on the type of marriage that is to be celebrated. The types of marriage are the marriage between two baptized Catholics, and a mixed marriage, that is, the one between a baptized Catholic and a baptized non-Catholic, or a non-baptized partner. This is evident in the following statement:

203 BUGNINI, DOL, 818–819. 204 Sacrosanctum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican Council II, vol. 1, 23). 205 BUGNINI, DOL, 921.

In a marriage between a Catholic and a baptized person who is not a Catholic, the rite of marriage outside Mass (nos. 39–54) shall be used. If the situation warrants and if the local Ordinary gives permission, the rite for celebrating marriage within Mass (nos. 19– 38) may be used, except that communion is not given to the non-Catholic, since the general law does not allow it. In a marriage between a Catholic and one who is not baptized, the rite in nos. 55–66 of the ritual is to be followed.206

So, the choice of rite of marriage within or outside Mass depends largely on the type of marriage in question and the permission of the local Ordinary.

1.2.7.2. Right for the Preparation of a Local Ritual

Like all the sacraments, the Council permits adaptation of the marriage rite into the local cultural situation, and where necessary even the preparation of a completely new rite as it decrees: “If any regions want to use other praiseworthy customs and ceremonies when celebrating the sacrament of matrimony, the sacred Synod earnestly desires that these by all means be retained […]. Moreover, the competent territorial ecclesiastical authority […] is free to draw up its own rite suited to the usages of place and people […]”207. The points which need to be considered while making adaptations are; that the formularies of the Roman Ritual may be adapted or, as the case may be, supplemented (including the questions before the consent and the actual words of consent). When the Roman Ritual has several optional formularies, local rituals may add others of the same type. Within the actual rite of the sacramental marriage, the arrangement of parts may be varied. If it seems more suitable, even the questions before the consent may be omitted as long as the assisting priest asks for and receives the consent of the contracting parties.208

The local conference of bishops has the power to permit the omission or substitution of other elements like the joining of hands, blessing or exchange of rings, and so on, in case they do not fit the local custom. As pointed out earlier, every conference of bishops has the right to draw up a completely new rite that suits the local practices much better. In places “where marriage customarily takes place in the home […] their customs should be adapted to the

206 BUGNINI, DOL, 922–923. 207 Sacrosanctum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican Council II, Vol.1, 23). 208 BUGNINI, DOL, 923–924.

Christian spirit and to the liturgy. In such cases the conference of bishops […] may allow the sacramental rite to be celebrated at home”209.

1.2.7.2. Theological Significance of Marriage

The Council affirmed the origin of marriage as a divine institution and therefore is indissoluble as it is clearly stated in Gaudium et Spes: The intimate partnership of married life and love has been established by the Creator and qualified by His laws and is rooted in in the conjugal covenant of irrevocable personal consent. Hence by that human act whereby spouses mutually bestow and accept each other a relationship arises which by divine will and in the eyes of society too is a lasting one. For the good of the spouses and their off-springs as well as of society, the existence of the sacred bond no longer depends on human decisions alone. For, God himself is the author of matrimony, endowed as it is with various benefits and purposes.210 In the theological significance of marriage Vatican II made two outstanding declarations, that marriage is a covenant and that its purpose is not only for procreation but for mutual assistance and love of the partners. That is what is meant by “intimate partnership of married life and love” as quoted above from the Gaudium et Spes. As a covenant, marriage helps people to “think in biblical and interpersonal categories that reach beyond the legal categories of the marriage contract. The marriage covenant is a symbol of God’s covenant with humanity”211. These concepts are further explained in the introduction of the Rite of Marriage promulgated in 1969 as follows: A marriage is established by the marriage covenant, the irrevocable consent that the spouses freely give to and receive from each other. This unique union of a man and woman and the good of the children impose total fidelity on each of them and the unbreakable unity of their bond. To make the indissoluble marriage covenant a clearer sign of this full meaning and a surer help in its fulfillment, Christ the Lord raised it to the dignity of a sacrament, modeled on his own nuptial bond with the Church.212 Marriage is therefore an institution that has its origin in God and as such is a lifelong partnership. It is the union of a man and a woman, ordered for the good of the children, born out of this union. The essential properties of marriage, which are unity and indissolubility,

209 BUGNINI, DOL, 924. 210 Gaudium et Spes, (cf. FLANNERY (ed.), Vatican Council II: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Documents, vol. 1, New York 2004, 950). 211 American Catholic Newsletter, Vatican 2 Today: Seven Sacraments One Mystery, 3. 212 BUGNINI, DOL, 921–922.

69 stand out clearly in the above citation. It is an unbreakable union, raised to the dignity of a sacrament by Christ himself.

Conclusion

As an introductory chapter, the foregoing has elucidated some of the key points in the historical development of the Roman Catholic Church up to the time of the Second Vatican Council. In the course of its history, different circumstances at different periods warranted reforms in the Church’s liturgical life. Alongside the liturgical reforms, liturgical books began to be developed. These were books containing prescribed liturgical prayers, texts or other instructions. The Bible, which the collection of the books containing the word of God, was among the earliest liturgical books developed in the early centuries of the Church.

Prominent among the liturgical books developed later, was the Roman Missal, which began in the fifth century as the Sacramentary. This was an organized collection of prayers, containing some but not all of the prayers of the Mass. In the fifteenth century it was revised and given the new name Roman Missal in 1474. The reforms of the Council of Trent resulted in another revised edition promulgated by Pope Pius V in 1570. It went through many revisions under different popes, who published new editions until the Vatican Council II under Saint John XXIII and Pope Paul VI, a period which marked the greatest turning point in the liturgical life of the Church. Other books were the Breviary, or the liturgy of the Hours, Missals, Evangeliarum (Lectionary and Gospel Book), the Roman Pontifical, Ceremonial, the Roman Rituals for celebrating the Sacraments, Sacred Music books, and others.

The liturgical books mentioned in this chapter will serve as reference points for the development of the next chapters.

CHAPTER TWO

2. Liturgical Books In The Akan Speaking Area Of Ghana Before Vatican II

Introduction

The Akan213 speaking people occupy five of the ten political administrative regions of Ghana including, Central Region, Western Region, Brong/Ahafo Region, Ashanti Region and Eastern Region. As the main topic for this work indicates, our concentration is on the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi which is the combination of Brong/Ahafo and Ashanti Regions of Ghana (see the map in the appendix). The Central Region becomes prominent in this chapter since most of the books under study originate from Cape Coast214, from the archives of which most of the data for our research on the liturgical books prior to the Vatican II were obtained. Moreover, Cape Coast was the See for the Vicariate of Gold Coast, covering the whole of the modern Ghana. The language of the people of Cape Coast and its surroundings is Fante, into which the first translations were done.

This chapter, therefore, concerns the books and booklets written before the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council. It is to showcase the types of materials available to the early missionaries and the efforts they put in place to minister to the local people in their native language even before Vatican II. The development of the Catholic liturgical books into vernacular in Ghana began almost immediately after the arrival of the first two missionaries

213 Akan is one of the major ethnic groups in Ghana, the language of which is also called Akan. The Akan ethnic group comprising the tribes of Akuapem, Asante, Brong and Fanti, constitute the biggest ethnic group in Ghana, of which the language is Akan, which is the most widely spoken in the entire country. 214 Cape Coast, the current capital of the Central Region of Ghana, is the See of the Catholic Archdiocese of Cape Coast. The current Ecclesiastical province of Kumasi used to be part of the Archdiocese of Cape Coast until its creation as an Apostolic Vicariate in 1932 and as a diocese in 1952. We first went to Kumasi with the intention of visiting the archive Catholic Press and that of the Archdiocese of Kumasi only to be told by the Manager of the Press at his office that there were no traces of liturgical documents of the period prior to Vatican II in the Press. Subsequently we were equally discouraged by the Archdiocesan Liturgist from visiting the Archdiocesan archives since such documents were not available. He advised us to proceed to Cape Coast instead, where we found traces of the above-mentioned books during our research in the Archdiocesan archives from 6th to 7th August 2015.

71 on the coast of Ghana in 1880215. One of the two missionaries, Fr. Auguste Moreau, who is said to have been very sharp in learning languages, began the pioneer composition of the Catechism book and translation of the Sunday Epistle and Gospels into the Fante language.

Our research at the archives of the Archdiocese of Cape Coast revealed that there were more liturgical books in use in the pre-Vatican II period than we expected. There could be more, but we were able to lay hands on fifteen of them, including: A Catechism For Adults, Asante Mpaeb] Nnwoma (The Book of Asante Prayers), Asante Katekism (Asante Catechism), Bible Mu Ns[m Ntiantia (Short Words of the Bible), Mm]fra Anyams[m mu Nkyer[kyer[mu a {di Kan (an adaptation of book 1 of the Catholic Faith explained), Vade Mecum of the Fanti Confessor, Mfantse Na Bor]fo Katekisim Fofor No (The New Fante-English Catechism), Mass af]reb] Nhyehy[[ w] Af]r a d]m ka ho mu (The Order of Mass with the Congregation), Mfantsifu Katolikfu hon Asor Buku Onyi Ndwim Buku (The Book of Fante Catholic Service and Hymns), Epistles and Gospels for all Sundays and Feasts of the Year), A Catechism For Adults, Yen Awurade ne yen Agyenkwa Iesu Kristo Apam Foforo Ns[m Twi Kasa Mu (The New Testament of Our Lord Jesus Christ), Benedictionale and Canon Missae ad usum Episcoporum Ac Praelatorum.216 Most of those books were already translated into the Akan language before Vatican II, while others were used in their original languages either Latin or English. The only acceptable language for the catholic liturgy at the time was Latin. Though translation into any other language was not permitted, some scanty pioneer translations were carried out in order to enable the local Christians understand and follow the liturgy in their native language.

2.1. Traces of the Earliest Efforts of Translation

The liturgical books came to Ghana in the Latin and English languages, but since most of the local Christians were not educated and therefore could not understand any of them, there arose an immediate need to translate them in the native languages, like Asante Twi, Akuapem, Fante and others. Wherever the early missionaries, who were expatriates, found themselves, efforts were made to translate some parts of the books, notably the responses into the local

215 AFRIFAH-AGYEKUM, The History of the Liturgical Life of the Church in Ghana 1880–1990, 33. 216 Those were the books found the archdiocesan archives of Cape Coast, Ghana on August 6 and 7, 2015. Those among them, that will be referred to in this chapter, will be duly and fully cited.

72 language. The first attempt of translation was undertaken by one of the two first missionaries in Ghana, Fr. Auguste Moreau, who died in 1886, only six years after his arrival in Ghana. He is known to have composed the first Fante Catechism, besides which, he is said to have translated the Sunday Epistles and Gospels into the Fante language. After him, the earliest efforts of translation of the liturgical books into the Akan language in Ghana were done by the Fantis217 in the Fante language. According to the Rev. Brother Pius Agyemang, one of our informants, “the Fantis were the first Christians, who actually had their first translations of the semi-liturgical texts”218. They were traders and educationists, many of whom came to other parts of Ghana such as Kumasi and Brong Ahafo. They brought along some of the translated books and with the help of the local catechists spread the use of vernacular in the liturgy wherever they found themselves. The books brought were mainly handled by the catechists who knew how to teach the people.

2.1.1. The Roman Missal - Selected Parts of the Mass

Among the liturgical books used in the Akan land of Ghana was the Roman Ritual in which the order of Mass was found. The early missionaries used the Latin version of the Missal,219 but in the course of time translations were effected into booklets to allow the local people some understanding and participation in the liturgy. The pioneer translation began with the Introductory Rites and the Liturgy of the Word. The translated versions were meant for the local congregation. In the words of Brother Pius “the liturgy of the Eucharist was completely blind. The people only had to respond to some points in the liturgy that awoke them like the ‘Dominus vobiscum’ (The Lord be with you). Even though they would respond they did not understand them”220. One of the booklets that emerged in the early missionary days, was entitled Mfantsifu Katolikfu hon Asor Buku Onyi Ndwim Buku (The Fanti Catholic Prayer and Hymn Book), published as early as 1902. This booklet, found in the course of our

217 Fante is one of the tribes within the Akan ethnic group, of which the dialect is Fante. 218 AGYEMANG, recorded interview, Accra, 4 July 2015. 219 Canon Missae ad Usum Episcoporum ac Praelatorum: Solemniter vel Private Celebrantium. Forma confirmationis ordo Visitandas Parochias Consecratio Petenae et Calicis, Turonibus 1924. The only evidence of Latin Mass we could lay hands on in the archives of the Archdiocese of Cape Coast on 6 and 7 August 2015. 220AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015.

73 research in the archives of the Archdiocese of Cape Coast221, contains more than just the Introductory Rites and the Liturgy of the Word. It shows a development in the translation of liturgical texts. As the title suggests, it contains not only the order of the Mass but also some other prayers and songs for liturgical services. In this sub-topic, however, we will devote more attention to the order of Mass, of which the structure is as follows: Mass n’ Ahyeasi (Introibo) [The beginning of the Mass] The priest processes with the bread, places it in the middle of the altar and returns to join the minister at the bottom of the altar to begin with a song, after which he says the following prayer, which we have translated from the Fante language. Prayer: Holy Trinity, Creator of heaven and earth. Behold, I, a poor sinner, have appeared before you today. Grant that through Jesus Christ, our high priest, I may eat his body and drink his blood on his altar. I offer you this Holy Sacrifice O God, I adore you and proclaim the death of my sweet savior, and I thank you for the blessings you have bestowed on your Church, and all the members of your Church, both in heaven and on earth.222 Mika mu bon [I confess my sins] (Confiteor) The short prayer is followed by the confession of sins. Here is the English translation of the Confiteor: I confess my sins to the Almighty God, Blessed Mary the ever Virgin, Blessed Michael, the Archangel, Blessed John the Baptist, the Blessed Apostles Peter and Paul, and all the Saints that have greatly sinned in mind, word and action, through my own fault, through my fault, through my most grievous fault. Therefore, I ask the Blessed Mary, Ever Virgin, Blessed Michael, the Archangel, Blessed John the Baptist, Blessed Apostles Peter and Paul, and all the Saints, to pray for me to the Lord our God. At the end of the Confiteor, there is no absolution by the priest. Then comes the second introit. Introitus: The priest moves up to the altar, kisses it and stands on the left side to begin in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. Prayer: Another short prayer follows prior to the Kyrie and the Gloria Kyrie: The Kyrie which is relatively short is as follows; Ewuradzi Hu hen mbobor. Krais hu hen mbobor. [Lord, have mercy. Christ, have mercy.] There is apparently no repetition of ‘Lord have mercy’. Gloria. Womma yenye Asor (Oremus) [Let us pray]. This prayer is introduced with the greetings; Dominus Vobiscum. Ewuradzi nye hum ntsi. Na onyi wu sunsum ntsi. [The Lord be with you. And with your spirit.]

Asumafu Nwuma [The Acts of the Apostles] (Epistola): The priest reads some acts of the Apostles and explains what he has read.

221 Albert MAXIMILIANI, Mfantsifu Katolikfu hon Asor Buku Onyi Ndwim Buku, Rome 1902, 42–60. 222 The English version is my own translation of the following Fante version: Okura Kronkron kur, osur onyi asasi Bofu, hwe, emi dzibonyenyi bobofu yi epue w’enyim nde, ma onam Dzises Krais, he Sofu Panyin ni nsam’, ndzi nu hunam onyi nu bogyan’ n’afarbo. Midzi afarbo kronkron yi maw’, O Nyankopon, midzi tuntun wu, na midzi ka m’Agyinkwa dedew nu wun’, na midzi daw’ asi wo nhyira a idzi egu w’Asor, onyi w’Asormba nyinara a, wowo sur onyi asasi, du ntsi.

Prayer: The priest prays that through the good example of the apostles, the Christians may grow in the name of the Lord and show in their life that they are his true followers.

Nsempa (Evangelium) [Gospel]: The priest stands before the cross and reads the Gospel. Prayer: He thanks God for heavenly gift and prays all people join the one Church to listen to the consolatory words together.

Migye Nyankupon (Credo) [I believe in God] Ntuhhye kronkron (Offertorium) [Offertory]: In one common prayer, both bread and wine are offered.

Orate Fratres (Prefatium) [After washing his hands the priest turns to the people and says: Enuanom humunsor. [Pray brothers]. The full version is missing. There is no mention whether he finishes saying it or not, but that he turns to the altar again and says the Preface.

Sanctus

Panu ni Nsakyir (Consecratio) [Consecration of bread]: The only words here are: Hoc est Corpus meum. Iyi nye me honam. [This is my body]. Between the consecration of the bread and wine is a prayer. Weyin ni Nsakyir (Hic est Sanguis meis). [This is my blood]. The same short prayer is said after the elevation of the consecrated wine. Nsakyir Kronkron ekyir [After the Consecration]. Pater Noster: Hen Egya a iwo sur. [Our Father in Heaven]: There is a prayer before the recitation of The Lord’s Prayer. Kronkron Edzidzi (Communio) [Communion]: The priest holds the Body of Christ and says; Domine non sum dingus: O Ewuradzi mimfata (O Lord, I am not worthy). He consumes the Body of Christ and then drinks the precious Blood too. Then follows a short prayer which ends with the following words: Ewurade mimfata, de Iwu beba me ho. Na ka awerehyem asem. Na mi kra hu besan.(Lord, I am not worthy, that you should come to me. But speak the words of comfort. And my soul shall be healed). Womma yenye Asor (Oremus) [Prayer after Communion]: The priest says the post communion prayer after which he imparts the final blessing. Nhyira (Benedictio) [Blessing]: No form of blessing is indicated, but there is a short prayer. Nothing is mentioned about the dismissal, regarding how the priest dismisses the congregation and its corresponding response.223

The foregoing order of Mass shows some omissions, in the sense that it does not appear to cover the details of the order of Mass, especially the Eucharistic Prayer. Such is an example of the type of translation described by Brother Pius as “semi-translation of the skeleton aspect of the ritual of the Mass carried out by selected teachers in the local languages”224. By those

223 MAXIMILIANI, Mfantsifu hon Asor Buku, 42–60. The English translation is my own. 224 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015.

75 words he meant it was not the whole Mass that was translated but selected parts that would help the people to sing and respond in participation of the Mass. Until then, it was all done by the priest alone with very little or no participation by the people. The scanty translations, carried out, permitted the people to have a little bit of participation in the liturgy.

Noteworthy is the translation of the response to the “the Lord be with you”, which reads “Na onyi wu sunsum ntsi, meaning “And with your spirit”. For we find it corresponding accurately to the original Latin version of “Et cum spiritu tuo”225.

2.1.2. The “Morning Mass” – Morning Prayers

This topic refers to the morning prayers taught by the Catechists. Such prayers were translated either from Latin or English and the people were encouraged to learn them by heart. Those prayers brought the people together in the morning in the same manner as the Mass did. They came together every morning in the absence of the priest to recite those prayers. Out of illiteracy and ignorance, they could not distinguish between those prayers and the Mass. Therefore, they referred to the meeting of the people for Morning Prayers as “the Morning Mass”. As informed by Brother Pius, because they considered the Mass as “coming together and saying the translated prayers, they had special Morning Prayers called the ‘Morning Mass’ and also some Evening Prayers”226. What they called Morning Mass was, in actual fact, not the Mass in the right sense of the word, but Morning and Evening Prayers led by either a Catechist or one of the leaders of the local Church. The so-called Morning Mass had the following order:

225 Missale Romanum: Ex Decreto Sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini. Editio XIII Justa Typicam Vaticanam, Ratisbonae 1930, 250. This comparison is made with the greetings to the Preface on page 250. 226 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4July 2015.

English Akan The sign of the cross: In the name of the Agya no, ne }ba no, ne Sunsum Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Kronkron no din mu. {ny[ h] Spirit. Amen Prayer: My God, I believe that you are Nyankop]n, megye di yie s[ wow] everywhere […]. mmaa nyinaa […]. The Lord’s Prayer Awurade Mpae[ The Angel’s Greetings: Hail, Mary }b]fo] Nkyea: Mo, Mary The Apostles’ Creed Asomafo] Gyedie Onyankop]n Mmara The Ten Commandments of God As]re Mmara The Six Chief Commandments of the

Church: Gyedie Adey] Act of Faith: Anidaso] Adey] Act of Hope: }d] Adey] Act of Love Jesus din Kronkron Ab]din The Litany of the Holy Name of Jesus Mpae[ Prayer }b]fo] Amaneb].227 Angelus: In the above order of service, we discovered a slight disparity between the English and Akan versions with three titles, namely the “Angel’s Greetings”, “the Ten Commandments of God” and the “Six Chief Commandments of the Church”. The title “Angel’s Greetings” is my personal translation of the Akan title “}b]fo] Nkyea”, while the English version from the Simple Prayer Book is just “Hail Mary”, which is only the first two words of the prayer. The Akan version, capturing the Angel Gabriel’s announcement of the birth of Jesus to Mary (Luke 1: 26-38)228, in a clearer sense, suggests an evidence of a biblical source of the texts in the Morning Prayer. Next, the word “Ten” is not captured in the translated version of the “Ten Commandments of God”. In spite these few variations, the contents are all similar. The Evening Prayer, too, has the following order: The sign of the Cross Act of Contrition Confiteor Prayer Prayer for those in need of prayers

227 The Akan version can be found in two books; CATHOLIC MISSION PRESS, Fantse Catholic As]r Na Nwom Buukuu (The Fante Hymnal), Cape Coast 1991, 1–8; and, CATECHETICS OFFICE, ARCHDIOCESE OF KUMASI, Asante Mpaeb] Nnwoma (The Asante Prayer Book), Kumasi 2013, 68–69. The English equivalent from it found in: A Simple Prayer Book, London 1886, 7. 228 Holy Bible: NRSV, 1900-1901.

The Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary Song: Into your hands, O Lord, I commend my spirit Hail, Holy Queen.229 Though it is not indicated, from which source it was translated, certain determining factors suggest that the prayers may have been translated from a Latin source, rather than an English one. A typical example is the “Hail, Holy Queen”, of which the Akan translation “Mo }hemaa”, conforms more to the Latin version of “Regina Caeli” than the English version. The English version contains the word “Holy” qualifying the “Queen”, but it is neither found in the original Latin version nor the Akan translation. This presupposes that the latter may have been directly translated from the former, rather the English version.

2.1.3. Sunday Service without a Priest – Kwasiada Som A }s]fo] Nka ho

Sunday Service without a priest is a Sunday liturgical celebration, led by a lay leader in the absence of a priest. Prior to Vatican II, there were only a few priests in Ghana, but many outstations had been created. Those outstations were under the leadership of the Church presidents and the prayer services were handled by the Catechists. In places where there were no Catechists, the Church presidents were acting as the catechists. Due to lack of priests, it was just not possible for every outstation to have a priest for a Mass every Sunday. A priest would, for instance, visit every outstation once in a month or two months. In order to be able to have a service in every outstation on Sundays, a book called Sunday Service without a Priest was issued. In an interview with Rev. Brother Pius Agyemang, he described the structure of the service in question as being “like the Mass except the consecration”230. Though we could not have any original copy in the Cape Coast archives, we are able to find evidence of the order of this Sunday Service without a priest in the Asante Mpaeb] and the Fante Hymnal, which have already been mentioned in the previous sub-topic. In the Asante Mpaeb], the title is: Kwasiada ne nnap]nna as]re a w]y[ ber[ a }s]fo] nni h]231 (Service on Sundays and Holidays of Obligation in the Absence of a Priest), whereas in the Fante Hymnal

229 CATHOLIC MISSION PRESS, Fantse Catholic As]r na Ndwom Buukuu (Fante Catholic Hymnal), Cape Coast 1991, 10–16: CATECHETICS OFFICE, ARCHDIOCESE OF KUMASI, Asante Mpaeb], 72–74. 230 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015. 231 CATECHETICS OFFICE, ARCHDIOCESE OF KUMASI, Asante Mpaeb] Nnwoma, 57–68.

78 it is entitled Kwesida Nye Afedzida Somy[bea a S]fo Nnka ho232 (The Order of Service on Sundays and Feast Days without the Priest). Both of them refer to the same service but expressed in slightly different words. That of the Asante Mpaeb] appears more elaborate and refined, probably because the Fante Hymnal preceded it in history. Nevertheless, one thing that is clear is that both of the copies in our possession now are reproductions of the original copies. We shall now endeavour to line up the order of service in both books in order to strike the difference, if there is any. FANTE HYMNAL ASANTE MPAEB} OPENING OPENING Sign of the Cross The leader and his helpers move in a procession to the altar and bow to the cross. Then the service begins with a song. Sign of the Cross Greetings: The leader greets the people with the traditional method of the Mass just that he includes himself. Instead of “be with you”, he says “be in us now and forever”. Introduction: The leader introduces the theme of the day. Examination of conscience Examination of Conscience and Confiteor Confiteor Absolution Absolution Kyrie Kyrie Song of Praise or Gloria Song of Praise or the Gloria Prayer of the Faithful Opening Prayer LITURGY OF THE WORD LITURGY OF THE WORD - First Reading First Reading - Song Responsorial Psalm - Second Reading Second Reading -Gospel: Introduced and concluded Gospel in the same way as the priest or Homily deacon does at Mass. Credo Homily Sign of Peace: After the Profession Prayer of the Faithful of Faith, the leader explains thus:

232 CATHOLIC MISSION PRESS, Fantse Catholic Asor Na Ndwom Buukuu, 312–317.

THANKSGIVING SERVICE Brothers and sisters, it is now time Offertory Song to bring our offering, our collection Collection: When the collection has and other kinds of gifts to the been brought before the altar, the Lord’s altar. The Lord has said, if leader invites the people to prayer you are bringing your offering and with the similar words as it is in the remember that you do not get on Mass. well with somebody else, go first to Pray brothers and sisters that our reconcile with him or her, before sacrifice […]. you come and offer your gift. Response: May the Lord accept the Therefore, before we bring our sacrifice at your hands […]. collection and other offering before Prayer over the Gifts the altar, let us be true to ourselves, Preface and Thanksgiving Prayer and say in our hearts that we drop (The preface is the same as it is in all hatred against anybody before the Mass, but the ensuing the Lord, and that we forgive all thanksgiving prayer is structured who have offended us. Let us give differently in a prayer is in a one another the peace of Christ to responsorial form between the prove that we are true to our word. leader and the faithful until the THANKSGIVING SERVICE “Holy, holy […]”). Song Sanctus: Same as in the Mass. Collection: The collection and other There is an option for any song of gifts are brought before the altar and praise or thanksgiving. the leader prays over them. The Song prayer is chosen either from the The Lord’s Prayer: Our Father […]. Sunday Missal or the book of Prayer of deliverance as in the Mass Services. Prayer for Peace as in the Mass Thanksgiving Prayer Sign of Peace as in the Mass The leader says: brothers and CONCLUSION sisters, lift up your hearts. They Concluding Prayer respond, “we lift them up to the Announcements Lord. He then says “let us give Blessing: The leader greets the thanks to the Lord, our God”. The people in the same manner as the response is the same as at Mass. priest does. He, however, does not The ensuing prayer is in a bless the people, but invokes the responsorial form between the blessing of God on all of them, leader and the faithful until the signing himself in the process. “Holy, holy […]”. Dismissal: He then dismisses them Sanctus or any appropriate song of by saying: Let us go to love and thanksgiving. serve God. And the people respond: Prayer of the Faithful Thanks be to God. SPIRITUAL COMMUNION The Lord’s Prayer Two optional forms of Prayer of Spiritual Communion based on

Recessional Song233 John 6:51,53–56 and Psalm 63: 1– 9. Concluding Prayer Announcements Blessing: The words for the blessing are different from those in the Mass. Dismissal234

The first noticeable difference between the order of service in the above two books is the length. The one in the Asante Mpaeb] is longer than that of the Fante Hymnal, chiefly because, the former has more elaborate and self-explanatory rubrics than the latter. The second difference is positions of the Prayer of the Faithful and the Sign of Peace. In the Asante Mpaeb] the Prayer of the Faithful and the Sign of Peace have swapped positions, whereas the Fante Hymnal maintains them as they stay in the order of Mass. The Fante Hymnal has two types of the Prayer of the Faithful, one before the Liturgy of the Word and the other after the Profession of Faith. The sign of peace coming before the collection in the Asante Mpaeb] is an adaptation in compliance with the words of Jesus in Matthew 5:24, and as vividly indicated by the rubrics that one must examine oneself and reconcile with one’s adversaries before offering one’s gifts235. By so doing, one goes ahead to the offertory with a clean heart. Everybody has forgiven and has been forgiven as they share the peace of Christ with one another. The third difference is the inclusion of the prayers for Spiritual Communion in Asante Mpaeb], enabling the worshipping community to draw strength from a scriptural source in the absence of a priest. The fourth difference is the greetings preceding the preface. The Fante Hymnal keeps the form in the Mass, while the Asante Mpaeb] omits “the Lord be with you”.

233 CATHOLIC MISSION PRESS, Fantse Catholic Asor Na Ndwom Buukuu, 312–317. 234 CATECHETICS OFFICE, ARCHDIOCESE OF KUMASI, Asante Mpaeb], 57–68. 235 CATECHETICS OFFICE, ARCHDIOCESE OF KUMASI, Asante Mpaeb], 61–62. The Akan version is as follows: Anuanom, afei mmer[ aduru s[ y[de y[n ay[y]de[, y[n ntoboa, ne y[n aky[de[ ahodo] ba Awirade af]repono anim. Na Awirade aka s[, obiara a woreb[b] af]de[ na wokae[ s[ wo ne wo nua bi ay[ aka anaas[, wo ne no nkasa a san k] fie na k]siesie mo ntam ansa na woab[b] af]de[ no [...].

In our opinion, both structures were well thought out, despite the difference in positions in the order of service. They were and are still useful in the sense that by following the order of Mass with the exception of consecration and physical Communion, they provide some order of worship for the people in the absence of a priest. Moreover, they provide opportunity for the people to get used to the responses in the order of Mass, to hear the Word of God and to pray on their own.

2.1.4. Lectionaries – Booklets used by Catechists

Lectionaries, in this sub-topic, refer to the booklets containing the selected passages of the Word of God read at Mass or at any other liturgical service. In order to enable the Missionaries carry out their work of Evangelisation and consolidation of the outstations they had created, more books and booklets were created. We have already seen in the previous sub-topic that booklets were produced for the Sunday Service without a priest. In a similar manner, booklets containing the Word of God were also created and translated, to enable the local faithful to hear the Word of God. Such booklets were created, especially for use by the Catechists, in leading the local people in the absence of a priest. Even in the presence of the priest, it was from them that the Scripture readings for the Mass were read. An evidence of such booklets found in the archives of the Archdiocese of Cape Coast are the books called Bible Mu Ns[m236 (Words from the Bible) and Epistles and Gospels for all Sundays and Feasts of the Year237. A sample will be taken from each of those two books. The Bible Mu Ns[m contains a selection of translated readings from the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. They are meticulously arranged with illustrations to enable the readers have a graphic picture of the corresponding stories and messages. Below is a copy of a page from the booklet.

236 Francis S. CUDJOE, trans., Bible mu Ns[m Ntsiantsia: Ahy[mu Dada }nye Fofor no }nye As]r Ho Ns[m (A Short Bible History: the Old and the New Testament and the Church History), Cape Coast 1931. 237 CATHOLIC MISSION PRESS, Epistles and Gospels for all Sundays and Feasts of the Year, Cape Coast 1928.

238 The page depicts a scene of the creation stories in the first chapter of the book of Genesis with only the first verse and part of the second. The illustration at the bottom depicts God, the Creator in his throne with a host of angles around him and below them are the some of the first creatures, including first two human beings, Adam and Eve. The literal English translation of the words of the verse one above is as follows: In the beginning, God created heaven and earth. The world was dark and formlessly void. Then God said, “let there be light”; and there was light. That was the first day. On the second day, God said, “let there be sky, and it was so.239 We shall now take a second instance from the first page of the “Epistles and Gospels for all Sundays and Feasts of the Year”. Though the title of the book is in English, the contents are

238 CUDJOE, trans., Bible mu Ns[m Ntsiantsia, 5. The words of Genesis 1:1 appear to be a summary as compared to the version in the New Revised Standard Version, New York 2011, 3. This is an evidence of the scanty selection of biblical for translation into Akan for the local people. 239 My personal translation of the Akan version.

83 in the vernacular. The following image shows chapter one and the beginning of chapter two of the Gospel According Matthew, translated in Akan language as early as 1928.

240

240 CATHOLIC MISSION PRESS, Epistles and Gospels for all Sundays and Feasts of the Year, Cape Coast 1928, 1.

To sum up, the page covers accounts the genealogical tree of Jesus Christ and his birth. The two booklets are in two different dialects of the Akan language. The Bible Mu Ns[m is in Fante, while the Epistles and the Gospels, is in Akuapem. In spite of their dialectical differences, both of them could be read in any Akan congregation to their understanding. Such were the books and booklets used in the Liturgy of the Word both at Mass and other liturgical services with or without a priest. Another book that was used as a lectionary, which we consulted at the archives of the Archdiocese of Cape Coast was Yen Awurade ne yen Agyenkwa Iesu Kristo Apam Fofor], The New Testament of Our Lord Jesus Christ. It was translated by J. G. Christaller of the Basel Evangelical Mission from the original Greek into the Asante and Fante called TSHI in Gold Coast in West Africa and published in London in the year 1917241. The spelling of the word TSHI presupposes that the translation was done by an expatriate, who may have written it the way he heard or pronounced the words. The right spelling is Twi. As the name suggests, it contained the books of the New Testament. It was used for the Gospel and Epistle readings at Mass or any other liturgical service.

We had access to yet another booklet entitled Mmofra Anyames[m mu Nkyer[kyer[mu a {di kan literally meaning, the First Explanation of the Doctrine for Children. On the front cover, however, the following English words are attached to the title as though it was the direct translation: “an adaptation of Book 1 of the Catholic Faith explained – Catholic University of America”242. The English words, rather point to the source of the booklet in question, that it was adapted from the book entitled “Catholic Faith Explained”, published in the Catholic University of America. It was then translated by a group of priests and lay teachers, whose names were not mentioned, and the permission to be printed, known as Imprimatur was

241 “TSHI” refers to some of the Akan dialects like the Akuapem, Fante, Asante, Bono and so on. The current spelling for the word is Twi and not Tshi. Gold Coast, was the name given to Ghana by the Colonial masters, since it was discovered to be a land of gold along the West African Coast. The country Ghana bore that name its independence in 1957. It was changed from Gold Coast to Ghana by the first President, Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah after independence. 242 CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA, Mmofra Anyames[m mu Nkyer[kyer[mu a {di kan: an Adaptation of Book 1 of the Catholic Faith Explained, (trans. A group of Priests and lay Teachers), Glasgow and London 1956. This is the detailed title on the front cover.

85 granted by Bishop Joseph O. Bowers243. It was adapted and simplified to the level understanding of children and published in Glasgow and London in 1956. It contains the explanation of Prayer and of the seven Sacraments in the form of questions and answers. It also contains the explanation to other aspects of the Catholic Faith, for instance the three virtues of Faith, Hope and Love244. The explanation of the Seven Sacraments, which falls within our scope of study, occupies pages 42 to 55. In a simple manner, the booklet explains the theology and form of Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Extreme Unction245, Ordination and Matrimony.

2.1.5. Para-liturgical Services - Benediction

In the period before Vatican II, devotional services or the para-liturgical services were also performed in the Akan speaking areas in Ghana. One of the books used for such devotional prayers or para-liturgical services was the Benedictionale246, which was published as early as 1930. The texts for exposition and benediction of the Blessed Sacrament were taken from this book, of which the language was Latin. Though the local Christians couldn’t understand Latin, they were taught to sing and respond to the Latin hymns by heart. There were fixed or unchangeable hymns that the priest and people sang together during the worship of the Blessed Sacrament, like the O salutaris hostia, Tantum ergo, Sacramentum and Adoremus in aeternum. Laudate Dominum omnes gentes247. The following table contains an example of the Latin hymns for benediction found in the Benedictionale. O Salutaris Hostia O saving Victim, opening wide Quae caeli pandis ostium, The gate of heaven to man below; Bella premunt hostilia, Our foes press on from every side;

243 Bishop Joseph O. Bowers was the first black Bishop of Ghana. Born in the Caribbean Island, he joined the Divine Word Missionaries (SVD). He worked in the United States of America as a priest and Bishop. From there he was transferred to Ghana, where worked as the Bishop of Accra from 1953 to 1971, when he was appointed the Bishop of St. John’s, Virgin Islands (British), according to: http://www.catholic- hierarchy.org/bishop/bbowers.html, [Accessed: 5 April 2015].

244 CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA, Mmofra Anyames[m , 43ff. 245 IBID., 54. Ngosra a Edi Akyiri (literally, the Last Anointing, also meaning the ‘Extreme Unction’) was the term used for the Sacrament of the Sick before Vatican II. 246 J. B. O’CONNELL, Benedictionale: Ritus in Expositione Et Benedictione SSmi Sacramenti Servandus, Turnhout 1930. 247 IBID., 10–12.

Da robur, fer auxilium. your aid supply, your strength bestow.

Uni trinoque Domino To your great name be endless praise, Sit sempiterna gloria, immortal Godhead, one in three; O Qui vitam sine termino grant us endless length of days in our Nobis donet in patria. Amen248. true native land with thee249.

The above hymn “O Salutaris Hostia”, opened the order of the Benediction. The remaining headings include: Tantum Ergo (Therefore we) Panem de Caelo Praestitisti eis (You have given them bread from heaven) Oremus (Let us pray) Benediction with the Blessed Sacrament in the monstrance The Divine Praises (written in English) Post Benediction hymns Antiphon: Adoremus in aeternum Sanctissimum Sacramentum. (Let us adore forever the most Holy Sacrament.) Laudate Dominum Omnes gentes (O Praise the Lord, all you nations) Antiphon: The same antiphon is repeated as above; Adoremus in aeternum.250

The frequent use of those Latin hymns for Benediction got the local Christians so accustomed to them that even in the post Vatican II era people still associated them with the benediction of the Blessed Sacrament as though they were immutable. This is what Pius Agyemang referred to when he said: “These things are still being perpetuated as if they are unchangeable. Whenever you go for any Benediction and there is no O Salutaris, it seems that, that Benediction is not valid. It is not true”251. It was and still looks like Benediction without Latin songs loses its validity or spiritual impact on the participants, since most parishes always automatically fall on the Latin instead of the translated version. Both Peter Kwasi Sarpong and Pius Agyemang agree that the songs of the Benediction were already translated before Vatican II. It is not only the ‘O Salutaris hostia but Tantum Ergo, Panem de Caelo praestitisti eis, and its ensuing prayer sung in solo by the priest, Laudate Dominum Omnes gentes were

248 O’CONNELL, Benedictionale, 10. 249 English translation from: Catholic Truth Society, A Simple Prayer Book, London 1994, 28. 250 J. B. O’Connell, Benedictionale, 10–12. For the Akan translation, confer, Asante Mpaeb] Nwoma, Kumasi 2013, 49–52. The first edition of this book came out in 1960, and the current one is the 5th edition. The English translation is also from the Simple Prayer Book, 28–31. 251 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015.

87 all translated and used before Vatican II. The evidence is found in the Asante Mpaeb], which is already cited above. Though English and Akan translations252 existed before and after Vatican II, most people preferred and still prefer the Latin version.

2.1.6. The Sacraments

The Sacraments did not appear to have separate books in the vernacular before Vatican II. According to Peter Sarpong, “all the Sacraments were administered in Latin, except marriage because of its nature”253. He meant that due to the implications of this lifelong commitment coming into being with the exchange of consent, the partners needed to understand what they were saying. To meet the pastoral needs of the early missionaries in Ghana, some hand books and booklets were issued. One of such booklets, which dealt exclusively with one Sacrament, was the Vade Mecum of the Fante Confessor, issued by Mgr. Joseph Strebler in 1937254. A copy was available at the archives of the Archdiocese of Cape Coast. We shall consider it as an example for all the other Sacraments. The booklet, which bears the title Vade Mecum of the Fante Confessor, was published in Cape Coast. It was primarily a study manual for young priests and a refresher course for the older priests.

The Vade Mecum of the Fante Confessor was intended to assist the young European missionaries of Ghana in their preparation to administer the Sacrament of Reconciliation. It contains a detailed examination of conscience in both English and Fante in the form of 123 questions. The two languages are arranged in two columns, English on the left and Fante on the right. The text was so literally translated that both languages exactly correspond. The sequence of the questions and answers is the Commandments of God, the Commandments of the Church, and the capital sins. It also contains the form of Confession, preceded by preparatory prayers such as Prayer to the Holy Spirit, and the Prayer to the Blessed Virgin

252 The Akan translation of that Latin hymn is: 1. O Nkwagye Af]reb]de[ a. Wobue soro pon ma nnipad]m. Atamfo atwa y[n ho ahyia. Fa wo mmoa ne aho]den ma y[n. 2. Baasafua kronkron, Nyamekor], ay[yi nka wo daa nyinaa. O ma y[n nkwa a [nni awiee[, na y[ ne Wo ntena y[n fie. {ny[ h]. This translation existed before Vatican II. Confer: Asante Mpaeb] Nwoma, Kumasi 2013, 49. The first edition of this book came out in 1960, and the current one is the 5th edition. 253 SARPONG, a recorded interview, Kumasi 8 July 2014. 254 Joseph STREBLER, Vade Mecum of the Fanti Confessor, Cape Coast 1937. This was one of the books and booklets we found in the archives of the Archdiocese of Cape Coast on 6th and 7th August 2015.

Mary, and followed by post confessional prayers, such as Perfect Contrition and the Prayer to Jesus the Son of God. A provision has also been made for “a short form of Confession in Ewe, Ga, Nzima, Twi and Ashanti”255. The form of Confession in the booklet is as follows: 1. The penitent approaches the priest and says: “Pray, Father, give me your blessing, for I have sinned”. 2. Confiteor: I confess to Almighty God, to blessed Mary ever a Virgin, to blessed Michael the Archangel, to blessed John the Baptist, the holy Apostles Peter and Paul, to all the saints, and to you, Father, that I have sinned exceedingly in thought, word and deed, through my fault, through my fault, through my most grievous fault. 3. The penitent now begins his or her Confession thus: “Since my last Confession, it is about […] days, weeks, months, years. I have offended Almighty God again”. He or she continues to say all his or her sins. 4. All said and done, the penitent concludes thus: “Of these and all my other sins which I cannot at present call to my remembrance, I humbly accuse myself, am heartily sorry for them and beg pardon of God and of you, my ghostly father”. 5. Having completed this, the penitent continues the Confiteor. 6. “Therefore I beseech the blessed Mary, ever a Virgin, blessed Michael, the Archangel, blessed John the Baptist, the holy Apostles Peter and Paul, and all the Saints, and you, father, to pray to the Lord, our God for me.” 7 Then the advice, absolution and the prescription of penance for the penitent’s sins from the priest follow. 8. After that, the Confessor says to the penitent: “Say the act of contrition”. 9. When the act of contrition is over, the Priest will say: “Go in peace and sin no more”.256

The above form of Confession is an evidence of how the Sacrament of Penance or Reconciliation was administered in the pre-Vatican II period in Ghana. As already pointed out the Akan translation was on the opposite column of the English version. As a manual of study for the expatriates, explanation of certain idioms, language difficulties and vocabulary containing all the words used in the booklet were provided in the latter pages. In his thesis, Joseph Kwaku Afrifah Agyekum identified one more booklet from the archives of the Urban University library in Rome, named Vade Mecum for the Care of the Sick257. According to him, the small booklet, known as the ritual for the sick and the dying was issued by Mgr. Hummel in 1921. The purpose of issuing this booklet was to assist the priest and the

255 STREBLER, Vade Mecum, 5. 256 IBID., 8–10. 257 AFRIFAH-AGYEKUM, The History of the Liturgical Life of the Church in Ghana, 72.

89 faithful to fulfill the pastoral needs for the sick and dying. For the description of the booklet, we quote directly from him: This booklet consists of two parts. The first part deals with the help one can give to the sick and prepare the person for death. Part Two is meant for those who attend the dying and this is put under the last Sacraments, a) penance, b) holy viaticum and c) extreme unction. There are three other prayers for the last blessing, the last agony and after death and pages 17-19 are suggestions for assistance that can be given to non-Catholics, plus morning and evening prayers.258 The use of this little booklet shows that the early missionaries did not leave out the care for the sick and the dying in their pastoral ministry. Besides the Vade Mecum of the Fante Confessor and the Vade Mecum for the Sick and the Dying, which dealt with the Sacraments of Penance and the Anointing of the Sick respectively, all the Sacraments were contained in the different Catechism books as well.

2.1.7. Catechism Books

In the period before Vatican II, the missionaries experienced the initial problem of language barrier in their teachings and administration of the Sacraments. Much effort was, however, put in place to translate the texts into the vernacular and to involve the local leaders to undertake certain roles, such as the teaching of Catechism. Rev. Fr. Auguste Moreau, one of the first two missionaries, who arrived in Ghana on 18th May 1880, is credited with the composition of the first Catechism in Fante language.259 Though he lived only for 6 years in Ghana before his death in 1886, he is known to have been the first person to have translated the Epistles and Gospels for Sunday and Feast days into the Fante language. More refined attempts were made later.

After the pioneer attempt of Fr. Moreau, the first edition of an English Fante Catechism was published in Germany with the title: English Fanti Catechism of the Christian Doctrine. This is the title printed on the front cover of the booklet. In the inside page, the title is printed in both English and Fanti. It reads Katolik Mfantsi Katechism (Catholic Catechism of Christian Doctrine). As a booklet of 133 pages it was arranged in two columns, the English text on one

258 AFRIFAH-AGYEKUM, The History of the Liturgical Life of the Church in Ghana, 72. 259 IBID., 33.

90 page and the Fante translation on the opposite page. It is divided into three parts. The first part, subdivided into eight chapters, deals with Beliefs. The second part, made up of three chapters, is under the title of Morals. Grace is the title of the third part, consisting of three chapters. The entire Catechism is the product of the collaborative work of the priests of Gold Coast. The translation into Fanti, however, was carried out single-handedly by Francis H. Cobbinah, then a School Master. The Imprimatur was granted in 1906 by Mgr. Ignatius, the then Vicar Apostolic of the Vicariate of Gold Coast260.

Many pioneer editions, published afterwards, were found in the archives of the Archdiocese of Cape Coast, but not all of them can be cited here, as some have lost parts of their printing information, while others have either lost their readability with some words eaten by insect pests or obscured by deep colouring of dirt. A few more examples will be enough to prove that the translation of catechetical materials was also undertaken in Ghana prior to the Second Vatican Council. A much later catechism entitled, Katorek Mfantse Katekisim Ketseaba, literally meaning “A Small Catholic Fante Catechism”, was published at Cape Coast in 1946261. It is a small light red booklet of which the first eighteen pages contain prayers, while the remaining thirty-eight contain Catechism questions and answers numbering up to 160. The theology of the Sacraments is simply dealt with in the form of questions and answers. Questions 143 to 160, for instance deal with the Sacraments of the Holy Eucharist, The Last Anointing (Extreme Unction), Ordination and Matrimony.

Another Catechism booklet found in the archives of the Archdiocese of Cape Coast is entitled, A Catechism for Adults, of which the authorship is accredited to Rev. William J. Cogan262. Like many of the early catechism books, the Catechism for Adults is also in the

260 In the early missionary period, from 1880 onwards, the Catholic Church in the whole of Ghana used be one vicariate with Cape Coast as its See. Gold Coast was the name given to by the colonial masters, because huge deposits of gold were discovered in that land. So, the Church in Ghana used be known as Vicariate of Gold Coast. 261 W.T. PORTER, Katorek Mfantse Katekisim Ketseaba (A Small Catholic Fante Catechism), Cape Coast 1946. 262 William J. COGAN, A Catechism For Adults, Chicago 1958.

Fante language. Just like the others it also consists of the Catholic teaching on morals, faith and salvation.

The latest among the pre-Vatican II Catechism books found in the archives of the Archdiocese of Cape Coast is entitled, Mfantse Na Bor]fo Katekisim Fofor No (The New Fante-English Catechism), published in Dublin, Ireland in 1962263 just on the eve of Vatican II. Like some of the preceding editions, it is arranged in two columns, with the English version on the left, while the Fante version is on the opposite page. It consists of questions and answers set up under three sections of Faith Morals and Salvation. We cite here the Extreme Unction of Chapter 19 as an example. 264. What is the Sacrament of Extreme Unction? The Sacrament of Extreme Unction is the anointing of the sick with holy oil, accompanied with prayer.

“Is any man sick among you? Let him bring in the priests of the Church and let them pray for him with oil in the Name of the Lord, and the prayer of Faith shall save the man, and the Lord shall raise him up; and if he be in sins, they shall be forgiven him” (James 5, 14˗15).264 As the above quotation shows, the biblical base is cited to support each topic under discussion. The liturgical aspect of this Sacrament is in the question number 268, which shows how the Extreme Unction is administered: How does the priest give the Extreme Unction? The answer is: In giving Extreme Unction, the Priest anoints with holy oil the eyes, ears, nose, lips, hands, feet and loins (rarely), of the sick person, while saying a prayer: “By this anointing and through His most render mercy, may the Lord pardon thee whatever sins thou hast committed by seeing,” etc.[sic].265 The “etc” at the end of the prayer presupposes that the prayer was not complete and that there could be more to it. Nevertheless, the little amount of words given is enough to teach the

263 John Kwadwo AMISSAH, Mfantse Na Bor]fo Katekisim Fofor No (The New Fante-English Catechism), Dublin 1962. 264 AMISSAH, Mfantse Na Bor]fo Katekisim Fofor, 98. This example can be found on page 98, chapter 19 and number 264. Beneath the answer is a quotation from the Letter of James as the biblical background for this Sacrament. 265 AMISSAH, Mfantse Na Bor]fo Katekisim Fofor, 98.

92 catechumens how the Sacrament was administered. In a similar way, it gives us, too, a clue to how the Sacrament of Penance was performed prior to Vatican II.

In general, all the Catechisms followed the method of questions and answers. They similarly followed one sequence: Chief Truths, Beliefs, Morals and Salvation. Under beliefs, for instance, are all the simple teachings concerning the Trinitarian God, God the Creator, the birth, suffering, death and resurrection of Jesus, the Holy Ghost and the Catholic Church. The Catechism booklets added up to the liturgical documents or books in Ghana before Vatican II, as they contained the teachings of the basic truths and how the Sacraments were administered.

2.2. Problems Related to the Development of the Pre-Vatican II Liturgical Books

Like every beginning, there were bound to be problems with the development of liturgical books in the Akan speaking area of Ghana, as the early Missionaries were all expatriate, who entered the mission land with languages different from those spoken by the natives. Moreover, the people to be evangelized were almost all illiterates. Therefore, the high rate of illiteracy posed as a big obstacle in the progress of the work carried out by the early missionaries. Though the problems were many, we would like to highlight only two, the language barrier and the lack of liturgical materials.

2.2.1. The Language Barrier for the Expatriate Priests

The Latin language was a problem for the priests as well as the faithful. The priests themselves did not know it very well. Therefore, it was very difficult for them to instruct the people to know it. It was equally difficult for them to impart the message of the Word of God to the understanding of the people and thus the language barrier had a negative effect on the development of the faith of the local people. Moreover, expatriates as they were, they did not know the language of the local people and were, therefore, unable to use it in their ministries. Those, who managed to learn it too, did not know it well enough to make a good impact with it in their ministry. For, they were unable to express themselves clear enough in that language.

The second problem was that the language being used in the liturgy was Latin. So, the liturgical books could not be expected to be understood by the common people. Owing to the language barrier, the people were more of spectators than participants at Mass and other liturgical services. That is what Pius Agyemang meant by saying; “before Vatican II we were all blind. Whatever, the priest would give us is what we were doing”266. Illiteracy on the part of the local people, too, posed also as a big problem for the development of the liturgical books in the vernacular. If there were plenty of local literates, who could read and write the vernacular and the language of the missionaries, they could have helped to do the translation much earlier and faster than it was done.

2.2.2. Lack of Liturgical Materials

The early missionaries were faced with many other difficulties, one of which was in the area of the liturgy. Inadequacy of liturgical materials was one of the biggest challenges, since they all had to be imported from Europe, including: chalice, ciboria, hosts, Mass wine, liturgical books, candles, altar cloths and so on. One of the Missionaries, Fr. Auguste Moreau, is said to have written to express these concerns to their mission procurator in Lyons. Here is an extract of the letter he wrote as captured by Joseph Afrifah Agyekum in his doctoral thesis and I quote: […] To the Island of St. Helena, we brought along what we took there from Lyons (1874). We had only the Sacred vestments for saying Mass at sea and a ciborium. That is all we brought to the Gold Cold Coast. I have a chalice but if I have to leave I will take it along. Fr. Murat gave his out to his parish, thus, we are without chalice. It would be easy to send us altar cloth, amices, purificators, candles, Mass wine […], etc. There is a procurator in Lyons who was in the mission; he ought to know that we cannot start a new mission with nothing […].267 The shortage of or the lack of the proper materials needed for the ministry would definitely distract the attention of the missionaries from developing liturgical books in the native language. For, their priority might be with acquiring the appropriate materials before turning their attention to the translation of liturgical texts into vernacular. Even the distance between Europe and Ghana and the fact that ships were the only means of transport at the time could

266 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015. 267 AFRIFAH-AGYEKUM, The History of the Liturgical Life of the Church in Ghana, 87.

94 also constitute a great deal of anxiety and stress for the young missionaries. It would definitely take a long time before their orders arrived from Europe.

Conclusion

In the period before Vatican II, the liturgical books came to Ghana in the Latin, French and English languages. With the hard work of the early missionaries, like Fr. Auguste Moreau, translation into the native languages gradually took off. This pioneer effort resulted in the development of books and booklets in the vernacular, beginning with the Fante dialect of Akan. In spite of the initial problems regarding the liturgical materials and books, a significant number of books were published, either within Ghana or outside. Since most of the early missionary activities were concentrated in Cape Coast, which was the See to the Vicariate of Gold Coast, most the early translations were carried in the Fante dialect being the language of that locality. Even though, Asante and Bono are the Akan dialects spoken in the Ecclesiastical Province of Kumasi, the pre-Vatican II liturgical books were dominated by the Fante dialect. A few more books and booklets were later produced in Akuapem and Asante, both of which are Akan dialects.

In this chapter, we have so far explored the liturgical books that dealt with the Order of Mass, Order of Service in the Absence of a Priest, Order of Para-liturgical Services (Benediction), Morning and Evening Prayers. We also perused the Vade Mecum and Catechism books, enshrining the simplified doctrine of the Catholic Church, especially, the Sacraments. The next chapter will explore the stages, through which, the liturgical books were developed in the Ecclesiastical Province of Kumasi in Ghana after the Second Vatican Council.

CHAPTER THREE

3. The Stages of Translation and Adaptation of the Liturgical Texts in the Akan Language

Introduction

This chapter will deal with the stages through which the work of translation and adaptation, where possible, of the liturgical texts into the vernacular, which as we have seen in the previous chapters is Akan, and in particular Asante (Ashanti) Twi. All the mentioned terms can be used interchangeably, but they refer to the same language group. The area in Ghana, where Akan is spoken is much larger than the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. Though the stages may not have any sense of logical chronology, this chapter is set to have a retrospect into the period before and after Vatican II, identifying some stages through which the development of the liturgical books have passed and the challenges involved. It will also consider the contributions from National Liturgical Commission, the Liturgical Commission of the Archdiocese of Cape Coast, before being narrowed down to the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. Though the Province consists of 6 dioceses, examples from two of them will be considered, Sunyani and Kumasi, from which some documentation is available. The chapter will then end up with the challenges identified with those stages, especially within the Commissions and Committees, to which the task of translation and adaptation was entrusted.

It is worth noting that much of the data in this chapter is obtained through interviews with, and questionnaires sent to individuals in the Ecclesiastical Province of Kumasi, who either have the expertise or have been involved with the development of the liturgical books in the province as members of the translation, liturgical and catechetical commissions.

3.1. The Pre-Vatican II Era

This part of our study will deal with the period preceding the Second Vatican Council. It will, therefore, be helpful to recapture the previous two chapters in a few sentences. The liturgical books, as we have already seen in chapters one and two have passed through different stages and adaptations before reaching their current stage. The first chapter dealt with the liturgical

96 reforms and books in the Roman Catholic Church up to Vatican II, while the second chapter dealt exclusively with the liturgical books in the Akan speaking area of Ghana prior to Vatican II. In the second chapter, the traces of the first liturgical books in the said area of Ghana and their translations were explored. We saw, in particular, that the early efforts of translation of the catholic liturgical texts were carried out by Fr. Auguste Moreau of the Society of African Missionaries (SMA) in Ghana from 1880 to 1886. Fr. Moreau did some pioneer composition of the catholic catechism, and the translation of Epistle and Gospel readings for Sundays in the Fante language.

We discovered during our research in the archives of the Society of African Missionaries (SMA) that Fr. Moreau also composed hymns in Fante language, sung on the Pentecost Feast in 1881, in less than a year of his arrival in the Gold Coast. This exquisite exhibition of his poetic talent was narrated by Joseph Strebler in his historical notes of the Catholic Church in the Gold Coast268. Though we did not find copies of his pioneer books in the archives visited, it is believed that his efforts contributed to the development of the liturgical books in the Akan language long before Vatican II. We assume that some parts of his catechetical texts and hymns may have been incorporated in the later collections, though we have no evidence in this regard.

Our research in the archives of the Archdiocese of Cape Coast in Ghana has revealed that a prayer and hymn book preceded the pioneer efforts of Fr. Moreau. The book is entitled Atwifo Kristofo Asore ne Dwom: Liturgy and Hymns for the use of the Christian Churches on the Gold Coast269. However, this book which was printed in Basel was not just for the Roman Catholic Church, but rather for the Christians of the Gold Coast in general. It may have been

268 Joseph STREBLER, Histoire de l’Église Catholique à la Côte d’Or avec des documents supplémentaires, catalogued in the arichives of the Society of African Missionaries (SMA) in Rome as AMA 3N 12. Any subsequent reference to this document will be cited as AMA 3N 12. Mgr. Strebler puts it in French as follows: “[…] Quand le catéchisme fut terminé, le père essaya son art poétique et composa les premiers cantiques catholiques. A Pentecôte, en 1881, il y eut en conséquence, la première messe avec chant a Elmina […]ˮ. Cfr AMA 3N 12, pp. 87˗88. 269 Johann Gottlieb CHRISTALLER, Twi Dwom-Nhoma anase Atwifo Kristofo Asore Dwom: Tshi Hymn-Book or Liturgy and Hymns in the Asante and Fante Language called Tshi (Chwee, Twi), Basel 1883. The current spelling of the language is Twi. Tshi and chwee are the spelling used by the early missionaries, who obviously, wrote it according to how they heard it.

97 used by the Catholics before the composition and translation made by Fr. Auguste Moreau. Surprisingly, this 1883 edition of the hymn book was preceded by three editions of 1859, 1865 and 1878270. The book contains 319 pages. Like many of the liturgical books in Ghana before Vatican II, it is divided into two parts, A and B. Part ‘A’, consisting of 29 pages, is devoted to liturgy, while part ‘B’, covering pages 33 to 277, is for hymns. The liturgy section consists of “common prayer with responses of the Congregation, used in the Sunday Morning Services271. Other topics include, the litany, order and manner of Confirmation, Administration of baptism, of the Lord’s Supper, and solemnisation of Marriage and the Burial of the dead. The remaining pages from 278 to 319, consist of English index of the contents of this book (an index to the metres, tunes and remarks).

Published in Basel in 1883, the book has no clear indication of authorship. It may well be ascribed to Johann Gottlieb Christaller272, whose name is appended to page IV, which contains the explanation of the sound of the letters used in the Tshi language.

The pre-Vatican II stage of the development of the liturgical books is characterised by individual efforts. Apart from the early attempts mentioned above, there were some individuals, who took it upon themselves to do some translation of some liturgical texts. In an interview with Peter Kwasi Sarpong of Kumasi, he mentioned one Mr. Johnson as the one who translated the Tantum Ergo Sacramentum and O Salutaris Hostia from Latin into Ashante273. By these, he meant the traditional songs for the Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament, dealt with in the previous chapter. Peter Sarpong further added that some translations of the catholic catechism were done by the late Rev. Fr. Daniel Tawiah-Y[sere,

270 J. G. CHRISTALLER, Twi Dwom Nhoma, 302. 271 IBID. 278. 272 Johann Gottlieb CHRISTALLER (November 19, 1827 ̶ December 16, 1895) was a German missionary and philologist with the Basel Mission who made Twi the most important African literary language in what is now Ghana. With the help of two African colleagues, he translated the Bible into Twi. Dictionary of African Christian Biography, URL:http://www.dacb.org/stories/ghana/christaller_j.html [Accessed: 11 June 2016]. 273 SARPONG, a recorded interview, Kumasi, 7 August 2014. Mr. JOHNSON is said to be one of the few educated people in Ghana in the early missionary period, who helped the expatriate priests and served as their interpreters. There is no wonder that the translation of the traditional Latin songs for Benediction into vernacular called Ashanti or Asante. It is the Akan dialect spoken by the Ashantis in the Ashanti region of Ghana. It is also the main language so used in all liturgical services within the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi.

98 who also composed some liturgical songs in Ashanti274. However, due to lack of documentary evidence, the Archbishop could not remember the actual texts translated and the songs composed by Fr. Tawiah. On the other hand, we deem it important to have been able to identify him among the early contributors to the development of the liturgical books in the Akan language.

Peter Sarpong further revealed that there were teams of translators, set up under Bishops Hubert Joseph Paulissen, André Van den Bronk, Bishop and himself, remembering a few members including Mr. Johnson Owusu Ansah and Mr. John Osei-Wusu275. Each of those Bishops formed a team to work on the translation of some liturgical texts, but the product of their labour seems to have been lost in the course of history, as no specific indication of their work could be traced, with the exception of the individual efforts of Mr. Johnson with the translation of the Tantum Ergo and O Salutaris Hostia, mentioned earlier in this chapter. Like the earlier efforts, they may have been integrated in the later collections of the liturgical texts. Therefore, their contribution to the development of the liturgical books in the Ecclesiastical Province of Kumasi cannot be underestimated.

The period before Vatican II, therefore can be said to be the first stage of the development of the liturgical books in the Ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. The earliest books available for this study could be said to be The Liturgy and Hymns in the Asante and Fante Language called Tshi (Chwee, Twi), published in 1883, because it contains an evidence of three preceding editions of 1859, 1865 and 1878. Such an indication of earlier versions

274 SARPONG, a recorded interview, Kumasi, 7 August 2014. Rev. Fr. Daniel TAWIAH-YESERE was one of the first indigenous priests of the Archdiocese of Kumasi, ordained on Easter Sunday 1943. His full name and date of priestly ordination were obtained from the homepage of the Archdiocese of Kumasi, URL: http://www.kumasicatholic |.org/search/index.php [Accessed 4 June 2016]. 275 A recorded interview with the Archbishop Emeritus Peter Kwasi SARPONG, 7 August 2014. Bishop Hubert Joseph Paulissen, who was of the SMA Order was appointed as the Vicar Apostolic and later as Bishop of Kumasi from 1932 to 1950 and from 1950 to 1951 respectively. Bishop Andre van den Bronk was an SMA Priest originally from the Netherlands, who succeeded Bishop Paulissen as the Bishop of Kumasi from 1952 to 1962. He was said to be one of the Fathers of the Second Vatican Council. Between him and the Archbishop Peter Kwasi Sarpong was another Bishop called Bishop Joseph Amihere ESSUAH, who was appointed the Bishop of Sekondi-Takoradi in November 1969. The Archbishop Sarpong succeeded him from November 1969 to March 2008, when he retired. Cf. Archdiocese of Kumasi, Past and Present Ordinaries, URL: http://www.kumasicatholic.org/search/index.php [Accessed: 23 May 2016].

99 presupposes that the book existed before the arrival of Fr. Moreau, who is known to have exhibited his poetic talent and ability to learn new languages by translating parts of the Gospels, composing catechism and liturgical songs in the vernacular. Many other efforts in this regard were carried out by individuals and groups until Vatican II, which is the turning point in the development of the liturgical books.

3.2. Vatican II and the Post Vatican II Era

The period of the Second Vatican Council and its aftermath saw the formation of committees and commissions, which were to accelerate the rendering of the liturgical books in the vernacular. In this section of our study, we shall briefly examine these committees and commissions to determine what they were able to achieve or not, and the problems or challenges that prevented their smooth running and progress. We shall first consider the National Liturgical Commission.

3.2.1. The National Liturgical Commission

The National Liturgical Commission was set up by the Ghana National Bishops’ Conference in 1964, as a result of the recommendation of the Council Fathers of Vatican II: It is desirable that the competent territorial ecclesiastical authority […] set up a liturgical commission to be assisted by experts in the liturgical science, sacred music, art and pastoral practice […]. It will be the task of this commission, under the direction of the above mentioned competent territorial ecclesiastical authority […], to regulate pastoral liturgical action throughout the territory, and to promote studies and necessary experiments whenever there is a question of the adaptations to be proposed to the Holy See (SC 44).276

It was in order to fulfil these requirements of the Council for liturgical reforms, that the commission was established. Its membership comprised one bishop (chairman) and priest representatives from all the dioceses. The first meeting of this commission was held on 29th July 1964 at Kumasi. Currently, the commission still consists of a bishop chairman, secretary, two representatives from every diocese (ideally, one priest, one religious or layperson)277.

276 Sacrosanctum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY (ed.), Vatican II, 15). 277 AFRIFAH AGYEKUM, The History of the Liturgical Life of the Church in Ghana […], 269.

100

The purpose of the commission was to coordinate the affairs of the diocesan commissions and foster the studies and experimentation of adaptations whenever necessary. It was to promote the translation of liturgical texts into the vernacular. Was it effective in these regards? This will be dealt with shortly in the problems and challenges.

Since the inception of the National Liturgical Commission, its achievements in the realm of the development of liturgical books include the preparation of a ‘Ritual of Blessings’, ‘Sunday Service Without a Priest’ (cyclostyled), ‘Guidelines for Burials and Funerals’ (cyclostyled), Guidelines and Pastoral Directives on Infant Baptism’278. Besides these booklets and books, the commission set up as a sub-committee, a Translations Committee to facilitate the work of translations. This committee was to handle all translation works and submit the finished works to the Conference of Bishops for study, possible approval and implementation. How successful was this committee? It will also be later examined in the problems and challenges.

Out of the above listed works, copies of the following have been found in our research, the ‘Guidelines and Pastoral Directives on Infant Baptism’279, ‘Guidelines for Burials and funerals’280 and ‘Sunday Service without a Priest’281. The first is a small booklet of 25 pages, published by the National Liturgical Commission in November 1988 with the approval of and promulgated by the Ghana Bishop’s Conference. The imprimatur was given by Gregory E. Kpiebaya, the then bishop of Wa in the Upper West region of Ghana and Chairman of the National Liturgical Commission. He is the same person who wrote the introduction, covering the first four pages. In the introduction, he mentions that the aim of this booklet is to “guide pastors in determining, in those ‘irregular situations’, when baptism can be administered to a child with the maximum benefit both to the child and the parents”282. He explains further,

278 AFRIFAH AGYEKUM, The History of Liturgical Life in Ghana […], 272. 279 THE NATIONAL LITURGICAL COMMISSION, Infant Baptism: Guidelines and Directives, approved and promulgated by the Ghana Bishop’s Conference. n.p. 1988. 280 The Guidelines for Burial and Funerals appear on the first two pages of the National Ordo every year. 281 The Sunday Service without a Priest does not appear in separate book but incorporated into some other books. We find it, for instance in A Book of Service for Lay Leaders, published by the National Catechetical Commission, instead of the National Liturgical Commission. 282 THE NATIONAL LITURGICAL COMMISSION, Infant Baptism, 3.

101 that “where there are sufficient guarantees for the Christian upbringing of the child, there is no problem, but in cases where as a child is born of parents in some ‘irregular situation’ and presented for baptism, each case has to be studied individually by the priests together with some qualified members of the Christian community”283. The guidelines cover pages 5 to 12, and the remaining pages are devoted to the rite of baptism for several children. The booklet has a paper back cover with light green colour.

The Guidelines for Burial and Funerals are found in the first pages of the National Ordo, rather than a separate booklet. They are guidelines that allow everyone, regardless of their status in the church or their religious background, to enjoy at least some level of ecclesiastical burial, provided the relatives request it. It is clearly stated in the guidelines that “the presence of the priest at the funeral (home and grave) is always possible, if the relatives require this presence”284. The funeral rite befitting each individual depending on his or her status in the Church is categorized as follows: “Catechumens, even if polygamists are entitled to a Mass with Final Commendation and adapted prayers. Regular Catholics are entitled to a Mass with Final Commendation. Baptised Catholics, not Communicants but regular Church goers are entitled to a Mass with Final Commendation and adapted prayers. Baptised Catholics, Not Communicants, not Church goers, not hostile are entitled to only the Final Commendation, if relatives ask for it and with adapted prayers. Baptised Catholics, not Communicants, not Church goers, hostile”285 are neither entitled to a Mass nor the Final Commendation. So, nobody is in effect left out except those, during whose lifetime, were openly antagonistic to the Church.

Though there is an order of Sunday Service without a Priest in the Book of Service for Lay Leaders286, there is no indication that its author is the National Liturgical Commission, but rather the National Catechetical Commission. This book comes in three cycles A, B and C, each of them containing the services of the entire corresponding liturgical year. The first

283 THE NATIONAL LITURGICAL COMMISSION, Infant Baptism, 3. 284 GHANA BISHOPS’ CONFERENCE, Ordo for the Liturgical Year 2012-2013, 7. 285 IBID., 8. 286 THE NATIONAL CATECHETICAL COMMISSION, A Book of Service for Lay Leaders: Year B (Revised and expanded), Accra 2002. Henceforth this book will be referred to simply as A Book of Service.

102 edition was published in 1975 under the chairmanship of John Kwadwo Amissah, the then Archbishop of Cape Coast. The second edition was published in 1984 under the chairmanship of Francis A. K. Lodonu, the then bishop of Keta˗Ho and the third and current edition in 2002 under the chairmanship of Joseph Osei-Bonsu, the Bishop of Konongo˗Mampong. Since the authorship of this book is not ascribed to the National Liturgical Commission, we shall reserve the details to chapter four this study.

All the four documents discussed above were written in English and not in the vernacular, because they were composed for the church in the whole country rather than one particular tribe or ethnic group. It would, therefore, not be easy for any of the national commissions to develop any of them in the native languages, as there are many different languages in Ghana. It would be the responsibility of the diocesan commissions for liturgy and/or catechetics to work on their translation into their corresponding local languages as Bishop Francis Lodonu vividly recommends in his introduction to the 1984 edition of the Book of Service for Lay Leaders: We pray that all who use this Hand Book still find it as a good guide to them whilst conducting the Service in their own languages. We are confident also that Diocesan Catechetical Commissions will freely take extracts from this handbook and translate them into the various local languages for the use of the Catechists.287 On this background, we will now discuss the contribution of the diocesan liturgical and catechetical commissions in the context of the liturgical books.

3.2.2. Diocesan commissions and Committees

We have just discussed the role that the National Liturgical Commission played in the development of liturgical books. Besides this commission, the diocesan liturgical and catechetical commissions also played a significant role to this effect. As we shall see very shortly the catechetical commissions in both Kumasi and Sunyani dioceses have contributed significantly to the translation of liturgical texts into the local language, namely Asante Twi. The Diocesan Catechetical Commission of Sunyani, in particular worked in collaboration with the Diocesan Translation Committee. However, we deem it more expedient to consider

287 A BOOK OF SERVICES, Accra 2002, iv.

103 first the Cape Coast Archdiocesan Liturgical Commission, the translation of liturgical texts began in that diocese before Kumasi and Sunyani.

3.2.2.1. The Cape Coast Archdiocesan Liturgical Commission

As we have seen earlier on in Chapter two and at the beginning of this chapter, the translation of liturgical texts began long before Vatican II. However, not all the parts of the Mass were translated, but rather the responses to enable the people to have some participation in the liturgy of the Eucharist. After Vatican II, the Cape Coast Liturgical Commission used to request from or through the Archbishop for the implementation of certain decisions that had been reached. The Archdiocesan liturgical bulletin called the Catholic Voice notes that a letter was sent by the secretary of the commission on behalf of the Ghana Bishops’ Conference for the use of vernacular in certain parts of the Mass288.

While still expecting the response of the request from Rome, some priests were reported to have started implementing the contents of the request. Therefore, the commission deemed it necessary to publish the reply from Rome. The text of Rome’s reply to the Commission was as follows: Very Rev. Fr. Pronk S.M.A. It is my duty to inform you concerning the request made on behalf of the Bishops’ Conference of Ghana that in the meantime the vernacular may only be used in those parts of the Mass mentioned in n. 57 of the instruction and for the prayers and the Preface. You may have to wait for the coming general restoration of the liturgy for the other prayers mentioned. With regard to the proposal made for the end of Mass, we think it is good and shall keep it in mind. With my respectful homage and remain. Yours faithfully, A. Bugnini, Secretary.289

288 Liturgical Bulletin, Catholic Voice, Cape Coast (October 1965). Check for the parts of the Mass and full contents of the letter. 289 Catholic Voice (October 1965). E. Civitate Vaticana, die 9 sept. 1965. Latin version: Reverendissimo Patri P.N. Pronk S.M.A. Ad petitionem a te factam, nomine coetus Episcoporum tuae nationis, officio mihi est respondere pro nunc linguae vulgaris in Missa admitti tantum in patrivus in n. 57 Instructionis indicates et in orationibus et Praefatione. Pro aliis precibus a te indicates expectetur future instauration generalis liturgiae. Propositio facta circa finem Missae bona est et prae oculis habetur. Tibi addictissimus. A. Bugnini CM. a Secretis.

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The Commission embarked on the education of the public on the changes expected with introduction the provisions of Vatican II. Two priests, Cornelius V.D. Plas and Goakhim Buurman were delegated to contribute articles to the Catholic Voice, in which they published 4 articles under the title, ‘Changes in Liturgy’290. By means of these articles, the two priests educated the general public on matters regarding the liturgical calendar and the Missal. The following is an example of the simple manner in which the education was carried out by Plas with reference to the priest’s position at Mass: When you enter the house of a friend, you greet him, he greets you, and then you sit down for the usual Amane[. This is not only a Ghanaian custom, but it is the politeness you find in all kinds of forms all over the world. Now you go to a Catholic Church or chapel. It is your ‘family house’ where you come together to praise God. A priest (or Catechist) enters, turns his back on you and starts a series of prayers. Is that polite? Is that according to good custom? To say the least, it is a little bit strange […]. Yes, it is certainly strange, and that should be changed291. This message in the article was to prepare the congregation to accept the expected change of the priest’s position facing the wall, to the one in which the priest stood behind the altar to face the congregation at Mass. The implication of this message was that the altar against the wall would eventually be changed to a free-standing altar, permitting a free movement around it. This education was in the right direction, as permission was granted on designing Churches to facilitate active participation by the faithful: And when Churches are to be built, let great care be taken that they be suitable for the celebration of liturgical services and for the active participation of the faithful (SC 124).292 On the other hand, one needs to remark that the Council’s Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy does not mention the priest facing the people, while celebrating Mass. Nevertheless, permission was included in the 1964 Inter oecumenici in the section on Designing Churches and Altars to Facilitate Active Participation of the Faithful: In building new Churches or restoring and adapting old ones every care is to be taken that they are suited to celebrating liturgical services authentically and that they ensure active participation by the faithful.

290 Catholic Voice, 1964 (no page numbers). 291 Conelius V.D. PLAS, Changes in the Liturgy, in: Catholic Voice, Cape Coast, July 1964, 166. 292 Sacrosanctum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY (ed.), Vatican II, 35).

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The main altar should preferably be freestanding, to permit walking around it and celebration facing the people. Its location in the place of worship should be truly central so that the attention of the whole congregation naturally focuses there.293 It is easy for many Catholics to think that the presiding priest’s position of celebrating Mass with his face towards the people was an innovation by Vatican II. However, it has been a subject of argument among liturgists for decades that it was permitted by the rubrics of the older Missal. Susan Benofy, in her article The Day the Mass changed, sustained this argument with an example from the Orate Fratres that in 1937, it was the custom in St. Peter’s Basilica and other Roman churches for the priest to face the people because of the location of the altar, and that there were specific rubrics for the Mass instructing the priest on what to do in such cases. She quoted: Not only, therefore, does no Church law or rubric forbid the construction of altars at which the celebrant faces the people as of old, but the present rubrics, as quoted above, still make provision for Mass celebrated at such an altar. (Orate Fratres, April 18, 1937, p. 280.)294

The above quotation, therefore, serves as an evidence that the permission to build free standing altars, to allow the celebrant to face the people while celebrating Mass did not start with Vatican II, but long before it. However, what we find lacking here is the theological significance. Neither did we find any theological significance in the explanation given by Plas by means of his article to the Catholic Voice in Cape Coast. Nevertheless, it provided some simple practical understanding of the expected change from the cultural point of view.

Projecting into the future with an objective mind, Plas foresaw the initial difficulties that would result from the changes to be introduced by Vatican II. He pointed to this foreseeable problem in the same article, while encouraging teachers and Catechists to get involved with the education of the faithful regarding the innovations in the liturgy by teaching them the new prayers. […]. Of course, there will be some trouble. People will grumble that they have to learn new prayers, that the old prayers have been changed. Why? Are the old prayers and ceremonies not good enough? […]. One thing will really be troublesome. The books

293 Inter oecumenici, 90–91, URL: www.adoremus.org/Interoecumenici.html [Accessed: 10 June 2016]. 294 Susan BENOFY, The Day the Mass Changed, URL: http://www.adoremus.org/0210Benofy.html [Accessed: 9 June 2016].

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with the new texts are not available; they are not yet ready, not yet printed. Only one small booklet with Fante Mass is available. You can buy it in every Catholic Mission. All other books are not ready. When the priest visits your station, ask him to let you see the missal he is using for the Mass, and he will show you a file with loose papers, some printed, some typed. Even the priests have no complete books yet. They will come, but that will take time. Catechists and teachers, tell your people about the coming changes in the liturgy, teach them the new prayers, so that when the priest comes to your station they will be able to recite them during the service.295

Plas predicted two main difficulties; the obvious complaint of the people about learning new prayers and the limited availability of liturgical books from which those changes could be learnt. Only one small booklet containing the Mass in the Fante language was available for sales at that time. This marks a new beginning in the development of liturgical books. The liturgical books following the reforms of Vatican II were being produced but rather slowly. As they came out, they required the expertise of individuals and committees to render them in the native languages for understanding and easy use of the local people. Permission to use the major languages spoken in all the dioceses, had been sought by the Ghana Catholic Bishops’ Conference. The requested faculty for the use of those languages in the liturgy had also been granted. It was now up to each Bishop to begin something in his own diocese. Cape Coast Archdiocese was one of the first dioceses to embark on the translation of the liturgical texts. Through individual efforts and later through the Archdiocesan Liturgical Commission, many liturgical books have been produced in the Fante language, including, the Fante Hymnal, the Sacramentary, lectionaries and the book of the rites. Most of the first editions of those books were produced by a single person, who features in the next sub topic.

3.2.2.2. The Individual Effort of Rev. Fr. Charles Lejeune

Rev. Fr. Charles Lejeune, one of the oldest indigenous priests of the Archdiocese of Cape Coast was authorised by the then Archbishop, John Kwadwo Amissah, to translate the liturgical texts into the Fante language. The former accepted to undertake this task and is reported to have said that he worked single-handedly making use of the secretary of St. Peter’s Regional Seminary in Cape Coast, who typed out all the manuscripts before sending

295 PLAS, Changes in the Liturgy, in: Catholic Voice, Cape Coast, July 1964, 168.

107 them to the Archbishop for his comments and an onward transmission to Rome for approval296. He translated the Sacramentary from the editio typica297 of 1962 and all the others from the ICEL298 of 1974 texts. Some of the books he translated include the following: Infant Baptism, Christian Initiation of Adults, Sacraments of Reconciliation, Rite of Confirmation, Anointing of the Sick, Communion for the Sick, Celebration of Marriage, Ordination to the Diaconate, Ordination to the Priesthood, Rite of Dedication of a Church, Holy Week Liturgy, Introduction to the Sacramentary (Roman Missal), Lectionary for Sundays and Feast days of Obligation.299

Rev. Fr. Lejeune’s objective was achieved when he accomplished the hectic task of translating the above books into the Fante language. For, his “main objective was to have the Fante texts available for the priests and the faithful for use in the liturgy and especially the celebration of the sacraments”300. The priests and faithful would certainly be happy to have these texts, which through the efforts of one person, have passed from the mimeographed stage to the printed stage. Fr. Lejeune obviously set the pace for their further development and for the other dioceses within the Akan speaking area of Ghana to follow suit.

3.2.2.3. Sunyani Diocesan Catechetical Commission and Translation Committee

The Catholic Diocese of Sunyani301 was created out of Kumasi Diocese in 1973 with Most Rev. James Kwadwo Owusu as its first bishop. Bishop Owusu quickly set up commissions and committees to help organise and run the diocese. One of such institutions was the Diocesan Catechetical Commission, which was established in 1975 with the membership of Priests, Religious and Lay people, one of whom was Mr. Anthony Mensah, the then Catechist of Abesim near Sunyani. The first director was one Rev. Fr. Quinne. The main objective was to organise courses or seminars for the on-going formation of catechists in the diocese. To

296 AFRIFAH AGYEKUM, 283. 297 Missale Romanum ex decreto Sacrosanti Concilii Tridentine Restitutum Summorum Pontificium Cura Recognitum. Editio typica, Vatican City 1962. 298 INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON ENGLISH IN Liturgy (ICEL), The Roman Missal: The English Translation According the Latin Typical Edition, New York 1974. 299 AFRIFAH AGYEKUM, 284. 300 IBID. 301 The Diocese of Sunyani at the time of its creation covered an area, which now comprises three dioceses: Sunyani, Goaso and Techiman. The diocese of Goaso was created in 1998, whereas that of Techiman was erected in 2008.

108 facilitate the effective training and work of the catechists, the commission undertook the development of liturgical books by means of translation into the Twi. The translation work was mainly the liturgical texts for lay leaders, especially the catechists, who led the services in the outstations where there is no priest available.

Joseph Marfo Gyimah, took over the direction of this commission in 1986. Under his direction, many more efforts were made to prepare prayer books and booklets for the use of the catechists of the diocese as leaders of services without a priest. In a telephone interview with Marfo Gyimah, he explained that the commission saw the need to translate the liturgical texts for catechists, because it had noticed that individual catechists were doing their own translation in different places. Such translations were far from accurate, due to the low level of the education of the translators. Moreover, there was no sense of uniformity in the services they conducted. The commission, therefore, undertook to provide more accurate and uniformed texts for the use of all the catechists in the diocese. He continued that the translations work was first handwritten, then typed with a typewriter and cyclostyled for distribution, before finally reaching the printed stage302. They thus passed from the manuscripts through the mimeographed stage to the printed stage. However, none of the manuscripts, or the mimeographed copies still exists.

In 1987, Bishop Owusu formed a Translation Committee, in order to get the entire Roman Missal, or otherwise called Sacramentary, translated into the Asante Twi for use in the diocese of Sunyani. Rev. Fr. Emmanuel Gyansah Tabi was its first chairman. According to one of the committee members, Rev. Fr. Augustine Amankwaa Boateng, the membership included 3 priests and 6 lay people. All the six lay people involved had graduated from the

302 MARFO GYIMAH, a telephone interview, 14 June 2016. Ordained priest in the Catholic Diocese of Sunyani in 1976, Joseph Marfo Gyimah has served the diocese and Church in Ghana in many capacities such as, Parish Priest, Cathedral Administrator, Diocesan Chancellor, Chairman for the Diocesan Catechetical Commission, Chairman for the Diocesan Liturgical Commission, taught canon law in St. Peter’s Regional Seminary in Cape Coast many more. He holds a Doctorate Degree in Canon Law.

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University College of Winneba in Asante Twi. There were no women on the committee, which was formed to work under the Diocesan Catechetical Commission303.

The newly formed Translation Committee embarked on the translation of the presidential prayers of the order of Mass but could not do much, due to financial constraints. It could not, however, solicit funds on its own to support the running of its affairs, since it was not an independent committee, but rather depended on the Catechetical Commission, under which it was formed. Fr. Amankwaa Boateng added that, owing to the financial difficulties, the committee was compelled to translate the texts of the Deuterocanonical readings for the weekday Masses and services, which were not available in the Twi Bible, for sale to help running the committee. At that time, the Twi Bible was the only lectionary used at liturgical services. However, since it was translated by the Basel Missionaries from the protestant Bible, it excluded the Deuterocanonical books. Hence, the Twi version of such books were not available for use in the liturgical assembly. Readers were compelled to translate instantly from English source during the Liturgy of the Word304. It is rather not advisable to translate the biblical readings instantly from one language to another within the liturgical assembly. That is another reason why the committee found it necessary to make translate them immediately and make them available for sale.

Besides the presidential prayers and the weekday readings from the Deuterocanonical books, the committee, attempted the translation of the Infant Baptism and Mpaeb] Som (Prayer Service). The work on these books, however, could not be brought to fruition due to one or more problems. Marfo Gyimah observed that the reason for their inability to complete this work was that a similar work was being done by the Catechetical Commission of Kumasi and that some of the translated texts of the Sunyani Committee were incorporated in the finished products of the Kumasi Commission. He further clarified that he did not think “they

303 Answers to the questionnaire sent to Rev. Fr. Augustine AMANKWAA BOATENG, 14 May 2016. Fr. Amankwaa Boateng, who was ordained priest in the Catholic Diocese of Sunyani in 1987. He worked in different parishes and served on the Translation Committee from its creation and later as its vice chairman until the creation of the Catholic Diocese of Goaso in 1998, to which he now belongs and works. 304 AMANKWAA BOATENG, 14 May 2016.

110 did this for any wrong reasons, but for the purpose of making the Twi version available to all who needed it”305.

On the sources for the translation work, both Marfo Gyimah and Amankwaa Boateng agreed that all their translation was from the English edition, particularly, the ICEL, as the committee did not have members, who had sufficient knowledge of Latin to enable them to translate directly from the Latin sources. Since the diocese of Sunyani did not have its own printing press, the translations of the Catechetical Commission had to be sent to the catholic press in Kumasi for publication. This difficulty slowed down the progress of the work of the committee.

3.2.2.4. Kumasi Archdiocesan Catechetical Commission

Most of the liturgical books in the Ecclesiastical Province were produced by the catechetical commission. According Peter Kwasi Sarpong, the work of translation in Kumasi began as individual efforts as already referred to earlier in this chapter. For example, Fr. Tawiah translated the catechism from Fante into Asante Twi. Another called Mr. Ansah did a lot in the way of translation. He mentioned among others that an English man, who was a teacher in Physics, was so interested in languages that he had the whole grammar of English for church use. There were teams of translators, and later on, a whole committee of translators was formed from the Akan dioceses of Koforidua, Sunyani and Kumasi. The idea was to synchronize the translation, to avoid the danger of running into different sorts of translations within the same ethnic group306.

The translations were mostly done from the English language. The Ave Maria, for example was translated directly from a small Latin text book. Even the Bible was translated from English, because there were no experts to handle the translation from the Latin language. In the course of the work, the translations done from English sources were compared to the

305 MARFO GYIMAH, Telephone Interview, 14 June 2016. 306 SARPONG, Kumasi, 7 August 2014.

111 original Latin, but they were often discovered to be a literal translation307. That accounts for the reason why experts in the languages and the local culture are required for such a daunting task.

Most of the liturgical books we saw in chapter two and what will be discussed in chapter IV were produced by the Archdiocesan Catechetical Commission of Kumasi. Since they will be treated more extensively in the next chapter, we will only make a list of them as follows: Asante Mpaeb], Asante Akenkans[m Nnwoma (Asante Lectionaries A, B, and C), Asante Catechism, Nso Wukuada ne Nnaw]twe Kronkron Som a Catechist di anim (Ash Wednesday and Holy Week Services led by a Catechist), Nnaw]twe Kronkron ne Owus]re[ ho Som (Holy Week and Easter Services), Mm]fra Badwam Som (Children’s Liturgy), Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nnwoma (The Roman Missal).

Like the situation in the diocese of Sunyani discussed earlier in this chapter, the Translation Committee and the Catechetical Commission of the Archdiocese of Kumasi worked hand in hand to publish the above-mentioned books. Unlike the diocese of Sunyani, however, the presence of the Catholic Printing Press enabled them to be successful with many publications. The whole Ecclesiastical Province now benefits from the fruits of their labour.

Gradually, the task of translation has been taken over by the Provincial Liturgical Commission, which is only recently established with its seat in Kumasi. It is working on the translation of the weekday lectionary and the third typical edition of the Roman Missal into Asante Twi.

3.3. Challenges involved in the Stages of Translation and Adaptation

The beginning of everything has its own problems and challenges. In a similar way, there have been challenges confronting the commissions and committees in all the stages through which the liturgical books have been developed in the Akan speaking area of Ghana,

307 SARPONG, Kumasi, 7 August 2014.

112 particularly, the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. Similar difficulties or challenges ran through all the stages of their development.

3.3.1. The Lack of Experts in the Work of Translations

The commonest challenge was the lack of experts. To make a translation from one language to another requires the personnel who are well trained and have sufficient knowledge in or command over both languages. In the case of liturgical texts, the challenges become even more compounded, as the original documents come in Latin, which is a very difficult language. It is not clear from which sources the pioneer efforts of the early missionaries like Fr. Moreau were carried out. They could have been done from French, Latin or English sources. It is highly probable that they were translated from French sources, since the missionaries were, themselves French. That does not rule out the possibility of Latin or English, since they had learned both languages. Latin for example, was the only language officially permitted for use in the liturgy at the time. English could also have been one of the sources from which the translation was done, because Ghana (originally Gold Coast) was a British colony and English was the official language of the nation and the missionaries were aware of this fact before their arrival. Another difficulty was lack of sufficient knowledge, on the part of the missionaries, in the native languages. The lack of experts in liturgical science, classical languages like Latin, Greek, and Hebrew also hampered the progress of the translation work in the commissions and committees.

Coupled with the appointment of unqualified personnel to the commissions and committees is the lack of interest in the appointees. Because they had no expertise in the task to which they were appointed, most of the members did not have any interest in what was expected of them. They would, therefore, infrequently attend meetings and would take a long time to produce a small piece of work. As Peter Sarpong puts it, “committee members don’t take it serious. You need people, who are dedicated for that work”308. That means the lack of interest begets the lack of seriousness. There is no doubt that such an attitude can have a negative

308 SARPONG, a recorded Interview, Kumasi 7 August 2014.

113 impact on the progress of the work of the committee. Peter Sarpong further explains that such a task requires an undivided attention of the members appointed to the committee, citing the example of the ICEL, that its members work with full concentration since that is the only task entrusted to them. However, those, appointed commissions and committees in Ghana have other appointments and as such, cannot fully concentrate on the translation work309.

One obvious consequence of the lack of qualified personnel is the tendency to translate from a secondary source, which is itself a translation from the typical edition and not commendable. This has, unfortunately, been the situation in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. Many of the translations carried out throughout the stages dealt with in this chapter, were done from English editions. It is a truth that is acknowledged by Peter Sarpong that even the Bible was translated from English. He however considers it not right as he says “You don’t translate from a translation. The whole thing is wrong! If you want to translate, then you translate from the Latin source and then compare it with the English translation”310. He is right as the liturgical translations are expected to be from the original sources and not from translated sources. The guiding instruction from the Liturgiam authenticam states categorically that: […] it is not permissible that the translations be produced from other translations already made into other languages: rather, the new translations must be made directly from the original texts, namely the Latin, as regards the texts of ecclesiastical composition, or the Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek, as the case may be, as regards the texts of Sacred Scripture. Furthermore, in the preparation of these translations for liturgical use, the Nova Vulgata Editio, promulgated by the Apostolic See, is normally to be consulted as an auxiliary tool. In a manner described elsewhere in this Instruction, in order to maintain the tradition of interpretation that is proper to the Latin Liturgy (LA 24).311

No proper measures seem to be taken to address this particular challenge in order that the translations in the province may conform the principles outlined in the above citation. Speaking on this issue, Daniel Aboagye Danso, one of the interviewees said: “I think our Church leaders have not set their priority right. As at now we do not have a constant

309 SARPONG, Kumasi, 7 August 2014. 310 IBID. 311 Liturgiam Authenticam, 53.

114 translation team”312. Another common challenge facing the commissions and committees is the lack of adequate funds. They cannot, undoubtedly make any headway without enough funds in their coffers to run their day to day activities. Afrifah Agyekum, in his published dissertation identifies a similar difficulty with the National Liturgical Commission thus: Lack of funds continues to plague the Commission to the extent that sometimes, planned projects and programmes have had to be cancelled or at best half done. Still another problem is the lack of continuity. Members appointed to this Commission who are sent for further studies (most often priests and religious) are very often not replaced immediately. When they return after their studies, they are often assigned to different places altogether.313

The problem of inadequate funds is not seen only in the National Liturgical Commission, but also in the Translation Committee of Sunyani Diocese as informed by both Marfo Gyimah and Amankwaa Boateng. They both agree that the greatest challenge that bedevilled the progress of their translation work was lack of funds. In view of the fact that the committee was established and worked under the Diocesan Catechetical Commission, it could not solicit funds on its own to add to the little at their disposal. It was in the bid to help ease the financial constraints that the committee speedily translated the texts of the Deuterocanonical readings of the weekday for sale. However, the proceeds from the sale of such books alone were not enough to sustain the committee. That accounts to the collapse of the Sunyani Diocesan Translation Committee. Peter Kwasi Sarpong is of a similar opinion, as he attributes the slow progress of the development of liturgical books in the Archdiocese of Kumasi to the lack of adequate funds. He admits that “money is needed to keep the committee running”314. That explains why there is no constant translation team in the province as Aboagye Danso lamented.

Besides the above-mentioned challenges, there is yet another one emanating from the complexity of the ethnicity and the associated linguistic differences. This problem was recorded in the 1983 report of the National Liturgical Commission and is noted by Afrifah Agyekum that “[…] the Commission finds itself at a big loss to function on the level of

312 Daniel ABOAGYE DANSO, Email Correspondence, Neola 26 April 2016. 313 AFRIFAH AGYEKUM, History of the Liturgical Life in Ghana, 270–271. 314 SARPONG, a recorded interview, Kumasi, 7 August 2014.

115 translation, inculturation and the pastoral implications of all these”315. He further clarifies that “the linguistic problem poses a situation whereby each diocese has several times to do the work of translation and inculturation which other countries do on a national level”316. He is right on this issue, to the extent that, instead of having one commission or committee to deal with the rendering of the liturgy in the vernacular on the national level, each diocese has to strive to do its own translation to meet the local need. This, obviously, will lead to retardation in the progress of translation, adaptation and inculturation in the dioceses which have less or no experts. The translation committee established under the National Liturgical Commission could not survive due such drawbacks.

The above problem is even evident among the Akans. The dialectical differences within the Akan ethnic group are so much that it becomes difficult to have uniformed liturgical texts in all the Akan speaking dioceses. According to Peter Kwasi Sarpong, for instance, Fr. Daniel Tawiah Yesere had to translate some liturgical texts from Fanti into Ashanti to render it easier for the Ashanti speakers to read and hear with sufficient understanding. Regarding the challenges raised by the complexity and multiplicity of languages and dialects, we consider the action of Fr. Tawiah as a good solution. What he did was to adapt the Fanti language into Ashanti. It is expedient to choose one of the dialects and get qualified personnel to do the translation. Thereafter, all the other dioceses with dialectical differences can get their local personnel to convert the different words and expressions into the local parlance to render it easily accessible in the corresponding dioceses.

3.3.2. Lack of Accurate Words and Adaptations

As the work of translation went on, some adaptations were made with the difficulty of finding the accurately corresponding words in the Akan language. According to Marfo Gyimah, for example, “the adaptations made, have now become so much of the liturgical language that it is now difficult to be identified. Some words like ‘consecration’ are translated as ‘holy

315 AFRIFAH AGYEKUM, History of the Liturgical Life in Ghana, 271. 316 IBID.

116 transfiguration’ and ‘Holy Communion’ translated as ‘holy eating’”317. Examples of such kind highlight the difficulties involving the right translation of the liturgical books. Since it is not always easy to find the corresponding words in the native language, one is compelled to employ two or more words or even phrases by way of adaptation of one word. One of the major adaptations or inculturation is seen in the Rite of Priestly Ordination, in which the “Examination of the Candidates” has been adapted to the “Oath or Promise of Service and Obedience”318. This is the point in the course of the Priestly Ordination Ceremony, where the candidate is officially examined by the ordaining bishop to ascertain the former’s readiness to take on the priestly ministry and its challenges, observing the requisite obedience to the local ordinary and all his successors. It is this part of the ordination ceremony that has been composed in words of oath or promise in the name of inculturation to be pronounced by the candidate to the ordaining bishop, instead of the usual form of questions and answers between the above two as prescribed in the Roman Rite (Pontificale Romanum)319. The ordaining bishop invites the candidate to declare, before the gathered faithful, his readiness to serve God and his people as a priest by saying:

Pontificale English Version of Asante Twi Literal Translation Romanum The Rites Filii carisimi, My son, before you Me ba, ansa na My son, before you priusquam ad ordinem w]b[hy[ wo s]fo] no, proceed to the order [w] s[ woda are ordained a priest, Presbyterii accedatis, of the presbyterate, w’adwene adi kyer[ you have to declare to vos oportet coram declare before the agyedifo] yi nyinaa s[ all these faithful that populo propositum de people your intention wob[som you will serve God suscipiendo munere to undertake this Onyankop]n ne and his faithful as a 320 profiteri . 321 n’agyedifo] s[ 323 office . ]s]fo]322 priest .

317 MARFO GYIMAH, email correspondence, 22 July 2014. 318 ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL, CATHOLIC DIOCESE OF TECHIMAN, The Rites of Diaconate and Priestly Ordination, Techiman, 2010, 12–14. 319 Pontificale Romanum: De Ordinatione Diaconi, Presbyteri et Episcopi, Editio typica, Vatican City 1968, 54–55. 320 Pontificale Romanum, 54. 321 INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON ENGLISH IN THE LITURGY (ICEL), The Rites of the Catholic Church (Revised Edition), vol. 2, Collegeville 1991, 42. 322 ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL, CATHOLIC DIOCESE OF TECHIMAN, The Rites of Diaconate and Priestly Ordination, 12. 323 My translation from Asante Twi into English.

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The changes made in the Asante Twi translated from the English version of the Rites of the Catholic Church as seen in the above table are ‘to all these faithful that you will serve God and his faithful as a priest’. These adapted words make it more explanatory and meaningful to the local people and suggest that the Asante Twi translation is not literal but interpretive, without losing the meaning of the original text, as the literal sense may not always carry enough clarity. Whether such adaptations correspond to the Church’s guidelines for translation in the “Fifth Instruction for the right application of the Conciliar Constitution on Liturgy” (art. 36), Liturgiam Authenticam324, will be investigated later in the next chapters. The response of the candidate, however, is an inculturated element that also seems to have maintained the spirit of the original text but reformulated to suit the local culture. The candidate, holding the crucifix, stands before the bishop and pledges using the words composed in the local language. He begins in this way: Me […] nam Nyankop]n mmoa ne mpaeb] so adwene ho yie na seesei ara masi m’adwene pi s[ m[som Nyankop]n ne n’agyedifo] […]325. This literally means, “I […] have by the help of God and prayer reflected very well and I am now ready to serve God and his people […]”326.

Such an adaptation in the name of inculturation renders the ordination ceremony more meaningful and livelier to the gathered faithful and subsequently promotes their active participation, for they now understand it better in their native language and cultural context.

324 In the Church’s directives on the choice of the vernacular to be used in the liturgy, she mentions that the translation of the Roman Liturgy is primarily not a creative work but must necessarily transmit the meaning of the original text in its true form into the native language. Cf. Liturgiam Athenticam, Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments: Fifth Instruction on Vernacular Translation of the Roman Liturgy (Art. 36 of the Constitution), Latin-English Edition, Washington D.C. 2001. 325 ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL, CATHOLIC DIOCESE OF TECHIMAN, The Rites of Diaconate and Priestly Ordination 13. 326 My translation from Asante Twi into English.

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Their participation is so clearly evident in loud responses in both words and actions. This kind of active participation is vividly described by the Ghanaian Bishop’s Conference in the Instrumentum Laboris (that is, the working document), of the Ecclesia in Ghana as they say: In the past, the faithful, during the ordination, used to sit through Latin speeches asking for their approval of the candidate. Now they hear them in English or their own language and they break out in applause for the answer. Most of the prayers are also in the local language. This is an indication that the sacrament is taking on a new look. The consecration is never more symbolic than at that part of the ordination rite when the parents, family members or guardians, who brought the Ordinandus up, present him to the bishop to be ordained.327

This quotation also underlines some of the changes made in the presentation of the candidate in the rite of ordination. The candidate is accompanied by his parents or guardians and the head of the family, one of whom presents him in an adapted manner to the Bishop for ordination.

An example of such kind underscores the importance of bringing liturgical celebrations into the native language and culture of the local congregation, thus seeking to promote the active participation by the people intended by Vatican II “by means of acclamations, responses, psalms, antiphons, hymns, as well as by actions, gestures, and bodily attitudes” (SC 30)328.

Conclusion

As mentioned in the introduction, the stages of translation and adaptation of the liturgy in the Akan language did not follow chronologically, as efforts were done in this regard by individuals and commissions or committees at different places and times. Two main stages were implied in the above study, including the era before Vatican II and the post-Vatican II era. In both eras, other types of stages of the development of the liturgical books were identified. Even though the work of translation was carried out in different places in different times, three main stages were commonly recognizable, namely stages of manuscripts, mimeograph and printed. In other words, the liturgical books have passed through the

327 CATHOLIC BISHOPS’ CONFERENCE OF GHANA, Ecclesia in Ghana: On the Church in Ghana and its Evangelizing Mission in the Third Millennium-Instrumentum Laboris of the First National Catholic Pastoral Congress, 54. 328 Sacramentum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY (ed.), Vatican Council II, 128).

119 manuscript stage, through the mimeographed stage to the printed stage. They were, however, not without difficulties or challenges, quite a number of which have been discussed towards the end of the current chapter. In spite of the foregoing challenges, which confronted the work of translation and adaptation of the liturgical texts into the Akan language in the stages of development, there have been remarkable achievements in this regard. The Commissions and Committees have worked relentlessly, putting the bits and pieces of efforts made throughout the stages together with their own works to produce books and booklets covering lectionaries, the Roman Missal, sacraments, catechism, liturgical music and others, which will soon be dealt with in the next chapter of this study.

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CHAPTER FOUR

4. The Current Editions of the Post-Vatican II Liturgical Books in Ghana

Introduction

What we intend to study in this chapter involves all the editions of the liturgical books that are currently being used in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi, regardless of their origin. With the exception of the liturgical music books, all the books are translated from either the original Latin or English text, with a little adaptation. Even some of the pieces of music in the music books were translated from either Latin or English sources and sung with the original tunes. The chapter has three subsections. The first consists of the sacraments contained in three different books namely, The Book of the Rites, The Roman Missal and The Holy Orders – The Rite Diaconate and Priestly Ordination. The second consists of liturgical music books, including The Sacrifice of Praise, Brother Pius Agyemang, David O. Asare-Bediako, Franklin James Ohene Agyei, Catholic Fanti Hymnal. The third section consists of other books such as Lectionaries, Ash Wednesday and the Holy Week Services led by a Catechist, Holy Week and Easter Services, Children’s Liturgy, Asante Catechism, A Book of Service, Prayer Service, Asante Prayer Book and the Christian Widowhood Rites. These books will be dealt with one by one. Each sub-topic in this chapter will deal with one book.

4.1. The Sacraments As already mentioned above, the rites for the celebration of the sacraments are contained in three different books, The Book of the Rites, The Roman Missal and the Holy Orders – Priestly Ordination. The first book to be considered here is the Book of the Rites.

4.1.1. The Rites The title assigned to this book in the Akan language, which is Catholic Badwam Som Ahodo] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma (The Book of Various Catholic Liturgical Services), does not correspond literally to the given English title The Rites. The reason for this disparity is not given anywhere in the book. In our opinion, however, this disparity is due to lack of precision of

121 the Akan language with reference to translations. In other words, the Akan language does not have the precise words corresponding to some words in the European languages, especially the English language. For instance, it is hard to find one precise word in the Akan language, which means the same as the English word rite. In such cases, the principle of direct equivalence is applied, in which case, a phrase is often employed to bring the meaning of that word to light. On the other hand, an Akan word may also be translated into English with a phrase due to lack of its precise equivalence. The word rite has been translated by Joseph Opoku Anane in his book “Advanced Akan Dictionary” as amanne[329, which we do not find appropriate with the title of the book in question. The word amanne[ rather corresponds more to the word custom, the translation of which, the author used the same word amanne[330. We, therefore, consider the long title, Catholic Badwam Som Ahodo] Nhyehy[e[ Nnwoma (The Book of Various Catholic Liturgical Services), more explanatory and meaningful. The book will henceforth be referred to simply as the The Rites in this study.

The Rites is a small paperback book, which is divided into seven chapters with roman numerals and contains 120 pages. The front cover has a yellow traditional symbol known in the Akan language as Gye Nyame, meaning Except God, as depicted in the figure below:

GYE NYAME (Except God) symbolises the omnipotence and omniscience of God. Nyame (God) of the Akan is the creator of the world, who reveals Himself in Scripture and in Jesus Christ, and who is loved, worshipped and adored by believers. […]. The omniscience of God is that attribute by which He knows all things past, present and future. What is hidden from human sight is still known to him.331

329 Joseph OPOKU ANANE, Advanced Akan Dictionary: Akuapem, Asante and Fante with Human Names and Meanings, Kumasi 2000, 339. 330 IBID., 72. 331 Peter ACHEAMPONG, Christian Values in Adinkra Symbols, Kumasi 2008, 1.

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The use of this symbol on the front page of the book of the Rites signifies that the Catholic belief is in nothing, or nobody, except the One True God.

In the middle of the back cover is a cross without the image of Christ. On the bottom of the back page are some small prints indicating the printing press, “Catholic Printing Press”, which printed the book. It also includes the contact number of the press.

The book was first printed in 1992 and revised in 2004 with the Imprimatur by the Most Rev. Peter Kwasi Sarpong, the then Catholic Archbishop of Kumasi. The Nihil Obstat was also given by the Most Rev. Thomas K. Mensah, the then Catholic Bishop of Obuasi, who later succeeded the Most Rev. Sarpong as the Archbishop of Kumasi. The Archbishop Emeritus Peter Kwasi Sarpong wrote the preface of the book. Referring to 1 Peter 2:9 and the article 14 of the Sacrosanctum Concilium, he wrote that the book aimed to promote the active, conscious and full participation of all the faithful, who are a chosen race, a royal priesthood and a holy nation332.

The book is full of typographical errors and omissions, especially the table of contents, in which the page numbers assigned to the chapters, do not correspond to the pages in the book. The table of contents itself, has no page number, whereas following it sequentially, it should have been numbered ‘iii’. Other errors in the book include omission of words, letters punctuation marks, misspelt and inaccurate words.

The first chapter consists of the sacraments of initiation, subdivided into six parts, four of which are devoted to the Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults (RCIA). Covering the first 60 pages, exactly half of the book, it includes all the stages from the Catechumenate to Baptism with Confirmation. The fifth part is devoted to Children’s Baptism, while the last part comprises the rite of Confirmation. Why does confirmation appear two times in this first chapter? The first one is attached to the rite of Adult Baptism as a continuous rite administered by priests, who are permitted by their Local Ordinaries to confirm adults immediately after

332 Peter KWASI SARPONG in: Catholic Badwam Som Ahodo] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma (The Rites), Kumasi 2004, i. “But you are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, God’s own people, in order that you may proclaim the mighty acts of him who called you out of darkness into his marvellous light” (1 Peter 2:9).

123 baptism. It covers only one and a half pages from pages 38 to 39. The second one, covering pages 45 to 60, is arranged for the use of either the bishop or a priest. It is longer and more detailed, beginning with the rejection of Satan and the profession of faith. Attached to the rite is the solemn blessing given by the bishop at the end of the Mass. In-between the first and second rites of Confirmation, is the short Rite of Adult Initiation at the point of death. Comprising pages 39 to 45, it includes the baptismal promises, confirmation, Holy Communion and prayer after Communion. Strangely enough, it omits the rite of baptism itself, even though the Akan title for this rite, Asub] Adonne[ Tiawa a w]y[ ma obi a ]da owu so na ]rehwehw[ Asub]333 indicates that it is short rite of baptism in danger of death. Yet the two other sacraments which are not implied in the Akan title are the ones that exclusively appear under the mentioned title. We consider that also to be part of the typographical errors mentioned earlier on in this chapter.

The second chapter contains the rite of the sacrament of reconciliation. It begins from page 61 and ends on page 77. The title is translated into the Akan language as Ahonu ne B]neka Adonne[ Ho som. The chapter is subdivided into four titles. The first one is the Penitential Rite, of which the translation is a long sentence. That is, Ahonu Som Ho Nhyehy[e[ A W]y[ Ma W]n a W]anu W]n Ho A Obi Tumi K] B]neka Nya B]ne Fafire Adom334. The literal translation of this long title is: The order of penitential service, organised for penitent people, of whom, some can go to confession and receive the grace of forgiveness. This is a typical example of the inadequacy of the Akan language for a concise translation. The second subtitle is on General Absolution, occupying pages 65 to 69. Similarly the title is longer in the Akan language, namely: B]nefafire Som Ho Nyehy[e[, B]neka A Nnipa Nyinaa Ka B] Mu, which literally means The Order of Penitential Service, Confession which all people say together. Even though the title is explanatory, it is exaggerating with the use of ‘all’ without qualifying it to signify the selected people, or the congregation for that particular service.

333 CATECHETICAL OFFICE, Catholic Badwam Som Ahodo] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma, Kumasi 2004, 39. 334 IBID., 61–65.

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The third title depicts the Sacrament of Confession, which in Akan is B]neka Adonne[. The translation here conforms to the English words. However, the rite for the individual confession is lacking. It only begins with some rubrics that those, who want the sacrament go to the priest to confess their sins and the priest lays hands on the penitents while saying the prayer of absolution. Therefore, this part indicates only the prayer of absolution over the penitent, but no format for the confession of the penitent. This implies that the sacrament of Individual Confession is enclosed within the Rite of Penitential Service. For the prayer of absolution is followed by songs of praise and a concluding prayer. The fourth title which occupies pages 72 to 77 is the Examination of Conscience presented in the Akan language as follows: Akwan Ahodo] a y[fa so y[ Adwene Nhwehw[mu w] Ahoteete[ Mmer[ Mu. This topic literally means ‘The various ways for making the examination of conscience in the Lenten Season’.

The third chapter, which begins from page 78 and ends on page 80, contains the rite of Communion (Viaticum) to the Sick, translated in Akan as follows: Adidi Kronkron a W]de k]ma Ayarefo]. Since there is no one specific word that corresponds to the word ‘Communion’, two Akan words, Adidi Kronkron, have been employed for its translation. Though Adidi Kronkron means ‘Holy Eating (food)’, it makes the meaning of the Holy Communion clear to the local people. Joseph O. Anane’s definition is comparatively longer: Awurade anwumer[ aduane a akristofo] di paano [ne nsa de kae Kristo wuo335. His definition refers to the Holy Communion as The Lord’s Supper in which Christians eat bread and wine in memory of the death of Christ. This definition of the author of the Akan Dictionary is only applied to prove that translation in the Akan language sometimes requires the use of a phrase or a sentence to bring out the meaning of one word. Theologically, however, his definition is inadequate, in that the Eucharistic bread is not eaten in memory of only the death of Christ, but his resurrection too, as the post conciliar approach of the Eucharist indicates in the Catholic Catechism: “[…] a memorial of death and resurrection of the Lord […]”336. In other

335 OPOKU ANANE, Advanced Akan Dictionary, 55. 336 John A. HARDON, The Catholic Catechism: A Contemporary Catechism of the Teachings of the Catholic Church, New York 1981, 472.

125 words, partaking in the body and blood of Christ is not only the remembrance of his death, but also for the proclamation of his death and resurrection until his return in glory as it is recited in the mystery of faith: “We proclaim your Death, O Lord, and profess your Resurrection, until you come again”337. The rite follows the usual order as follows: greetings, penitential rite (confession when desired by the sick person), readings and short homily, the Lord’s Prayer and final blessing.

The fourth chapter, which covers pages 81 to 87 is entitled Aware Kronkron Adonne[ Ho Som W] Mass Af]reb] mu, meaning ‘ the rite of the Sacrament of Holy Matrimony within Mass’. The Akan version of this title is so accurate that there can be no criticism about it. The Mass begins in the usual way. The rite of marriage begins after the homily. However, the arrangement of the rite has many omissions. The declaration of liberty to marry has three optional forms, but the rite in the book begins with the second form, thus omitting the first one. Moreover, it omits the rubric preceding the third question in the second form. The rubric states: “The following question may be omitted if, for example, the couple is advanced in years”338. However, this is so important that it needs not to be left out. For, it helps the priest not to embarrass in public the childless couple, who are advanced in years. Furthermore, no distinction is made between the optional form of declaration of liberty and the exchange of consent. After taking the first form, one can easily add that optional form of the declaration of liberty to the exchange of consent as if they were one inseparable form. In that case, an unnecessary duplication of forms may have taken place. Moreover, the book does not allow much room for choices of forms as some forms are omitted.

There are three optional forms of the exchange of consent, but only one has been translated. The words can be compared with the English version as follows: Ayefor]kunu: As]remma a Bridegroom: I, N., take you, N., as my moahyia mu ha, monni adanse[ s[: wife, for better, for worse, me Owura (N…) fa wo Awuraa for richer, for poorer, in (N…) y[ me yere/kunu [fir nn[ sickness and in health till rek] yi, papa mu oo, b]ne mu oo,

337 ICEL, The Roman Missal, 2011, 647. 338 LITURGICAL COMMISSION OF THE REPUBLIC OF IRELAND, The Celebration of Marriage, Dublin 1984,7.

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yare[ mu oo, ahonya mu oo, ohia death do us part. (or all the mu oo, m[d] wo na makor]kor] days of our life.)340 wo, na mene wo atena ak]si s[ owuo b[tete y[n mu.339

The English version is relatively shorter, because the Akan translation made some adaptations. For instance, it began with As]remma a moahyia mu ha, monni adanse[ s[, meaning ‘members of the Church gathered here, be witnesses to the fact that’. This is not found in the English version. It is an adaptation to embellish the rite and to draw the attention of the congregation to carry out their function as witnesses to the marriage. However, this prefix does not grammatically fit into the main body well, since it is an incomplete sentence. The second reason is that the prefix is an address to the gathered people of God in the second person plural, whereas the subsequent texts are addressed to the bride or the groom in the second person singular. The subsequent texts should rather be in the third person singular in order that it may march well with the prefix. In that case, declaration of consent would cease to be a direct but an indirect speech and would lose its significance as an exchange of consent with which marriage comes into being. It would be better if the prefix is revised, by adding some more words to make it a complete sentence, separating it from the words of the exchange of consent.

We suggest, therefore, that it is rephrased in the following manner; As]remma a moahyia mu ha! Monhw[ na monni adanse[ s[, me ne (N…) reda y[n p[ adi w] mo ne Onyankop]n anim, meaning, Members of the Church here present! Pay attention and witness that I and (N…) are declaring our consent before you and God. The texts of the declaration can then begin on a separate line below this statement. Again, the above instance, indicates the part to be said only by the bridegroom, but it also includes the words yere/kunu (wife/husband), which means the groom takes the bride to be either his wife or husband and it is not the case. The word kunu (husband) must be deleted from the part said by the groom, as it is only the bride who can address that word to her groom in the exchange of consent.

339 CATECHETICAL OFFICE, Catholic Badwam Som, 83. 340 IBID., 9.

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After the exchange of consent comes the priest’s confirmation of the consent by way of prayer. Then follows the blessing and exchange of rings, which also has four optional forms, but only one has been translated in ‘The Rites’. Next is the preface of marriage, followed by the nuptial blessing, which comes immediately after the Lord’s Prayer. Prayer after Communion and the solemn blessing have all been translated. As it has already been pointed out, one can discover a lot more grammatical errors and inaccuracy with the translated texts, which need to be corrected in the course of the revision of the book.

The fifth chapter is from pages 87 to 97 and its title is Ayarefo] Ngo-ka Kronkron ne Ayarefo] Ho Som. This means The Holy Anointing of the Sick and the Service for the Sick. Shortly, this is the rite of the Sacrament of the Sick in the Akan language. It begins with some rubrics in italics, which permit the priest to understand clearly what he needs to do when he enters the house of the sick person with his ministers. After greeting the sick and those present, he goes ahead with the sprinkling of water. Then he continues with the opening words, leading them to the penitential rite and the liturgy of the word. Next is the intercessory prayer, which is wrongly translated as Ab]din (Litany). The content, however, is not litany but a set of intercessory prayers. Then follows the laying on of hands on the head of the sick person in silence. After that is the prayer for the blessing of the oil, when this has not been blessed beforehand. An alternative prayer, in case the oil is blessed, follows suit. What comes next is the rite of anointing, which is set up as follows: {nam saa ngo kronkron yi so, Through this holy anointing, may }b]ade[ Agya no mfa ne d] ne the Lord in his love and mercy help n’ahumm]bor] no mmoa wo w] you with the grace of the Holy Sunsum Kronkron no adom mu. Spirit. {ny[ h]. Amen. Ahuntahunu a biribiara ntumi May the Lord, who frees you from nhunta no na woayi afiri b]ne mu sin save you and raise you up. no nnye wo nkwa na ]mpagya wo

nn[ ne daa nyinaa.

{ny[ h]341.

341 CATECHETICAL OFFICE, Catholic Badwam Som, 91.

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Amen342.

The translation is good, just that it puts one of the rubrics directing the priest to anoint the patient in the manner prescribed by the Church of Vatican II at the wrong place. It puts the rubrics together before the prayer of anointing, instead of splitting them to introduce each part of the prayer respectively. For instance, the following could be written before the first part of the prayer of anointing:}s]fo] di kan de ngo ka ]yarefo] no moma so ka s[ […]. That means The priest first anoints the sick person on the forehead, saying […]. Similarly, before the second part of the prayer, the corresponding rubric should be written: Afei ]de ngo ka ne nsa mu ka s[ […], which means He then anoints the hands, saying […]. In this way, the rite becomes clearer for the priest, administering the sacrament. The prayer after anointing follows. Pages 93 to 97 contain the rite of anointing a person who is in danger of death. In this part, so much attention has been paid to the rubrics that the whole of page 93 is occupied by rubrics for this rite. They concern the kind of pastoral judgement to be considered by the priest in the face of a critically ill person. If, from his judgement of the sick person’s condition, the priest cannot administer all the sacraments needed before the sick person dies, he must hurriedly administer the anointing before anything else.

The last chapter of the book is on the burial and funeral rites, Ayiy] ne funsie ho som. Since the burial and funeral rites are outside the scope of this study, we will mention only the salient headings within these rites. They consist of the short vigil service in the home of the deceased, service before the body is brought the Church, prayer before the covering of the casket, the burial rite in the Church, final commendation and the rite at the cemetery. Equally, there are typographical errors and omissions that need to be corrected to ensure smoother reading of the texts of the rites. Even though The Rites contains the rite of Communion to the sick, which is part of the sacrament of the Holy Eucharist, the greater part of the Sacrament is contained in another book known as The Roman Missal (Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma).

342 HARDON, The Catholic Catechism, 544. (This is also found in the Rites, vol 1, Collegeville 1990, 825, no. 124).

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4.1.2. The Roman Missal (Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma)

The Roman Missal, which is also known as the Sacramentary is translated into the Akan language and is entitled Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma343, and is commonly referred to by the priests as the Twi Sacramentary. The latter term will be used more often in this part of the chapter. As the main book of the liturgical books under this study, the Twi Sacramentary is a big altar edition of 1051 pages. Although a number of people contributed to the work on this book, its authorship is ascribed to the Archdiocesan Catechetical Office of Kumasi. It was the work of a committee of seven priests and four lay persons, according to Rev. Monsignor Dr Stephen Ntim344, set up under the Catechetical Office. It was printed at St. Francis Press in Takoradi, Ghana. The first copies came out in 2004.

The contents of the Twi Sacramentary consist mainly of the presidential prayers in the order mass in accordance with all the liturgical seasons (pp.19 ̶ 370), the order of Mass with various Eucharistic Prayers (pp.371 ̶ 521), the feast and memorial days of the saints (pp.531 ̶ 656) and the celebration of all the sacraments, that is, the ritual Masses (pp.757 ̶ 800). In addition, it covers the Masses and prayers for various needs and occasions including the Church (pp.801 ̶ 843), civil needs (pp.844 ̶ 854), various public needs and particular needs (pp.855 ̶ 892). It also contains votive masses (pp.893 ̶ 915) and funeral masses (pp.917 ̶ 966). The appendices, which cover pages 967 to 1051, contain the revised presidential prayers in accordance with 2000 (third) ICEL edition of the revised Latin editio typica, and some adapted songs for offertory, preface, elevation and Eucharistic acclamation. Therefore, the

343 CATECHETICAL OFFICE, Catholic Archdiocese of Kumasi, Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma (The Book of the Order of Mass), Kumasi 2004. The title is quoted from the front cover of the book, which is commonly referred to as the “Twi Sacramentary”, though it is not written anywhere in the book. 344 Stephen NTIM, an Email correspondence, New York, 7 August 2016, 4. Rev. Monsignor Dr Stephen Ntim was the director of the Archdiocesan Catechetical Office, at whose tenure, most of the liturgical books used in the episcopal province of Kumasi were translated into Akan or compiled. Msgr. Ntim is at the moment a professor in the Catholic University Ghana at Fiapre in the Brong/Ahafo Region. A copy of our questionnaire was sent to him by email, to which he responded last August, while he was on summer holidays in New York. His email response has been marked by page numbers. This first reference is found on page 4 as written above and all the subsequent citations from him will duly be identified by the corresponding page numbers.

130 book principally contains, the order of Mass, the prefaces, Eucharistic prayers and the presidential prayers. The rites for the celebration of the Sacraments as pointed out in the previous section of this chapter, are contained in the book of the rites and the booklet for ordination.

The Twi Sacramentary is hard-covered with red colour. On the top part of the front cover is the title written with big gold characters in the Akan language: Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma (literally, The book of the order of Mass). Beneath the title line is a big cross designed with images of heavenly beings, God the Father, Son and the Holy Spirit, angels, and beams of light radiating from the centre of the cross, all in Gold colour as shown in the picture below:

The front cover of the Twi Sacramentary. The title Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma as already mentioned means ‘The Book of the Order of Mass’. The back cover, which is also of the red colour does not have any images, designs or inscriptions. It is just plain red.

The edition currently being used in the province of Kumasi was translated from the previous version of the current edition of the Roman Missal. The translation of the latest edition is in progress. In an interview with the Archbishop Emeritus Peter Sarpong, he said there was no need to rush to translate the New Roman Missal, because its contents were not much different

131 from those of the Twi Sacramentary345. This fact was confirmed by Monsignor Dr Stephen Ntim, the former director of the Archdiocesan Catechetical Office, who played a major role in the translation. In answering our questionnaire by email correspondence, he wrote: The current edition of the Roman Missal is at the initial stages. This is because the Twi Sacramentary is not substantially different from the current one except some nuances in the presidential prayers. […], I was principally involved with the Twi Sacramentary and it was translated principally from the original Latin editio typica the version preceding the current one, so the differences are not that much346.

The Twi Sacramentary was, therefore, translated from the original Latin edition preceding the latest editio typica approved by Pope Benedict VI in 2008. The translation of the Sacramentary was spearheaded by Monsignor Dr Ntim, the then director of the Archdiocesan Catechetical Office, who wrote the acknowledgements. Under his supervision, the work of translation was carried out successfully by a team of experts in Liturgy, the Akan language, and in Theology as expressed in the acknowledgements347.

On completion, it was approved by the Emeritus Archbishop Sarpong and published in 2004, prior to the publication of the current editio typica of 2008 and its ICEL equivalent of 2010. Archbishop Sarpong wrote the preface of the book, in which he expressed that it was in order that the Ashanti Catholics and all Catholics who speak Akan would understand the Mass that the Roman Missal was brought into the Asante (Akan) language348. Priests in the province have been encouraged to continue using the Twi Sacramentary until the translation of the new one is completed. Like all other translations in the province, the Twi Sacramentary was approved by the Archbishop Emeritus Sarpong for experimentation in expectation of possible comments from the priests. The comments to be collected will help the revision of the book.

Regarding the approval of the translated liturgical texts, Monsignor Ntim claimed that it is done “at the diocesan and provincial levels. De facto, they are supposed be sent to the Congregation for Divine Worship in Rome for official approval. For Pastoral reasons, this has not been done since liturgical translations so far are still considered to be at the level of

345 SARPONG, a recorded interview, Kumasi, 7 August 2014. 346 NTIM, an Email correspondence, New York, 7 August 2016, 5. 347 CATECHETICAL OFFICE, Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma, 7. 348 IBID., 5.

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‘ad experimentum’”349. That means they are put out there to be tried out to see how good they are, if errors are discovered in them, or if they are good enough to be maintained or to be revised into much better versions.

It appears that Ntim was either not informed of what the Archbishop Emeritus Sarpong had done, or that he was aware but since it had not been materialised, he had to say that the books had not yet been sent to the Sacred Congregation for Divine Worship for approval. For, in a recorded interview, the Archbishop Emeritus Sarpong said that he had sent a copy to Rome, but for a long time, the approval had not yet been granted, for which reason he could not imagine350. At least, a copy of the Twi Sacramentary is in Rome, but with the publication of the latest Latin editio typica and its corresponding ICEL translation, that particular version of the Twi Sacramentary may not possibly gain approval, until it is revised in accordance with the latest editio typica.

The newest editio typica certainly came with some isolated differences, which in the meantime, have been translated into Akan and printed out in booklets given out by the Provincial Liturgical Commission for experimentation. By using these booklets interchangeably with the existing Twi Sacramentary, the priests are again expected to bring their comments to be considered in its revision and development into the final edition. Presumably, the texts of these booklets will be used to edit the existing Twi Sacramentary in order to produce an edition that matches with the latest editio typica. According to Monsignor Ntim, for example; over the years the invitation: Dominus vobiscum (Awurade ne montena) and its response: Et cum spiritu tuo, which literally means and with your spirit your spirit did not really make sense in Asante Twi to translate as:}ne wo sunsum nso ntena (and also with you). It was when the latest version of the Roman Missal insisted in line with most languages, that addendum has been made to translate it as:}ne wo sunsum nso ntena’351.

This implies that in the booklets Et um spiritu tuo has finally been translated as:}ne wo sunsum nso ntena, to correspond to the revised edition of the ICEL, which is and with your

349 NTIM, Email Correspondence, 7. 350 SARPONG, a recorded interview, 7 August 2014. 351 NTIM, Email Correspondence, 1˗2.

133 spirit. Despite the fact that it has been ordered to compromise its English and Latin edition, it still does not make as much sense as the older translation did. Another part of the new Mass, which does not make much sense in the Akan language, is the mysterium fidei ‘The mystery of faith’ Gyidie sumas[m no. The older versions of both English ‘Let us proclaim the mystery of faith’ and Akan Momma y[nna y[n gyidie adi make much better sense to the gathered people of God, since they both clearly invite them to proclaim the mystery of faith. The older version rather encourages much better participation in the celebration.

Besides the above highlighted differences, all the other changes made, are more meaningful, though their translation is literal as opposed to interpretive. In support of this claim, the Confiteor can be cited here in Latin, English and Akan: Latin ICEL Twi Sacramentary New Translation Confiteor Deo I confess to Meka mekyer[ Meka kyer[ omnipotenti et almighty God and Otumfo] Otumfo] vobis, fratres, to you, my Nyankop]n, Nyankop]n, [ne quia peccavi brothers and }hoteni Mary, mo anuanom s[ nimis cogitatione, sisters that I have mmer[ nyinaa may[ b]ne verbo, opera et greatly sinned in Baabun, }hoteni mmoroso] w] adwene mu, kasa omssione, mea my thoughts and Michael ab]fo- panin ne soro mu, nney[[ mu ne culpa, mea culpa, my words, in ab]fo] nyinaa, mm]faso] mu. mea maxima what I have failed }hoteni John Me ara me culpa. Ideo precor to do, through my ]sub]ni, mfomso] nti, me beatam Mariam fault, through my asomafo], ara me mfomso] semper Virginem, fault, through my ahotefo] Peter ne nti, me ara me omnes Angelos et most grievous Paul, ne Ahotefo] mfomso] k[se[ Sanctos, et vos, fault; therefore, I nyinaa, ne mo nti. Enti mesr[ fratres, orare pro ask blessed Mary anuanom a }hoteni Mary me ad Dominum ever Virgin, all moahyia mu ha, s[ mmer[ nyinaa Deum nostrum352. the Angels and may[ b]ne Baabun, soro Saints, and you, mmoroso], ab]fo] ne my brothers and adwene mu, kasa ahotefo] nyinaa, sisters to pray for mu, nney[[ mu, [ne mo, anuanom me to the Lord, ne mm]faso] mu: s[ momm] y[n our God353. Me ara me Awirade mfomso] nti, me Nyankop]n

352 Missale Romanum, Editio Typica, 2000, 505. 353 ICEL, The Roman Missal, 2011, 515.

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ara me mfo-mso] mpae[ mma nti, me ara me me355. mfomso] k[se[ nti. Enti mesr[ }hoteni Mary, mmer[ nyinaa Baabun, }hoteni John }sub]ni, Asoma-fo] Ahotefo] Peter ne Paul, ne Ahote-fo] nyinaa, ne mo anuanom a moahyia mu ha, s[ momm] Awirade mpae[ mma me354.

It is clear from the above quotations that the Twi Sacramentary column is the longest. This distinction is due to the fact that the Twi Sacramentary maintained the texts from a version of the Roman Missal that preceded Vatican II, notably that of 1960. The following instance depicts the older version under discussion: Confiteor Deo omnipotenti, beatae Mariae semper Virgini, beato Michaeli Archangelo, beato Ioanni Baptistae, sanctis Apostolis Petro et Paulo, omnibus Sanctis, et vobis, fratres: quia peccavi nimis cogitatione, verbo et opera: […] mea culpa, mea culpa, mea maxima culpa. Ideo precor beatam Mariam semper virginem, beatum Michaelem Archangelum, beatum Ioannem Baptistam, sanctos Apstolos Petrum et Paulum, omnes Sactos, et vos, fratres, orare pro me ad Dominum Deum nostrum356.

It maintained the names of the Archangel Michael, Saint John the Baptist, Apostles Peter and Paul, and the threefold Mea culpa (“Through my fault”), even when the versions of the Roman Missal and its ICEL equivalent of 1985357 did not include the names of the Angels and Saints and were relatively shorter. The rationale behind this disparity was reportedly encouraged by the Archbishop Emeritus Sarpong, who was the Archbishop of Kumasi at the

354 CATECHETICAL OFFICE, Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma, 375. 355 PROVINCIAL LITURGICAL COMMISSION, Mass Af]reb] ne Badwa mu som Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma Fofor], Kumasi 2011, 1. 356 Missale Romanum, Editio typica, 1960, 216. 357 ICEL, The Sacramentary, 1985, 407.

135 time of the translation. He is said to have preferred that form of the 1960 Roman Missal because the inclusion of the names of the Angels and Saints did not disrupt anything.

In a subsequent telephone interview358 with him, he confirmed that it was out of his experience as a member of the Vox Clara359 (Clear Voice), that he was motivated to get that old form of Confiteor maintained in the Twi Sacramentary. He explained further that some changes in the new versions of the liturgical texts were not of theological but linguistic reasons, and so did not cause any harm if the older form was maintained. He added that according the Ratio Fundamentalis, in the locality where there are many illiterates, the older form of the liturgical texts could be maintained if changing it to the new form would cause some kind of confusion. He had observed that the people in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi could not easily adapt to changes in the liturgical texts, when they had become used to the older form. It was, therefore, upon this background that he opted for the older form of the Confiteor.

With the exception of the rubrics that come before the mea culpa (through my fault), all the other words in the new Twi translation correspond to the Latin and English versions. For instance, the rubrics in the English version state; And striking their breast, they say […]360. The Akan translation, however, states differently as follows; w]de w]n nsa to w]n nsa yam (s[de[ amammer[ kyer[ no s[ […]361, meaning, And striking the back of the right palm in the left palm, saying […]362. This is one of the few instances of adaptation and inculturation

358 SARPONG, A telephone interview, 15 October 2016. 359 Vox Clara is a committee of bishops from around the English-speaking world, established by the Congregation for Divine Worship and Discipline of the Sacraments (CDWDS) in 2001 to advise the Congregation in its responsibilities related to the translation of liturgical texts in the English language and to strengthen effective cooperation with the conferences of bishops. – COMMITTEE ON DIVINE WORSHIP, United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, Parish Guide to Implementing the Roman Missal: Third Edition, Washington DC 2011, 48. 360 ICEL, The Roman Missal, 2011, 515. 361 PROVINCIAL LITURGICAL COMMISSION, Mass Af]reb] Som Nhyehy[e[, 1. 362 Andrew KWAME TAKYIA, The Order of Mass in English: Benediction and Some Devotional Prayers in Latin, English and Twi, Techiman 2015, 2. I compiled this book from the ICEL edition of the Roman Missal first, in 2009 and revised it one year later with additional prayers from other liturgical books. I also did the translation into Akan personally. This is actually the third edition which took into consideration the changes brought about by the editio typica of 2008 and its ICEL edition of 2010. It has been approved by the Catholic Bishop for use the Catholic Diocese of Techiman.

136 of the liturgy into the Akan language and culture. It is because the act of striking of breast is culturally incompatible that it has been replaced with another more culturally appropriate gesture of striking the back of the right palm in the left palm. The significance of both gestures is much elaborately explained by Monsignor Ntim as follows: […] during the ‘Confiteor’ ‘through my fault, through my fault, through my most grievous fault’, Westerners would strike the breast three times as a sign of sorrow. But in Asante culture and indeed among all Akans of Ghana, striking the breast is certainly not a sign of sorrow, but a sign of arrogance. As a gesture of sorrow, the Asante man or woman would put the back of the right palm in the left palm three times to indicate a sign of begging for forgiveness363.

It was in order to make the celebration meaningful in the Akan cultural context that such an adaptation has been made. It is evident from the above quotation that one thing, which has a positive significance in one culture, may have a negative connotation in another. As the Akan proverb says, ‘one man’s meat is another man’s poison’. While the striking of breast in the western culture means sorrow, it means arrogance in the Akan culture and since one must not show arrogance before God and man in the worshipping assembly, a better replacement, that is, placing the back of the right palm in that of the left, signifying humility in pleading for mercy and forgiveness has been made. This is rather found more appropriate in the Akan Catholic liturgical assembly. It is for this reason that one has to be very cautious in translating the liturgical texts into the Akan language. It is out of such a caution that the translation of many of the catholic liturgical texts has not yet been completed.

Another part of the Mass, where the translation of the latest editio typica differs from that of the Twi Sacramentary is the Gloria in Excelsis Deo (Glory to God in the highest). Surprisingly not much difference is found between them. Latin English ICEL Twi Sacramentary New Translation […] Filius Patris; […] Son of the […] Agya no Ba a, Agya no Ba a woyi qui tollis peccata Father, you take woyi wiase mu wiase mu b]ne, hu mundi, miserere away the sins of b]ne, y[n mm]b]; nobis; qui tollis the world, have Wo a woyi wiase peccata mundi, mercy on us; you mu b]ne, tie y[n suscipe take away the sins sufr[; deprecationem of the world, tie y[n sufr[;

363 NTIM, Email Correspondence, 4 ̶ 5.

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nostram; qui sedes receive our wo a wote Agya ad dexteram prayer; you are wo na wote Agya no nsa nifa so], hu Patris, miserere seated at the right no nsa nifa so, hu y[n mm]b]367. nobis364. hand of the y[n mm]b]366. Father, have mercy on us365.

The blanc space in the column under the Twi Sacramentary indicates the only difference between the New Twi translation and the Twi Sacramentary. For the sentences “you take away the sins of the world” and “have mercy on us” appear only ones in the Twi Sacramentary, while they appear twice in the editio typica and its ICEL and Twi translations. That is why the Twi Sacramentary needs to be revised before gaining approval from the Sacred Congregation for Divine Worship in Rome.

The translation of the Nicene Creed in the Twi Sacramentary is substantially the same as the new translation on the basis of the latest Latin editio typica and the ICEL version, with exception of only a few rewordings. For instance, genitum, non factum368, ‘begotten, not made369’, translated in the Twi Sacramentary as w]woo no, na ]nny[ ab]de[370, and w]woo no, na wamm] no371. Basically, the difference is between a noun and adjective forms of the same word. }ny[ ab]de[ means ‘he is not a creature’, while wamm] no which is the verb form means, ‘he was not created’. In the Akan language, both forms of the word have the same significance. This and other examples amount to the claim of Monsignor Ntim, quoted above, that “the Twi Sacramentary is not substantially different from the current one except some nuances […]372.

364 Missale Romanum, 2002, 507. 365 ICEL, The Roman Missal, 2011, 522. 366 CATECHETICAL OFFICE, Mass Af]reb] Som Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma, 379. 367 Provincial Liturgical Commission, Mass Af]reb] Som Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma Fofor], Techiman 2011, 5. 368 Missale Romanum, Editio typica, 2002, 512. 369 ICEL, The Roman Missal, 2011, 527. 370 CATECHETICAL OFFICE, Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma, 382. 371 PROVINCIAL LITURGICAL COMMISSION, Mass Af]reb] ne Badwa mu Som Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma Fofor], 7. 372 Stephen NTIM, Email Correspondence, 5.

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Another place where the new translation differs a little from that of the Twi Sacramentary is the response to the invitation to pray, immediately preceding the prayer over the gifts. Latin ICEL Twi Sacramentary New Translation

Suscipiat May the Lord Awurade nnye wo Awurade nnye wo Dominus accept the nsa mu af]reb] yi nsa mu af]reb] yi sacrificium de sacrifice at your mma y[n, na [mfa mma y[n; na [mfa minibus tuis ad hands for the ay[yie ne ay[yie ne laudem et gloriam praise and glory animuonyam mma animuonyam mma nominis suis, ad of his name, for ne din kronkron ne din kronkron no, na y[n nso, no, na y[n nso, utilitatem quoque our good and the y[ne n’As]n mma y[ne n’as]n nostram totiusque good of all his nyinaa nnya ho kronkron nyinaa Ecclesiae suae holy Church374. mfaso]375. anya ho mfaso]376. sanctae373.

The only outstanding difference here is the word sanctae (holy and kronkron) as highlighted, which is missing in the Twi Sacramentary. The reason is obviously that it was missing in the second Latin typical edition of the Missale Romanum and its ICEL version known as “The Sacramentary”377 at the time the Twi translation was carried out.

Another notable change is seen within the dialogue at the beginning of the preface. The response to the “Lord be with you” which is “And also with you” in the Twi Sacramentary, whereas in the typical Latin edition it was Et cum spiritu tuo. Similarly, the response to “Let us give thanks to the Lord, our God”, is “It is right to give him thanks and praise” in the Twi Sacramentary, while in the Latin typical edition it was Dignum et justum est. Presumably, the translators of the Twi Sacramentary translated this part of the Mass solely on the basis of the ICEL version of the Roman Missal, since the later was more interpretive than literal. The new translations of “And with your spirit” (}ne wo sunsum ntena) and “It is right and just”

373 Missale Romanum, Editio typica, 2002, 515. 374 ICEL, The Roman Missal, 2011, 538. 375 CATECHETICAL OFFICE, Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma, 384. 376 PROVINCIAL LITURGICAL COMMISSION, Mass Af]reb] ne Badwa mu Som Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma Fofor], 8. 377 ICEL, The Sacramentary: English Translation Revised According to the Second Typical Edition of the Missale Romanum (19751), Collegeville 1985.

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({fata, na [tene) are just too short and of less meaning to the local congregation than the previous translations.

The next change worth commenting is the ‘Mystery of Faith’. The invitation to proclaim the mystery of faith has become too literal, and less inviting. The translation in the Twi Sacramentary in accordance with the ICEL version of 1985, is Momma y[nna y[n gyidie a y[w] no summas[m yi mu no adi (“Let us proclaim the mystery of faith”), as opposed to Gyedie sumas[m no (“The mystery of faith”) in the new translation. The meaning is more evident in the older translation than in the new one, but for the sake of uniformity the new translation has adopted the shorter form of the latest Latin typical edition. At the time of the preparation of the Twi Sacramentary, the first of the four optional responses was “Christ has died. Christ is risen. Christ will come again”. However, it seems to have been adapted with more words as: Awirade, y[b[b] wo wuo no dawuro, na y[ada wo wus]re[ no adi, ak]pem s[ wob[san aba bio. This literally fits the first of the three options in the newest edition of the Roman Missal, which states: Mortem tuam annuntiamus, Domine, et tuam resurrectionem contemur, donec venias (“We proclaim your Death, O Lord, and profess your Resurrection until you come again”). So far that option is the only one memorised by the congregation and it is only one automatically said soon after the invitation of the priest, if not sung.

Basically, all the instances cited above were translated from the editio typica and the corresponding ICEL editions. This means that the texts found in the Twi Sacramentary correspond to those of the typical editions and their English versions. However, there is an exception in the index, which contains some liturgical music adapted to the local culture. Though liturgical music will shortly be treated under a different sub-topic in this chapter, a citation of an example will be good enough to support this point. A song composed with the words of the doxology is as follows: ICEL Doxology music Literal translation Through him, }. Oni o, Oni o, Priest: Here is he, with him, in him, (2x) here is he (2x) in the unity of the }no ara na y[ne He is the one Holy Spirit, all no ay[ bafua, Na with whom we glory and honour y[nam ]no ara so are united, and is yours, almighty de animuonyam through him, we

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Father, for ever ma wo, Agya give glory to you, and for ever378. Tumfo] Agya ne Almighty Father Sunsum and the Holy Kronkron Spirit, for ever {mer[ a [nni and ever. awiee[ o. Faithful: Truly, he really deserves A. Ampa ara, ]s[ praise for ever ay[yie ampa o. and ever380. W] mmer[ a [nni awiee[379.

The adaptation is evident in the opening words, ‘Here is he, here is he’ and the concluding words ‘Truly, he really deserves praise for ever and ever’. The body texts reflect a poor translation of the version of the doxology shown above. It rather changes the liturgical theological significance of the doxology. For as it stands, the significance is that the worshiping assembly gives glory and honour through and with the Son to the Father and the Holy Spirit. However, the true significance is that the assembly gives glory and honour to the Father through, with and in the Son, in the unity of the Holy Spirit. Traditionally, liturgical prayers including the Eucharistic Prayer, conclude with the Doxology “to the Father, through the Son, in the Holy Spirit”381.

The Twi Sacramentary translation in the order of Mass is rather in line with the corresponding ICEL translation: }no ara na y[ne no ay[ bafua, na y[nam ne so, na y[ne ]no ara ne Sunsum Kronkron kab] mu de anidie ne animuonyam nyinaa ma wo, Nyankop]n Tumfo] Agya, mmer[ a [nni awiee[. {ny[ h]. This translation is in a better spirit of liturgical theology. Through Christ, with Christ and in Christ, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, the Congregation acknowledges that all glory and honour belong to the Father for ever and ever. The contents of liturgical music must, therefore, reflect the sound theology of the Catholic Church and must not just be selected out of beauty.

378 ICEL, The Roman Missal, 2011, 649. 379 CATECHETICS OFFICE, Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma, 1051. 380 My own translation. 381 UNITED STATES CONFERENCE OF CATHOLIC BISHOPS, Parish Guide To Implementing The Roman Missal: Third Edition, Washington, DC 2011, 48.

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4.1.3. Holy Orders – The Rite of Diaconate and Priestly Ordination

The rite of the Sacrament of Holy Orders is found in a booklet entitled “The Rites of Diaconate and Priestly Ordination”. Though the content may not differ, it appears that every diocese in the ecclesiastical province has its own print of the ordination booklets. We shall restrict ourselves to those of the dioceses of Sunyani and Techiman. Monsignor Joseph Marfo Gyimah of the Catholic Diocese of Sunyani claims to have been part of the team that prepared it for the first time382. He was referring to the adapted examination of candidate and the promise of obedience by the candidate. The ordination rites were initially prepared progressively before every diaconate or priestly ordination until they were later put together as a permanent copy by two priests, Rev. Fr Dominic Yaw Assuahene and Rev. Fr. Matthew Addai383. The first copies were printed without any date or place, but upon a telephone communication with Father Dominic, the booklet was confirmed to have been printed at Sunyani in 1996384. He further indicated that the translation of the rite from the ICEL copy into Twi was carried out single-handedly by Mr. Charles Oko Agyemang, who had been teaching Twi in the Minor Seminaries for years. After editing and compilation, it was put together by Fathers Dominic and Matthew and presented to Bishop James Kwadwo Owusu, the then Bishop of the Catholic Diocese of Sunyani, for his approval.

The booklet under discussion is a small one with 30 pages. It is a paperback of a white colour with some borderline designs on the front cover. The page numbers go only up to page 19, beyond which no page numbers appear, supposedly due to typographical errors. Pages 1 to 19 contain the order of Mass together with the rites for diaconate and priestly ordinations. From page 20 to the last page which is 30, is a number of appendices, containing some Latin

382 MARFO GYIMAH, Email Correspondence, 22 July 2014. 383 Rev. Father Dominic YAW ASSAUAHENE was the Vocations Director, while Rev. Father Matthew ADDAI was the Master of Ceremonies (MC) of the Catholic Diocese of Sunyani at the time. There is no date or place in the booklet printed. Currently, Fr. Assuahene is the parish priest of Nkoranza in Techiman Diocese, whereas Fr. Addai, now Monsignor Addai, is the Vicar General of the Catholic Diocese of Goaso. Both dioceses developed from Sunyani diocese. None of the two priests belongs to the diocese of Sunyani anymore. 384 Dominic Yaw ASSUAHENE, a telephone correspondence, 17 October 2016.

142 responses, Litany of the Saints, the English version the prayers of consecration of deacons and priests and the English version of the Eucharistic Prayer 1.

The same booklet was reproduced for use in the Catholic Diocese of Techiman, since December 2010. Techiman was carved out of the diocese of Sunyani in 2008. Some of the contents, however, were dropped making it relatively smaller. It is reduced to 16 pages, with 6 additional pages of appendices marked in Roman numerals. Besides the Latin responses, the appendices contain a daily prayer for priests. The Eucharistic Prayers were omitted because all the four Eucharistic prayers were prepared in a separate booklet for concelebration. This version of the Diocese of Techiman is also a paper back with a light blue colour, without any particular designs.

In both booklets, the prayers and rite of ordination are in the Akan language, while the rubrics are all in English. The rite of diaconate ordination is just a direct translation from the ICEl version of the rites without much adaptation. The priestly ordination, which is our main focus here has much of inculturated stuffs from the calling of the candidate to the end of the rite, part of which were briefly mentioned in the previous chapter. Thus, the rite of priestly ordination becomes a little different from the prescribed text in the Roman Ritual. The difference hinted at in the previous chapter will be examined here in details.

The first one will be with the calling of the candidate385. The rubric states that when a candidate is called by name, he responds loudly from a distant place where he and his fellow candidates are seated, and then “each candidate’s parents (with Abusuapanin) are invited in turns to present their son for the ordination”386. Abusuapanin here means the head of the family, usually a man. While the parents and the head of the family accompany the candidate to hand him over to the Bishop, the choir and congregation accompany them with a song. In accordance with the Akan tradition, the Bishop enquires from the parents and the head of the family, their reason for being there, known as Amane[. Their response, which is not written in the booklet is given by the head of the family spontaneously. They are, however, prepared

385 SUNYANI DIOCESE, The Rite of Diaconate and Priestly Ordination, Sunyani 1996, 10. 386 IBID.

143 beforehand with the salient points to help them formulate their response spontaneously. The main points are that, when their child heard the call of God to the catholic priesthood, he informed them and they consented and supported him all the years of his formation. Having completed his priestly formation course successfully, they on behalf of the whole family now freely present him to the Bishop to be ordained priest for the Catholic Church.

The Bishop, without taking this message for granted, requests the consent of the candidate himself. The candidate responds: Mepene so, may[ krado/ahoboa387, meaning, ‘I agree, I am ready’. Thereafter the parents and head of the family are thanked and asked to return to their seats, leaving the candidate in front of the Bishop. The cultural significance here is that the family consenting to his call to the priesthood has now handed him over to the Church and that he now belongs to the entire Church. The family therefore has no more control over him. The candidate now makes a sign of reverence before the Bishop. The entire congregation is then asked to show its consent the candidates decision by a loud applause.

The next part, which differs more from the texts in the Roman Ritual is the oath/promise of service and obedience, the first part of which has been already shown in the last chapter. The Bishop’s invitation to the candidate will not be repeated here, but the candidate’s oath/promise of service and obedience will be presented in full. After the Bishop’s words of invitation and, while the candidate prepares to take the crucifix for the oath/promise, the traditional talking drum known in Twi as Atumpan speaks. This aspect is derived from the Akan cultural setting of the swearing in of a new King or Chief, and at a durbar or festival. In any of such situations, the drum is sounded to prepare the gathering, drawing their attention to that important moment, when the King/Chief is about to speak. It finishes by inducing the King/Chief to speak with a sound that signifies the words, kasa, kasa, kasa (meaning, talk, talk, talk). When it is sounded at this moment of the priestly ordination, it equally prepares the congregation to pay attention to the swearing in of a would-be priest, whose dignity is likened to that of the King or Chief. Likewise, it prepares the candidate to speak. He then proceeds with the following words:

387 SUNYANI DIOCESE, The Rite of Diaconate and Priestly Ordination, 10.

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Me […] nam Nyankop]n mmoa ne I […] have by the help of God and mpaeb] so adwene ho yie na seesei ara prayer reflected very well and I am masi m’adwene pi s[ m[som now ready to serve God and his Nyanko]n ne n’agyedifo] s[ ]s]fo]. people. I have studied and reflected on Masua na madwene mmra ne asodie a the rules and responsibilities in the [w] as]fodie mu no ho. Mes] priesthood. Holding on to the cross of Awurade Jesus Christ mmeamudua no the Lord Jesus, I promise to mu hy[ b] s[, m[yi me yam ay] wholeheartedly carry out my priestly as]fodwuma no de aboa wo, me duties to help you, my Bishop […] to S]fop]n…N… ama woahw[ pasture the Lord’s sheep. I promise Awurade nwankuo no. Mesuae s[, w] that it is in truth and in obedience, that nokor[ mu ne obuo mu na mede Christ I will proclaim the sacraments of adonne[ no b[to dwa s[de[ as]re ahyehy[ ato h] no ama no ahy[ Christ according to the order of the Onyankop]n animuonyam na [nam so Church, for the glory of God so that ama akristofo] nso anya ahosan. Christians may be joyful.

Mesuae s[, mede nyansa b[da I promise that I will wisely proclaim Nyankop]n as[m no adi, na maka the word of God, preach it as well as ns[mpa no, na makyer[kyer[ mu possible and defend the catholic faith. s[de[ [fata, na mab] Catholic gyedie By the grace of God, I promise to unite no ho ban. Nyame adaworoma, myself firmly to Christ and faithfully mesuae s[ m[ka me ho ab] Christ ho do his work. I will not do my work dendeenden ay] n’adwuma w] nokor[ with fear or discrimination. I sacrifice mu. Merenhwehw[ nnipa anim, na my all life to God and offer myself to memfa nipa anim f[re[ anaas[ the service of the faithful whenever nyiyimu ny[ m’adwuma. Metu me and wherever they may need my help, nkwa nyinaa hy[ Nyame nsa na, mede be it morning, be it afternoon, rain or me ho ma agyedifo] ber[ biara ne shine389. baabiara a w]hia me mmoa, an]pa o, awia o, w] nsuo mu o anaas[ owia mu388.

Before the promise of obedience, the ordinand goes to kneel before the Bishop, places his joined hands in those of the Bishop and having bowed reverently, he makes the promise in answer to the Bishop’s question. He promises to be obedient and respectful to him and all his successors. The texts are again adapted to the local Akan culture with words like memfa nsuo nyina m’anom nkasa nkyer[ wo da […]390. These words are adapted from the local proverbial

388 SUNYANI DIOCESE, The Rite of Diaconate and Priestly Ordination, 13. 389 My personal translation. 390 SUNYANI DIOCESE, The Rite of Diaconate and Priestly Ordination, 12.

145 parlance, which literally means, I will never speak to you with water in my mouth. When one deliberately fills the mouth with water and starts talking to an elderly person, it means he/she does not respect the elderly person before him/her. To do this to a respectable person like the Bishop, implies a great sense of disrespect for him, and so when the candidate uses these words, he pledges the Bishop his total allegiance and obedience, without showing him any sense of disrespect or obstinacy.

What follows the Oath/Promise of Obedience is the acclamation by the faithful. First, it is the talking drum Atumpan that congratulates him with a sound that portrays the words Mo ne kasa. Onyame mmoa wo391, meaning Well spoken, well done. May God help you! The commentator then invites the people’s acclamation with these words: Agyedifo], mo ba yi asuae mmarima so s[ ]b[som mo s[ ]s]fo], enti momma y[n nyinaa mpene no. Mompene no [[! 392 These words literally mean, Faithful, this son of yours, has pledged like a man to serve you as a priest. Therefore, let us all acclaim him! The response is usually a nonverbal approval and congratulation, which sounds, eennn, to the candidate for the words he has spoken. It is then followed by a jubilation led by the choir with an appropriate song amid drumming and dancing. That is a sign of the approval of all the gathered faithful of the promise made by the would-be priest.

The most elaborately dramatized moment of adaptation into the local Akan culture is the period after the ordination rite, that is the time for congratulations. The rubric states: Congratulations and general jubilation by various groups. The Bishop embraces the newly ordained priest, followed by priests, brothers and sisters, seminarians, and chiefs. (Songs for the jubilation by brass band/congregation)393.

Brothers and sisters in the quotation refers to the male and female religious, in other words, Rev. Brothers and Rev. Sisters (Nuns) of the different religious congregations, but not the biological brothers and sisters of the newly ordained. While the above-mentioned people are congratulating the newly ordained, the rest of the congregation show their joy by jubilating

391 SUNYANI DIOCESE, The Rite of Diaconate and Priestly Ordination, 12. 392 IBID. 393 IBID., 13.

146 with brass band music, the choir, the various women associations and other music groups, like Kete and nwomkr]. Both kete and nwomkr] are cultural music groups from to time incorporated in the Catholic Liturgy. They will be later dealt with in chapter six. All these music groups singing with the accompaniment of different types of instruments and voices create an atmosphere which announce to participants and observers that something extraordinary has happened. A young man has responded to the call of God, to his service and the service of his people. The jubilation of the people also portrays how much they cherish the ministry of the priest among them.

Generally, the booklet offers a good opportunity for active participation the concelebrating priests and the general congregation in the ordination liturgy. At first glance, however, one would say it lacks authenticity, since it has no dates and place of publication and does not show anywhere that it has the approval of the local ordinary. Yet the local ordinaries themselves have been using it at every diaconate and priestly ordination. Being used by the Bishops themselves, its authenticity and approval are presumed. Supposedly, the first Bishop under whom it was first developed, Most Rev. James Kwadwo Owusu, the late Bishop of Sunyani, allowed it to be used on experimental basis. For sixteen years now, it has been in use even under new Bishops and new copies have been produced, without paying much attention to the correction of errors and the inclusion of the publication data with the approval of the local ordinary.

4.2. Liturgical Music

Music plays a very important role in the liturgy, in the sense that, it engages the entire assembly in sung praise and embellishes the worship or the liturgical action. It is in fact an integral part of the catholic liturgy. According to Edward Foley, the liturgical music is that “which weds itself to the liturgical action, serves to reveal the full significance of the rite and, in turn, derives its full meaning from the liturgy”394. It is clear from this citation that

394 Edward FOLEY, Liturgical Music, in: The New Dictionary of Sacramental Worship, PETER E. FINK (ed.), Collegeville 1990, 855.

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Liturgical music has a ministerial role, since it serves the texts, the rites, the faith and the prayer of the believers. It also serves to boost the communal spirit within the worshipping assembly and the beauty of the celebration itself.

Serving the texts and the rites presupposes that the words in the music have been drawn from the words in the rituals, prayers and the scriptural passages in the liturgy, or generally from the scripture, from the churches doctrine, or at least from a personal reflection on these or a faith experience which conforms to the spirit of the liturgy. Regarding the source of the text for the composition of the liturgical music, the Bishops of the United States of America are more emphatic in their document “Music in Catholic Worship, which states that “the texts must always be in conformity with the catholic doctrine; indeed, they should be drawn chiefly from the scripture and from liturgical sources”395. This is not to say that the liturgical music ought to strictly assume the texts of the above mentioned exactly word for word. Rather, there is a room for adjustment during composition. The text can be reworded to fit in with the desired musical style without losing, their meaning.

In the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi, this background of the vitality and role of the music in the liturgy seems to have been well understood. For, a lot of efforts have been made by musicians in the realm of liturgical music composition. There is enough evidence to prove that in the early days of the Church in Ghana much of the western liturgical music was translated into the Akan language to enable the people to participate in singing in their own native language during liturgical celebrations. As time went on, local musicians emerged and began to compose liturgical music with the western style. Subsequently, in the aftermath of Vatican II, those musicians endeavoured to combine the western and African rhythm in their composition to give an African flavour to the liturgy. Unfortunately, many of those compositions have not yet been compiled into books, even though they are still used in the liturgy. A few of them, however, have been published in books and booklets.

395 BISHOPS’ COMMITTEE ON LITURGY, Music in Catholic Worship, Washington DC 1983, 16.

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This section of the chapter, therefore, seeks to investigate the current versions of these music books and booklets, including; Ay[yie Af]reb] (Sacrifice of Praise), Music by Brother Pius Agyemang, David Asare-Bediako, Catholic Fantse Ndwom Buukuu (Catholic Fanti Hymnal) and the Responsorial Psalms by Franklin James Ohene Agyei.

4.2.1. Ay[yie Af]reb] (Sacrifice of Praise)

A[yie Af]reb] is the title of one of the current liturgical music books in the province of Kumasi. The title Ay[yie Af]reb] literally means Sacrifice of praise, taken from Hebrews 13:15396, but the alternative English title written underneath the Akan title on the front cover is ‘Catholic Akan Hymnal’, which will be used henceforth in this work. The Catholic Akan Hymnal is a collection of hymns used by the Akans in Ghana, and compiled by Abraham T. Anthony. It was edited by both Abraham T. Anthony and Dominic Mensah. The book was published with the approval of the then Archbishop of Kumasi, the Most Rev. Peter Kwasi Sarpong, first in 1995, second in 1999, third after revision in 2005 and the fourth and current edition in 2008. All those editions of this book were printed by the Catholic Media Network at Offinso within the Archdiocese of Kumasi397.

The Catholic Akan Hymnal is a small size book of 235 pages, with a hard cover of blue- black colour. The front cover shows the Akan and English titles on the top, while the bottom part shows the details of the Printing Press, Catholic Media Network as well as the date of publication. In the introduction to the first edition, Abraham T. Anthony acknowledges that this “Catholic Akan Hymn Book is the first of its kind, though attempts were made to bring out collections in cyclostyled book form”398. Under this title, Anthony’s claim is right, since no hymn book of its kind in the Akan language preceded it. However, considering the Akan ethnic group in general, one would say the Fante Hymnal, which is also in the Akan language, but exclusively in Fante dialect of the same Akan, preceded it. As we saw in chapter two, the Catholic Fante Hymnal has existed since its first publication in 1902. Nevertheless, what sets

396 Abraham T. ANTHONY– Dominic ADU MENSAH (eds.), Ay[yie Af]reb] [Catholic Akan Hymnal], Offinso 2008, vii. 397 ANTHONY, The Catholic Akan Hymnal, x. 398 IBID., vii.

149 this Catholic Akan Hymnal apart is its contents, which go beyond those of the Fante Hymnal, combining collections from the Fante Hymnal and collections from modern compositions that had never been compiled. The hymns are in both Fante and Asante dialects.

The contents are arranged in accordance with seasons, solemnities and feasts with their appropriate hymns. The Advent season has only two hymns labelled A1 and A2 from page 1 to page 2. Hymns of the Christmas season are from pages 2 to 15, labelled A3 ̶ A25. Hymns of the Lenten season and penitential rite, ranging from pages 15 to 35 are labelled B1 ̶ B33. Then comes those of the Holy Week/Triduum, covering pages 37 to 37, and are labelled C1- C3. Easter Season ranges from pages 38 to 43, with the label D1 ̶ D8. Ascension is singled out on page 43 with the label D9. Then follow the solemnities and feasts of the Divine Persons. First, the Holy Spirit (Pentecost and Confirmation) sic, from pages 44 to 48 with the label EA1 ̶ EA9; The Holy Trinity from pages 49 to 50 labelled EB1 ̶ EB2; Corpus Christi from pages 50 to 51, labelled EC1 ̶ EC2; Sacred Heart from pages 52 to 56 labelled ED1 ̶ ED7; Christ the King from pages 57 to 59 labelled EE1 ̶ EE5.

The arrangements of other contents are as follows: Divine Praise and Worship/General Hymns from pages 60 to 86, with the label F1 ̶ F105; Hymn for the Holy Mass from pages 86 to 177 labelled GA1 ̶ GN11; Sacraments of Anointing, Marriage and Ordination from pages 177 to 184 labelled HA1 ̶ HC3; Benediction from pages 184 to 191 labelled VI; Hymns for Holy Men and Women from 192 to 208 labelled JA1 ̶ JD5; Holy Angels, pages 209 to 210 labelled JE1; Funerals and All Souls. Pages 210 to 223, labelled K1 ̶ K23; Way of the Cross, pages 224 to 230, labelled L1 ̶ L11; Leaders of Church, Pope, pages 231 ̶ 235.

Considering the fact that this book has been reprinted many times, it is surprising that it has only once been revised. The revision was done in 2005, after which, the last edition was printed in 2008. However, the contents are still not far from errors. It appears that new copies are just reproduced without giving much attention to a radical editing of the contents. Here is an example: Monk] atifi nso o nk]ka ns[mpa no399 (Go to the north also to proclaim the

399 ANTHONY, Ay[yie Af]re[, 104.

150 good news). As it stands, the only error on it is the ‘o’ in the middle of the sentence, but for the sake of musical arrangement, the sentence should be broken into two with a comma or in two lines as follows: Monk] atifi nso o monk]ka ns[mpa no

Many of such errors, which run through the book, make it difficult for some of the affected hymns to be recognised and sung accordingly. Moreover, the hymns have no musical notations with which one can learn and sing them. They cannot, therefore, be sung, unless they were known beforehand or unless they are taught by one who knows them. Another example of errors seen in chapter II F regards wrong translations. The sub-title TO NNWOM MMA NYAME AY{ NE NYAMESOM, does not conform to its English equivalent of ‘Divine praise and worship/general hymns’ written in brackets underneath the sub-title. It does not make sense without knowing its English version. Such minor errors should have been eliminated after four prints. Another shortcoming of the book is that almost all the hymns do not have the acknowledgement of their corresponding composers. In other words, names of composers are not attached to most of the hymns. Only a few of them have names of their appropriate composers attached to them. The only names, that pop up include Brother Pius Agyemang, Fr. Aboagye Danso, Fr Theresa Paul, J.P. Johnson, Fr Boateng Mensah and Fr Ampah. Though some of the composers’ names may have been lost in the course of time, as their hymns were sung long before they were recently written down, others could be easily recognised since they were composed in recent times.

Regardless of its errors and shortcomings, this Catholic Akan Hymnal is beneficial to the Church in Ghana, particularly, the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi and the other the Akan speaking areas outside the province. It portrays the many efforts that have been made so far in the realm of liturgical music in the Akan language, though the number of hymns in the book has unfortunately not been stated. Yet as the first of its kind, it provides a variety of options in the selection of music for any liturgical service. It presents many common hymns known in every town and village in the Kumasi ecclesiastical province and beyond. Some of these hymns are traditionally imported from the western world originally composed in Latin or English. They were translated and are still sung with their original tunes. Examples of such hymns are those of Benediction, presented in Latin, English and Akan in the same book:

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O SALUTARIS HOSTIA O SAVING VICTIM NKWAGYE{ AF}REB}DE{ O Salutaris Hostia O Saving victim, opening O Nkwagye[ Af]reb]de[ Quae coeli pandis ostium wide the gate of heaven to Wobue Soro pono ma Bella premunt hostilia man below; Our foes press nnipad]m. Da robur fer auxilium on from every side; your Atamfo atwa y[n ho ahyia; Fa wo mmoa ne aho]den ma aid Supply, your strength y[n. below.

Uni Trinoque Domino To your great name be Baasafua Kronkron, Sit sempiterna gloria, endless praise, immortal Nyamekor], Qui vitam sine termino Godhead, One in Three; O Ay[yie nka Wo daa nyinaa. Nobis donet in patria, Grant us endless length of O ma y[n nkwa a [nni awiee[ Amen days in our true native land Na y[ne Wo ntena y[n fie, with Thee. Amen. {ny[ h]. THEREFORE WE Y{TWA HWE N’ANIM TANTUM ERGO Therefore we, before him Y[twa hwe n’anim koto s]n, Tantum ergo Sacramentum bending, this great Y[kamfo Adonne[ Kronkron. Veneremur cernui Sacrament revere; Types Esom dada no atwa mu, Ama Et antiquum documentum and shadows have their adom fofor] asi n’anam. Novo cedat ritui ending for newer rite is De[ y[n adwene hinhim y[n Praestet fides supplemen- here; ho no, Gyedie hy[ y[n den w] tum Sensuum defectui ho. Faith our outward sense Animuonyam ne anidie, Genitori, Genitoque befriending, makes the Nhyira ne tumi ne aho]den, nka Agya Tetekwaframmoa Laus et jubilatio inward vision clear. Glory Nka }ba a ]di hene Soro Salus, honor, virtus let us give, and blessing to Nka Honhom Kronkron a quoque the Father and the Son; ]firi W]n mu Na }ne w]n y[ Sit et benedictio Honour, might and praise koro no. Procedenti ab utroque addressing, while eternal {ny[ h]. Compar sit laudatio. Amen ages run; Ever to his love confessing, who from, both is one. P. Wode {soro Paanoo maa P. Panem de caelo P. You have given them w]n (Alleluia). praestitisti eis (Alleluia) bread from heaven (Alleluia) R. {no na [d[ nyinaa w] mu R. Omne delectamentum in R. The bread which is full (Alleluia). se habentem (Alleluia) of all goodness (Alleluia) P. Momma y[mm] mpae[: P. Oremus: P. Let us pray: Onyankop]n, Wonam Deus qui nobis sub O God, who in this adonne[ nwanwa yi so de Wo Sacramento mirabili wonderful Sacrament has wuo ho nkaede[ agya y[n. passionis tuae memoriam left us a memorial of your Y[sr[ Wo ara ma y[nsom Wo reliquisti, tribue quaesu- passion. Honam ne Wo Mogya mus, ita nos corporis et Help us to reverence the Ahintade[ Kronkron yi, na [ber[ biara y[ate Wo sacred mysteries of Your

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sanguinis tui Sacra Body and Blood, that we nkwagye[ ho mfaso] nka y[n Mysteria may always experience in mu. venerari, ut redemtionis our lives the effects of Wo a wote ase[ di hene tuae fructum in nobis your redemption: mmer[ a [nni awiee[. jugiter sentiamus: qui vivis Who lives and reigns for et regnas in saecula ever and ever. saeculorum.

Antiphon: NNYESO} ANTIPHON : Let us adore forever the P. Momma y[nkoto ns]n Adoremus in aeternum most Holy Sacrament. Adonne[ Kronkron. Sanctissimum Sacramen- A: Ntontom ne ay[yie ne Tum. animuonyam nka No daa nyinaa. LAUDATE DOMINUM LAUDATE DOMINUM Laudate Dominum, Omnes O praise the Lord, all you MONYI AWURADE AY{ Gentes, Laudate Eum nations; Praise him all you Amanaman nyinaa, monyi Omnes populi people. For his mercy is Awurade ay[ ; Nnipad]m Quoniam confirmata et confirmed upon us. And nyinaa, monyi no ay[. super nos misericordia the truth of the Lord {firi s[ wasi ne mm]bor]hunu ejus remains forever. no so bio ama y[n. Et veritas Domini manet in Glory be to the Father, and Na Awurade nokor[ b[ka h] Aeternum to the Son, and to the Holy daa. Animuonyam nka Agya Gloria Patri et Filio, Spirit. no ne }ba no ne Honhom Kronkron no; Et Spiritui Sancto As it was in the beginning S[de[ [te mfitiase[ no, saa Sicut erat in principio, et is now, and ever shall be, nso na [te seesei ara, [nna Nunc et semper, et in world without end. Amen. [b[y[ saa daa mfensa mu saecula saeculorum. Amen mfensa. {ny[ h].

ANTIPHON NNYESO} Antiphon Let us adore forever the P. Momma y[nkoto ns]n Adoremus in acternum most Holy Sacrament401. Adonne[ Kronkron. Sanctissimum A. Ntontom, ne Ay[yie, ne Sacramentum400. animuonyam nka No daa nyinaa402.

The red colour in the Latin and English columns indicates omissions, which are only due to typographical errors. In the third column, however, the red colour illustrates an adaptation in

400 ANTHONY, Ay[yie Af]re[, 187 ̶ 189. 401 IBID., 189 ̶ 191. 402 IBID., 184 ̶ 187.

153 the antiphon. The letter ‘P’ stands for the priest, while ‘A’ stands for the response of the faithful. When the priest sings ‘Let us adore the most Holy Sacrament’, the faithful respond, ‘Adoration, praise and glory be to Him for ever’. It is this adaptation that makes the Akan version longer than those of Latin and English. There is also an indication between the Akan version of Tantum Ergo and Panem de caelo prestitisti eis, that a hymn was translated by Peter K. Sarpong and Owusu Ansah in 1966. Though it is not clear which one the indication refers to, one can conclude that it refers to Panem de caelo prestitisti eis, since Bishop Peter Sarpong himself has been cited in the previous chapter as referring to one Mr. Johnson as the one who translated the Tantum Ergo and O Salutaris Hostia. Despite the fact that those hymns have been translated into English and Akan, the Latin tune is still maintained in both English and Akan.

There are many other hymns that were neither translated nor copied from a Western source, but rather fully composed by local musicians either with a combination of Western and African styles. Most of such hymns or songs portray a way forward in the direction of liturgical inculturation. Such are the compositions from Brother Pius Agyemang, Fr Aboagye Danso, Fr Theresa Paul, Fr Ampah, who wrote their music from Liturgical, theological, biblical or doctrinal source. A typical example is the following piece by Brother Pius Agyemang: Asomdwoe[ nka mo nyinaa Peace be with you all Nyame Asomdwoe[ nka mo nyinaa God’s peace be with you all

Refrain: Refrain: Meresoma mo s[ monk]ka ns[mpa no I am sending you to go and preach the Gospel. He who believes you, baptise him. Nea ]b[gye mo adi no, momm] no asu In the Father’s name, baptise him. W] Agya no din mu, momm] no asu In the Son’s name, baptise him. W] }ba no din mu, momm] no asu In the name of the Holy Spirit, baptise W] Sunsum Kronkron no din mu, him. […]404. momm] no asu. […]403.

403 ANTHONY, Ay[yie Af]re[, 104. This composition by Brother Pius Agyemang takes its inspiration from John 20:21 and Matthew 28:19. It can serve as the song accompanying the exchange of the sign of peace or as a recessional hymn. 404 My own translation.

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It is much longer than this, but the part shown is enough to serve as an example of a composition with a scriptural background by a native musician. Unfortunately, there is no accompanying musical notation to indicate the style or rhythm in which it was composed, it is that of a highlife. The hymns of Fathers Ampah and Theresa Paul are those of the offertory rite and preface. They were composed from appropriate liturgical background but with purely African rhythms as an indication of inculturation. Nevertheless, the example given above are just enough for the presentation of the Catholic Akan hymnal.

Though much has gone into the production of this useful book, there is still more room for improvement. It is hoped that the next edition will be much better than the current one, without any typographical and minor errors whatsoever.

4.2.2. Brother Pius Agyemang

The Reverend Brother Pius Agyemang, who is a religious brother of the order of Divine Word Missionaries (SVD), is a renowned liturgical musician in Ghana. He graduated from the Irish Institute of Pastoral Liturgy in Carlow, Ireland in 1991 with a Diploma in Pastoral Liturgy. Before and after his studies in Ireland he has contributed immensely to the development of liturgical music in both English and Akan. In a recorded interview with him, he mentioned among many issues that he had composed over one thousand liturgical songs405. The fruits of his work are reaped in all the dioceses of the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi and all the Akan speaking dioceses in Ghana. His songs are the most sung in the mentioned dioceses. Unfortunately, however, he has not yet been able to produce a hymn book of his compositions. Instead, his compositions are subsisting in other books, including, liturgical books, hymn books, his Diploma Dissertation and other books written by him. Most of his compositions are in the hands of choirmasters in files and on loose sheets. Many others may have been lost in history as they were not compiled or kept safely. For some years now, he has been working hard on the compilation of his hymns and songs into a book, but the finished product has yet come out. We will try to examine the little available to us in this part

405 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015.

155 of the chapter. Some of his hymns are contained in the appendix of the Akan version of the Roman Missal (Twi Sacramentary), in the Catholic Akan Hymnal as seen in the previous section, in his book, Understanding the Order of Mass, in his Diploma Dissertation and many others on loose sheets.

The liturgical songs composed by Brother Pius range from entrance songs to the recessional songs. They include songs for the ordinary of the Mass, including, Lord, have mercy (Kyrie), glory to God in the highest (Gloria), Holy, Holy (Sanctus), Lamb of God (Agnus Dei). In- between are songs for the Gospel Acclamation (Alleluia), creed, bidding prayers, collection, offertory procession, offertory rite, preface, elevation, memorial acclamation, doxology (The Great Amen), The Lord’s Prayer, sign of peace, communion and post communion. In an interview with Pius Agyemang, he said, the liturgical music, composed with the words of the ordinary of the Mass (Kyrie, Gloria, Sanctus and Agnus Dei), are simply known as “The Mass” and these sets of music are named after saints or memorable events, for instance the Mass of St. Joseph or Jubilee Mass406. His book, Understanding the New Order of Mass, contains two different sets of music under the titles, Musical Setting of the New Order of Mass407 and The Mass of St. Arnold Jansen (Centenary Mass)408. Each of those two Masses are composed in the staff notation and the texts are in both English and Akan languages.

A block of music written by Brother Pius Agyemang is contained in his Diploma Dissertation409. This unnamed block consists of songs for a full Mass from entrance to recession in handwritten staff notation. Each of the songs appears in the staff notation with the Akan language on one page and its English translation together with some commentary on the next page. The commentary explains how each piece of music is to be performed and in which style it has been written. For instance, under the ‘Lord Have Mercy’, he has the following commentary:

406 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015. 407 IBID., Understanding the Order of Mass: in the Light of Vatican II, Tema 2012, 80 ̶ 105. 408 AGYEMANG Understanding the Order of Mass, 106 ̶ 115. 409 IBID., Inculturation: African Music in the Service of the Liturgy (with particular reference to Ghanaian Music) [unpublished dissertation, Irish Institute of Pastoral Liturgy, Carlow] 1991, 47 ̶ 71.

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The piece should be performed “fairly slowly and expressively”. This piece has been written in the style of “call and response”. The soprano and alto will first sing the “Awurade hu y[n mm]b]”. The choir and congregation will sing the same thing as response. The “Agyenkwa Christ” will also be sung in the same style. The final “Awurade hu y[n mm]b]” sic. it should be sung slowly with feeling410.

The commentary also includes the type of instruments that are to be used to accompany each song. For example, the commentary on the Glory to God song states: The following African Instruments are to be used when singing “Glory to God” (Animuonyam nka Nyankop]n). 1. The gourd rattle. 2. A bell. 3. A pair of wooden clips. 4. The kwadum (a deep bass drum). 5. The dono (hourglass drum). 6. The at[nt[b[n flute. 7. A pair of talking drums or a pair of conga411.

The gourd rattle instrument is also known commonly in Ghana as maracas. As the pioneer in the inculturated liturgical music, Brother Pius is the one who spearheaded the inclusion of the African musical instruments in the Roman Catholic liturgical celebrations in the Akan speaking areas of Ghana. In a recorded interview, he recounted an unfortunate incidence that befell him, that the first time he included African musical instruments in the music at Mass in Nsawam, a town near Accra, he was stoned by some of the local Church members. This, he said, was done, because, in the opinion of the local parish priest and the lay faithful, he was turning the Catholic Mass into fetishism, since from their experience, no such instruments had been used anywhere in the Catholic Church except in the shrine of the fetishes. They considered the inclusion of traditional musical instruments in the Catholic liturgical celebration as an influx of fetishism412. In addition, Afrifah Agyekum records that some of the oppositions and difficulties he had from the beginning came “from Bishops and priests. Often their criticisms ranged from the fact that his songs are not liturgical to being too local”413. These initial antagonisms went to the extent of his transfer from that parish to another, where he continued these efforts of his until they later gained acceptance, with the approval of the then Bishop of Accra. Thanks to his initiatives, regardless of the initial

410 AGYEMANG Understanding the Order of Mass, 50. 411 IBID., 51. 412 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015. 413 AFRIFAH AGYEKUM, History of the Liturgical Life in Ghana, 298.

157 difficulties, the use of such musical instruments and many more have come to stay in the Catholic liturgical celebration throughout the Akan speaking areas of Ghana.

From the Twi Sacramentary, an instance of inculturated liturgical music can be cited. It is the Eucharistic Acclamation, converted into music. The words were taken from the invitation by the priest to proclaim the mystery of faith and the ensuing response from the faithful and embellished to suit the style of the music. Here is it: Sacramentary Hymn Literal Translation P. Let us proclaim the P. Adehyemma ee, P. Royals, royals of mystery of faith. Nyame Adehyemma God! ee! 1. Christ has died, Momma y[nna y[n Let us proclaim the Christ is risen, Christ gyedie a y[w] no mystery of faith! will come again. sumas[m mu no adi o! Momma mma Let us proclaim it! 2. Dying you y[nna no adi o!

destroyed our death, R. Saviour! Saving R. Agyenkwa ee! rising you restored Warrier! }sabarima Agyenkwa our life, Lord Jesus, Salvific Warrior! ee! }kogyefo] come in glory. The invincible one! Agyenkwa ee! }katakyie! The vitorious one! 3. When we eat this Ogyapambo] The awe-inspirer! bread and drink this Ahunab]birim! Y[de Tremendous one! cup, we proclaim aseda ma wo oo. We render you thanks! your death, Lord Y[da w’ase ahenewa! We thank you, Jesus, until you come Y[de aseda ma wo Regent! in glory. oo! We render you thanks!

4. By your cross and Chorus : Y[ma wo Chorus: we congratu- resurrection, you have amo, mo, mo, mo ! late you! set us free. You are y[ma wo amo ! Y[de Congratulations, the saviour of the aseda ma wo oo ! congratulations, world414. congratulations, We render you thanks!

P. Wonam wo By your cross and mmeamudua no so, death, you have saved us!

414 ICEL, The Sacramentary, 1985, 511.

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woawu agye y[n nkwa o! Chorus […]. Chorus […]. P. By your victorious P. Wode nkunim resurrection, you have as]re afiri awufo mu, saved us! woawu agye y[n Chrus […]. nkwa oo! Chorus P. You will come […]. again in glory, you P. Wode ani’onyam have saved us! b[san aba bio, woawu Chorus […]416. agye y[n nkwa oo! Chorus […]415.

Presumably, the texts were taken from all the four optional responses in the previous ICEL version of the Roman Missal, entitled “The Sacramentary” and reformulated to suit the style of the music, which is more of an African style. The appellations used are from the Akan royal setting. A brave, mighty king, who has been victorious in war and has saved his royal people. The use of royals here conforms to the royal priesthood and the fearless, awe- inspiring, regent and salvific warrior refers to Christ the king, who, with his victory over death and sin, has gloriously risen to save his royal family, the Church.

The foregoing are only a few instances to prove the immense contribution of Brother Pius Agyemang to the development of liturgical music in the Akan language. We observe that despite all the early oppositions to his musical carrier, his initiatives have paid off. One cannot enjoy the liturgical celebrations in the Akan speaking areas without the use of musical instruments. Again, his songs have spread throughout the mentioned area with the admiration of the ordinary parishioners. There is no doubt that when the printing of his book is completed, it will be a great asset to the Church in Ghana in general and the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi in particular.

415 CATECHETICAL OFFICE, Mass Af]reb] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma, 1049. 416 My own translation from Asante Twi to English. This is not available in any book.

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4.2.3. David O. Asare-Bediako

Mr. David O. Asare-Bediako is another musician, besides Brother Pius, who played a very significant role in early development of liturgical music in the Akan language. His contribution to the liturgical music began in the late 1960s, after his personal observation that the traditional Catholic liturgical hymns, imported from the western world, were too boring. He therefore had a burning zeal to compose more lively songs in order enliven and embellish the liturgical celebrations. This same zeal is said to have led him to “organise workshops for Akan musicians in a bid to improve their liturgical singing in the vernacular”417.

His desire and efforts to get a common Catholic hymnal in the Akan language came to a realisation, when he finally managed to compile his own songs into a book entitled Akristofo, Momma Y[nto Dwom418 (Christians, let us sing). This was the fourth of the six volumes he managed to produce. The production of the six volumes go down as the first Catholic Akan Hymn book, with tonic sofas, which were simple to read and sing in four parts. He is said to have composed about four hundred songs in a period of four years, out of which three hundred had been published by 1974419. This suggests that his first composition might have taken place in the 1970.

The fourth volume of his compositions, of which a copy is available to us for studies, consists of 80 liturgical hymns, beginning from 201 to 280 altogether, without any page numbers. From 201 to 235 are classified under the heading of Eucharistic Hymns. That means hymns that are appropriate for the Eucharistic liturgy, ranging from the entrance through the ordinary of the Mass to the recessional hymns. Each part of the mass that is to be sung has, at least two alternatives. Four hymns which are made for Evening Prayers cover numbers 236 to 239, meaning only four hymns are in this section. Seasonal hymns, consisting of Christmas, Lent and Resurrection, cover numbers 240 to 266, making 26 in all. These are

417 AFRIFAH AGYEKUM, History of the Liturgical Life in Ghana, 299. 418 ASARE-BEDIAKO, Akristofo Momma Y[nto Dwom, Akwatia 1974. He is said to have published 6 volumes of this book. The date here is taken from the volume IV, which is available to us. The first three volumes may certainly have been published earlier. 419 AFRIFAH AGYEKUM, History of the Liturgical Life in Ghana, 300.

160 followed by three occasional hymns, covering numbers 267 to 269. The last block of hymns is under the title Funeral Hymns from numbers 270 to 280, which are eleven in total.

The composer wrote these hymns with the intention of responding to the call of Vatican II for inculturation. He mentions in the Foreword to the Volume IV that “this volume is mainly indigenous music and those who teach songs from it should be very careful”420. He further draws a clear distinction between the western style and the indigenous Ghanaian style with which these compositions have been made: A kind of thrill […] or a mordent has been used in this book, but it should not be interpreted as those found in European or western music. Treat them according to the context. Remember they are indigenous Ghanaian music. […]. Please, try to accompany the songs in this book with drums and all possible Ghanaian instruments421.

He was very particular about showing that the style of music was indigenous. Like Brother Pius he also recommended the accompaniment of drums and all possible Ghanaian instruments with the songs he had compiled in this book. One can, therefore, read what his intentions were, as he wrote these songs. Even though the word is not boldly written anywhere in the book, we consider these initiatives of his as a good foundation for liturgical inculturation. For, blending the liturgical texts with the indigenous style of music and including the use of indigenous musical instrument in the Christian liturgy, is inculturation, which will be treated in a more elaborate sense in chapter six of this study.

After this brilliant start with the publication of these six volumes of his hymn book, it is rather unfortunate to note that Mr. Asare-Bediako could not proceed with any further development of his Catholic liturgical musical initiatives. He is said to have left the country around 1980 and never returned to compose more hymns or at least, revise and embellish the already published ones before his death422. The six published volumes are no longer reproduced and the existing copies have not been well kept. They are increasing wearing out. They are still the current editions, which are either partly eaten by moth or torn apart in the course of time. Therefore, his hymns are diminishing from the liturgical celebrations in the Akan speaking

420 ASARE-BEDIAKO, Akristofo, Momma Y[nto Dwom, Foreward,1st page. 421 IBID. 422 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015.

161 areas. It would, however be expedient to add all the existing copies of his compositions to any new collections of the Catholic Akan Liturgical music, without forgetting the corresponding acknowledgement of his authorship.

4.2.4. Catholic Mfantse Ndwom Buukuu (Catholic Fanti Hymnal)

The Catholic Mfantse Ndwom Buukuu is a Catholic Hymnal in the Fanti language. It is the current version of the old Fanti Hymnal seen in the previous chapters. It was produced by the Archdiocese of Cape Coast and edited by Benedict A. Sackey. It was published in Cape Coast in 2007. The Fante Hymnal used to be the only hymn book in the Akan language from the early missionary days until the 1970s, when the six volumes of Mr. Asare-Bediako’s Hymn Book were published. As we saw in chapters two and three of this study, Rev. Fr. Joseph Tawiah Yesere was the one, who translated some of the hymns from the Fante Hymnal into Asante Twi to make it easier for the local people in the now ecclesiastical province of Kumasi to sing. Since the products of his efforts were not published in a book, they were lost in history.

The current edition of the Fante Hymnal is a big book of 366 pages, with a black hard cover. It is much more developed and organised than its preceding edition. It contains a collection of liturgical hymns with staff notations from many different composers, some of whom are acknowledged, while the authorship of the others could not be traced as indicated in one of the early pages of the book: Much effort has been made to trace the ownership of compositions and copyright material, but we could identify the composers of some pieces. We do hope that no copyright has been infringed. If, however, the contrary is the case, we ask for pardon and render an unqualified apology, and would appreciate it, if such was brought to our attention423.

The editor and his compiling team have tried but could not trace the authorship of some pieces of music in the book. Despite the good work done, it is clear from the above citation that the work was still open to corrections at the time of its publication. Nine years on, it still remains the current edition for use in the Archdiocese of Cape Coast and beyond. Most of

423 ARCHDIOCESE OF CAPE COAST, Catholic Mfantse Ndwom Buukuu, Cape Coast 2007, ii.

162 the hymns in the book were translated from Latin and sung with the Latin tunes. Others, were composed by local musicians with local styles. His Eminence Peter Cardinal Kwadwo Appiah Turkson, the then Archbishop of Cape Coast, writing the Preface to the book, affirmed this point as he wrote: Most of the songs, initially, were those which the missionaries brought; and they were for the most part in Latin. Soon, however, the adept and creative Ghanaian mind spun into action, singing Latin tunes with Akan and Fante words; and composing local lyrics and melodies, offering to the Christ of the Gospel-faith, the best of Fante expression of soul and heart424.

The words of the Cardinal imply that the current edition of the Fante Hymnal has moved on from the level inherited from the missionaries. Though the inherited Latin tunes have been maintained with some of the hymns, the words have been adapted into the native language. More new compositions with local lyrics and melodies, too, have embellished the hymnal with lively varieties that enable the Fante people to partake in the liturgy from deep within their souls and hearts.

As mentioned earlier, the contents of this hymnal are much better arranged under eighteen topics. These topics with their page numbers include: Mass af]rb] Kr]nkr]n ho Ndwom (The Holy Sacrifice of the Mass) 1–23, Ewuradze ne mbae (Advent) 24–29, Ewuradze N’awoe (Christmas)29–69, Nnuhu ber (Lent) 69–87, Christ N’amandzehu (The Passion of Christ) 88–107, Menank]nson Kwesiada (Palm Sunday) 107–115, Ewuradze no Wuso[r (The Resurrection of the Lord) 116–132, Ewuradze no Sork] (Ascension of the Lord) 132–134, Sunsum Kr]nkr]n (Holy Spirit) 134–146, }korsa Kr]nkr]n (The Holy Trinity) 146–150, Ewuradze N’akoma Kr]nkr]n (Sacred Heart of the Lord) 151–154, Afarpondo Adomadze Kr]nkr]n (The Holy Sacrament of the Altar) 154–183, Ay[yi na ndaase (Praises and Thanksgiving) 183–207, Siarfo Baabun Mary (The Blessed Virgin Mary) 208–228, Ahotseweefo na Ab]fo (The Saints and Angels) 228–244, Funsie (Funerals) 245–277, Awar Kr]nkr]n (Holy Matrimony) 277–284, Ndwom nkaa no (Other Songs) 285–356 and Indices 357–366.

424 Peter Cardinal Kwadwo APPIAH TURKSON, Preface, in: Catholic Mfantse Ndwom Buukuu, iii.

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Regardless of the fact that the hymns are chronologically arranged in parts to be sung with four voices, not all of them have their first verses arranged under the corresponding staff notation to make the singing easier and more rightly. Only a few of them are fully arranged in this wise. The absence of the words under the musical notations presuppose that the work is incomplete, and that there is still room for improvement. Hopefully these loopholes will be filled up in the next edition.

Many of the hymns in this current edition used to be sung more frequently at liturgical celebrations throughout the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi until the late 1970s when the compositions of Brother Pius Agyemang, Mr. David Asare-Bediako and more new composers began to take root in the province. The use of Fante hymns in the province began to dwindle until the present day, because the language is not easy for the local people to understand. Currently, Hymns from the Fante Hymnal are heard mostly seasonally, that is, Advent Christmas, Good Friday, Easter and during funerals. On such occasions, certain traditional hymns in Fanti are considered more appropriate to be sung. The following traditional Christmas hymn is an example:

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Hom mbra ma y[nk] Come let us go

Hom mbra ma y[nk] Come, let us go to Bethlehem Bethlehem Hom mma y[nh[n suaba Let us enter the stable no mu; Behold, the promised Hw[ enyidado Ba n’awo child is born in David’s n’ royal home. David adehye k’row no

mu. Wonderful! The king of

the Angels has become Anwanwas[m! Sor Ab]fo Hen n’ human like us. Ay[ nyimpa d[ h[n ara Oh man! You have found Ao, dasanyi! Etu ehu a treasure. God has come Nyame nye wo ab[tsena. to dwell with you.

Oh let us join the O hom mma y[nnye shepherds in adoring nguanhw[fo n‘ Christ our Saviour; Mb]m ntonton Christ h[n Let us hail his mother Agyenkwa; Mary and Joseph, their 425 Hom mma y[nkyia ne na guardian427. Mary, ]nye Joseph h]n hw[fo pa426.

The above traditional Christmas hymn has two tunes, both of which are harmonized in four parts. The top one is harmonized by CWK Mereku, while the bottom one is noted to have been adapted from the Musikalisches Handbuch, Hamburg 1690428. There are ten stanzas in this particular hymn, but we only presented three of them to exemplify the arrangement of music in this current edition of the Fante Hymnal. The words accurately correspond to the occasion, for which the hymns are composed. For instance, the texts above perfectly announce the Christmas story and encourage people to feel part of it by celebrating it.

425 ARCHDIOCESE OF CAPE COAST, Catholic Mfantse Ndwom Buukuu, Cape Coast 2007, 40. 426 Ibid., 40–41. 427 My own translation from Fante to English. 428 ARCHDIOCESE OF CAPE COAST, Catholic Mfantse Ndwom Buukuu, 40.

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4.2.5. Franklin James OHENE AGYEI – Songs of David, Year A, Preface, no page number.

Mr Francis J. Ohene Agyei is the choirmaster of the Christ the King Cathedral choir of the Catholic Diocese of Sunyani, which is one of the six dioceses within the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. Mr Ohene Agyei is the author of the music booklets entitled ‘Songs of David’, containing the music of the Psalms for all the three liturgical cycles, A, B and C. Each of the three booklets contains the Psalms for Sundays and Holy Days of obligation in one cycle. The number of pages varies in one cycle from another. Cycle A consists of 42 pages, cycle B 49 pages and cycle C 41 pages.

All the psalms for Sundays and Holy days of obligation in the three cycles have been composed into simple songs with tonic sofas. They cover all the seasons of the year and the solemnities of the Lord, beginning from Advent and ending with the feast of the Sacred Heart. The contents do not go chronologically in accordance with the Liturgical year. For, the two parts of the Ordinary Time have been fused together to follow one sequential order, from the first Sunday to the 34th Sunday (Christ the King) in ordinary time, without any break. Each response is arranged in four parts to be harmoniously sung by the choir and the congregation. The verses on the other hand, are composed in one voice meant to be sung by a soloist or a cantor. The mindset of the author was to promote the singing of the Psalms by the entire congregation led by the choirs, or singing groups as he wrote in the preface to the Year A edition: It is my prayer that all choirs/singing groups in the Catholic Church throughout the country who have not yet started singing the psalms should endeavour to possess a copy of the booklet, so that the congregation would benefit from it. The verses are not there to be sung by only a chorister, but by a Cantor, Psalmist or a Lector. I would also advise choirs/singing groups to teach the congregation the response to the psalm before Mass celebration so that participation would be great429.

429 Franklin James OHENE AGYEI, Songs of David, Year A, Preface, no page number.

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After each of the verses, the response is recurrently sung. It is therefore composed for singing in alternation between the choir/congregation and the singer of the verses, be it a soloist, a chorister, a cantor, a psalmist or a lector. Encouraging the congregational participation in the singing of the psalms fulfils the desire of Vatican II as it states: Therefore, the active participation of the whole people, which is shown in singing, is to be carefully promoted as follows: […] it should first of all include acclamations, responses to the greetings of the priest and ministers and to the prayers of litany form, and also antiphons and psalms, refrains or repeated responses, hymns and canticles. […]430.

None of the three volumes indicates any dates or place of publication. Undoubtedly, the composition of Psalms, has added an unmeasurable taste and beauty to the liturgies of Sundays and Holy Days of obligation in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. The participation of the congregational singing has been encouraged as intended by the author: “For full participation, it would be advisable to rehearse with the congregation before Mass”431. The parishes that have benefited most immensely from them are in the dioceses of Sunyani, Techiman and Goaso, where they are more consistently used.

4.3. Other Books

There are many other books, besides those containing the sacraments and music dealt with in the above sections, that fall within our scope of study. These books include, lectionaries, Ash Wednesday and Holy Week Services led by a Catechist, Holy Week and Easter Services, Children’s Liturgy, Asante Catechism Book, A Book of Services and the Widowhood write. These books will be considered one after another in this section.

4.3.1. Lectionaries – Asante Akenkans[m Nwoma

The Akan version432 of the Protestant Bible used to be the lectionary at liturgical celebrations in the Kumasi province until 1992, when the Lectionary for Sunday’s and Feast days was

430 Sacrosanctum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican Caouncil II, 84). 431 OHENE AGYEI, Year B, Preface, no page number. 432 THE BIBLE SOCIETY OF GHANA, Anyames[m Nwoma anaa Twer[ Kronkron Akan Kasa mu, Accra 1964. This Bible was translated by the early protestant missionaries with the help of some native scholars. It is commonly referred to as Twi Bible by the local people.

167 translated into Akan by the Translation Committee and the Catechetical Office of the then diocese of Kumasi. In many parishes, it is still used as the main lectionary for Sundays and weekdays. That Bible, simply known as the Twi Bible, excludes the deutero-canonical books. Therefore, those parishes which prefer the use of only the Twi Bible, are compelled to do an instant translation from the English version, which is not advisable. This is the missing link that the Akan version of the lectionary entitled Asante Akenkans[m Nwoma and commonly referred to as Twi Lectionary, has come to fill in. It will henceforth be referred to in this work as Twi Lectionary.

The Twi Lectionary came out in three volumes in accordance with the three cycles of the liturgical year, A, B and C. Ten years after the first publication, they were revised by the Kumasi Archdiocesan Catechetical Office and were published with the approval of the Archbishop Peter Kwasi Sarpong, the then Archbishop of Kumasi, in 2002. These remain the current edition of the Lectionary to the present day. Even though more copies have been printed and sold out since then, no more editing has been made. Cycle A has 253 pages; Cycle B has 250 pages and Cycle C has 262 pages. All the three cycles have hard covers with navy blue colour. The contents of all the three volumes maintain the same order as follows; Awurade mmae[ mmer[ (Advent season), Awurade awoda mmer[ (Christmas season), Ak]nkyene mmer[ (Lenten season), Nnaw]twe kronkron mmer[ (Holy Week), Owus]re[ mmer[ mu (Easter season), Awurade Nnap]nna (Solemnities of the Lord), Kwasiada hunu (Sundays in Ordinary Time), Afedida (Feast days).

The translation of the readings and prayers of the weekday Masses into the Akan language, has not yet been published. Though work to this effect has for a long time began, it is not completed. Answering our question about the current stage of the translation of the weekday Lectionary, Monsignor Ntim wrote: “It is still in progress. During my time at the Catechetical office, we almost completed half of the weekday missal”433. His answer opened up the way for another question on the possibility of a weekday missal, that is, the combination of the prayers and readings in the same book. In his response to a follow-up email, he elaborated

433 NTIM, Email Correspondence, 5.

168 on the intention of publishing portable Sunday and weekday Missals, but none of them was completed before he left office. He explained: […] for the sake of convenience and portability, weekday readings and prayers are combined separately into Weekday Missal just as Sunday readings and prayers are combined into Sunday Missal. I had completed the portable Sunday Missal (readings plus prayers) was about to be printed when the new altar Sacramentary came. So we did not publish it. We had to do few additions. The manuscript is with the Franciscans in Italy. I have asked them to send it back to me. Similarly, the readings for the weekdays was half completed when I left office. Since the prayers are already translated it was a matter of finishing the translation of the readings and combining them with the weekday prayers to get the portable weekday missal. That was the situation when I left office434.

Monsignor Ntim employed the first person singular pronoun in his write up as if the work was singlehandedly done by him. However, he was referring to the collective work of the team, of which he was the chairman convenor in his capacity as the director of the Archdiocesan Catechetical Office. He meant the portable Sunday Missal was close to publication, but due to the appearance of the ICEL version of the new Roman Missal, which he refers to as the new altar Sacramentary, it had to be stopped until the necessary changes had been effected. Therefore, neither the portable Sunday Missal nor the Weekday Missal is completed, though the work on them is still ongoing.

In our opinion, the idea of producing portable Sunday and Weekday Missals is good for private use and for liturgical celebrations with a small congregation. On the other hand, bigger Sunday Lectionary, bigger Weekday Lectionary and bigger Weekday Missal, all with bigger prints, would be more ideal for public use, since bigger prints are easier and more comfortable for public reading than smaller ones. One confusion that needs to be rectified when revising the current edition is with the conclusion of the Gospel readings. The words in Twi state S[de[ Awurade se[ ni. {nn[ ns[mpa no ni435 (This is what the Lord says. This is today’s Gospel). They are actually two optional conclusions without any accompanying rubrics. Therefore, many priests mistakenly combine the two. We suggest that the distinction

434 NTIM, Email Correspondence, 31 October 2016. This was his response to our follow-up email to him. That is why the date for this email is different from the previous one. 435 CATECHETICS OFFICE, Asante Akenkans[m Nwoma, Cycle B, Kumasi 2002, 30. In some parts of the books, however, the only the first option is maintained. It should therefore be edited to ensure uniformity, in order to avoid confusions.

169 between the two, needs to be clarified by inserting a linking article ‘or’. This will enable the reader to choose either the first or second option. Though the cost of printing could be a big issue, once they are well printed without the typographical errors found in the current editions, they will quickly attract the market throughout the province, just as the first copies of the Twi Sacramentary were soon sold out. Care must therefore be taken to do the necessary corrections before the final print.

4.3.2. Nso Wukuada ne Nnaw]twe Kronkron som a Catechist di anim (Ash Wednesday and the Holy Week Services led by a Catechist)

Nso Wukuada ne Nnaw]twe Kronkron som a Catechist di anim, which directly translated is the Ash Wednesday and the Holy Week Services led by a Catechist, is a small booklet of 47 pages. It was prepared by the Catechetical Team of Kumasi and with the permission of the Most Rev. Peter Kwasi Sarpong, the Bishop of Kumasi, it was first published in 1979. It was revised by Rev. Fr Stephen Ntim and Mr Francis Ofori in 1994. This revised version is still the current edition of the booklet. As the name suggests, it contains services led by the Catechist in the absence of a priest. Thus, it gives opportunity for the parishioners in the outstations to participate in the seasonal liturgical services of the Ash Wednesday and the Holy Week in the absence of a priest.

The contents are as follows: The Ash Wednesday service from pages 1 to 7; Introductory explanation to the Holy Week Service (Palm Sunday, Holy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday) from pages 8 to 18; preparation for the Holy Week Service from pages 14 to 17; and the Holy Week Service (Palm Sunday, Holy Thursday, Good Friday, Holy Saturday, Easter Sunday) from pages 18 to 47.

The order of service led by the Catechist as seen in the previous chapters differs in many ways from the one led by the priest. The main difference is the exclusion of the Eucharistic prayers, since only the validly ordained priest has the faculty to say those prayers. Another difference discussed in the previous chapter is the position of the exchange of the sign of peace. Unlike that of the Mass, the sign of peace in this service without a priest, comes between the prayers of the faithful and the collection, the biblical background of which, has

170 been given in the chapter two of this study436. Yet another difference is the preface, which is in the form of a dialogue between the leader and the faithful until the Sanctus is recited or sung together.

One anomaly that we have discovered in this booklet is the inclusion of the prayer for the blessing of ashes in the order of Ash Wednesday service. Let us take the opening words of the long prayer for example: Nso no nhyiraso] mpae[ Prayer for the blessing of the ashes

Momma y[mm] mpae[ Let us pray Onyankop]n, dane W’ani hw[ y[n na God, turn your face toward us and ma y[n nkwa s[de[ [b[y[ a Wo grant us life so that your people may nkur]f] b[di d[ w] Wo mu. Awurade rejoice in you. Lord, show us your fa Wo mm]bor]hunu no kyer[ y[n, na mercy and help us with your fa Wo nkwagye[ no boa y[n. salvation.

Awurade tie y[n mpaeb], na ma y[n Lord, hear our prayer and let our sufr[ nnuru W’anim. cries reach your presence.

Momma y[mm] mpae[ Otumfo] Nyankop]n, wo na wob]] Let us pray wiase ne emu nne[ma nyinaa ara. Almighty God, you created the world Ewiem y[ wo nsa ano adwuma, nanso and all that it contains. The sky is the ne nyinaa b[s[e, na wo de[ Wob[tena work of your hands, but all of them h] daa. Y[ser[ wo, hyira nso yi a will perish, but you will live for ever. [rekae y[n s[ y[y[ nn[te[ ne mfuturo We ask you to bless these ashes, yi so. Hu y[n mm]b] na fa y[n b]ne which remind us that we are soil and nyinaa ky[ y[n, s[de[ y[b[tumi dust. Have mercy on us and forgive us ateetee y[n ho w] ak]nkyene mmer[ yi all our sins, that we may be able to mu. {ny[ Wo p[ s[ ]deb]ny[ni b[wuo, deny ourselves in this Lenten season. na mmom wop[ s[ ]deb]ny[ni It is not your wish that the sinner dies, b[sakyera ama ]ne Christ a Wawu but that he may repent and live as]re no abom atena ase adi d[437. together with the risen Christ in joy438.

436 Cf. chapter Two, sub-title 2.1.3. Under this subtitle, we substantiated the location of the sign immediately before the collection with the advice of Jesus in Matthew 5:24, where he says, leave your gift at the foot of the altar, go and get reconciled to anybody who has something against before you return to offer your gifts. 437 CATECHETICAL TEAM, Nso Wukuada ne Nnaw]twe Kronkron Som A Catechist di anim, Kumasi 1994, 2. 438 My own translation from Twi to English.

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The remaining part of the prayer is much longer than the part presented above. It is even much longer than the two optional prayers provided for use by priests in the Roman Missal. The texts seem to have been locally composed rather than translated. The first italicized words seem to be a response by the people, but there are no rubrics indicating what they are for. We think the second italicized words, we are soil and dust, in the middle of the prayer should rather be, we are dust and ashes. At the end of the prayer, there is a clear rubric, stating that after the prayer the leader blesses the ashes by sprinkling holy water on them. It further indicates that after the blessing of the ashes all the faithful come in front of the altar to receive the ashes on their foreheads. The leader makes the sign of the cross on their foreheads with ashes as he pronounces the same words said by priests on this occasion: Onipa, kae s[ woy[ d]te[, na nn[te[ mu na wob[san akor] 439(Remember, that you are dust and unto dust shall you return).

Considering this prayer, the question that immediately comes into mind is, does it mean that Catechists are now allowed to bless ashes on Ash Wednesday in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi, or in some dioceses within the province? The usual practice in the province is that, catechists from the outstations go to the parish centre a few days before the Ash Wednesday to collect ashes blessed by the priest and bring them to their respective stations for distribution. In a subsequent correspondence with Monsignor Professor Stephen Ntim, who took part in the revision of the current copy, he answered: No Catechist anywhere in the Archdiocese of Kumasi can bless ashes and distribute them. What rather maybe allowed subject to the pastoral judgement of the parish priest is this: either he or his assistant blesses the ashes and gives them to Catechists in the outstations. So, if Catechists distribute ashes, they may be ashes already blessed by a priest. […]. No Catechist that I know of is blessing and distributing. All Catechists, I know, cannot do that and they have not been doing that, even though what you are referring to is there440.

By the clause, “even though what you are referring to is there”, he meant the presence of the prayer for blessing of the ashes in the booklet. With the above quoted words, Monsignor

439 CATECHETICAL TEAM, Catechetical Team, Nso Wukuada ne Nnaw]twe Kronkron Som A Catechist di anim, 3. 440 NTIM, Email Correspondence, 6 November 2016.

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Professor Ntim confirmed what we already knew, denying the assumption that a Catechist can bless ashes on Ash Wednesday.

The denial of this supposition calls for an immediate revision of the booklet, since the prayer is still in the booklet, which are in the hands of many Catechists and other lay leaders in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. Monsignor Professor Ntim suggested that this confusion had come about because the booklet was originally developed for the use of priests. However, later “the Catechetical office picked up parts of the Ash Wednesday and Holy Week services and started giving courses for Catechists. That explains why the error has not struck anybody”441. On this background, our suggestion is that the prayer for the blessing of the ashes be deleted from the booklet and that much clearer rubrics be provided to direct the actions in this service led by the Catechist, unless of course, the book is meant to be used by both catechists and priests. If the latter is the case, an amendment has to be made with the title on the front page and the rubrics in the book. By so doing, the uncertainty regarding who can bless and distribute ashes would be largely resolved.

Similar instances of such a confusion are detected in the order of service of Palm Sunday and the Easter Vigil. On Palm Sunday, the prayer for the blessing of palms is provided for use by Catechists442. No instruction is given to indicate the manner in which this prayer is to be said by a Catechist without causing any scandal. Similarly, in the Easter Vigil service a prayer for the blessing of the fire is provided for use by the Catechist, where the rubric simply states, odikanfo] no b] saa mpae[ yi de hyira [gya yi so443 (The leader says this prayer to bless the fire). In both cases the prayers provided are the same ones provided for use by priests. However, the instruction to determine, how the lay person can say these prayers, without using the gestures for blessing used by only the priests. These two and other instances must be considered in the revision of the booklet in order to avoid any further confusion. The rites must be accompanied with clear-cut rubrics.

441 NTIM, Email Correspondence, 6 November 2016. 442 CATECHETICAL TEAM, Nso Wukuada ne Nnaw]twe Kronkron Som, 19. 443 IBID., 35.

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Another remark that can be made on the Easter Vigil service is the omission of a greater number of the Old Testament readings. Only three are selected including Genesis 1:1-31; 2:2, Exodus 14:15-35 and Ezekiel 36:16-28. These three plus one New Testament reading and the Gospel making five readings altogether. None of them is in full text, but rather just some introductory remarks on the readings are provided, which presupposes that the readings are expected to be read from either the Lectionary or directly from the Bible. The reason for selecting five out of the nine readings is not given in the booklet. In our opinion, it is done so to keep the vigil liturgical service shorter.

4.3.3. Nnaw]twe Kronkron ne Owus]re[ ho som (Holy Week and Easter Celebrations)

The book Nnaw]twe Kronkron ne Owus]re[ ho som, which means, the Holy Week and Easter Celebrations, is made up of 163 pages. It was prepared by the Pastoral Centre in collaboration with the Catechetical Centre of the Archdiocese of Kumasi, with the preface written by Rev. Fr Dr Peter K. Sarpong, the vice chancellor of the Archdiocese of Kumasi. Printed by the FN Ventures printing press, neither date nor place of publication is indicated. There is also no indication of Nihil Obstat and imprimatur. Thus, it is presumable that it has not yet obtained the ecclesiastical approval, and that it must be on the stage of experimentation before obtaining the approval of the Local Ordinary. As the name indicates, the book embodies the liturgical celebrations of the Palm Sunday, Holy Thursday, Good Friday, Easter Vigil and Easter Sunday. It was compiled for use by Priests, lay ministers and the faithful as Fr. Peter Sarpong indicates in the preface to the book: that it is a complete handy reference book intended for Catholic clergy and lay ministers and the faithful. […]. With its outstanding features, this volume is to enable all those who attend the Passion Sunday, Holy Week celebrations and Easter celebrations, in keeping with the desire of the Church, to be led to that full, conscious, and active participation in the liturgical celebrations which is demanded by the very nature of the Liturgy (Cf. SC 14)444.

This book is intended to be used by priests, lay ministers and faithful for the promotion of active, conscious and full participation in the liturgical celebrations. It embodies the

444 SARPONG, Preface : Nnaw]twe Kronkron ne Owus]re[ ho som, no place, no date, ii.

174 combination of antiphons, prayers and readings. The contents were translated from the antiphons and prayers from the new Roman Missal and from the readings and chants from the Lectionary for Mass. Furthermore, they are well arranged in the following blocks of pages; Passion Sunday 1 to 66, The Lord’s Supper 66 to 75, Good Friday 76 to 107, Easter Vigil 108 to 154, Easter Sunday 155 to 163. The readings of the Lord’s Passion on Passion Sunday and Good Friday are clearly organized in a form of drama between three or more readers with the characters of Narrator, Jesus, Disciples, Peter, Judas Iscariot, crowd, chief priests, young lady, Pilate and Pilate’s wife. These passion readings cover all the three liturgical cycles A, B and C. The texts size is so largely arranged that they are clearly legible. In other words, the book is reader friendly, ordered to suit public reading in liturgical assemblies.

The conclusion of the Gospel readings is much better arranged than that of the Sunday lectionaries dealt with in section 4.3.1 of this study. In the book currently under discussion, the linking article, anaa (or), has been inserted to indicate that the two parts are options and are not supposed to be combined. It now reads, S[de[ Awurade se[ ni, anaas[, {nn[ Ns[mpa No ni. Anuanom y[n s[mpa445, which literally means This is what the Lord says, or, This is today’s Gospel. Brethren, our Good News! Usually this is followed by a response from the faithful which is not provided in this book, probably because of the presumption that it is generally well memorised.

The rubrics are obviously identified in italics. However, in some parts of the book, the rubrics are not italicized but mixed up with the texts of the prayers. An instance of this is seen the rite of unveiling the cross on Good Friday before the veneration of the cross. Afei ]de mmeamudua no to af]repono no anim faako a w]asiesie h] no. Asomfo no de candles si ho. Afei w]hy[ ase[ y[ ntonton no446. The literal meaning is, Now he places the cross at a prepared place in front of the altar. The ministers place candles near it. Then the veneration begins. These words are rubrics but not in italics. Moreover, since the book was intended for

445 Nnaw]twe Kronkron ne Owus]re[ ho som, 46. 446 IBID., 102.

175 use by both priests and lay ministers, a clear distinction should have been made by rubrics between what the alone can do and what lay ministers can also do. Unfortunately, no rubrics indicate this clear distinction. Therefore, the confusion in the booklet for use of Catechist in the previous sub-section of this chapter is also prevalent in this book. Such confusions and inconsistencies must be factored in the next revision of the book. All rubrics must be italicized to ensure uniformity.

Besides the few criticisms above, the book well organised, without omitting any of the details Holy Week celebrations that are in the Roman Missal and the Lectionary, from the translation was made. It contains, for instance, all the nine readings in the Easter Vigil liturgy.

4.3.4. Mm]fra Badwam Som (Children’s Liturgy)

Mm]fra Badwam Som (Children’s Liturgy) is a small booklet of 40 pages with a colourful paperback. The front cover depicts a woman with four children seated around a table, covered with books and pieces of paper. They are apparently working. This front picture points to the purpose of this book, which is to groom Catholic children with Sunday liturgical services. In other words, it is ordered for children’s Sunday liturgy, which used be called, ‘Sunday School’. Above this picture is the title of the book in bold yellow and the corresponding liturgical season covered by the booklet. Advent season, Year Two is the additional title. However, the contents cover more than the Advent season, including the Christmas season too. The back cover has only the indication of the Archdiocesan Pastoral Catechetical Centre as the preparer of this booklet. The booklet has no date of publication, no Nihil Obstat and no Imprimatur, thus indicating that it has not yet obtained the approval of the Local Ordinary and it is still at the stage of experiment.

The contents of this booklets arranged from the first Sunday of Advent to the end of Christmas season, that is, the feast of the Baptism of the Lord. The Advent season extends from pages 1 to 14. Christmas season also spreads from pages 14 to 40. The services in the booklet are structured in the same order as follows: theme, introduction, the sign of the cross, lighting of the candles, penitential rite (the Lord’s prayer included), Gospel acclamation (song), Gospel reading, discussion or sharing, action, creed and closing prayer. The introduction explains the theme of the day. The service itself begins with the sign of the cross,

176 followed by lighting of the candles, which is accompanied by a prayer of a biblical verse. What differentiates the Advent season from the Christmas season in the order of service is the Gloria, which is omitted in the Advent season, but recited or sung in Christmas season. After the Gospel reading, the leader leads the children in discussing or sharing the message of the Gospel. He or she does so by means of questions and answers. Thereafter, the leader proposes for the children the action of the week, discerned from the day’s Gospel reading. The creed is then recited together and the service ends with a closing prayer.

Since this booklet covers only the Advent and Christmas seasons, we presume that another volume or volumes covering the ordinary time, lent and Easter seasons will be produced in due course. Until then, a consideration must be given to the editing of the current edition. Even the title on the front cover has one typographical error. The word Mm]fora should be rectified as Mm]fra, (children). The subtitle Awurade Mmae[ Mmer[ (Afe II) meaning Advent Season (Year II) on the front cover needs to be reordered to conform to the contents of the booklet, as it contains more than what is purported by this subtitle.

4.3.5. Asante Catechism Nwoma (Asante Catechism Book)

Asante Catechism Nwoma, meaning Asante Catechism Book, is a booklet of 51 pages published with the Nihil Obstat of the Very Rev. Benjamin Poku Donkor and the Imprimatur of the Archbishop Emeritus, Most Rev. Peter Kwasi Sarpong in 2011. It contains the catholic catechesis in the Asante Twi. It presents the catholic faith in a simplified form of questions and not just answers but also explanation, ordered to effect a change in the lives of the learners and the teachers. For instance, the meaning and minister of baptism are explained with simplified questions as follows: Asub] ne de[b[n? What is baptism? Asub] ne adonne[ a [hohoro y[n kra ho awosan b]ne na [ma y[y[ Baptism is the sacrament that cleanses Akristofo] Onyankop]n mma ne our souls of the original sin and makes Catholic As]n mma. us Christians, God’s children and Asub] hohoro bra mu b]ne nso anaa ? members of the Catholic Church. (Rom. 6:1–4) S[ y[de ahoboaboa a [fata gye asub] Does baptism cleanse the sin a, [tumi hohoro y[n bra mu b]ne a committed in life? y[ay[ nyinaa gu, na [yi [ho asotwe If we prepare ourselves well before nyinaa h]. […]. receiving baptism, it is able to cleanse

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S[n na y[b] asuo? (Acts 8:36–39) all sins committed in our life, and {ber[ a osub]ni no rehwie nsuo agu removes all its punishments. […] nipa a ]regye asub] no so no, [h] ara ]se: “Mereb] wo asu, Agya no ne }ba How is baptism conferred? no ne Sunsum Kronkron no din mu”. While the baptiser pours water on the […]. Hwan na ]tumi b] asuo? one being baptised, he says: “I baptise S[ [to de[ [y[ den a (s[ ebia, s[ obi you in the name of the Father, and of rey[ awu a), [nne[ obiara w] ho kwan, the Son and of the Holy Spirit”. […]. [nna mmara nso hy[ no s[ ]b] asuo

w] as]re gyidie ne ne din mu. Na [nte saa de[ a. [nne[ obiara nni ho kwan, Who can baptise? gye ]s]fo] nko ara447. In emergency (for instance in danger of death), anybody can baptise and he is compelled to baptise in the Catholic faith and in the name of the Church. Otherwise, only the priest is the authorised minister of baptism448.

The foregoing instance shows how the questions and answers are presented in the Asante Catechism Book. Though it is made simple for all learners with different levels of understanding, it is still able to present the true teachings of the Church as entrenched in the Catholic Catechism. The following text is the version of the Catholic Catechism: Baptism is the sacrament of spiritual rebirth. Through the symbolic action of the washing with water and the use of appropriate ritual words, the baptised persons is cleansed of all his sins and incorporated into Christ. He becomes a member of the Mystical Body and receives the graces of the supernatural life.

The sacrament of baptism is conferred by infusion (pouring) or aspersion (sprinkling) of water or by immersion in water while the one who baptises pronounces the words, “I baptise you in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit”.

Christianity distinguishes between solemn and emergency baptism. The ordinary minister of solemn baptism is a priest or deacon but in case of emergency, anyone, even though not a Catholic, can validly baptise. […]449.

447 ARCHDIOCESAN CATECHETICAL OFFICE, Asante Catechism Nwoma, Kumasi 2011, 22–24. 448 My own literal translation to show exactly how the message is transmitted in the Asante Twi language. 449 HARDON, The Catholic Catechism, 505.

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Comparing the texts of the Asante Catechism to the Catholic Catechism, one notices a few differences and omissions. First, the answer to the question of whether baptism can cleanse the sins committed in life, states that it is only when one is well prepared beforehand, that baptism can cleanse all sins committed in life. On the other hand, the Catholic Catechism states categorically that “the baptised is cleansed of all his sins […]. We consider the difference here to be an emphasis on the importance of a serious preparation before the reception of baptism, instead of a distortion of the truth. For, if the catechumens get to know that without a serious preparation not all their sins will be cleansed, they will surely commit themselves to all the necessary preparations. Secondly, the Asante Catechism omits the baptism by aspersion and emersion, supposedly because, those two are not practiced in the Catholic Churches within the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. Baptism by immersion in particular is only known conferred by the non-Catholic denominational Churches within the locality. Since the other two, aspersion and immersion have not been conferred in the Catholic Church from the beginning, to include them now would only create a deceptive impression of imitating the protestants and Pentecostals. Therefore, it would be just enough to stick the baptism by pouring which is known to be catholic.

In the introduction, Archbishop Sarpong highlighted the purpose of this Catechism Book as he wrote in Asante Twi: {ny[ nwoma yi botae[ nko ara ne s[ The aim of this book is not only to [reda Catholic gyidie no adie, na declare the catholic faith, but also to mmom, s[ [de nsesae[ b[ba w]n a bring change into the lives of the w]resua ne w] a w]rekyer[kyer[ no learners and the teachers451. abrab] mu450.

As the general teaching of the catholic faith, it is aimed at educating children, youth and adults what they need to know and live with as Christians. So, it is not just enough to know the faith by heart, but more importantly, one needs to understand it well enough to be able to practice what one knows in one’s daily life. That is why it became necessary to render the catechesis of the Catholic Church in the Asante Twi language.

450 SARPONG, Introduction in: Asante Catechism Nwoma, Kumasi 2011, no page number. 451 My own translation from Asante Twi to English.

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Besides the preface, the contents of the booklet are classified in four parts. The preface consists of the basic prayers that the learner needs to know, including the sign of the cross, the Lord’s prayer, the Hail Mary, Gloria, the apostles’ creed, act of contrition, the angelus, Regina coeli, Hail Holy Queen, prayer before meals, prayer after meals, morning devotion and evening devotion. These prayers under the preface, occupy the first six pages. Each of the four parts of the main contents, has a general title, under which there are numbered headings and lessons. Part one, which is from pages 8 to 19, is entitled Christian Faith. Part two, entitled the sacraments, occupies pages 19 to 34. Part three, which is entitled new life in Christ, covers pages 35 to 47. Finally, part four devoted to prayer occupies pages 48 to 51. All the topics mentioned here are in the Asante Twi language.

The striking difference seen between this current version of the Asante Catechism book and those of the period prior to Vatican II is the omission of certain details, such as the rite by which each sacrament was performed. For instance, we quoted the rite of anointing of the sick in chapter two. The current edition does not keep the rite of anointing, but rather it explains all about it. On the whole, the current edition is more improved and explains the topic better. Biblical quotations are provided in attachment to the topics in the booklet to prove that the themes were not just taken from anywhere, but rather from the Word of God. The biblical basis for the sacrament of anointing, for example is James 5:14–17, where James says if anyone is sick, let the elders of the Church be called to pray over and anoint the sick person; and Matthew 6:13, that part of the Lord’s prayer which states, and lead us not into the temptation but deliver us from evil452. Of course, it indicated in the booklet that not all aspects of the faith come from the Bible. Rather, some do come the rich tradition of the church as mentioned in part two of the booklet. As an answer to the question where we do find God, Jesus Christ and his main teaching, the booklet states: Y[b[hunu Jesus Christ ne ne We find Jesus Christ and his teachings nkyer[kyer[ no w]: in: i)Twer[ Kronkron mu. i) the Bible.

452 ARCHDIOCESAN CATECHETICAL OFFICE, Asante Catechism Nwoma, 31. The texts from the Bible sources were my own summary of the quotation given.

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ii) As]re no atetes[m mu, a y[n Nana ii)the sound tradition of the Church, Kronkron Pope ne As]re As]fop]n di taken care of by the Pope and the so tumi no. […]453. Bishops of the Church454.

In other words, the Bible and the sound tradition of the Church are the sources of the catholic belief in the Trinitarian God, in Jesus Christ the second person and his teachings. Though it has only a few errors, the booklet needs to be critically reviewed and all errors corrected before the next edition is printed out.

4.3.6. A Book of Service

The Book of Service is designed for use on Sundays and Holidays of obligation in the absence of a priest. That means, it is made for use by the Catechists and lay ministers, including seminarians. The Book of Service was first published by the National Catechetical Commission in 1975 and secondly in 1984, both of which came out as one book containing all the three liturgical cycles A, B and C. The current edition, however, comes in three volumes, each volume covering only one cycle. It is now in three different volumes, because its contents have been expanded with additional features, such as a guide to sermon preparation, alternative opening prayers and a suggested complete format of Communion Service. Such additional features make it too big to be contained in one volume. In the introduction to the third edition, Joseph Osei-Bonsu expressed this idea more vividly: This edition of the Book also has some new and helpful additions like a ‘Guide to preparing sermons’, alternative opening prayers (collect) and a suggested complete format of Communion Service. A service without a priest in some places today may include the distribution of Holy Communion. Major Seminarians, Deacons and extraordinary ministers of the Holy Eucharist may also find this Book a very handy ‘aid’.455

We will consider only the second of these three volumes published in 2002 in this study. It contains the liturgical services of Sundays and Solemnities for the whole of the liturgical year B in 349 pages. The outline of the order of the service, with explanatory notes and in some

453 ARCHDIOCESAN CATECHETICAL OFFICE, Asante Catechism Nwoma, 6. 454 My own literal translation from Asante Twi to English. 455 Joseph OSEI-BONSU, Introduction to the third Edition, in: A Book of Service for Lay Leaders, Year 2 (B), 2002, iii.

181 instances detailed texts, occupies pages 1 to 7. The detailed structure for every Sunday service, beginning with the Advent Season and covering all seasons of the year through the solemnity of Christ the King, extends from pages 13 to 336. Two additional solemnities and one memorial are provided from pages 337 to 349. Both the outline in the opening pages and the detailed structure for every service follows this order with only a few inconsistencies: Theme, Entrance Antiphon, Introduction, Penitential Rite, Opening Prayer, Alternative Opening Prayer, 1st Reading, Responsorial Psalm, 2nd Reading, Gospel Acclamation, Gospel, Homily, Prayer of the Faithful, Prayer Over the Gifts, Closing Prayer. Comparing the two, the inconsistencies that surfaced in our study are, first, that the outline begins with a general topic of Introductory Rites, while the detailed order begins with the theme of the day’s service. Secondly, the outline keeps the prayer of the faithful immediately after the Holy, Holy, whereas the detailed order locates it just after the Homily. Thirdly, the outline provides, after the prayer over gifts, a detailed thanksgiving prayer in place of the preface of the Mass, whereas the detailed order of service does not give any clue about it. However, no reason is given for such differences.

All texts are provided for the parts of the order of service, except the full texts of the day’s readings. An introduction is provided to be read before each of the readings. More attention is given to the preparation and delivery of homilies. Even detailed points for the day’s homily are provided for every Sunday service. In the opening pages, following the outline of the order of service, is a guide to preaching homilies covering pages 8 to 11. This guide consists of details such as the goal of preaching, preparation of homilies, method, what to avoid and what the leader must make the effort to do. Five model intentions are given for the prayer of the faithful at every service. The introduction explains the theme for the day’s celebration. Let us take the Solemnity of Christ the King, for example, of which the theme is “MY KINGDOM IS NOT OF THIS KIND”. Its introduction goes in this way: Today, we celebrate the great feast of Christ the King. It is also the last Sunday of the Church’s year of worship. In our celebration, today, we look ahead to the last Day when Christ will come back in glory. He will come like the son rising after a long night. He will destroy all darkness

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with the glory of his light. Today, Jesus tells us: “Yes I am a king. All who are on the side of the truth listen to my voice456.

The introduction is a summary of and a focus on the main message of the celebration. It makes it clear to the worshipping community the reason for their presence in that celebration. By explaining the importance of the celebration, the leader encourages the active participation of all present in it.

Since the Book of Service was published by the National Catechetical Commission, it was published in English, which is the official language of the country in order to render it accessible to people from all corners of the country irrespective of their native language. As mentioned in the previous chapter of this study, permission has been given in the introduction to the second edition for its translation into the common language and culture of each locality within the country457. In the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi, extracts from the Book of Service, particularly, the order of service, have been translated into the Asante Twi, forming part of some prayer books, like Mpaeb] Som (Prayer Service)458 and Asante Mpaeb] (Asante Prayer Book)459. None of these three books contains the complete Sunday service. Therefore, they are used interchangeably. In each of the two books, the Prayer Service and the Asante Prayer Book, the presidential prayers, opening prayer, prayer over the gifts and the concluding prayer of the order of Sunday service in the absence of a priest are not incorporated. In each case, the reader is referred to the book of service, which implies that the leader will either do a prior or an instant translation, since those prayers are not yet translated in to Asante Twi. Another option is given to make a choice of prayers from the Sunday Missal. In this case, the Twi Sacramentary, dealt with earlier in this chapter could be more comfortably referred to as it is already translated into Asante Twi.

456 NATIONAL CATECHETICAL COMMISSION, A Book of Service, Year 2 (B), 2002, 331. 457 IBID., 2002, iv. 458 CATECHETICAL OFFICE, Mpaeb] Som, Kumasi 2013, 23–30. 459 IBID., 2013, 57–68.

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4.3.7. Mpaeb] Som (Prayer Service)

Mpaeb] Som meaning Prayer Service, is a book of 90 pages, issued by the Catechetical Office of the Archdiocese of Kumasi in 2013. The first edition was published in cyclostyled form whereas the latest edition of the 2013 was published in a printed form. The Nihil Obstat was provided by Rev. Fr. Peter Wiafe Akenteng with the Imprimatur of the Most Rev. Gabriel Justice Yaw Anokye, the Archbishop of Kumasi.

It contains different types of services and prayers with or without a priest, arranged in the following order: Four optional forms of Morning and Evening Prayers from pages 1 to 23; Sunday and Feast Day Service without Communion in the absence of a priest from 23 to 30; three optional forms of prayers led by the Catechist on a visit a sick person from pages 30 to 39; prayer led by the Catechist on a visit to the dying from 40 to 42; penitential service for children from pages 42 to 45; four optional forms of penitential service for adults from pages 45 to 54; one form of penitential service for all members of the Church from 54 to 57; Ash Wednesday service from 57 to 61 and various forms of blessings from pages 79 to 90.

Though many of the contents have something in common with the other liturgical books, what distinguishes this book from the others are the structures of the prayers on a visit to the sick and the dying, the penitential services and above all the various forms of blessings. In each of these instances, there are more detailed and organised structures of services. The common services are the Morning and Evening Prayers, Sunday and Feast Day Service without Communion in the absence of a priest and the Ash Wednesday service.

4.3.8. Asante Mpaeb] Nnwoma (Asante Prayer Book)

Asante Mpaeb] Nwoma (the Asante Prayer Book) is an Asante Twi prayer book of 221 pages. The current edition published by the Catechetics office of the Archdiocese of Kumasi in 2013 is the fifth, after the publication of the first edition in 1960. The current edition was revised by Fr Abraham Anthony T. and Mr Dominic Adu Mensah, on behalf of the Catechetics office of the Archdiocese of Kumasi, with the Imprimatur given by the Most Rev. Gabriel Justice Yaw Anokye, the current Archbishop of Kumasi. Being the latest edition, the contents of the book are much better organised than the previous ones, in that the prayers and services are classified under general headings.

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The classification of the topics are as follows: Traditional Catholic Prayers (pp. 1–8); Various Other Prayers (pp. 9–18); Prayers for the Church (pp. 21–26); Prayers according to Liturgical Seasons (pp.27–47); Common Services (pp. 48–106), under which are the Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament, Sunday Service in the absence of a Priest, two forms of Morning and Evening Prayers and three forms of the Stations of the Cross; Family prayers (pp. 107–120); Sacraments (pp. 121–140); Holy Sacrifice of the Mass (pp. 141–160); Prayers after Mass (pp. 161–166); Traditional Marian Prayers (pp. 177–188); Prayers through the Saints (pp. 177–188); Catholic special plan (pp. 189–202. This is a guide to daily spiritual exercises for a Catholic). In other words, it is a set of suggestions from which a Catholic can plan his or her spiritual exercises, namely, the type of prayers to choose at which time of the day) and the Appendix consisting of Psalm Prayer and a list of African Saints (pp. 213–217) and finally the alphabetical order of the topics in the book (pp. 218–221).

The Asante prayer book has developed from the first edition to the current edition of 2013. The language has been adapted from the mixture of Akuapem, Fanti and Asante Twi to the current Asante Twi. The reading has become much easier. It is also much easier to understand. The contents have also increased, as more prayers have been added. The 1965 edition has only 25 prayer headings covering 104 pages, the 1980 edition has 60 prayer headings covering 136 pages, while the prayer headings in the current edition have been increased to 89 with the volume of the book widened to 221 pages. Our study has proven that initially, there wasn’t any distinctive Sunday and Feast Day Service. Instead, the Morning prayer and some parts of the order of Mass were mixed up to form the Sunday and Feast Day service in the absence of a priest. That of the 1980 edition shows a more elaborate development of the order of Sunday and Feast Day Service in the absence of a priest extracted from the book of service. The same form of service is seen in the 2013 edition, embellished in the light of the new Roman Missal. Taking the preface to the thanksgiving prayer, for example, we notice that in both editions an adaptation is made for an appropriate use of a leader who is not a priest with the greeting, the Lord be with you and its response omitted: ICEL 1965 EDITION ICEL ROM MIS 2013 EDITION L. Lift up your Anuanom, momma Lift up your hearts. Anuanom, Momma hearts. mo akoma so nk] mo akoma so nk] soro. soro.

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R. We lift them up Y[ama so ama We lift them up to Y[ama so ama to the Lord. Awirade. the Lord. Awirade.

L. Let us give Momma y[mfa Let us give thanks Momma y[mfa thanks to the Lord, aseda mma to the Lord, our aseda mma our God. Awirade, y[n God. Awirade, y[n Nyame. Nyankop]n.

R. It is right to give It is right and {fata, [tene s[ {fata, na [tene463. him thanks and just462. y[b[y[ saa461. praise460.

This part of the liturgy is not from the book of service but rather from the Roman Missal and as mentioned already, the Lord be with you, is omitted because the service was designed to be led by a lay person, who is not permitted to assume the place of a priest. The word, anuanom (brethren) is inserted by way of adaptation. In the response to the leader’s invitation to give and thanks to the Lord our God, one notices the fine-tuning of the text in the current edition in accordance with the latest edition of the Roman Missal; {fata, na [tene (It is right and just), as opposed to the older form of {fata, [tene s[ y[b[y[ saa (It is right to give him thanks and praise).

Another distinguishing mark of the current edition is the inclusion of many prayers of blessing, prayers according to liturgical season and devotional prayers. Like the Sunday and Feast Day service in the absence of a priest, the order of Mass has also been revised in accordance with the new Roman Missal. The parts of the Mass that are missing here, are the presidential prayers, the texts of the readings and the Eucharistic prayers I, III and IV. The prayer II and its preface are provided in full. In brief, the Asante Prayer Book is a portable liturgical book, containing almost all the liturgical celebrations and prayers that every Catholic, either priest or lay person needs. It is therefore recommendable for all Catholics within the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi.

460 ICEL, The Sacramentary, 1985, 509. 461 CATECHETICAL TEAM, Asante Mpaeb] Nwoma, Kumasi 1980, 51–52. 462 ICEL Roman Missal, 2011, 645. 463 CATECHETICS OFFICE, Asante Mpaeb] Nwoma, Kumasi, 2013, 62.

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4.3.9. Akristofo] Kunay] ho Som Nhyehy[e[ (Christian Widowhood Rites)

Akristofo] Kunay] ho Som Nhyehy[e[, is a liturgical booklet which was originally composed in English by the National Liturgical Commission and published by the Diocesan Catechetical office at Sunyani in 2005 and translated into Asante Twi by the Diocesan Liturgical Commission of Techiman in 2010. The English title, Christian Widowhood Rites, will be used henceforth in this study. As a small booklet of 19 pages, it contains the rites of services that are performed in the home of the bereaved family, in the Church and in the cemetery. It is basically the Christian spiritual support of the bereaved wife or husband through the period of bereavement. The prayer service in this period of bereavement is set up in stages from the moment of death through burial to the fortieth day or a year after the death of the partner. There are three stages. The first stage, which is entitled, the rites of sympathy, covers pages 6 to 12. The second stage, consisting of the rites of separation and purification is from pages 13 to 16. The third and final stage, which is the final separation and thanksgiving, is from pages 16 to 17. The last two pages contain selected texts for Christian rites for widows and widowers.

Since the widowhood rites will be treated in detail in chapter 6 of this study, we will only restrict ourselves to the introduction of the book and leave the rest to the work in chapter 6.

It is on the background of God’s care and compassion for those who mourn and the Christian notion of death that this booklet of Christian widowhood rites was developed. This background is set up in the general introduction of the booklet as follows: […], God, in a unique way, expresses his love, especially in the case of widows. God frequently reminds us of the need to protect and take good care of widows and orphans and to afford them relief (Ex 22:22, Dt 10:19, 27:19, Is 1:17), rather than to maltreat them. Jesus’ own love and compassion towards widows were revealed when he raised up the son of the widow of Nain and gave him back to his mother (Lk 7:11–17). The early Church maintained and sustained widows by providing for their needs (Acts 6:1, 1Tm 5: 3–5). In his humanity, Jesus, the son of God showed pity and comforted those who mourned. He mourned with the two sisters, Mary and Martha, at the death of their brother Lazarus. More than what any comfort could offer, Jesus gave back alive the son of the widow of Nain and Lazarus to their families. Jesus, our resurrection and life (Jn 11:25), brought the dead back to life. Thus, by his resurrection and power over death, he has made us

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also conquerors over death. He, indeed, is the one ‘who comforts us in all our afflictions, so that we ourselves are comforted by God’ (2Cor. 1:3–4)464.

This, in sum, is the theological background that motivated the National Liturgical Commission to produce the booklet of widowhood rites with the intention of fostering the church’s spiritual support for the Christian widows and widowers.

Conclusion

The books dealt with in this chapter constitute the current liturgical books used in the dioceses within the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi and in the Akan speaking areas outside the province. The preparation of some others like the weekday missal and the weekday lectionary are still underway. Our study has revealed that some of them have obtained the approval of the local ordinaries, while others have not. It is also evident that even those that have no explicit approval are presumed to be approved since they are being used almost everywhere. Besides, it has been discovered that despite the approval of the local ordinaries, the books are still far from perfect. They are beset with different types of errors, including, typographical errors, misspelling of words, inaccuracy of words having the risk of distorting the theological significance of the message conveyed. The books printed under the Archdiocesan Catechetical Office of Kumasi have confusing authorship. Some of them have the Catechetical Office, others have the Catechetics Office, while still others have the Catechetical Team, though they all refer to the same Office of the Archdiocese of Kumasi. We presume that such discrepancies are due to the frequent change of directors of the office, each of whom, supervises the printing or reprinting of books without paying enough attention to the need for consistency in the name of the office to which the authorship is ascribed. Though some of the books have been printed many times, they are still not free from such mistakes.

It has also been noted that a few of the books were printed without paying attention to the publication data, namely the authorship, the date and place of publication and the evidence

464 NATIONAL LITURGICAL COMMISSION, Christian Widowhood Rites, Sunyani 2005, 1.

188 of ecclesiastical approval. Therefore, it becomes difficult to determine their authenticity. One can only presume that since they are out for use in the province, they may have been permitted for use on experimental basis until corrections from users are assembled for their revision and reprinting.

Moreover, some new translations have been identified to be too literal. In this way, they do not become as meaningful to the local congregation as their older versions. Yet they are accepted for use in the name of uniformity with the entire Roman Catholic liturgy. Regarding the liturgical music books, some songs or hymns were compiled among others without any acknowledgement of their authorship. In other words, the names of the composers of some hymns or songs included in the liturgical music books have not been attached to their respective hymns. While some liturgical music books have musical notations, many others have none. There is more to be accomplished with the compilation of the approved hymns and songs.

In general, the development of the liturgical books in the local Asante Twi language has contributed immensely to the growth of the Church in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. The participation of the faithful in the liturgical celebrations has improved immensely, as they can now hear, understand and sing the liturgy in their own native language. However, there is more room for improvement of the liturgical books. They need to be thoroughly revised with a higher level of efficiency to eliminate the numerous minor errors and ensure a considerable level of accuracy with the translations and adaptations. The rubrics in the books for the services led by lay people, need to be so spelt out that a clear distinction could be determined with regards to what a lay person can do or not do, in order to forestall any confusion or uncertainties. To make their legibility better, much bigger sizes of books with bigger prints for public reading must be ensured. For, the better the liturgical books, the better the participation of the people, and the more improved their faith experience will be.

If the catholic liturgy can now be celebrated in the Akan language to the understanding of the local congregations; if the liturgical books are now available for use in Akan; if liturgical music can now be sung with the accompaniment of hand clapping, traditional musical instruments moving the participants to dance with joy, then all credits must be given to the fathers of the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council, who permitted the use of vernacular in

189 the catholic liturgy. In the next chapter, we shall examine the effects of Vatican II in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi.

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CHAPTER FIVE

5. Reception of the Liturgical Reforms of Vatican II

Introduction

What we have been considering from the second part of chapter one up to this point, constitutes the effects of the liturgical reforms of Vatican II, with exception of Chapter two, which dealt with the liturgical books in Ghana prior to Vatican II. We touched on the significant progress of the development of liturgical books in the Akan language (Asante Twi) specifically within the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi in Ghana. We have considered all the liturgical books, which have been developed and those that are yet to be developed in the province as the result of the liturgical reforms of Vatican II. In this chapter, we intend to explore how the reforms of Vatican II in the realm of the liturgy were received in the Kumasi province. However, a few general points regarding the changes effected by Vatican II will first be considered, before proceeding to the effects of the Council in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi and narrowing it down to the reactions to the introduction of the Mass in Asante Twi (Akan). Then we will project into the future to explore the possibilities of developing books that will portray a distinct Akan Liturgy.

5.1. The Church of the Roman Rite

The discussion in this chapter is on the background of the Church of the Roman Rite, which has been the wider spectrum of this study with particular reference to the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi in Ghana. This part of the work seeks to highlight a few salient changes effected by the liturgical reforms of Vatican II. Collin B. Donovan sums up the changes brought about by Vatican II in the area of the liturgy in the following words: The changes willed by the approximately 2700 to 4 vote of the world's Catholic bishops […] can be summarized as 1) restore the active participation of the people, 2) remove accretions and duplications which crept into the Roman Mass in millennium before Pope Pius V imposed it on the Latin Church, and 3) manifest the proper sacramentality of the Mass as an act of Christ, Head and Body. These were legitimate and long over-due

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reforms, as the virtually unanimous vote of the hierarchy shows. Other goals of the reforms can be read in Sacrosanctum concilium.465

The desired changes mentioned above began to be implemented soon after the conclusion of the Second Vatican Council. They affected the rites, ceremonies and architecture.

The Council declared the liturgy as the source and summit of the Church’s life and activities in the following words: Nevertheless, the liturgy is the summit toward which the activity of the Church is directed; it is also the fount from which all her power flows. For the goal of apostolic endeavour is that all who are made sons of God by faith and baptism should come together to praise God in the midst of his Church, to take part in the Sacrifice and to eat the Lord’s supper (SC 10).466

That demonstrates the mother Church’s desire for all her children to come together to worship and praise God in an assembly where all attendants are expected to be active, conscious and full participants in the liturgical action rather than spectators. In order words, all who are present in the worshipping community are expected to be actively involved in all parts of the liturgy, especially, in the parts of the responses proper to the congregation. They are not just to be bodily present, but rather their minds and hearts are to be alert to every liturgical action, thus enabling them to follow the order of the liturgy from the beginning to the end. One’s participation cannot be full, if one excludes oneself from any single aspect of the liturgy, especially from the reception of the Holy Communion. Hence all the people of God, present in the liturgical assembly are encouraged to strife towards the full participation in the liturgy.

5.1.1. Full, Active and Conscious Participation

In the worshipping assembly, it is the desire of the mother Church that all the faithful be encouraged to reach the full, active and conscious participation, which is their right and obligation by virtue of their baptism, in the ongoing activities as declared by the Council: Mother Church earnestly desires that all the faithful should be led to that full, conscious, and active participation in liturgical celebrations which demanded by the very nature of

465 Colin B. DONOVAN, Liturgical Renewal ordered by Vatican II, URL: https://www.ewtn.com/expert/answers/ | liturgical_renewal.htm [Accessed: 23 February 2017].

466 Sacrosanctum Concilium, (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican Council II, 6).

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the liturgy, and to which the Christian people are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a redeemed people […] have a right and obligation by reason of their baptism (SC 14).467

The right to the full, active and conscious participation in the liturgy is one of the significant changes noticeable in the liturgical reforms of Vatican II, as compared to the preceding era when the faithful were not allowed any place of participation other than watching the consecration and receiving communion. They were rather passive observers of the liturgical action as performed solely by the priest, and of their active role assumed by the altar boys. By this declaration, therefore, the Fathers of the Council sought to restore the active participation which used to be in the early Church, when the whole worshiping community joined in singing and recitation of the acclamations or hymns that were proper to them and only the language of the people was used, as seen in the first chapter of this work468. Until then the role of the people had been passive. For, there was practically nothing for them to do in the Mass. Rather, they were left to pray privately while their active role was fulfilled by the altar servers. Hence, their active role was reduced to devotional instead of liturgical participation.

In the course of the Mass, they were busy praying their rosary or reading prayer books, instead of following devoutly the order of Mass and giving the responses that were proper to them. This situation was reversed by Vatican II. The active role of the laity at liturgical celebrations, especially at Mass, that had been passive in the pre-Vatican II period, was restored as noted in the Constitution of the Sacred Liturgy: “To promote active participation, the people should be encouraged to take part by means of acclamations, responses, psalms, hymns as well as by actions, gestures and bodily attitudes […]” (SC 30)469. In other words, the faithful were henceforth permitted and encouraged to join in the recitation and singing of the acclamations, responses, psalms, hymns, and actively take part in all the gestures, postures and movements within the liturgical celebration. The faithful exercise the priestly office of Christ himself, bestowed on them by virtue of their baptism, when they participate

467 Sacrosanctum Concilium, (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican Council II, 7–8). 468 Cf. Chapter one of this work, page 18–19. 469 Sacrosanctum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican Council II, 11).

193 actively in the liturgy. It is not enough, however, for their participation to remain merely an external show case or ostentation, but rather it must be backed by a deep interior spiritual experience. That will help them feel united with Christ in whose ministry they share. Therefore, one of the effects of the liturgical reforms is the recovery of the liturgical role of the congregation at Mass and the restoration of the appropriate responses, songs, acclamations and prayers to the people.

The criteria, followed in the revision of the Missal, was to render the Mass a real celebration, meaning “an organically and hierarchically organised sacred action in which each participant plays his or her proper part; there was thus a return to the specific roles of reader, deacon, and priest”470. Moreover, the revision brought about a change in the fundamental difference between the forms of celebration as Bugnini observes: “the basic distinction between the forms of celebration was no longer to depend on the presence or absence of singing but on the participation of the faithful. The only distinction now was to be between Mass with a congregation and Mass without a congregation”471. Yet another blatant distinction that resulted from the revision was between the two parts of the Mass, that is, the liturgy of the Word and that of the Eucharist: This distinction involved a distinction of the places: the first part was to take place preferably at the celebrant’s chair or the lectern, the second at the altar, the place of sacrifice and the table of the Eucharistic banquet.472 The introduction of the vernacular in the liturgy involved certain rubrical adaptations not only in some points in the Mass but also in the Holy Week liturgy and the chants. However, the few points mentioned above are just enough instances for this part of the work in order to forestall the repetition of the second part of chapter two of this study. The translation of liturgical texts, the restoration and fulfilment of the roles of the lay ministry in the liturgical celebrations promote the full, conscious and active participation in the liturgy.

470 Annibale BUGNINI, The Reform of the Liturgy [trans. Matthew J. O’Connell], Collegeville 1990, 116. 471 IBID. 472 IBID., 116.

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5.1.2. Sacramentality of the Roles

The roles recovered by the liturgical renewal of Vatican II, include; acolyte, cantor, lectors, altar servers, ushers and deacons, must be given their due importance in the liturgical assembly. As it is declared in the Sacrosanctum Concilium, “liturgical services are not private functions but are celebrations of the Church, which is the sacrament of unity, namely the holy people united and arranged under their bishops” (SC 26)473. It follows that the liturgical services pertain to the whole assembly, the Church which is the mystical body of Christ, consisting of the head and members. The roles or ministries pertaining to the members of the body of Christ, namely, acolyte, cantor, lector, altar servers, usher, deacon, led by the priest, were restored through the liturgical renewal. This has rendered the Mass an organized thanksgiving and praise to God. Many lay individuals are being guided and helped to identify their possible roles, in accordance with their given charisms and trained to fulfil them. Thus, in the liturgy, all the ministers and the congregation play their respective parts. The ministerial priest, who acts in the person of Christ, is the sacramental sign of Christ, the Head and the people, exercising an office by virtue of their baptism, are the sign of the body. The sacramentality of roles is clearly summed up by Collin Donovan as follows: It is not essential to the confecting of the Eucharist but is essential to the sacramentality of the Eucharistic assembly. Together, priest and people, are a sacramental sign of Christ's continuing mystical presence in the world through the Church, which makes possible the perpetuation in time of the One Sacrifice of Calvary, Eucharistic Communion and the substantial Presence of the Lord in the Blessed Sacrament itself. The sacramentality of the Church as the Mystical Christ is clearer, therefore, when both priests and laity exercise their proper sacramental offices as Head and Members, respectively.474 Since the Eucharistic celebration is an act of Christ himself and of the Church, the priest alone can validly celebrate it without a congregation. In fact, the Redemptoris Sacramentum encourages, the priest to celebrate it more often even if it is not possible for the faithful to be present, as it perpetuates the work of redemption. The document states that “in the mystery of the Eucharistic Sacrifice, the work of redemption is constantly being carried out. Priests should celebrate it frequently even if it should not be possible to have the faithful present,

473 Sacrosanctum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican Council II, 10). 474 DONOVAN, Liturgical Renewal ordered by Vatican II, 2.

195 the celebration is an act of Christ and of the Church, and in carrying it out priests fulfil their principal role”475

Though the presence of the laity is not necessary for the validity of the Mass, it is necessary for the completion of the sign of Christ. Without the priest, the sacrament of Eucharist cannot be confected, but without the laity it can be effected. However, the presence of the laity is essential to the completion of the sign of Christ’s presence in the mystical body of the head and members. That means, in the liturgical assembly consisting of the priest and the people, the mystical body of Christ is complete. This issue is further clarified by Pope Paul VI as recorded in the Catholic Catechism: He is present in the Church when it prays, since it is Christ who prays for us and in us and to whom we pray as to our God. This is the sense in which we believe that where two or three are gathered together in Christ’s name, he is there in the midst of them.476 Christ is mystically present in the presiding priest, and the people present. So, when the priest exercises his role as the head and the lay people exercise theirs as the members, the sacramentality of the Church as the mystical body of Christ becomes more manifest. On the other hand, this does not downplay the presence of Christ in other ways. He is “present in the Church as it preaches his Gospel, since the Gospel that the Church proclaims is the word of God”477. It is in his name, his authority and with his assistance that the word is preached. Another way in which Christ is present in his Church is “when it offers in his name the sacrifice of the Mass, and […] whenever it administers the sacraments”478. In a more preeminent way, he is present in the Blessed Sacrament. In a nutshell, therefore, the sacramentality of the roles performed in the Church is made possible by the presence of Christ in the gathered community, in the word proclaimed, in the sacraments and above all in the holy Sacrament of the Eucharist.

475Redemptoris Sacramentum: Instruction on certain matters to be observed or to be avoided regarding the Most Holy Eaucharist, Congregation for the Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, Boston 2004, 59. (cf. Can. 904/CIC/1983, and General Instructions of the Roman Missal, Middletown 2016, number 19). 476 John A. HARDON, The Catholic Catechism: A Contemporary Catechism of the Teachings of the Catholic Church, New York 1981, 464. 477 HARDON, The Catholic Catechism, 464. 478 IBID., 464.

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The restoration of the active roles of the laity in the liturgical celebration does not presuppose the condemnation of the popular devotions. The popular devotions such as the Angelus, the Rosary, Benediction and others were not ruled out of the Church. According to the Sacrosanctum Concilium, they were to be maintained as long as they did not contradict the norms of the Church, as it declared: “popular devotions of the Christian people, provided they conform to the laws and norms of the Church, are to be highly recommended, […]”479. Even devotions peculiar to the local Churches were to be permitted by the local bishops, provided they were in harmony with the liturgical seasons. They must “have a special dignity, if they are undertaken by order of the bishops according to customs or books lawfully approved”480. Pope John Paul II, issuing the directory on the popular devotions on April 9, 2002, promoted them as he declared that “popular religious practice […] when it is genuine, has faith as its source and therefore must be valued and fostered […]. It prepares the faithful for the celebrations of the sacred mysteries”481. Thus, the popular devotions were not abolished but rather they were not to be permitted to interfere with the liturgical celebration as they used to be in the past. They could be held as a separate service outside and not during the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass.

5.1.3. Accretion and Duplication

In the desire to make the liturgy a source of abundant graces for the Christian people, the fathers of the Council acknowledged that the liturgy was made up of immutable and mutable elements. In other words, the liturgy consists of unchangeable elements, being those are divinely instituted and changeable elements, which are the ones that may or ought to be changed. These facts are expressed in the following words: […] the liturgy is made up of unchangeable elements divinely instituted, and of elements subject to change. These later not only may be changed but ought to be changed with the passage of time, if they have suffered from the intrusion of the anything out of harmony with the inner nature of the liturgy or have become less suitable. In this restoration both texts and the rites should be drawn up so as to express more clearly the holy things which

479 Sacrosanctum Concilium, 13 (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican Council II, 7). 480 IBID. 481 Kenneth D. WHITEHEAD, Mass Misunderstandings: The Mixed Legacy of the Vatican II Liturgical Reforms, South Bend 2009, 98.

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they signify. The Christian people, as far as is possible, should be able to understand them with ease and take part in them fully, actively and as a community (SC 21).482

It was on this background that Vatican II ordered the revision of the liturgical books (SC 25)483, preserving the unchangeable elements and changing the ones subject to change when necessary, as the books may have absorbed, in the course of history, elements that are not in keeping with the true nature or spirit of the liturgy. All the external additions that were no longer suitable to the inner nature of the liturgy were to be removed. Following Vatican II, therefore, the need for the reform of the Tridentine Mass was certainly accepted by all bishops and theologians484. This restoration was ordered to render the liturgy more meaningful and understandable to the Christian people and to encourage their active, conscious and full participation in its activities and to instil in them a sense of belonging to a community.

The presence of Christ in the Eucharistic assembly, namely, in the people, in the Word, in the presiding priest and the species of bread and wine, gives the people a better reason and motivation to attend Eucharistic liturgy. The Mass is now perceived as an encounter with the risen Lord and a participation in the Paschal mystery, instead of just being there for people to gaze on the moment of and observe the consecrated elements of bread and wine.

5.1.4. Implementation of the Liturgical Reforms

Five instructions were issued by the Holy See for the implementation of the liturgical reforms of Vatican II, three of which are listed among others in the second part of chapter one485. They will all be briefly mentioned in this chapter. The first one was Inter Oecumenici, containing initial general principles for the orderly carrying out of the liturgical renewal486. The second one was Tres abhinc annos, which described further adaptations to the Order of

482 Sacrosantum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican Council II, 9). 483 IBID., 10. 484 DONOVAN, Liturgical Renewal, 2. 485 Cf. chapter one of this work, page 38. 486 Liturgiam Athenticam: Fifth Instruction on Vernacular Translation of the Roman Liturgy (Latin-English Edition), Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, Washington D.C. 2001, 171.

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Mass487. The third instruction entitled Liturgicae instaurationis, provided directives on the central role of the Bishop in the renewal of the Liturgy throughout the diocese488. The fourth instruction, called Varietates Legitimae, concerned the difficult questions on the Roman Liturgy and Inculturation489. The fifth one, entitled Liturgiam Authenticam, sets forth the authoritative manner in which the provisions of article 36 of the Liturgy Constitution are to be applied to the vernacular translation of the texts of the Roman Liturgy490. The article 36 of the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy states: (1) The use of the Latin language, with due respect to particular law, is to be preserved in the Latin rites. (2) But since the use of the vernacular, whether in the Mass, the administration of the sacraments, or in other parts of the liturgy, may frequently be of great advantage to the people, a wider use may be made of it especially in readings, directives and in some prayers and chants. […]. (3) These norms being observed, it is for the competent territorial ecclesiastical authority mentioned in article 22:2, to decide whether, and to what extent, the vernacular language is to be used. Its decrees have to be approved, that is, confirmed, by the Apostolic See. Where circumstances warrant it, it is to consult with bishops of neighbouring regions which have the same language. (4) Translations from the Latin for use in the liturgy must be approved by the competent territorial ecclesiastical authority already mentioned.491 Such are the principles, which were set up to guide the translation of the liturgical texts from the original Latin to the vernacular of any given territory. The practical ways for the implementation of those principles are provided in the Liturgiam Authenticam, in which, the “competent territorial ecclesiastical authorities” mentioned in the Liturgy Constitution, are deduced in modern day term as “the Bishops’ Conference”492. These documents, which are successively named “Instruction for the Right Application of the Sacred Liturgy of the Second Vatican Council”493, are of exceptional importance. For, it was with these documents that the Holy See provided the means to carry out the renewal of the liturgy, especially the

487 Liturgiam Athenticam, 171. 488 IBID., 172. 489 IBID. 490 IBID. 491 Sacrosanctum Concilium (FLANNERY, Vatican Council II, 13). 492 Liturgiam Authenticam, 174. 493 IBID., 171.

199 revision and translation of the liturgical books from the Latin sources to the modern languages.

With the first three documents, the first phase of the implementation of the liturgical renewal was ended. Then followed a period, where a practical experience was required for the revision and consolidation of what had already been achieved. Therefore, Pope John Paul II issued the Apostolic letter, Vicesimus quintus annus, on the 25th Anniversary of Vatican II on 4 December 1988 to set the pace for this task. This apostolic letter sparked off “a new gradual process of evaluation, completion and consolidation of the liturgical renewal”494. It was in this gradual process that the two others, Varietates Legitimae and Liturgiam Authenticam were successively issued.

5.1.5. Reactions to the Changes

The reactions to the changes carried out as a result of the liturgical reforms of Vatican II were obviously mixed. While most people welcomed the reforms with joy, a few others had negative reactions to them. In general, the liturgical reforms were well received, as many people especially priests had long been expecting them. Writing about the reception of Vatican II, Jacques-Noël Pérès acknowledges that the reception was generally quick and good as he records: Cette réception a été très rapide, et This reception came very quickly presque anticipée chez les prêtres qui and almost anticipated among the l’attendaient depuis des décennies. priests who had been expecting it for La reforme a été bien acceptée par les decades. The reform was well laïcs les plus engagés dans accepted by the most committed laity l’Eglise.495 in the Church.496

According to Jacques-Noël Pérès and other scholars the reforms have done more good than harm, as the former observes the positive reaction of the Bishop conferences around the world in 1985:

494 Liturgiam Athenticam,172. 495 Jacques-Noël PERES, La réception de Vatican II: En cinquante ans, quels effets pour les Eglises?, Paris 2013, 138. 496 My own translation.

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Mais avec le recul du temps on peut With hindsight, one can say without dire sans exagération que la réforme any exaggeration that the liturgical liturgique a été reçue de manière plus reform has been accepted in a manner que majoritaire, bien au-delà de more than the majority, well beyond certaines vicissitudes. Elle reste un certain vicissitudes. It remains a major effet majeur de Vatican II : « La effect of Vatican II: “The liturgical réforme liturgique a contribué reform has contributed greatly to the grandement à la connaissance et a acquaintance and acceptance of the l’acceptation du Concile », disent Council”, said diverse episcopal diverses conférences épiscopales en conferences in 1985.498 1985.497

On the other hand, Jacques-Noel acknowledges that not everybody received the reforms with that ease. Some practising Catholics as well as intellectuals and aesthetes, who saw it as the disappearance of their cultural heritage, received them with shock. Moreover, the liturgical eccentricity in the earliest post conciliar years created a real confusion. He says the elementary pedagogy was missing, because, the liturgy touches the religious affection of the human person, the intimate domain which escapes the purely rational considerations499. He adds that the conditions at the time did not permit anything else, rather than the reforms, to be done. The reforms were long overdue, and they should have taken place somewhere in the 1930s.

In connection with people’s reactions to the liturgical reforms of Vatican II, Thomas Bokenkotter asserted, in his book, A Concise History of the Catholic Church, that “most Catholics […] accepted the changes more or less gracefully, but with little enthusiasm and have learned to take in stride the continuing series of changes, that have modified not only the Mass but the other sacraments as well”500. This implies that the changes were accepted by most Catholics and even those who were less enthusiastic about the changes have managed to get used to them. It must be admitted, that there were conservatives, who did not want any changes to the existing forms of the liturgy, whereas the liberals, who on the other

497 PERES, La réception de Vatican II, 139. 498 My own translation. 499 PERES, La réception de Vatican II, 138. 500 Thomas BOKENKOTTER, A Concise History of the Catholic Church, New York 2005, 410.

201 hand constituted another dissenting group, viewed the Bible and divine revelation less literally.

The reactions were therefore varied between the conservatives and the liberals. As scholars like Bokenkotter and Jacques-Noël Pérès observe, those who accepted the changes were the majority. While some were happy that vernacular had been introduced into the Mass and the other sacraments, a few would wish to return to a wholly Latin rite. An example of the few, who were not happy with the change from Latin to vernacular and wanted a return to the Latin Mass, was the Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre. He was excommunicated by Pope John Paul II in 1988 for consecrating four bishops to help carry on his battle to return to a Latin Mass and to preserve other practices rejected in the wake of the ecumenical council, Vatican II. In an explanation of his rebellious course, he is quoted to have said, “I prefer to be in the truth without the Pope than to walk a false path with him”501. By this statement he means, not saying the Mass in the Latin language but rather in a vernacular is walking a false path with the Pope, which he intended to avoid.

Another negative reaction regarded the ICEL translation from the original Latin editions to English. Ian Ker notes one of such criticisms in his article what did the Second Vatican Council do for us, that “the English vernacular translations have proved less than satisfactory in their banality and infidelity to the Latin original”502. The original translations of ICEL were also criticized for “being guilty of omitting repetitions, which must be considered trivial since no meaning is lost”503. In reaction to the criticism of the Church’s prayers as being engaged in useless repetition of the Gentiles, Patrick G.D. Riley wrote that repetitions needed not be useless and substantiated it thus: We might think that drama has little to do with the liturgy. But we must recall that the core of the liturgy, the Mass itself, is a representation of the drama of Calvary. (Note

501 Steven GREENHOUSE, Archbishop Lefebvre, 85 dies; Traditionalist Defile the Vatican, in: New York Times (March 26 1991), URL: http://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/26/obituaries/archbishop-lefebvre-85-dies-traditio | nalist-defied-the-vatican.html [Accessed: 16 March 2017]. 502 Ian KER, What did the Second Vatican Council do for us? URL: https//www.christendom- awake.org/default.html [Accessed: 24 February 2017]. This article first appeared in the 11th October 2002 issue of The Catholic Herald, in the United Kingdom. 503 IBID.

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carefully: that’s re-presentation. I italicize the re and insert a hyphen for clarity). The Mass deserves the best that our sense of drama can offer.504

To throw more light on Riley’s point here, the Mass is the reenactment of the event that took place on Calvary. Doing this repeatedly makes it resemble a drama and therefore, the best of our sense of drama needs to be applied to make it as lively and meaningful as possible. As an example of the distortions caused by the ICEL translations, Riley cited the angels’ song of Gloria in excelsis Dei, et in terra pax hominibus bonae voluntatis. His comments on the translation of this Latin sentence in English are as follows: “Straightforwardly, to anyone with even a slight knowledge of Latin, that last phrase means peace to men of good will. Why then did ICEL omit of good will, words implying that Heaven may not give peace to men lacking good will?”505

Yet another negative consequence of the liturgical reforms identified by Ian Ker is that “in spite of the Council's call for a renewal of the rite of reconciliation, the practice of confession has catastrophically declined; some claim that the answer is general absolution, but sacraments are personal not collective”506. Furthermore, Riley underscores mixed reactions to the reforms as he writes: Few would say it has been a very Pentecostal time. For many, it has seemed more like a Golgotha, with falling Mass attendances and declining vocations, at least in most of the developed world. For others, it has been like a blighted spring, in which high hopes have been dashed by the failure to pursue the progressive agenda.507

It follows from the above that the reactions are diversified. While some perceive the changes as a positive sign of a breakthrough, others see them as a cause for the low attendance at Mass and a decline of vocations in most part of the developed world. The contrary is the situation in most parts of Africa, where new Churches are built due to a significant increase in Mass attendance as a result of the reforms. Equally, new dioceses are created to ensure better governance in view of the upward surge of parishes and membership.

504 Patrick G.D. RILEY, Accessing Liturgical Reforms, URL: http://www.catholicleague.org/assessing- liturgical-reforms/ [Accessed: 23 February 2017]. 505 Patrick G.D. RILEY, Accessing Liturgical Reforms. 506 KER. What did the Second Vatican Council do for us? 507 IBID.

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5.2. Effects of the Liturgical Reforms of Vatican II in the Ecclesiastical Province of Kumasi

The provisions of Vatican II for the liturgical books to be revised and translated into the vernacular in order that liturgy may meaningfully be celebrated in accordance with the culture of the local people, have generally had a tremendous impact in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi in Ghana. Though parts of the liturgical books had been translated into the local Asante Twi language beforehand, much more was done when Vatican II granted the permission for translation and inculturation. By email correspondence, Joseph Marfo Gyimah of the Catholic Diocese of Sunyani wrote: The effects of Vatican II on the Church in Kumasi province have been great. The sacraments are celebrated in the local language. There is a lot of inculturation in the vestments, songs and in the celebrations, themselves. There is also laity involvement and the living of the faith in the concept of the Church as a family in small Christian communities following the first synod of Africa.508 These statements of his, sum up what has been dealt with in the previous chapters of this study; the celebration of the Mass and the sacraments in the native language and the spells of inculturation more evidently in the liturgical music. What is new here, are the inculturation of the liturgical vestments and the involvement of the laity in the establishment of the basic Christian communities. The liturgical vestments, especially, chasubles and stoles have undergone a significant change, with the use of traditional kente509 materials and Adinkra510 symbols. Though the shape remains the same, diversified designs of Adinkra symbols and liturgical symbols are made in them with the traditionally woven kente fabric. The following image shows an example of different narrow strips of kente fabric designed with Adinkra and liturgical symbols. These can be used for stoles, or designs in the chasuble, choir robes, altar

508 MARFO GYIMAH, Email Correspondence, 10 June 2014. 509 Collins English Dictionary, URL: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kente-cloth [Accessed: 11 April 2017], defines kente as “a fabric made especially in Ghana woven in strips brightly patterned bands interspersed with bands of black”. 510 Writing the forward to Peter Acheampong’s book, “Christian Values in Adinkra Symbols”, Peter Kwasi Sarpong, the Archbishop Emeritus of Kumasi, defined Adinkra symbols as “the age-old pictorial presentation of the values that have stood Akans in good stead for so long. […]. The Adinkra symbols are extensively used to express feelings and sentiments that one may be undergoing at a particular time”. Peter ACHEAMPONG, Christian Values in Adinkra symbols, Kumasi 2008, Preface ii.

204 servers’ garments, those of ushers, lectors, extraordinary ministers of the Holy Communion, and the altar linens.

511

The above image is shown to elucidate on the above statement of Joseph Marfo Gyimah on inculturated liturgical vestments. Yet another example will suffice to make the point clearer. Here are examples of chasubles and stoles designed with the local materials, known as kente:

512

511 Kente Cloth Clipart, URL: https://www.kentecloth.net/kente-cloth-clip-art/ [Accessed: 11 April 2017]. 512 Gabriel DENTE, What’s app correspondence, Sunyani 29 March 2017. See more pictures in the appendix.

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The above figure depicts three different chasubles designed with the colourful kente material and a combination of Christian and traditional adinkra symbols. The first from the left has the cross and an adinkra symbol known as nk]ns]nk]ns]n, meaning chains. It is a symbol of bondage and unity513. Its usage in the chasuble demonstrates the sacrifice with which Christ freed humankind from the bondage of sin and death and united them as one family. The second one has two common Christian symbols, the Greek Chi Rho, symbolising Christ and Christianity514, and the cross, both of which do not require any explanation. The third one has five different symbols, the cross, Gye Nyame, meaning except God (already explained in Chapter Four)515; Nyame biribi w] soro, meaning there is something in heaven, Lord, let me have it, (symbol of hope in God’s providence)516; Akok] nan tia ba, na [nkum ba, meaning a hen steps on its chicks but does not kill them (symbol of discipline and essence of punitive but corrective measures)517, and Nya akoma, meaning relax/take heart/be patient (symbol of patience)518. The significance of these and other adinkra symbols have a close connection with Christian values and their application to the liturgical vestments indicates a development in liturgical inculturation in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. These chasubles are used as ceremonial vestments at special celebrations, as well as the Easter and Christmas seasons, feast days and solemnities, for which, the white chasuble is prescribed.

Moreover, the basic Christian communities otherwise known as small Christian communities, mentioned by him, are established with the help and initiative of lay people in the boroughs or suburbs of the rural parishes. The small Christian community is defined by the Ghana Catholic Bishops’ Conference as: […] a small church group made up of Catholics living in the same area or community who meet regularly, preferably once a week, to study the Bible and Catholic doctrine so as to be well equipped to evangelise, to bring Christ to the world. An SCC may deal with

513 Peter ACHEAMPONG, Christian Values in Adinkra symbols, 49. 514 […] Ancient Symbolism, Chi Rho, URL: http://www.ancient-symbols.com/symbols-directory/chi_r| ho.html [Accessed: 7 April 2017]. 515 Cf. chapter 4 of this study on page 122. 516 ACHEAMPONG, 9. 517 ACHEAMPONG, 13. 518 IBID., 21.

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any other subject be it economic, political or social which is pertinent to the community at any particular time.519 The liturgical life of the parish is spread and lived through these small Christian communities, as their meetings are always started with a liturgical service and sometimes with Mass when a priest visits them. By so doing, the concept of the Church as family is well experienced with a great sense of understanding by the faithful in the respective communities. Those are, therefore, examples of the positive effects of the liturgical reforms of Vatican II.

The implementation of the liturgical reforms did not come about on a silver platter. There were a few initial challenges. There were mixed reactions from both the clergy and the faithful, particularly, to the introduction of the native Akan or Asante Twi and local musical styles and instruments into the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass, the language of which had until then been solely Latin, without prejudice to the early efforts of translation into the vernacular. Nevertheless, the reforms were generally welcomed with joy and enthusiasm, with only a few older Catholics having nostalgic feelings for the Latin Mass. We now turn to limit our focus on the implementation of the translated version of the ordinary of Mass in the Asante Twi language and the ensuing reactions.

5.2.1. Introduction of the Ordinary of the Mass in Asante Twi (Akan)

In compliance with the provision of Vatican II and the subsequent post conciliar instruction on the liturgy Inter Oecumenici, for the translation of some parts of the liturgy into the vernacular (SC 54, IO 57)520, the then Bishop of Kumasi diocese (now the episcopal province of Kumasi), Bishop Joseph Amihere Essuah, entrusted the translation of the ordinary of the Mass to a committee of priests. After the completion of this task, the produced Asante version was forwarded, by the Bishop to Rome for approval and permission for its introduction in

519 CATHOLIC BISHOP’S CONFERENCE of Ghana, First National Catholic Pastoral Congress: Ecclesia in Ghana: On the Church in Ghana and its Evangelising Mission in the Third Millennium, Instrumentum Laboris, Cape Coast 1997, 35. 520 Sacrosanctum Concilium, (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican II, 18) / (cf. Inter Oecumenici, N.C.W.C. translation, Boston, n.d. 23).

207 the diocese521. With the approval from Rome, he notified all the pastors and parochial vicars by means of a circular letter, authorising them to introduce the Mass in Asante Twi. The letter, which contained the detailed plans of the Bishop for the introduction of the Mass in Asante Twi, was very long. Here is a copy of some of its salient points: Dear Rev. Father, Ordinary of the Mass in Asante We have now had printed those parts of the formula of the Mass which are so far allowed in the vernacular viz: Prayers at the foot of the altar, Confiteor, Kyrie, Gloria, Creed, Orate Fratres, Preface, Sanctus, Pater noster, Libera nos, Agnus Dei, Formula for the distribution of Holy Communion, Blessing at the end of the Mass; the Oratio, Epistle and Gospel are not in the print. […] Our plan for the instruction of the Asante Mass is as follows: -

i. August: study of the text by priests, Mass servers and parishioners; ii. September: introduction of the Asante Mass during the weekdays when comparatively smaller number of participants make it easier to have practice with the new text; iii. Mid-October: formal introduction of Asante in all low Masses on weekdays as well as on Sundays.

[…] With the introduction of the Asante Mass and the active participation of the whole congregation present, there will be for a lot of synchronisation with singing […]. We will be very grateful if you carefully note the reactions of your parishioners about the change into vernacular and send us a detailed report in March 1967.522 The letter instructed the priests to proceed slowly with the introduction of the vernacular in the Mass. The texts of the Mass in Asante were to be learnt gradually by the majority of the parishioners with the view to ensure the active participation of most of the parishioners in singing and responses523, decreed by Vatican II (SC 14)524. This was to avoid a situation where only the altar servers would do the responses pertaining to the congregation. The new texts that would be learnt, were to be practised in the weekday Masses in a gradual process until the formal introduction. It was specified that the vernacular would be used only at the low Mass for the time being. The high Mass, however, was to remain in Latin until a fresh

521 AFRIFAH AGYEKUM, History of the Liturgical Life of the Church of Ghana, 278. 522 KUMASI ARCH DIOCESAN ARCHIVES, Ordinary of the Mass in Asante, n.p., 16 July 1966; Circular no. 21/66 Ref. no. 64/59.L.C. 523 BUGNINI, DOL, 1317–1318. Writing later in 1969 from the Secretariat of State to Cardinal J. Garibi y Rivera, Archbishop of Guadalajara (Mexico), on the occasion of the 12th International Congress of Little Singers, Cardinal J. Villot threw more light on this same theme of Vatican II of the active participation through congregational singing and responses. Cf. DOL 4219. 524 Sacrosanctum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican Council II, 7–8).

208 instruction was received for a change to be effected. In the meantime, the low Mass in Latin was not completely abolished. It could be said occasionally. Accordingly, the priests who were not of Asante speaking origin, were advised to seek the help of the Catechists or experts to learn the right intonation of the new texts for clarity in fulfilling the proper role of the celebrant at Mass, instead of letting the Catechist pronounce the oration, which is proper to the celebrant. This issue raised in the circular conformed to the prescriptions of Paul VI in his address to the translators of liturgical texts in 1965525. Thus, the letter to the parish priests indicated that the vernacular Mass was not introduced suddenly but went through a gradual process.

5.2.2. Initial Reactions to the Introduction of the Ordinary of the Mass in Asante Twi

Since the Mass came to the Asante speaking people in that foreign language of Latin, there would certainly be different reactions from them to the changes that were introduced. Some would be happy with the change of the language of the Mass into the native language, others would see no reason why that familiar language in the liturgical celebrations should be discarded. According to Puis Agyemang, “the local bishops were overwhelmed with the change. So were the people, because, nobody expected that such a drastic change would take place immediately after the Council”526. It is expedient to turn our attention to the reactions that came from the parishes within the then catholic diocese of Kumasi following the change from Latin to Asante Twi in the liturgy.

In the aftermath of the introduction of the Mass in Asante, reports of the reactions from parishioners were sent by priests to the Bishop of Kumasi. Out of the nineteen reports sent by parish priests, only two spoke of the people not being happy with the Mass in Asante527. This implies that most of the faithful in the then diocese were in favour of the change of language, as against a handful of them, who may have wanted Latin to remain in use. Even this negative reaction of the minority is not surprising, because, for any human being who is

525 BUGNINI, DOL, 274. 526 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015. 527 AFRIFAH AGYEKUM, The History of the Liturgical Life of the Church in Ghana, 280.

209 used to one way of doing things, a negative reaction to a change is inevitable. It was initially very difficult for some parishioners to accept the change from Latin to Asante, just because, they were used to it. Though there were negative reactions from a few people, they sooner or later came to accept the changes, when they realised that it was the wisdom of the Church and that the translation from Latin into vernacular was encouraged everywhere in the Roman Catholic Church and not just in the diocese of Kumasi. We shall now turn to examine the available reports of the introduction of the ordinary of the Mass in Asante from three different parishes; Obuasi, Techiman and Bekwai.

The report from St. Thomas Church, Obuasi dated 7 March 1967 and signed by the parish priest had the following contents: The Asante Mass was introduced in Obuasi St. Thomas’ Church at the end of November 1966. Although my assistant, who had been acting parish priest until November 17, 1966 had made many efforts to propagate the study of the Asante Mass, the results were very poor. School children had learned the prayers at school, but the ordinary parishioners did not show any interest at all, the response was in my opinion very meagre. Still we thought that we had to make a start and consequently made the introduction at the end of November 1966. It was only the Catechist and a few school children who were able to answer the prayers. Repeated appeals to Asante literate section of the parish to take the lead in correctly answering the prayers, so that the non-Asante speaking section could more easily follow suit, have not had the desired effect. As the greater of the parish is composed of non-Asante speaking people, I think it will take some time before all parishioners will be able to take an active part. They will not have to get used to it. In the outstations, the Asante Mass has not been introduced yet. As there are some 73 outstations and the assistant priest can visit them only once in three months, one can understand that it will take more than a year before the members in the villages will have sufficiently learned the prayers to justify the introduction of the Asante Mass. In the villages where there are schools and where the teachers are willing to sacrifice some of their free time to teach the Asante Mass, we could perhaps try to introduce it sometime after Easter.528 The report from Obuasi indicates that the introduction of the Mass in Asante was delayed due to the diversity of ethnic groups and the multiplicity of outstations in the parish. There was, consequently, an initial apathy in learning the translated texts of the Mass. The background of this initial lack of interest in learning the Asante Mass was that Obuasi was a gold mining town, which had attracted people from all over the country and from different

528 AFRIFAH AGYEKUM, The History of the Liturgical Life of the Church in Ghana, 281.

210 linguistic and ethnic backgrounds and the non-native speakers of Asante constituted the greater part of the parish. It is for this reason that the assistance of the native Asante literates was repeatedly requested, but the effect was below expectation. Despite the initial challenges, there was still hope for a successful introduction of the Asante Mass in the near future, especially in the outstations, where the help of the school teachers was solicited. There were 73 outstations, taken care of by only one assistant priest. For this reason, the introduction of the Asante Mass had not yet reached most of them by the time the report was written.

The reactions from the parishioners in St. Paul’s Parish, Techiman529, which were much different from the above account were reported by the parish priest as follows: […] From the beginning the use of the Asante language has been received with great enthusiasm. During all low Masses on Sun- and weekdays there is a good participation of the faithful in answering and joining in the different prayers. It is regretted by many that not more has been translated like for instance (sic), the prayers, epistles and gospels, prayers of the offertory etc. […]. In general, I do not know of anybody in disagreement, people like the Mass in Asante language very much. For a few people who do not understand the language or who prefer Latin, we have still a high Mass every Sunday. To sum up, there is general enthusiasm about the use of Asante. Some regret that not more has been translated. A need is felt especially for the translation of the prayers and readings in their own tongue. The priest should face the people as much as possible so that people may understand him well. People prefer the Mass to be said facing them.530 It is clear from the foregoing that the report from Techiman was more positive than that of Obuasi. The faithful in Techiman were rather more enthusiastic in learning the newly translated texts of the Mass and were happy to participate in the Mass in Asante language. This suggests that they may have yearned for the vernacular Mass long before it was introduced. They even wanted more. The translated part of the Mass was not enough for them. Therefore, they would have wished that the whole Mass was celebrated in Asante. Only a handful of people preferred the Latin Mass and for them a provision was made to have a Latin Mass on Sundays. It is also evident that the removal of the altar from the wall to a free-standing position was also warmly welcomed by the parishioners. The detachment

529 ST. PAUL’S PARISH OF TECHIMAN, which is now the See of the Catholic Diocese of Techiman, used to be a parish within the then Diocese of Kumasi, and subsequently came under the Catholic Diocese of Sunyani, which was split from Kumasi in 1973 until 2008 when the Diocese of Techiman was created. St. Paul’s Parish Church is now the Cathedral Parish of the Diocese of Techiman. 530 AFRIFAH AGYEKUM, The History of the Liturgical Life of the Church in Ghana, 282.

211 of the altar from the wall, permitting the Mass to be said facing the people conformed to the desires of Vatican II as expressed in the General Instruction of the Roman Missal: The altar should be built apart from the wall, in such a way that it is possible to walk around it easily and that Mass can be celebrated at it facing the people, which is desirable wherever possible. The altar should, moreover, be so placed as to be truly the centre toward which the attention of the whole congregation of the faithful naturally turns. The altar is usually fixed and dedicated.531 The parishioners of Techiman showed their preference for the free-standing altar, as they could hear and understand the priest better with his face toward them.

The third report of the faithful’s reactions to the introduction of the ordinary of the Mass in Asante came from St. John the Evangelist parish in Bekwai and it reads: In Bekwai, the response of the people from the main station was negative. In sum, the introduction has not been successful despite the number of Sundays that had been spent in explaining the introduction of Asante Mass. The faithful (majority) preferred the Latin Mass and the priest facing them with his back (sic). The situation, however, in the outstation was the opposite. The outstation priest was eager with the introduction; he was eagerly waiting for the translation of Introit and Collecte (sic) and all parts which had not yet been translated.532 This report exhibits mixed reactions from the parishioners, with the majority of the people in the main station in favour of the Latin Mass, unlike the first two, especially, that of Techiman. Conversely, they preferred the altar against the wall with the back of the priest toward them. In our opinion their negative response to the introduction of the Asante Mass was due to the fact that they had become so used to the Latin Mass with the priest facing the wall, that it was difficult for them to accept any change. Some may have preferred the Latin Mass because of its “aura of mysticism”533 as Peter Sarpong would put it, though they did not understand it. In other words, they accepted the mystery involved. Others would want to preserve it because of their respect for its sacredness as expressed by Peter Sarpong; “others would be saying, ‘Oh, leave it as it is, because we do not want to banalise something sacred’”534. On the other hand, the report from the outstations proves that the faithful were in favour of the

531 General Instruction of the Roman Missal (GIRM), English Translation, International Committee on English in the Liturgy, Washington D.C. 2003, 82, n.299. 532 AFRIFAH AGYEKUM, The History of the Liturgical Life of the Church in Ghana, 282. 533 SARPONG, a recorded interview, 8 July 2014. 534 IBID.

212 change, and like those of Techiman, they were eager to have all other parts of the Mass translated into their language.

The above three reports constitute for this study a sufficient evidence of the early reactions to the change from Latin to Asante Mass in the diocese of Kumasi, which is now the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi consisting of six dioceses. In general, the faithful’s appreciation for the Mass in their own language was phenomenal, even though a few of them did not feel comfortable with the change. Those were the immediate reactions to the change called for by Vatican II. There were obviously a few initial challenges as indicated in the above three reports. As time went on, however, the reforms were gradually accepted by the people. They eventually got used to the Mass in Asante language and felt at home with it.

5.2.3. Later Reactions to and the Effects of the Liturgical Reforms

The bishops had been given the responsibility to effect the changes, one of which was the translation of the liturgical texts into the local language and its submission to Rome for approval before its implementation. This reflects the provision laid down by Vatican II and amplified in the Liturgiam Autheticam, which states that “it will be the responsibility of Bishops to determine which of the prevailing languages are to be introduced into full or partial liturgical use in its territory. The decisions of the Conference of Bishops require the recognitio of the Apostolic See before the work of translation is undertaken in any way” (SC 36 § 3.)535. Though there was no indication of the involvement of the National Bishop’s Conference in the choice of Asante as the appropriate language for liturgical use in the then diocese of Kumasi, it was generally recognised and accepted as the right choice, since it was

535 Liturgiam Authenticam, 41, n.15. This instruction on the recognitio, has recently been adapted Pope Francis in his Motu Proprio Magnum Principium published on 3 September 2017 and calls for an interpretation. The Magnum Principium modifies the formulation of Canon 838 §§2–3, by which it clarifies the roles of the Apostolic See and the Bishops’ Conferences regarding translation of liturgical books, their approval and publication. In brief, the translation and approval of liturgical texts into the vernacular is within the competence of the local conference of bishops but can only be published after the recognition of the Apostolic See. By so doing the Apostolic See (through the competent Dicastery) ratifies the approval of the Bishop’s Conference. Other basis for this modification are the SC 22 §2, 36 §§3–4. Magnum Principium URL: http://www.press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bolletino/2017/09/09/170909| a.pdf [Accessed 25 January 2018].

213 the dominant language in that particular territory, now covering six dioceses. In the early reactions to the introduction of the Asante Mass, there is no indication of any opposition to its choice by the speakers of other languages and dialects in the territory.

The only initial difficulty, as shown above, was with the minority who preferred the Latin Mass to the Mass in their own language. It took a while before the Asante Mass was fully accepted. The situation of the uncertainties with the change from Latin Mass to Asante Mass was described by Pius Agyemang as the struggle between the new wine and the old wine skins in the light of the Gospel parable as he argued: The Church had given the order for a change. There was the need for all of us to go with the new wine skin, but there was a struggle between the old wine skin and the new wine skin. So, you could see that we were all struggling to depart from the old wine skin to allow the new wine skin to contain the new wine. That is where the difficulties were for the Bishops. They needed orientation which many of them did not have. They were just picking certain aspects of the change from their travels to the United States of America and the United Kingdom, until special seminars began to be organised, which Bishops and priests were invited to attend. Priests were sent abroad for studies and came back to implement the changes. So, it was a great struggle, but with the help of the Holy Spirit, it was managed.536 Admitting that translating the liturgical texts into the local languages was one of the greatest effects of the changes desired by Vatican II, he recognised the good efforts which the early translators put into the production of the Mass book in the Asante language. Though its total acceptance was a little sluggish, it eventually came to be appreciated by most of the faithful. He said: The people now understand the Mass better. They now understand the central aspect of the Liturgy, the consecration, and the transubstantiation. People were not in tune with the reality of the Mass. They sat idly without any understanding. They now understand that they come to pray with Jesus, through Jesus and in Jesus. So, they now treasure the consecration much better. They have now understood the parts of the Mass, why they should come to Mass more frequently and punctually or else they miss certain important parts.537 By his judgement, the faithful have now moved from their old to new understanding of the Mass, because they can better grasp the significance of what they celebrate in their own

536 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015. Cf. Luke 5:36–39 “And no one puts new wine into old wine skins.” Holy Bible: New Revised Standard version, 1912. 537 IBID.

214 language. Their understanding of the roles of the laity in the liturgy has been much more improved. They no longer think that the Mass belongs to the priest alone as they used to do in the olden days, but they rather pray with him. Peter Sarpong also expressed this reality in another way as he stated that when the Latin greeting, Dominus Vobiscum, was translated as Awurade ne mo ntena, meaning, the Lord be with you, the people came to understand it expressing their surprise: Ei ! Enti yei na na y[ka yi?, meaning, “so is this what we have been saying”?538 For the people, therefore, the mysticism that enshrined the Latin version has been taken off and they now understand it in a new way. Even though they were comfortable with what they didn’t understand, that is the Latin version of the Mass, it did not make any impression on them.

Contrary to the observation of Riley, quoted earlier in this chapter on page 203, the liturgical reforms of Vatican II, particularly the permission for the use of vernacular in the liturgy, have contributed to an increase in Mass attendance and in the vocation to the priesthood and religious life, as emphasised by Pius Agyemang: The reforms of Vatican II have effected a better understanding of the vocation to the priesthood and religious life. People are now willing to allow their children into the priesthood and religious lives, because they now understand the role of the priest better in the Church. The mission of the people to play their part is also better understood. It is now understood that the priest can have a committee or pastoral council with whom he can think about the church and make future plans. There is a room for them to air their feelings and advise the pastor, where necessary, though their role remains consultative. So, the relationship between the people and the priest is now closer. They know their priest and their priest knows them, unlike the past when the distance between the priest and the people was so long that they would not dare to come closer to him. For, they considered him to be a man of God, to whom the ordinary people must not get closer. Even though they are not always satisfied that their suggestions, at the pastoral council meetings, are not always taken, they feel much closer to their priest than before.539 With the improved relationship between the priest and the laity, the attendance at Mass has also significantly improved. Moreover, there has been an improvement in the response of young people to their vocation to the priesthood and religious life. Pius Agyemang was

538 SARPONG, a recorded interview, Kumasi, 8 July 2014. 539 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015.

215 talking out of experience, since he himself is a religious brother and has been a vocations’ director for his religious congregation.

According to Pius Agyemang, the people need to undergo more instructions in order to have a deeper understanding of the tenets of the Mass, even though their level of understanding is much better than before. He said among other things that “the vertical line of the Mass needs to be explained much more deeply for them to understand that we offer Jesus and pray with Jesus, through Jesus and in Jesus. We do not pray to Mary and the Saints”540.

The liturgical reforms have also helped the faithful in the province of Kumasi to know the difference between the Mass and devotional activities. However, education in this regard needs to be intensified to let them know that the devotions will enable the faithful to come to the Eucharist which is the source and summit of our Christian life and faith. On the other hand, if the devotions tend to be more emphasised to the extent that they come to compete with the Holy Eucharist, then they are still stuck to the “old wine skin”541. That means they are not ready to change or accept changes that come to them. There is no sign of eagerness for progress, and they, therefore, remain static.

5.2.4. Major Shifts in the Realm of Liturgical Music

Prior to Vatican II, the congregation was not part of the singing body. The choir, located in the gallery or choir loft, assumed the role of singing in the Liturgy. Their ministry in the course of time, took the nature of performance and as such expected an applause from the congregation. As the result of the liturgical reforms of Vatican II, they have been brought down into the midst of the congregation just as it is supposed to be everywhere in the Roman Catholic Church. The choristers have come to understand that they are part of the congregation and that their role has been shifted from ostentatious performance to leading the congregation in singing. They now feel part of the celebration and not just some performers, who have been employed or implored to show off their musical skills for the

540 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015. 541 IBID.

216 general public to watch and show their hearfelt appreciation for their performances. This is in conformity to the provision of the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, which states: The treasury of sacred music is to be preserved and cultivated with great care. Choirs must be assiduously developed, especially in the Cathedral Churches. Bishops and other pastors of souls must take great care to ensure that whenever the sacred action is to be accompanied by chant the whole body of the faithful may be able to contribute that active participation which is rightly theirs […] (SC 114).542 In compliance with this provision of Vatican II, the choirs in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi have gone through a series of formation and are still being developed to lead, rather than dominating the congregation in the singing in liturgical celebrations. Since their leadership role would not be effective, while singing from the galleries, they were brought down among the congregation. They have been made to understand that the acclamations introduced by Vatican II are the major spots where the people of God express their voice to Christ and since the choristers are also part of the people of God, they now sing with them and not just perform to expect their applause. Pius Agyemang testifies that the understanding of the people has developed to such an extent that they are now aware that “it is not only the priest, who is talking to God, but the people of God speaking to God”543. That shows the balanced participation of the people and the priest.

Since some of that faithful are still holding on to some elements of the past, the trained liturgical musicians, like Pius Agyemang, are determinedly educating people on the importance of the acclamations. Four main acclamations were described by Pius Agyemang in a recorded interview and we would like to paraphrase him extensively as follows: a. Alleluia: This is an acclamatory rhythm, which should be written in a short and powerful melody, where people do not need books, unlike a hymn for which books are required to facilitate singing. They must be composed in a manner that encourages spontaneous singing by the people, serving Christ and his word. b. Sanctus: This is where the minds are tuned to recognise that the three bodies of the Church, are coming together to acknowledge the holiness of God. The Church

542 Sacrosanctum Concilium (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican Council II, 32). 543 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015.

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triumphant, suffering and the militant come together to praise God. If this idea is now seen by the local faithful, then the Church now gets a better shift unlike the motet being sung by the choir, while the people do only the listening, meaning the militant were not part of this action. c. The Mystery of Faith: That is when the priest acknowledges that the mystery has taken place, calling the people to respond to this action. How the people are supposed to sing. For example, “We proclaim your death, O Lord […] Agyenkwa ee,}sabarima Agyenkwa ee […]. The more the faithful get understanding of the music in the service of the liturgy at the consecration, the better the more the whole faith becomes alive among them. d. Doxology: This is where the Great Amen, which is the highest music to serve is now being emphasised. As St. Justin tells us, on that day in the year 50, when the great Amen was being sung, the whole foundation of the Church was shaken. The local people have eventually come to recognise that this is where they are being offered with Christ to the father and their response to that offering is the Great Amen.544

Being a seasoned liturgical musician, he went ahead and elaborated on the moods, action and spirit of the Liturgy. According to him, the song composed should serve the mood, rather than just singing religious songs. Then the actions accompanied with the music, like the entrance processional act, Collection act and Communion act, are various processions which contain different moods. So, the compositions reflect the moods and, therefore, control them. For example, the composition of Communion song is not done the same way as that of the collection. The solemnity of the entrance song is not the same as the collection. However, it still contains the mood of joy.

The people are beginning to understand that the ordinary of the Mass is no more in the grade one songs (that is, those which only the choir could perform), because in the past, the choir spent so much time on the ordinary of the Mass (Kyrie, Gloria, Sanctus, Agnus Dei). This is because, that was where they could express themselves, and they were too long. Though they

544 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015.

218 were not serving the people’s needs, they were suitable for them because they were compositions meant for only the choir. However, “the Church does not see them anymore as number one songs”. If the number one songs – acclamations, the grade two songs which are the processional songs (entrance, collection and communion), and the grade three songs, consisting of the Responsorial Psalm, are well taken care of before coming to grade four, which is the ordinary, the people will be able to know how to choose songs for a particular Mass. If it is a one-hour Mass, for example, the important song will be chosen. 545

One of the changes, that are still being struggled with, is the collection song. The theology of the songs of charity, love, thanksgiving, is for example not known to the choirmasters. So, they are using religious songs of the style known as the medley without considering the theology of the offertory, or collection. Therefore, their choices of songs are yet to be corrected through continuous formation. At the moment they choose the popular songs borrowed from the Pentecostals, Evangelicals, and the Charismatics. These unfortunately do not serve the action being performed, whereas that part is supposed to be about unity, charity, love, thanksgiving and service.546 Much as we agree with Pius Agyemang on this issue, we would like to add that one possible ground for the choice of popular songs for the collection or offertory, is the desire to please the faithful with the charismatic devotional inclination. In other words, the medley is chosen not only out of ignorance of the theological significance, but also out of the wish to satisfy the taste of parishioners of the charismatic renewal groups and their sympathisers. Whatever it is, the selection of collection or offertory songs still stands the need to be rectified as Pius Agyemang said.

Communion songs are still not properly understood and handled by our people. They are using the hymns from the Westminster Hymnal like, the songs with egocentric character, e.g. Me kra retw[n wo […], meaning, “My soul is longing for you […]”547. Those are the post

545 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015. 546 IBID. 547 IBID.

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Communion songs that are now being used for Communion procession. Therefore, they need to be helped to correct such errors.

As we saw in the previous chapters, Vatican II has opened the way for new composers, namely Pius Agyemang who has composed over 1000 liturgical songs. Others are Michael K. Agyemang, Dominic O. Asare-Bediako, J.P. Johnson, Sackey, M. K. Amissah, Anthony Atwereboanna, A. Adjin Mensah, P. V. Obosu, Franklyn Agyei, Rev. Fathers Aboagye Danso, Samuel Kofi Agyei and many others. Apart from Bro. Pius and Father Samuel Kofi Agyei, the rest are not liturgical musicians and, therefore, need to get some more training in the realm of liturgical music. At the moment, a compilation of the liturgical songs composed by the above musicians and many others is still underway. There is no doubt that this common liturgical music book will contribute immensely to the development of the liturgical books and ultimately to more vibrant liturgical celebrations in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi, when it is completed. It is unfortunate that the compilation of the liturgical music composed by Pius Agyemang himself, which has been in print for a while now, has not yet been completed due lack of adequate funds.

Conclusion

The fifth chapter of this study has explored a few effects of the liturgical reforms of Vatican II from general to particular points of view. It has examined some of the changes desired by Vatican II, their implementation and subsequent reactions, focusing attention on the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. Evidently, it has been underscored that it was in compliance with the provisions of Vatican II for the translation of the liturgical books into the vernacular that the Ordinary of the Mass was translated from Latin to Asante Twi and officially introduced in the Catholic Diocese of Kumasi (now the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi) in 1966 under Bishop Joseph Amihere Essuah.

The responsibility of the choice of the suitable language, resting on the shoulders of the Conference of Bishops does not fully apply to the situation in Ghana, due to the multiplicity of languages in the country. It does not even apply fully to the ecclesiastical provinces in Ghana for the same reason. Some provinces and even some dioceses have too many different languages to permit the selection of one common language for liturgical use. In the province

220 of Kumasi, however, the Asante Twi is the predominant language that certifies the requirement of article 12 of the Liturgiam Authenticam, as it supports “common academic and cultural formation”548.

On the contrary, there is no evidence of its selection by the National Bishops’ Conference. Rather the evidence at hand as indicated above in the introduction of the ordinary of the Mass in Asante Twi, is that it was the Bishop of Kumasi who wrote to Rome for the permission to begin the translation. When it was accomplished, it was the same Bishop, who forwarded it to Rome for approval before the official introduction. This presupposes that the choice of a suitable liturgical language in a particular province in Ghana will depend more on the local bishops. It will only be a formality to bring it to the notice of the National Bishops’ Conference for approbation before forwarding it to Rome for its recognition and confirmation as required by the liturgical norms.

Despite the lack of evidence of the approval of the National Bishop’s Conference, regarding the choice of the Asante language, the translated text in Asante gained the approval of Rome before its introduction. Initially most of the faithful accepted the vernacular Mass with joy, while a few others still preferred the Latin version. Stephen Ntim captures these initial reactions as he writes: Most of the people liked it. They were happy to understand the Mass and the other sacraments celebrated in their own language. Nevertheless, there were some that still had some nostalgic feeling for the Tridentine Latin Mass, even now among those in their late seventies and eighties even though they do not understand Latin.549 It took a long while before the Mass in the native language came to be fully accepted and even the older generation, who had the taste of the Latin Mass, still long for it. Nevertheless, the faithful are currently used to the liturgy in Asante language, and as indicated in the fourth chapter of this study, most of the liturgical books have eventually been rendered in Asante,

548 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015. 549 NTIM, Email correspondence, New York, 7 August 2016.

221 thanks to the liturgical reforms of Vatican II. As Joseph Marfo Gyimah sums it up, “now, the provisions of Vatican II have been accepted as the way forward”550.

The next chapter of this study will explore the prospects of inculturation in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. It will deal with the spells of inculturation used so far in the liturgical celebrations in the province and the possibility of their inclusion in the liturgical books. It will limit itself to the rites of the Eucharist, marriage, widowhood, and the possible inclusion nwomkr] (the traditional music orchestra) in the liturgy and in the liturgical music books.

550 MARFO GYIMAH, Email Correspondence, 10 June 2014.

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CHAPTER SIX

6. Prospects of Liturgical Inculturation in the Ecclesiastical Province of Kumasi

Introduction

The question of inculturation has run through all the chapters of this study up to this stage, as we examined the books that were in use in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi during the period prior to Vatican II and those that have emerged as a result of the liturgical reforms of Vatican II. Our investigation has shown the number of liturgical books that have been developed in the Asante Twi, by way of translation and adaptation. Translation, according to Peter Schinella, “is a necessary starting point for […] some degree of communication between the old and new cultures”551. Developing books from the western languages into a local Ghanaian language obviously presupposes the need for inculturation, which means more than translation. Even though translation is a necessary starting point, there is a danger if it is considered as the only method for inculturation, as Peter Schinella suggests: The danger is that translation becomes not only the starting point but the only method. That is the entire catechism, the prayers and liturgy, and the Bible are simply translated into the new languages with no creative adaptation or modification in accord with local customs or thought patterns552. This presupposes that there are other methods, which in addition to translation make inculturation complete and more understandable. For, translation involves a lot more than words. It affects other aspects such as colours and symbols of liturgical vestments, which can be changed in harmony with the local culture. Since Inculturation is a broad and complex topic, we intend to limit ourselves to a few relevant elements in this chapter of the study. Some sporadic elements of inculturation have so far been highlighted in the previous chapters. Elements of inculturation in the order of the Eucharistic celebration, liturgical

551 Peter SCHINELLA, A Handbook on Inculturation, New York 1990, 15. 552 IBID.

223 vestments and decorations, locally composed liturgical songs, the rite of priestly ordination, liturgical music and widowhood rite have been mentioned.

This chapter focuses on the subject of inculturation as promoted by the liturgical reforms of Vatican II, its implementation in Ghana and its prospects in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi in particular. Marriage, widowhood rite and nwomkr] orchestra will serve as a case study for the progress of inculturation in this chapter. The possibility of their approval and inclusion in the liturgical celebrations will be considered.

6.1. An Overview of Inculturation

The word “inculturation” is a recently coined term, which needs to be placed in its historical context and defined before proceeding further in this chapter. According to Aylward Shorter, the term seems to have been introduced and popularised by the members of the Jesuit Congregation citing an example of the record by Fr Joseph Masson SJ, who was a Professor in the Gregorian University in Rome, as the first one prior to the opening of Vatican II in 1962: “Today there is a more urgent need for a Catholicism that is inculturated in a variety of forms (d’une façon polymorphe)”553. That means the Catholic Church needs to assume some elements of every culture in which it finds itself in order to make itself understood and accepted in every locality. Another writer, Ansgar Chupungco, records that the term was first coined by G. L. Barney, a protestant missionary in 1973. He is said to have used it in the context of frontier missions and dutifully alerted his fellow missionaries that “in the process of inculturating the supracultural components of the gospel into a new culture, their essential nature should neither be lost nor distorted”554. His concern was apparently more on safeguarding the faith as it travelled through different places and cultures than concentrating on the creation of a new term.

553 Aylward SHORTER, Toward a Theology of Inculturation, Oregon 2006, 10. 554 Anscar J. CHUPUNGCO, Liturgical inculturation: Sacramentals, Religiosity and Catechesis, Collegeville 1992, 25.

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The two assumptions above are conflicting as to who was the first user of the term inculturation. If the term was found in the records of Fr Joseph Masson, a Professor in the Gregorian University a little before the Second Vatican Council, as Shorter attests, then G. L. Barney could not have been the originator in 1973 but may well have put a shape on the existing adjectival verb inculturated to give it the noun form, inculturation. On the other hand, they both agree on the assumption that the members of the Society of Jesus could be the first to have used it. Regardless of who the originator of the word may be, the fact still remains that this newly coined term eventually tended out to enrich the vocabulary of the Church, as it was sooner than later adopted and used by church leaders and scholars.

Like Aylward Shorter, Ansgar Chupungco too names the Jesuits among the scholars who promoted the use of the newly coined term. He notes that the “delegates to the 32nd General Congregation of the Society of Jesus, held in 1975, adopted the Latin inculturatio during their discussions”555. He further observes that the word was probably intended to be the Latin equivalent of enculturation and that because Latin does not have the prefix ‘en’, it became necessary to use ‘in’. Quickly replacing “enculturation”, “inculturation” ultimately took on a totally different meaning in theological, liturgical and missiological circles556. Pope John Paul II is the Supreme Pontiff, who introduced “inculturation” into the official church documents in 1979. This is clearly evident in his address to the Pontifical Biblical Commission as he declared that “the term acculturation or inculturation may be a neologism, but it expresses very well one of the elements of the great mystery of the incarnation”557.

In an attempt to describe the relationship between the Christian faith and culture or to be precise, liturgy and culture, scholars have in the course of time employed the following technical terms; indigenization, incarnation, contextualization, revision, adaptation, acculturation and inculturation. However, none of them expresses this relationship as appropriately as inculturation does, even if it is far from being “the most accurate term” as

555 CHUPUNGCO, Liturgical inculturation, 25. 556 IBID., 25–26. 557 John Paul II, Address to the Pontifical Biblical Commission: Fede e cultura alla luce della Bibbia, Turin 1981, 5.

225 observed by Aylward Shorter558. He, however, admits that “for the time being, it is difficult to improve upon it and that is why it is adopted here”559. What then is inculturation? Similarly, many scholars have endeavoured to define this word, but a few examples will suffice for this part of the study, as the term is much broader than the scope of this study. Shorter defines inculturation as the “creative and dynamic relationship between the Christian message and a culture or cultures”560. In order to clarify his definition a little further, he takes inspiration from another scholar, Pedro Arrup, as he expresses: The incarnation of Christian life and of the Christian message in a particular cultural context, in such a way that this experience not only finds expression through elements proper to the culture in question (this alone would be no more than a superficial adaptation) but becomes a principle that animates, directs and unifies the culture, transforming it and remaking it so as to bring about a new ‘creation’561. He further argues on the background of those definitions that inculturation is not only focused on the initial insertion of the Christian message into a non-Christian culture or cultures, but rather on a process which goes beyond this first stage. Since culture is not static but a developing process, a dialogue must continue between faith and culture. He observes that “inculturation is as relevant to the countries of Europe and North America, for example, which have been Christianised and now de-Christianised, as it is to the cultures of the Third World in which the Gospel has only recently been proclaimed for the first time”562. It is an unending process, where the already evangelised places lose the faith planted in them and stand the need for re-evangelisation. The citing of North America among the examples of de- Christianised cultures brings into mind the comments made by Anna Marie Reinthaler, an American woman, by email as follows: I know getting a work permit visa for the USA is getting more and more difficult. In a neighbouring parish, Sacred Heart in Hartsdale, they have a German priest who is a fill in and he has to go back to Germany and re-apply and hope he'll get one. I heard on the radio the other time that is often a "trick" because most often when you re-apply they have an excuse and make you wait a few years. Even for people who want to come here legally it is more and more difficult. And to think that clergy is treated that way really bothers me. But the goal of so many in this country is to eliminate God, we WERE [sic]

558 SHORTER, Toward a Theology of Inculturation, 10. 559 IBID. 560 IBID., 11. 561 IBID. 562 IBID., 11–12.

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a Christian country and said, "In God We Trust" but that is all going away little by little. Our paper money always said, "In God We Trust" and now they want to change who is on the $20 bill so they can eliminate those words. And we wonder why our country is in such turmoil, scary. God help us!563 Though the quote may be a little too long and may seem irrelevant to the topic under discussion, it is an evidence of how the changing trend of the political situation in a given place, can negatively or positively influence the growth of the Christian faith in that locality. The above example is rather a negative influence brought to light by her statement “but the goal of so many in this country is to eliminate God, we were a Christian country and said, ‘In God we trust’ but that is all going away little by little”564. That statement gives some helpful insight into the above point made by Shorter that the already Christianised and de- Christianised cultures require inculturation as much as the cultures of the Third World do. The dialogue between faith and culture in such situations must be ongoing. Shorter acknowledges, however, that sometimes the “dialogue may be suspended and culture gains the upper hand, undermining or distorting the values of the Gospel”, which is the situation referred to by theologians as “culturalism”. In such circumstances, a restart of the dialogue will be obviously necessary.565

Another point made by Shorter on the basis of those definitions is that, describing inculturation as a dialogue between faith and culture, is the same as speaking of it as acculturation or the interaction between cultures. However, inculturation goes beyond the stage of acculturation. It is rather a stage when a human culture is enlivened by the Gospel from within, a stage which presupposes a measure of reformulation or, more accurately, reinterpretation. […] It is only when there is a truly critical symbiosis, and the Christian experience is really integrated, or – to use the term favoured by Pope Paul VI – ‘transposed’, within the local culture, that we can speak of inculturation in the strict sense. It remains perfectly true […] that in many of the particular Churches which make up the Church universal evangelisation has reached only the level of acculturation and has not succeeded, or perhaps even sought, to attain the deeper level of inculturation.566

563 Anna Marie REINTHALER, Email Correspondence from New York, 14 September 2017. 564 IBID. 565 SHORTER, Toward a Theology of inculturation, 12. 566 IBID.

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The term inculturation suggests a deeper level of reciprocal dependence between faith and culture, which results in a new unity and communion within the local culture and the enrichment of the entire Church, as the following definition indicates and clarifies: the integration of the Christian experience of a local Church into the culture of its people and, in such a way that this experience not only expresses itself in elements of this culture, but becomes a force that animates, orients and innovates this culture so as to create a new unity and communion, not only within the culture in question but also as an enrichment of the Church universal.567

By this definition, inculturation is envisaged in a two-way process. That is, the influence of the Christian life and message on the local culture of the particular place and time, on one hand, and the impact of a given culture on the Church established in that locality on the other hand. This implication is more vividly clarified by the Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Ghana as follows: The process of inculturation is seen as a two-way process. The way in which the Christian life and message influence the cultural context of a particular church has been referred to as inculturation ad extra. The impact of a given culture on the way the Christian life and message are articulated, lived and passed on has been called inculturation ad intra568. In other words, the two-way process of inculturation refers to an impact from without and impact from within. As the Church is established within a particular cultural milieu, the Christian life and message it brings unto the culture are external to the culture in question, on which they certainly leave an impact. On the other hand, however, there are some elements of the culture that affect the manner, in which the Christian life and message are accepted, practiced and transmitted from one generation to another. In other words, as Christianity is rooted in a given culture, there is an interior transformation on the cultural values that are integrated into Christianity.

Inculturation, therefore, aims to attain a level that is far beyond the stage of acculturation. The attainment of this deeper level of inculturation is what Peter Sarpong clarifies as follows:

567 Roest CROLLIUS, “Inculturation: Newness and Ongoing Process”, in: J.M. Walligo, A. Roest Crollius, T. Meramihigo and J. Mutiso-Mbinda, Inculturation, Its Meaning and Urgency, Kampala 1986, 43. 568 CATHOLIC BISHOP’S CONFERENCE, Ecclesia in Ghana: On the Church in Ghana and its Evangelizing Mission in the Third Millennium, Instrumentum Laboris of the First National Catholic Pastoral Congress, Cape Coast 1997, 47.

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The aim of inculturation is to purify the society, to animate the society, to get rid of the obnoxious things in the society so that there is a new creation. Inculturation does not mean the outright condemnation or commendation of anything. It is a slow process.569 It follows from the above explanation that inculturation is a process, which aims at transforming both the Church and the society in which it takes place. This is not to suggest that it has a limit beyond which it has no more progress. It is rather an ongoing process, taking into account, the changing face of the society. As Peter Sarpong puts it, “inculturation is not a one-day dream”570. The process of inculturation must not, however, lose sight of its compatibility with the Christian message and the Universal Church. Though it aims at transforming society and bringing about a new creation, it does not have to isolate itself from the Universal Church. Underscoring incarnation as the theological basis for inculturation, Peter Sarpong writes, with the inspiration from the African Synod, that: Inculturation is a movement towards full evangelization. It seeks to dispose people to revive Jesus Christ in an integral manner. It touches them on the personal cultural, economic, and political levels so that they can live a holy life in total union with God the Father, under the action of the Holy Spirit.571 By so doing the Universal Church is also enriched and it is from this stage that inculturation can begin to achieve its objectives, otherwise all the efforts in the process of inculturation remain at the level of acculturation.

In the light of the above definitions and commentaries, one can conclude that inculturation is a process of reciprocal assimilation and mutual enrichment between Christianity and culture. The result of this process of interaction and mutual assimilation between Christianity and culture is progress. Narrowing it down to our scope of study, we settle with Chupungco, that: Liturgical inculturation is basically the assimilation by the liturgy of local cultural patterns. It means that liturgy and culture share the same pattern of thinking, speaking, and expressing themselves through rites, symbols, and artistic forms. In short, the liturgy is inserted into the culture, history and tradition of the people among whom the Church dwells. It begins to think, speak, and ritualise according to the local cultural pattern. If we settle for anything less than this the liturgy of the local Church will remain at the periphery of our people’s cultural experience.572

569 SARPONG, Peoples Differ: An Approach to Inculturation in Evangelisation, Accra 2002, 22. 570 IBID., 90. 571 SARPONG, Peoples Differ, 91. 572 CHUPUNGCO, Liturgical Inculturation, 30.

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Inculturation should, therefore, aim at the total transformation of the local Christians, so that their cultural experience may help them to understand better and accept the Christian faith brought to them. Otherwise, Christianity will always be perceived as a foreign culture imposed on them and thus, their lives will not be deeply and sufficiently touched by the Christian message, as their Christian will always be superficial. What then is a cultural pattern? Chupungco clearly defines it as follows: Cultural pattern is the typical mode of thinking, speaking, and expressing oneself through rites, symbols, and art forms. It affects society’s values and ideology, social and family traditions, socioeconomic life, and political system. Cultural pattern cuts across everything that constitutes the life of a society. It is a people’s prescribed system of reflecting on, verbalising, and ritualising the values, traditions, and experiences of life.573

The cultural pattern is so important that it cannot be ignored or left out in the process of inculturation. For, the cultural pattern according to Chupungco is “where interaction and mutual assimilation between liturgy and culture take place”574. Due to the complex nature of inculturation, there is a need for a careful examination of both the cultural situation and the liturgical texts provided by the Church, in order that the sound tradition of the Church may not be tarnished. While the local cultural pattern is being explored for a compatible adaptation, the preservation of the tradition of the Church must also be taken into consideration as cautioned in the Sacrosanctum Concilium: “In order that sound tradition be retained, and yet the way remain open to legitimate progress, a careful investigation […] should always be made into each part of the liturgy which is to be revised”575. Such a careful examination or investigation is to be historical, theological and pastoral. This point of theological, historical and pastoral investigation leads us to the provisions of the Second Vatican Council, which opened the way for the process of inculturation.

6.2. Vatican II and Inculturation

As the Church spread its tentacles throughout the world, it became more universal and its universality became more visible at the Second Vatican Council, called for by Pope John

573 CHUPUNGCO, Liturgical Inculturation, 35. 574 IBID. 575 Sacrosanctum Concilium, 23: (cf. FLANNERY,10).

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XIII and completed by Pope Paul VI. The universality of the Church became more visible at the Vatican Council II, because the Council was well represented by bishops from around the world, including Africa, Asia and Latin America. It is on this background that Peter Schinella refers to the Vatican Council II as an epitome of inculturation, as he writes: “The Council itself was an exercise of inculturation as the Church tried to open its windows to the modern world, with its joys and sorrows, hopes and anxieties”576. The Council, however, did not employ the term ‘inculturation. It is only implied in the declarations of the Council.

With a critical study, therefore, some implications of inculturation can be deduced from many of the official documents of Vatican II. However, only a few of them will be mentioned here by way of examples. The Constitution of the Sacred Liturgy, Sacrosanctum concilium, is one official Church document, which speaks more openly on issues regarding liturgical inculturation, though the term itself is not mentioned. It advocates for the reform of the liturgy in harmony with the culture and traditions of the people of a given locality. The norms for this kind of reform are set up as follows: Even in the liturgy, the Church has no wish to impose a rigid uniformity in matters which do not implicate the faith or the good of the whole community; rather does she respect and foster the genius and talents of the various races and peoples. Anything in the people’s way of life […] she studies with sympathy and, if possible, preserves intact. Sometimes in fact she admits such things into the liturgy itself, so long as they harmonize with its true and authentic spirit. Provisions shall also be made, when revising the liturgical books, for legitimate variations and adaptations to different groups, regions, and peoples, especially in mission lands, provided that the substantial unity of the Roman rite is preserved; and this should be borne in mind when drawing up the rites and devising rubrics. Within the limits set by the typical editions of the liturgical books, it shall be for the competent territorial ecclesiastical authority […], to specify adaptations, especially in the case of the administration of the sacraments, the sacramentals, processions, liturgical language, sacred music and the arts, but according to the fundamental norms laid down in this Constitution. […] The competent territorial ecclesiastical authority […], must […] carefully and prudently consider which elements from the traditions and culture of individual people might appropriately be admitted into divine worship. Adaptations which are judged to be useful or necessary should then be submitted to the Apostolic See, by whose consent they may be introduced. […]. (SC 37–40)577.

576 SCHINELLA, A Handbook on Inculturation, 40. 577 SC 37–40: (cf. FLANNERY, 13–14).

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The implication is clear in the above citation that liturgical inculturation cannot begin in a vacuum, but must be based on the existing liturgical books published by the Vatican Council II as Chupungco rightly observes: […] after Vatican II, inculturation, for local Churches belonging to the Roman models, and in practice the models are the typical editions of the liturgical books published by the Vatican after the council.578 The liturgy, as indicated by the Second Vatican Council, was to be adapted to harmonise with the local cultures and traditions, without losing its unity with the Roman Rite. While the local cultures were to be respected, preserved and fostered, their elements that were in harmony with the true and authentic spirit of the liturgy, might be incorporated into it. Liturgical books were to be revised in accordance with the cultures of different groups, regions and peoples. Particularly, the administration of the sacraments, sacramentals, processions, liturgical language, sacred music and sacred arts were to be updated to suit the local cultures and such adaptations were to be documented in the liturgical books. The liturgical books that would contain such adaptations were to be submitted to Rome for recognition or confirmation, before their official introduction in that local Church. To sum up, in the words of Schinella, “instead of total uniformity among all Churches, the principle of adaptation was approved and encouraged”579.

The next official document to be considered is the Pastoral Constitution of the Church in the modern world, Gaudium et Spes. This document also did not employ the term inculturation but spoke directly or indirectly on the multiplicity of cultures in the world, defining culture and underscoring the need to bridge the gap between the church and culture. It spoke of what culture was, in the following words: The word "culture" in its general sense indicates everything whereby man develops and perfects his many bodily and spiritual qualities; he strives by his knowledge and his labour, to bring the world itself under his control. He renders social life more human both in the family and the civic community, through improvement of customs and institutions. Throughout the course of time he expresses, communicates and conserves

578 CHUPUNGCO, Liturgical Inculturation, 32. 579 SCHINELLA, A Handbook on Inculturation, 40.

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in his works, great spiritual experiences and desires, that they might be of advantage to the progress of many, even of the whole human family (GS 53)580. The document hereby indicates that the culture is a milieu in which both the physical and spiritual qualities of the human person are developed and brought to perfection. His social life is made more human in the family and in the civic community, customs and institutions are made better, and his spiritual experiences and desires have a positive effect on many, if not the whole humanity.

Moreover, reflecting on the mission of the Church to the whole world, the document identified the multiplicity of cultures and affirmed the Church was not limited to any one particular place and culture, but for all races and nations. It also highlighted the necessity of having a close union with the cultures for the benefit of both the cultures and the Church herself: But at the same time, the Church, sent to all peoples of every time and place, is not bound exclusively and indissolubly to any race or nation, any particular way of life or any customary way of life recent or ancient. Faithful to her own tradition and at the same time conscious of her universal mission, she can enter into communion with the various civilizations, to their enrichment and the enrichment of the Church herself (GS 58).581 The Church was, therefore, to develop an attitude of listening and dialoguing with the cultures, in order to develop the tradition of the Church and those of the cultures in which it finds itself. By so doing, the Church learns and receives from the given cultures. Although, the document did not use the word inculturation, its declarations as indicated above are enough evidence of its affirmation of what inculturation is about.

Another official document that has something to do with inculturation is the Decree on the Missionary Activity of the Church, Ad Gentes which, like the above-mentioned ones, promotes the acquaintance with, and evaluation of the local cultures and customs, and the retention of their useful elements. It recommends the training of the laity and their involvement in the Church’s missionary activity thus: Their main duty, whether they are men or women, is the witness which they are bound to bear to Christ by their life and works in the home, in their social milieu, and in their

580 Gaudium et Spes 53 (cf. FLANNERY, 958). 581 Gaudium et Spes (cf. FLANNERY, 962–963).

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own professional circle. In them, there must appear the new man created according to God in justice and true holiness (cf. Eph. 4:24). But they must give expression to this newness of life in the social and cultural framework of their own homeland, according to their own national traditions. They must be acquainted with this culture; they must heal it and preserve it; they must develop it in accordance with modern conditions, and finally perfect it in Christ, so that the Faith of Christ and the life of the Church are no longer foreign to the society in which they live but begin to permeate and to transform it. Let them be one with their fellow countrymen in sincere charity, so that there appears in their way of life a new bond of unity and of universal solidarity, which is drawn from the mystery of Christ. Let them also spread the Faith of Christ among those with whom they live or have professional connections - an obligation which is all the more urgent, because very many men can hear of Christ and of the Gospel only by means of the laity who are their neighbours. In fact, wherever possible, the laity should be prepared, in more immediate cooperation with the hierarchy, to fulfil a special mission of proclaiming the Gospel and communicating Christian teachings, so that they may add vigour to the nascent Church (AG 21).582 The implication is that a profound adaptation is called for by the document in order to fulfil the Church’s mission of proclaiming the Good News and effecting the Christian teachings. Its assertion that the trained laity must be acquainted with the culture, heal it, preserve it, develop it and perfect it in Christ, ‘so that the Faith of Christ and the life of the Church are no longer foreign to the society in which they live but begin to permeate and to transform it’583, is an obvious process of inculturation. For, inculturation seeks to blend the Christian message and the compatible cultural elements in such a way that the life of the Christian in that given locality is changed positively in the realms of business, educational institutions, politics, and local communities584. Similarly, the liturgical life in that particular locality reflects the identity of the given culture.

It was in the light of this course of inculturation that Pope Paul VI, in his visit, being the first of all popes, to Africa challenged the Africans to be missionaries to themselves. He is also said to have underscored the significance of adaptation in the process of inculturation. Referring to the multiple ways of expressing the one faith, depending on the culture of the one who professes it, said: […] the language and mode of manifesting this one faith, may be manifold; hence it may be original, suited to the tongue, the style, the character, the genius, and the culture, of

582 Ad Gentes 21 (cf. FLANNERY, Vatican Council II, 1975, 838). 583 Ibid. 584 SCHINELLA, A Handbook on Inculturation, 41.

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the one who professes this faith. From this point of view, a certain pluralism is not only legitimate, but desirable. An adaptation of the Christian life in the fields of pastoral, ritual, didactic and spiritual activities is not only possible, it is even favoured by the Church. The liturgical renewal is a living example of this. And in this sense, you may and you must have an African Christianity.585

African Christianity is too general and so not easily attainable, in view of the multiplicity of cultures within Africa. We deduce that his statement implied inculturation and that the term ‘inculturation’ would have been employed, had it developed to this level at that time. Even to mention an inculturated African liturgy would still be too general, due the multicultural situation of Africa. It is not easy to have the Christian life reflecting just a common African culture in order to merit the term African Christianity. Even in one particular country, there are many different cultural patterns. It will rather be easier to refer to it in terms of one particular country or territory, that has developed its rite, such as the “Zairian Rite”586.

The possible creation of a new rite was not even envisaged by Vatican II due to its insistence on the necessary connection with the with the Roman rite: “Provided a substantial unity of the Roman rite is preserved, provision shall be made when revising the liturgical books, for legitimate variations and adaptations to different groups, regions and peoples, especially in mission countries […]” (SC 38) 587. The preservation of the unity of the Roman Rite was given more importance here than the creation of new rites. On the other hand, the Council intended a more radical adaptation in mission lands, “which amounted to acculturation, the insertion of elements from Western cultures into the Roman (or Western cultural) rite”588. In fact, articles 37 to 40 of the Sacrosanctum concilium demand that the substantial unity of the Roman Rite be maintained. However, there is no indication anywhere in the Constitution for the creation of a new Eucharistic prayer until later in 1973, when the post conciliar circular

585 Pope Paul VI, Address at the closing of the All-African Bishops’ Symposium, in: The Church and Culture Since Vatican II (ed.) Joseph B. GREMILLON, Notre Dame 1985. 586 The “Zairian Rite”, is an inculturated rite for the Church in the current Democratic Republic of Congo, formally known as Zaire. Cf. Valetine IBEKA, URL: http://www.academia.edu/4380665 /THE_| ZAIRIAN_LITURGY_AS_A_PARADIGM_FOR_AFRICAN_LITURGICAL_INCULTURATION [Accessed: 3 November 2017]. 587 Sacrosanctum Concilium, 14 (cf. FLANNERY, 7). 588 SHORTER, Toward a Theology of Inculturation, 193.

235 letter on the Eucharistic Prayers, Eucharistiae Participationem, permitted it after the careful examination made by the specially appointed commission: If episcopal conferences, within the context of the unity of the Roman rite and in view of special circumstances, ask permission to compose and use new eucharistic prayers, such requests will be sympathetically considered. The Holy See will, however, set out the norms to be observed.589

Following the promulgation of the above document, new eucharistic prayers were approved for some territories in the world including “Germany, Switzerland, Australia, the Netherlands and Brazil among others”590. Due to the multicultural nature of the Church, liturgical inculturation is permitted in the Vatican II and the post conciliar documents as seen above, provided the adapted liturgy or newly created rite of the local Church conforms to the substantial unity of the Roman rite. A study of the cultural situation of a given locality is rather necessary to “determine the typical way a particular group of people, in the concrete circumstances of life, collectively thinks, speaks and expresses itself through rites, symbols, and art form”591. Therefore, an inculturated liturgy of a given particular Church is possible, as vividly described by Chupungco: “An inculturated liturgy is one whose shape, language, rites, symbols, and artistic expressions reflect the cultural pattern of the local Church”592. On the other hand, it is the responsibility of the local ecclesiastical authority to ensure that the inculturated liturgy of local Church does not become a separate entity in itself, but maintains its unity with the Roman rite. This is what Peter Sarpong clarifies in the following way as he transmits the message from the Bishops of Africa: At the end of the day, what the bishops of Africa want us to do is to explain, to reach into, to analyse the society and see in the society what matters to the people most and then leave it to the local Churches, communities, clergy, religious to see what they can do in such situations. In all this, the bishop must continue to exercise a supervisory role.593

589 Eucharistiae Participationem, 6 (cf. FLANNERY, 235). 590 SHORTER, Toward a Theology of Inculturation, 193. 591 CHUPUNGCO, Liturgical Inculturation, 37. 592 IBID. 593 SARPONG, Peoples Differ, 91.

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Having carefully supervised the development of the inculturated liturgy of the local Church and approved it for use in the local Church, the territorial bishops’ conference is obliged to seek Rome’s approval for it.

The objectives of the liturgical reforms called for by Vatican II appeared to be much clearer in the course of time. As Shorter notes, a clear light shone on these objectives through the Congress of Presidents and Secretaries of National Liturgical Commissions, held in 1984. It was recommended at the end of the congress that the existing possibilities of the Roman Rite be more fully used by the participants before the possible creation of new rites. The assistance of the liturgically-trained personnel was equally solicited for the fulfillment of the task of the local Churches in this regard. Apparently, the goals of liturgical renewal were creativity and pluriformity in liturgy594. Shorter further emphasises that: The Second Vatican Council, in its Liturgical Constitution, only recommended acculturation in exceptional cases. Inculturation was not even considered. If the Church is moving theoretically toward inculturation today, it is because other conciliar documents struck a chord in the hearts of non-Western worshippers, and because the use of the vernacular encouraged the hope of more thoroughgoing adaptation.595 In other words, as it is already mentioned earlier on in this subsection, there is no indication of the use of the term inculturation by Vatican II. What was implied in the Council’s declarations was in fact acculturation, which is an indispensable stage in the process of inculturation, made clearer by the documents that followed Vatican II. Even though inculturation is possible all over the world, it is more evidently manifest in the mission lands, especially in Asia and South America and Africa. This brings us to the consideration of the efforts for the implementation of inculturation in Ghana, which is also a mission land in Africa. The focus will rather be on the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi, in Ghana.

6.3. The Church in Ghana and Inculturation

Inculturation has long been welcomed in Ghana, after the permission granted by Vatican II for it in the Catholic Church and in a more special way, in the mission churches. The National

594 SHORTER, Toward a Theology of Inculturation, 194. 595 IBID.

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Bishops’ Conference of Ghana admit that it is a reality in Ghana and more attempts have been done through the medium of the liturgy, as expressed in the Ecclesia in Ghana: Perhaps, the most important means of inculturation which has taken place in Ghana is the liturgy. Worship and liturgy are especially privileged fields for inculturation. It is in the domain of the liturgy that the great majority of the attempts at inculturation have been undertaken.”596 Many initiatives in this regard have been carried out as already seen in the previous chapters. A few of those have been mentioned in the Ecclesia in Ghana, including the: […], usage of the vernacular, use of Ghanaian art in liturgical clothing, in decorating places of worship and on sacred vessels, and use of traditional Ghanaian forms to express certain elements of the faith, drums, clapping of hands, dancing and body language”.597 All these aspects of inculturation in Ghana have been mentioned in one way or another in the previous chapters and will be mentioned again as this work develops. They, however, do not constitute all that inculturation is about. It is an on-going process, which does not stop at the level inserting traditional elements and adopting the bodily gestures of hand clapping and dancing. At this juncture, it is expedient to emphasise that the concept of inculturation is very much understood by some, if not all, the bishops in Ghana, who encourage its development in the provinces and the dioceses of the country. A typical example of such bishops is Peter Kwasi Sarpong, the Archbishop Emeritus of Kumasi, who, in the preamble of his book, An Asante Liturgy, captures the significance of inculturation in the following simple words: Inculturation deals with the way we can make the Christian life and the Christian message part of the existential reality of the Church in our part of the world through the medium of the elements proper to our culture. Hence inculturation deals not just with dancing and drumming and singing (which are important in liturgical inculturation), but in the whole gamut of the Christian experience. That is why for some time now books have been written on the faith, hymns arranged and prayers composed with flare. Ways and means of promoting morality along lines of cultural expectation have been tried and are being experimented on seriously.598 It is clear from his explanation that it has been understood in Ghana that inculturation goes beyond mere drumming, dancing and hand clapping to create new life in the corresponding local Church. It is directed to effect a much deeper understanding and acceptance of the

596 CATHOLIC BISHOP’S CONFERENCE, Ecclesia in Ghana, 47. 597 IBID. 598 Peter Kwasi SARPONG, An Asante Liturgy, Kumasi 2011, IX.

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Christian message and to generate a renewed life within the local Christian community. It seeks to improve the moral and spiritual life of the people, getting rid of the outmoded and vicious customs of the local community. This is what the bishops mean when they write, that “inculturation seeks to utilize the African values we have to promote the Kingdom of God”599. Although this is the general view of inculturation, liturgical inculturation is our main focus in the part of our study. The efforts that have so far taken place and those that are yet to take place, with regards to liturgical inculturation, are centralised on the sacraments of the eucharist, baptism, confirmation, reconciliation, anointing of the sick, marriage and holy orders. These will be discussed one after the other in the same order above.

Eucharist: As already seen in the previous section, inculturation begins with the typical editions of the Roman rite, one of which is the Roman Missal which contains the order of service for the sacrament of the Holy Eucharist. Some efforts have already been made on inculturating the celebration of the Holy Eucharist and are being experimented, while others are still under consideration. A decision is yet to be made on the type of adaptation to be carried out on the procession from the sacristy to the altar and the recession to the sacristy. The consideration is whether the choir should be allowed to join the procession and the recession, as it used to be, or just let priest process and recess with only the ministers of the altar, as prescribed in the rubrics of the Roman Missal. In compliance with the Second Vatican Council’s provision, this is what should be done, but will that not contradict the local custom? Yes, it will even be ridiculous, as the bishops write: This may be the main yardstick for deciding whether the choir should accompany the procession or not. However, it will look funny to see a priest and two assistants making a long procession to the altar. In our tradition, it seems abnormal for people in the category of the priest to process almost alone to an official function. It will depend but there should be no harm for the choir to accompany the procession.600 The local cultural value in this regard is that dignitaries are usually accompanied in a procession amid singing and dancing to and from official function. Peter Sarpong confirms these cultural grounds for the accompaniment of the traditional music or orchestra (like the

599 CATHOLIC BISHOP’S CONFERENCE, Ecclesia in Ghana, 47. 600 IBID., 48.

239 kete or impintin or f]nt]nfr]m) in the procession of the chief’s public functions as he expresses: “The impintin, as also the f]nt]nfr]m is played behind the chief, the former when he walks, sits in state and the latter when he is carried in a palanquin”601. The argument is that since the priest is ranked among the dignitaries of kings, chiefs and political figures, who merit the accompaniment of musical procession to the public functions, there is nothing wrong in allowing the choir to accompany the procession to and recession from the altar. No concrete decision has been made yet. In the meantime, it is the prescription of Vatican II that the choir remains seated among the congregation during the procession, that is mostly practised in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi.

On the other hand, however, some traditional orchestra has been introduced to accompany the procession by way of inculturation and it has been experimented during special occasions such as the episcopal masses, ordination ceremonies, solemnities and so on, and it did not begin without any challenges. Misunderstanding and negative criticisms arose as a result and in responding to the initial challenges, Peter Sarpong justifies it thus: We have introduced kete at the beginning of the Mass to form part of the liturgical procession. Initially some people misunderstood this to mean that the priest was turning himself into a chief. The point is that if the priest wanted to make himself a chief, it would surely not be at the point he was going to make the sacrifice of the Mass. The drumming at the procession is not meant to symbolise any social or worldly value. It has nothing to do with raising the image of the priest.602 Thus, it is not ordered for the honour, self-aggrandisement, any social or worldly status of the priest. The honour is ultimately directed to God as Peter Sarpong continues his argument: To understand it in the religious context, we must know its use in ordinary life. When a big chief holds a big function and his subject brings along the kete to greet him, the subject is doing this to honour the chief, it is not the subject who is honouring himself. His action demonstrates that he is the subject to the bigger chief.603 In the context of the liturgy, the priest is the smaller chief, while the bigger chief is God. Therefore, the honour ultimately goes to God and not to the priest.

601 Peter K. SARPONG, Ghana in Retrospect: Some Aspects of Ghanaian Culture, Tema 1974, 121. 602 SARPONG, An Asante Liturgy, 10. 603 IBID.

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The gesture of striking the chest during the penitential rite has been adapted in harmony with the Akan culture, in which the act of striking the chest before God or any elderly person signifies arrogance and unrepentance. The unmistakeable sign of repentance is rather to put the back of the right hand into the palm of the left hand604.

Another part of the mass, which shows some spells of inculturation is the “Preparation of the Gifts”. The bishops of Ghana acknowledge that the original and essential nucleus of this part of the liturgy was the deposition of the bread and wine, symbols of the interior disposition of the offerors, on the altar. The adaptation locally made is that the people go from their pews in a procession to put their collection in the basket or box placed in front of the sanctuary amid singing and dancing. The significance here is that out of their free will, rather than coercion, the people go forward to offer their gifts to God. However, an abuse of this opportunity has been detected and cautioned by the bishops as they express: It has become a ‘dancing session’ with people dancing up front many times but putting into the collection once. Dancing in moderation to the collection box and back is in order; but it must be remembered that this rite is not the climax of the celebration. It is harmful to the liturgy if this part becomes entertainment time.605 Therefore, it is not this inculturated way of the preparation of gifts, which is condemned, but the exaggerated way of dancing back and forth too many times. Otherwise, wasting too much time on this part of the mass sends the wrong signal, as though it is the highest point of the celebration. It is emphasised that moderation is the key. Processing with the gifts to the altar is underscored as a long-standing tradition of the Church and must be beautifully Africanised. A lesson can be taken from La Côte d’Ivoire, where there are trained offertory dancers who, clad in a traditional apparel, process with the gifts to the altar amid singing and a special dance606. Such a beautiful example can be emulated in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi, since the people in the province and those of the eastern part of La Côte d’Ivoire belong to the same ethnic group of Akan.

604 SARPONG, An Asante Liturgy, viii. 605 Ecclesia in Ghana, 49. 606 From my personal experience as I worked in the diocese of Abengourou in La Côte d’Ivoire from 1993 to 1996.

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Another place in the Eucharistic celebration, where a sign of inculturation has emerged is the elevation during the consecration. Songs and poems have been composed to draw people’s attention to the presence of Jesus Christ in the consecrated species of bread and wine. The performance of the poem at elevation is usually carried out by one or two girls dressed in traditional clothing, with the accompaniment of the talking drums. When this is not done, a song led by the choir takes its place. After the words of institution are pronounced by the priest, he raises the consecrated bread, the drumming heightens and the people sing: Wiase Agyenkwa no reba o The Saviour of the world is coming }nam mununkum mu reba o He is coming on the clouds Ab]de[ nyinaa ny[ dinn All creatures should keep quiet Ab]de[ nyinaa ny[ komm All creatures should keep silent 607 Momm] mo mu ase mma no. Bow down in reverence for him608

This and other forms of adoration at the moment of consecration are evidence of inculturation. However, it is cautioned by the bishops that, too much of it can lead to exaggeration and not good enough for the spirit of the liturgy. A moderation of it is encouraged: Adoration during the elevation at the consecration is receiving an exaggerated and lengthy attention these days, taking us back into the Middle Ages. The guns and talking drums and long singing during the elevation of the consecrated bread and wine must be moderated. Simplification is called for. The place of honour must be reserved to Jesus.609 Though it is a good adaptation, enjoyed by the congregation, care must be taken not to divert attention and honour to the performers instead of Jesus Christ. That is why a protracted performance of the singing or recitation of the poem is discouraged. Among other adaptations in the Mass is the post-communion dance, which encourages the active participation of the majority of the people. This is encouraged by the bishops as they emphasise that the “the post-communion dance, coming after the Prayer, consciously and beautifully executed, is in the right direction”610. A caution is, however, sounded that its prolongation will lead to

607 SARPONG, An Asante Liturgy, 13. 608 IBID. 609 Ecclesia in Ghana, 49. 610 IBID., 49.

242 exaggeration. Therefore, too much time must not be allocated for it, no matter how enjoyable it may be.

Another area of the Eucharist, which has undergone some attempts of inculturation is the liturgical music, which was discussed in the fourth chapter of this study, but due its importance, it will be belaboured again later in this chapter. Towards the end of the chapter, the place of the traditional orchestra nnwomkr] will be considered as an instance of the efforts on inculturated liturgical music.

Baptism: Regarding the inculturation of the sacrament of baptism, nothing seems to have yet been undertaken with the following proposals from the bishops. Aligning the rite of baptism to the traditional rite of naming ceremony, they are convinced that the fusion of the two in one common ceremony is feasible and therefore suggest the following format for consideration: The traditional rites begin the ceremony and are carried through till the part where the name is given. If the parents have decided to name the child after a saint, they make this known at this stage and the priest, who would have been present at the ceremony will step in and speak about initiation of the child not only into the traditional society but also into the community of the Church. He will emphasize that the Church, like the traditional society, has outstanding people called saints, who are examples for Christians to follow and after whom Christians are named in baptism. The rest of the baptism then continues in the usual manner.611 The argument is that if the two are not merged into one ceremony, the people end up going through two different initiation ceremonies of the same kind, each of which requires the giving of names to the new born baby. In spite of the possibility of this general proposal, no detailed and concrete rite has emerged either from the national or the provincial bishops’ conference. The venue and realization of this fused ceremony are yet to be decided by the national bishop’s conference. As part of this proposed fused ceremony, it is suggested that names that are not contrary to the Christian faith, but are godly may be accepted, mindful of the good reasons for the choice of names of the saints: “There are good reasons why we choose saints’ names at baptism. However, that should not be a condition for baptism.

611 Ecclesia in Ghana, 52.

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Theophoric names could be accepted as well”612. Also to be considered among other things, is the possibility of designing the white garment in a form of special clothes in harmony with the local culture. The suggestion is that “a loose kind of dress that fits everyone should be made for this rite to keep its symbolism”613. The reason for this is the fact that the rite of clothing with the white garment is losing its significance with that little piece of white cloth in use.

Confirmation: The sacrament of confirmation will be skipped in this chapter, since nothing of inculturation has yet been found about it within our specified area of study.

Reconciliation: Equally, not much has been found on the sacrament of reconciliation, except that its symbols of peace and healing have been emphasised by the bishops. To this effect, the options of the traditional confessional box and the more casual face-to-face setting must be left open to the familiarity of each local community. In other words, whichever of the two settings is familiar to the given community must be permitted for use and possibly with extension and laying on of hands to convey the comforting experience of forgiveness signified by this sacrament. A suggestion of inculturation on this sacrament is that “elements like ashes (before) and Holy Water (after), or whenever deemed appropriate during the rite, can be used to reinforce the ideas of contrition and forgiveness, respectively”614. This suggestion has, however, not yet been seen or heard, being experimented anywhere in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi in particular or Ghana in general, probably because it might be too queer and hence not feasible.

Anointing of the Sick: On the sacrament of anointing of the sick, no evidence of attempts on inculturation has yet been seen or heard of. An encouragement has, however, emerged from the bishops for its frequent use and a research on the traditional view about illness and healing

612 Ecclesia in Ghana, 51. 613 IBID. 614 IBID., 53.

244 in view of the all-important ministry of healing in the Church.615 This research, we assume, will be in the right direction in the process of inculturation and worthy of appraisal.

Holy Orders: Some aspects of inculturation on the sacrament of the holy orders that have been on experimental basis for a long time now, were dealt with in details in the fourth chapter of this work. However, it will not be out of place to discuss here briefly the comments and caution of the bishops on some elements of the inculturated rite. The advantages of having the whole ceremony translated into the native Akan language are first spelt out by the bishops, as the ability to hear and follow the order of the ceremony in the native language promote the active participation of the people. Regarding the presentation of the candidate, they make the following comments: The ceremony is never more symbolic than at that part of the ordination rite when the parents, family members or guardians who brought the ordinandus up present him to the bishop in the traditional way to be ordained. That little rite needs to be well rehearsed, though.616

Ordinandus, here, is a Latin word, which refers to the candidate for ordination. Though that adapted rite is laudable, it requires a good rehearsal in order that its significance may be clear enough. On the promise of obedience, which has assumed the form of an oath, the following caution and suggestion are given: Of late, the promise of obedience has taken the form of oath taking in some places. This is done in the name of inculturation. Maybe we should depart from it as it puts some fear in the candidate and does not seem to make him feel free. Besides, it looks like a sub- chief swearing an oath of allegiance to a paramount chief. We should be looking for symbols which bring out the role of service instead.617 In spite of the above caution and suggestion to do away with the above inculturated rite, it has been in use in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi up to this day, 20 years after its issuance. It appears to have been up to date an integral part of the rite of ordination, to which the people present at the ceremony are used. Does it mean the caution has not been heeded to? No, just that there seems to have been a misunderstanding of the grounds for such an adaptation from the local Akan culture. Since the document which contains the caution and

615 Ecclesia in Ghana, 53. 616 IBID. 617 IBID., 54.

245 suggestion was only a working document, the inculturated rite was yet to be carefully studied and that it was later understood and permitted to continue. Moreover, the reasons to call for its abolishment do not seem to be convincing enough. Should it be true that it puts fears in the candidates, we suppose that with enough practice and prior rehearsals, the supposed fears could be well overcome. The second reason that it ‘looks like a sub-chief swearing an oath of allegiance to a paramount chief is exactly what it is meant to resemble. It is in the right direction. The bishop is certainly the superior of the priests and receiving the promise of obedience of his priest is just like a paramount chief receiving the oath of allegiance from his subject. This comparison makes the significance of this rite much clearer in the minds of the people in attendance, as they are used to its correspondence in the traditional setting.

Peter Sarpong argues sufficiently from the background of the oath taken at the traditional installation of a chief to justify the insertion of this cultural element in the rite of ordination and we quote extensively: Traditionally, a chief being installed will take the oath of allegiance and fidelity to his subjects. He tells his subjects how he will protect them from aggression, internal or external, how he will act as a worthy representative of the subjects before his spiritual overlords, the ancestors, the divinities and the Almighty God. He tells them that he will be a good executive for them; he would legislate just laws for them; he would judge their cases fairly; he would be a good father for them and he would present the culture at its best to them. After this, his sub-chiefs, before they take their own oath of fidelity to him, telling him that they would be at his beck and call, day and night, morning and evening, except in times of illness, say a word to him, telling him what they expect him to do for them. It is not a long discourse. If they are ten (and sometimes they are more), each may speak for only two minutes or even less. Somebody would say something like “we would like you to be strict and firm on wrong-doers”; another person may say “we do not expect you to be listening to your friends and take decisions but try to find out the truth of every matter before you act”. At this stage of the ordination, therefore, we call upon about six people, one representing the lay women, one representing lay men, one representing diocesan priests, one representing missionaries, one representing religious men, one representing religious women, to tell the candidates in a few words what they expect from them. One may say something like “the key virtue you should never forget as a priest is the virtue of humility”; another person may say something like “we expect you to be patient with us. We are not angels; we will offend you”; another person may simply say “be available always to the people when they come to you for advice or to receive a sacrament”. After all that the ordaining bishop sums up what the selected people have said and adds his own words. Then, as it is done when a chief is being installed, his sub-chiefs swear an oath to obey him with the sword, the symbol of authority. So, instead of the individual questions, “would you do this?”, or “would you do that?”, we have put the questions in the form of a very powerful oath which the ordinandi take. Instead of the sword, they take the Cross

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of Jesus and before the Cross of Jesus, they swear to be faithful priests, to preach the Word, to pray for the people, to intercede for them, to suffer for them. It works very well and it is very effective. Even though the words of the oath contain the statements about obeying your bishop or your ordinary or your superior, we still separate that undertaking and the ordinandus comes and swears the oath and assures the bishop of obedience and so on.618 By separating that undertaking here, he refers to the moment, when the candidate for ordination goes to kneel before, places his two hands together into the palms of the ordaining bishop and professes to him his oath of obedience. So, the analogy of the oath of allegiance by a new chief to the paramount chief does not feature at all in the above explanation given by the originator of the incorporation of the traditional elements in the rite of ordination. As he suggested, it is a beautiful and effective innovation, which must be kept, developed and included in the liturgical books.

6.4. Toward Inculturated Marriage Rite

Marriage is perhaps one of the most conducive areas for liturgical inculturation inasmuch as it is permitted by the Second Vatican Council and the revised rite of marriage to make adaptations in harmony with the local cultural practices. For the same reason, it is permissible for a new rite to be drawn up by the competent authority of a given territory. Declaring its permission for the revision of the Roman Ritual and the preservation of praiseworthy customs regarding the celebration of marriage, the Council availed in its Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy its desire that: If any regions use other praiseworthy customs and ceremonies when celebrating the sacrament of Matrimony, the sacred Synod earnestly desires that these by all means be pertained. Moreover, an ecclesiastical authority having the territorial competence described in Article 22:2 of this Constitution is free to draw up its own rite suited to its people and region, according to the provisions of Article 63, but on the express condition that the priest assisting at the marriage ask for and obtain the consent of the contracting parties.619 Since marriage comes into being through the expression of the mutual consent of the couple, it remains an indispensable part of the marriage contract, and therefore cannot be left of any

618 SARPONG, An Asante Liturgy, 23–24. 619 Sacrosanctum Concilium, 77 (Austin FLANNERY, Vatican Council II, 23).

247 new rites to be drawn up. The basis for this declaration is Canon 1057 §§ 1 and 2, which states that: A marriage is brought into being by the lawfully manifested consent of persons, who are legally capable. This consent cannot be supplied by any human power. Marital consent is an act of will by which a man and a woman by an irrevocable covenant mutually give and accept one another for the purpose of establishing a marriage.620 Therefore, the freedom is granted for adaptation of the rite to suit the local customs and ceremonies and where necessary, a new rite be prepared in a given territory, provided the resulting adapted or new rite includes the provision for the exchange of consent. The Akan traditional setting of marriage is equally favourable for liturgical inculturation and that explains why marriage is chosen for a case study in this work. On the background of similarities in both the traditional and sacramental settings of marriage, some proposals have been put forward for the possibility of fusing the two rites. Thus, it will be expedient to examine briefly the traditional rites, the sacramental rites and the proposed rites for fusing the two in order to come out with our own proposals for merging both of them into a single ceremony.

6.4.1. Akan Traditional Rites

There are many types of marriages, including monogamy and polygamy. Monogamy is a marriage between one man and one wife. Polygamy, however, has two ramifications, polygyny and polyandry. Polygyny is a marriage between one man and two or more women, whereas polyandry is a marriage between one woman and many husbands. Polyandry is not a widespread practice in Ghana and probably in the whole of Africa. The only evidence noted by Peter Sarpong is among the Trokosi in the northern part of Ghana: This is where young girls are pawned for money. They are given to the shrine for money. When their parents or relatives are unable to pay back the money, they more or less, become the wives of the men looking after the shrine. It is a form of polyandry even if it is not culturally approved.621

620 THE CANON LAW SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, The Code of Canon Law, English Translation, 1983, 189. 621 Peter K. SARPONG, Odd Customs: Stereotypes and Prejudices, Accra 2013, 58.

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This Trokosi may be the only cult or among the few tribes in which the polyandrous marriage is practised.

On the contrary, the type of polygamy that is common in Ghana and, to be precise, among the Akans is, therefore, polygyny (one husband with two or more wives).622 Though monogamy and polygamy in the form of polygyny are the prevalent types in Ghana and there may be many other types of marriage, it is just enough to restrict our study to that of monogamy, since it is the only one approved by the Church. Polygamy does not even seem to be preferred by the local people as Peter Sarpong observes; “[…] when you look at the practice, the beliefs and the proverbs which encapsulate the wisdom of the people, you realise that there is no doubt that the people’s preference is for monogamy and not polygamy”623. The Akan culture and the Church, therefore, have a common preference for monogamy, and thus, promote our interest to discover the common grounds for inculturation.

The ceremony of marriage among the Akans is a simple affair but involves a process consisting of different stages, instead of just one single contractual exchange of consent624. Peter Sarpong observes that “it is often a very simple affair, […]”625. The process begins with the presentation of drinks by the family of the man to the parents of the woman when they have decided to make their relationship publicly and legally known to both families. From then on, the man has the right to bring the woman to his residence for cohabitation. That begins the preparation for the final ceremony of the marriage. It may go through certain stages until the day of the main ceremony, which “consists essentially in the paying of the bride wealth and the acceptance of same by the girl’s family”626. The bridewealth, also known as the bride price, is the price paid by the family of the bridegroom’s family to the family of the bride and its acceptance by the latter seals the mutual consent of the partners of the marriage. The details of the bridewealth differ between the patrilineal and the matrilineal

622 SARPONG, Ghana in Retrospect, 78. 623 SARPONG, Odd Customs, 60. 624 Ecclesia in Ghana, 54. 625 SARPONG, Ghana in Retrospect, 82 626 IBID.

249 societies. Among the Akans, who are matrilineal it is considerably smaller than that of the patrilineal group. Writing in 1974, Peter Sarpong stated that: There was a time when two bottles of palm wine were said to be adequate to get one a wife. Even now, anything between ¢1.30 and ¢32.00 according to the social status of the girl, may be quite sufficient, although, for the sake of prestige, it is not unwonted for a man to spend more than ¢200.00, procuring among other objects, such culturally incongruous items as a trunk, a bible, bottles of rum, etc.627 On the day scheduled for the main ceremony, the family members of the couple gather together, usually in the house of the bride’s father or maternal uncle. These members of the two families are present as witnesses to the marriage contract. There are also some neutral people from the village who act as official witnesses to the contract. Due to the natural communal spirit within them, many other people present themselves at the ceremony without any formal invitation, even if they are not directly related to the couple. That is an African communal spirit. Above everything else is the mutual consent of the partners, which is made public. In most cases, the consent is publicly expressed by the contracting parties, but in fewer instances, due to the shyness of the lady to declare her consent publicly, her consent is obtained privately prior to the official ceremony as Peter Sarpong describes: The presence of the boy and girl may be required so that they may give their final fiat before all, but this is not essential, as often, the girl especially, is too shy to appear before a crowd, and her consent has already been obtained, anyway. The important thing is to make certain of the consent of each of the four parties – the girl, the girl’s people, the boy, the boy’s people. The other people present are given their share of the marriage payment, which they distribute or, if, as usually the case, it is drinkable, drink as a kind of seal to the contract.628 Basically, this sums up the ceremony of the Akan traditional marriage in Ghana. What constitutes the marriage is the consent, remarkably not only of the contracting couple but of their families too. The consent of the parents or the leading members of the two families of

627 SARPONG, Ghana in Retrospect, 82. (The patrilineal husbands may be asked to pay dozens of fowls or cattle, which in terms of money, is a large amount. The Nuer husband is reported to pay 40 heads of cattle before earning the title of husband. Obviously, he is unable to procure 40 cows all by himself. That is why in many African societies, there are rules governing how much of the bridewealth each of the husbands’ near kinsmen must pay, depending upon the degree of consanguinity between them. Cf. Peter K. SARPONG, Ghana in Retrospect, 82.) The cent sign ‘¢’, is the symbol for the Ghanaian currency known as Ghana Cedi. The value of the amount stated above may have dropped to the extent that currently only the minimum of 500 Ghana Cedis will be good enough to marry a woman. 628 SARPONG, Ghana in Retrospect, 82.

250 the couple is required for the validity of the marriage. As the seal of the contracted marriage, the bridewealth is also a necessary requirement and enough to make the marriage come into being. In other words, the bridewealth ratifies the marriage. In some way, it serves as a documentary proof of the marriage, and all those who were present and received their share in the distribution of the bridewealth can testify that the marriage contract took place in their presence, in case of any future disputes.

In addition to the bridewealth, some parents may request a certain amount of money from the prospective son-in-law as a condition, without which they are not ready to accept the bridewealth, unless at least the future son-in-law promises to pay this amount. In the event of divorce, however, this amount of money and the bridewealth are refundable. This presupposes that divorce is permissible in the Akan traditional setting for many reasons after repeated failed efforts for reconciliation. In most cases, the divorce is effected when the bridewealth is returned regardless of which of the two is found guilty. In some instances, it depends on who is found guilty. If the wife is at fault, it is imperative on her to return the bridewealth. Conversely, if the husband is rather found culpable, he then loses the bridewealth.629 This is by no means to suggest that divorce is easily obtainable. Even where it seems to be easily obtained, there may be a small ceremony to declare the woman formally freed from her previous bond of marriage630. So, it is not that easy, but generally marriage among the Akans is considered as a permanent bond. It is expected to last until one of the partners dies.

The traditional marriage ceremony remains, until now, a prerequisite for the Church marriage. Having dealt with briefly with the ceremony of the Akan traditional marriage, we will now turn to that of the Church.

629 SARPONG, Ghana in Retrospect, 84. 630 IBID.

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6.4.2. The Sacramental Rite

The sacrament of marriage is important and dignified, in that “married Christians signify and share in the mystery of the unity and fruitful love that exists between Christ and his Church”631. Both the Rite of Marriage and the canon law testify that a marriage is established by the marriage covenant, the irrevocable consent that the spouses freely give to and receive from each other. Modelled on his own nuptial bond with the Church, the Lord Jesus Christ raised it to the dignity of a sacrament632. A valid marriage contract in the eyes of the Church is, therefore, a sacrament.

The liturgical law places the celebration of marriage within Mass under normal circumstances and highlights the following salient elements necessary to be included within the celebration: The first is the liturgy of the word, which brings out the importance of Christian marriage in the history of salvation and the duties and responsibilities it involves for the sanctification of the couple and their children. Also to be emphasised are the consent of the contracting parties, which the priest asks and receives; the special nuptial blessing on the bride, by which the priest implores God’s blessing on the marriage covenant; and, finally, the reception of the holy communion by the groom and the bride and by others present, which above all is the source of love and lifts us up into communion with our Lord and with one another.633 The listed elements above make up the general outline for the nuptial Mass, within which, the rite of marriage normally takes place. This presupposes that the sacramental rite of marriage can take also place outside Mass. When it takes place within Mass, the rite of marriage comes after the liturgy of the word, but before the liturgy of the eucharist. It follows this order:

- Address by the priest; with the texts provided or his own words, the priest speaks to the couple about the reason for their presence, what Christian marriage is, faithfulness, permanent and unbreakable bond of mutual love and honour, acceptance of children as a gift from God and their upbringing in love.

631 BUGNINI, DOL, 921. 632 IBID., 921–922 (cf. The Code of Canon Law, 1055–1057, 189). 633 IBID., 922.

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- Questioning of the bride and groom; the bride and the groom are questioned about their understanding of marriage and their readiness and freedom to enter this relationship. - Declaration of consent; the couple are invited by the priest to express their mutual consent by which the marriage comes into being. - Blessing of rings: The rings are blessed by the priest - Exchange of rings: The rings are exchanged by the partners as a sign of their love and fidelity to each other. - Nuptial blessing: Immediately after the Lord’s Prayer and place of the prayer Deliver us […], the priest faces the bride and the bridegroom and blesses them, using one of the options provided.634

The essential elements of the rite of Christian marriage or the sacramental marriage are the same, whether it is celebrated within or outside Mass. In other words, whether the rite of marriage takes place within or outside Mass, it contains the same essential elements, as summed by Francis Osei: This consists of questioning the parties about their readiness and freedom to marry, exchange of consent, exchange of wedding rings and the nuptial blessing. The heart of the celebration, however is the exchange of consent.635 The above points are, therefore, the salient elements in the rite of Christian marriage, especially the mutual consent required to be formally expressed by the contracting parties before a validly ordained priest and at least two witnesses. The principal element, without which, no marriage can be said to have taken place is the manifestation of the mutual consent of the spouses and this must be expressed in accordance with canon, which states; “the spouses are to manifest their consent in words. If, however, they cannot speak, then they can do so by equivalent signs”636. This constitutes the canonical form of marriage required by

634 ICEL, The Rites, Vol 1, 726 -731 (cf. THE LITURGICAL COMMISSION OF THE IRISH HIERARCHY, The Celebration of Marriage, Dublin 1984, 6–14, 22–26). 635 Francis Kwadwo OSEI, Marriage Preparation: The Role of the Family among the Akans of Ghana and the Ecclesial Community of Canon 1063 of the Revised Code of Canon Law (Unpublished Licentiate Thesis in Canon Law; The Catholic University of America), Washington, D.C. 1996, 59. 636 Canon 1104 §2, The Code of Canon Law,196.

253 law637 in the Catholic Church. Though all other people present at the celebration are also witnesses, the official witnesses required by law for its validity are the priest, or deacon and the two witnesses.

From the above discussions of the Akan traditional and sacramental rites of marriage, it is appropriate to emphasise that the basic tenets of the latter are also present in the former. Firstly, the manifestation of consent, by which marriage comes into being in the sacramental setting, is also in the traditional setting. The slight difference is that in the Akan traditional setting, the couple do not necessarily have to express their mutual consent at the time of giving and receiving of the bridewealth, since their consent is duly requested and received during the investigative process638. The reason, as already mentioned above, is that one of them, usually the bride may be too shy to publicly express her consent. Whatever it is, the consent of both the bride and the groom are, by obligation, requested and received privately prior to the public ceremony of the marriage. Secondly, the requirement of the presence of witnesses is equally found in both ceremonies. Thirdly, the essential properties of Christian marriage, being unity and indissolubility are also present in the Akan traditional marriage. Though the Akan traditional marriage is ordered to last until the end of the life of at least one of the partners, divorce is permitted for some reasons beyond control. Here too, the slight difference, that can be corrected with adequate catechetical preparation is the possibility of dissolution of the Akan marriage when all possibilities of reconciliation have failed.

On the basis of the foregoing analysis, common grounds are perceptible for the possible fusion of the Akan traditional and sacramental rites of marriage, in order to forestall the duplication of rites.

6.4.3. Mergence of the Sacramental and the Akan Traditional Rite of Marriage

The examination of the Akan traditional and the sacramental rites of marriage suggests that there are common grounds for the mergence of the two in one common ceremony. The few

637 Canon 1108, The Code of Canon Law, 196. 638 OSEI, Marriage Preparation, 60.

254 scholars, consulted in this regard, agree on the possibility of fusing the two into one ceremony to avoid repetition of rites. They have a common opinion that the Akan traditional marriage, which is now a prerequisite for the sacramental marriage is considered by most Akan people as a valid marriage and that the sacramental marriage rite is only a blessing of the existing marriage. The Ghana Catholic Bishops’ Conference observed in 1997 that: A study of the situation of the Christian family in Ghana in the late 1970s revealed that 70% of all baptised adult Catholics are not married according to the regulations of the Church. For most people our customary marriages have value and are real, while a Church wedding is seen as a blessing, an ornament, or a condition for reception of Holy Communion. The ceremony in the Church is a blessing for people, who are already married customarily, as demanded by the Church, hence the problem is not so much the celebration of the rites but the institution of marriage as lived and experienced by Ghanaians.639 The reality behind the above situation is that most of the Akan Catholics are married in accordance with the local custom, but because they are not yet married sacramentally, they are not permitted to receive the Holy Communion. The reason is that the canonical form of marriage, that the mutual consent be exchanged before a priest and two witnesses, has not yet been satisfied. After being married, in most situations, for a long time, the church marriage is only considered as an unnecessary duplication640. This confusing situation is vividly expressed by Francis Osei as follows: For the majority of the Akan Catholics, the requirement of canonical form and the liturgical form is regarded as superfluous. […]. The couple, therefore, believe that they enter a valid marriage by custom.641 Therefore, when the couple have validly contracted a customary marriage, they do not see the reason why they should contract a second one in the Church. Hence the need for the fusion of the two into one ceremony. The possibility of fusing the sacramental and the Akan traditional rites of marriage is considered by many as a plausible solution to this unsatisfactory state of affairs. On the standpoint of the permission granted to the conferences of bishops to draw up their own rite of marriage, the Ghanaian bishops propose that “to do away with this duplication, it is vital that ways and means be found for fusing the two into

639 Ecclesia in Ghana, 53. 640 IBID., 53. 641 OSEI, Marriage Preparation, 60.

255 one”642. In line with this proposal, Francis Osei too supposed that “a solution for this would be the adaptation of the customary rites to the canonical form and the liturgical form”643. In agreement with the proposal for the fusion of the two ceremonies, Peter Sarpong, who has spearheaded the attempts on liturgical inculturation in Ghana, suggests that “marriage […] presents an actual situation which we have to deal with. There should be a way of synchronising cultural marriages with Church marriages”644.

Many proposals for the synchronisation or mergence of the two rites, have in the course of time emerged in Africa in general and in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi in particular. Some proposals have been accepted in some dioceses in Nigeria, for instance. In the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi, however, none of the suggestions seems to be in practice, even though they may have been tried before, as Peter Sarpong bemoans: We have tried to bring cultural elements into marriage ceremony but this has still not been worked out properly. The idea was to bring the families of the two-marrying people to declare their solidarity with the marriage and the fact that as far as the marriage was concerned, they would unite to see to it good.645 This shows that the first attempts could not work out well, but this does not mean that they can never work out with renewed attempts and new approaches. That is why it is necessary to examine the available proposals in order to be able to suggest a more feasible rite for the synchronisation of the traditional and sacramental marriages. First to be considered are the proposed guidelines from the Ghana Bishops Conference, as we extensively quote: It should be realised first of all that in most Ghanaian and other African societies, marriage is not seen as the result of a single contractual exchange of consent. It is an evolutionary process, involving many stages or steps. For a proper incarnation of Christianity in Africa, it is important for the Church to be involved in this process right from the beginning. Thus, the priest, or hid deputy, should be present at the various stages of the traditional rites, especially at the stage where, among a particular people, the consent is exchanged. This will fulfil the canonical form. Right from the beginning of this whole process, an intensive catechesis on the sacramentality of marriage and its indissoluble nature should be given by the priest to the couple. The catechesis should be programmed in such a way that it is completed before the last traditional rite is performed. It is during this time that banns should be

642 Ecclesia in Ghana, 53. 643 OSEI, Marriage Preparation, 60. 644 SARPONG, Peoples Differ, 90. 645 SARPONG, An Asante Liturgy, 24.

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published, so that if anyone has any objections to the marriage, they are brought to the notice of the priest and the members of the two families. Forming part of the premarital catechesis will be preparing the couple for the reception of the sacrament of penance as a preparation for receiving the Eucharist after the marriage celebration. The priest should be present at the last traditional rite to be performed and the nuptial blessing should be given to the couple during this last rite. After this, the couple will be legally and validly married in the eyes of both the traditional society and the Church. For the civil validity of such a fused marriage rite, the Bishops’ Conference […] should try to obtain the state’s recognition of such a marriage taking place in the home and not in the Church. On the Sunday or major feast day following the marriage rite, the couple will go to Church where they will receive communion. The holding of the marriage ceremony in the home, of course, will involve logistical problems, since the large numbers may not be able to be accommodated in the homes. This is a practical problem that needs to be looked at. It remains to be added that the western white dress is not necessary for our marriage celebrations. Normally, the white dress symbolises purity and virginity. But many of the Church marriages take place between partners who have married for some time already and are therefore not virgins. Local Ghanaian dresses are more than adequate.646 The salient points of the above proposal are as follows: The necessity of the presence of the priest at all the stages of the traditional marriage, especially where the mutual consent of the parties is expressed in order that the canonical form may, by so doing, be satisfied. Catechesis, educating the couple on the sacramentality, indissoluble nature of marriage, sacraments of penance and the Eucharist, must begin from the onset of the marriage process but end before the final rite. Marriage banns should be published during the period of the catechetical instructions. The priest should be present at the final traditional rite to request and receive the formal expression of their mutual consent and to give the nuptial blessing. Thus, the contracted marriage will be valid both canonically and culturally. For its civil validity, the local conference of bishops should seek the state’s recognition of the relaxation in the form of marriage. In other words, the marriage so celebrated in the home must be civilly valid. The newly married couple may attend Mass on the following Sunday or major feast day to receive the Holy Communion.

To the question, what could be done in case the house cannot accommodate all the attendants, we suggest the erection of canopies in the yard of the house to give enough room for everybody present at the ceremony. That could be part of the planning, well ahead of time.

646 ECCLESIA in Ghana, 54.

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Even though the white wedding dress symbolises purity and virginity and may not conform to all couples, as many of them may have been living together for a long time, we still suggest that it should not be banned. For, the white colour is also used to depict happiness. Maybe, the style can be modified in harmony with the local mode of dressing. Therefore, there shouldn’t be any rigidity on the dress code.

Those were the guidelines proposed by the Ghana bishops’ conference, but they do not seem to have been developed, let alone implemented on experimental basis. Though those proposed guidelines are plausible, they only seem to favour the merging of the traditional and liturgical rites at the home of the contracting parties without any alternative suggestion for merging the two ceremonies within Mass in the Church. A look at yet another proposal by another person will be helpful at this juncture. In his thesis for licentiate in canon law, Francis Kwadwo Osei outlined the following proposal: In the case of two Akan Catholics, the marriage should take place during Mass. The assisting priest will have to ask for and receive the consent of the parties in accordance with canon 1108 §2. After that the families can express their approval through the giving and acceptance of the tiri nsa. The Abusua panin from the two families or the parents of the spouses could act as witnesses. In the case of a mixed or disparity of cult marriage, the priest or the minister to assist at the marriage would have to be present in the home, if that is preferred, with some of the Christian faithful and ask for and receive the consent of the couple to be followed by the giving and acceptance of the tiri nsa. This could be followed by the nuptial blessing. Even if a dispensation is granted from the canonical form, the presence of the priest or at least the catechist and some members of the Christian faithful at the ceremony would add to the meaning of the celebration, unity, and be a great support to the couple. A day could then be fixed for a thanksgiving Mass.647 Tiri nsa here literally means ‘head gin’, which is usually given by the groom’s family to that of the bride as a seal to the consent of the contracting parties and the solidarity of both families for the marriage contract. Tiri nsa is therefore the bridewealth. Abusua panin means head of the family. Like that of the bishops’ conference, Osei’s proposal satisfies the requirements of both the canonical and liturgical forms. Similarly, his proposal also touches on the priest’s involvement in the stage of the marriage that will be celebrated in the home, at the preference of the parities and their families and this is required for the validity of the

647 OSEI, Marriage Preparation, 60–61.

258 marriage. The question of witnesses is not a problem in either of them, as there will always be more people than the two witnesses required by law for validity. Noteworthy is the proposal for the insertion of the bridewealth in the sacramental rite, whether in the Church or at home, to satisfy both the cultural and canonical requirements.

These are the only two available examples of the proposals for the synchronisation of the Akan traditional and the sacramental marriage rites. As already pointed out above, none of them has yet been implemented. Nevertheless, they deserve to be profoundly appreciated and considered for further investigation for the possible fusion of the Akan customary and the Church rites of marriage. Since these are the only proposals in Ghana available for this study, it will be appropriate to examine one more from Nigeria in the West African sub-region, where many proposals have taken place, with some of them already being experimented in some dioceses. The most convincing one available to us is the one developed by Chibuko at the second synod of the Catholic Diocese of Enugu, cited in the doctoral dissertation of Anistus Njoku. The outline of the proposed rite can be quoted as follows: Part I - Introductory Rite and Invocation of the Holy Spirit - Rite of Reception - Rite of Blessing of Kola nuts - Collect - Presentation of the Bride and the Bridegroom - Liturgy of the Word. Part II Actual Marriage - Introduction - Admonition - Interrogations - Exchange of Consent - Non-verbal Expression of Consent - Blessing of the symbols of Marriage - Acceptance of the Consent - Hymns of Joy - Prayer of the faithful - Offertory - Our Father - Nuptial Blessing Part III Closing Rite - Bridal Dance

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- Solemn Blessing.648 Examining the various elements in the above proposed rite, Annistus Njoku came up with the following analysis: The first part dealing with the introductory rite is typical for the Igbo/African temperament. ‘It sets the spiritual tempo of the celebration […] The initial invocation of the Holy at such a celebration cannot be overemphasised. The spirit of the Lord draws God’s people together from the four corners of the world to worship […]’ The warming of the assembly with songs and choruses helps put the celebration in proper mood. And now the people are ready to pray in the name of the Holy Trinity. Another interesting aspect in this first is the rite of the blessing of kola nuts. This follows the normal procedure in a typical Igbo gathering and is then summed up by the Collect, which the minister renders with truly Igbo spirit. The Liturgy of the word is in line with the Church’s rite.649 Though the proposed rite is laudable and shows a great deal in the efforts of inculturating the marriage rites, not all the salient elements can be adopted in other African countries, since cultures differ from one country to another and even from one tribe to another. The breaking of cola nuts, for instance, can be adopted in the northern part of Ghana, as it is an integral part of their culture, but cannot work in the southern part, especially in the Akan speaking area, since it is not part of their culture.

One remarkable element of the Igbo culture, which is similar to that of Akan, is the giving and acceptance of wine650 as a seal to the mutual consent of the couple. However, the family whose obligation it is to give the wine differs in both cultures. While it is the bride’s family among the Igbo’s, it is the bridegroom’s family among the Akans. Again, that aspect of one of the spouses searching for the other, was not initially part of the Akan culture, but in the course of time it has been adopted into the Akan culture, where it is the would-be husband, who searches among many young ladies with a bunch of flowers in hand and hands it to the prospective wife after finding her. Since this aspect of the cultural marriage is not a necessary

648 Annistus NJOKU, Igba Oriko Rite of the Igbos (as a Meal of Reconciliation) Vis-á-vis the Christian Agape: An Impulse to Liturgical Inculturation [unpublished doctoral dissertation University of Vienna], 2013, 169. 649 Annistus NJOKU, Igba Oriko Rite of the Igbos, 170. 650 NJOKU, Igba Oriko Rite of the Igbos, 168 – The highlight of the traditional wedding is the final consent made publicly by the girl by way of handing over a cup of palm wine from her father or eldest uncle or another representative of the family and searches for the prospective husband in the midst of other young men at the scene. Having identified the husband, she hands the cup of wine to him and the man drinks. As from that moment they would be free to sit together in the assembly.

260 requirement for the validity of the marriage, but rather beautifies the ceremony, it can be dropped in the planning of a fused ceremony between the Akan traditional and Sacramental rites.

In an attempt to combine the Akan customary and sacramental rites of marriage into one ceremony, we have examined the above proposed rites, two from Ghana and one from Nigeria. We agree with the Ghana bishops’ conference and Francis Kwadwo Osei that the Church be represented in the person of the priest or deacon or at least a catechist in all the major stages of the Akan traditional marriage. Nevertheless, the presence of the priest or deacon is inevitably required at the final stage, in which the consent of the contracting parties is manifested. Finding all the proposed rites in the right direction and extracting the salient and relevant elements from them, we are able to come out with the following proposal for the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi in Ghana, ordered primarily for the celebration within Mass:

Proposed order of service - Introit/incensation - Greetings - Introduction – Parents and Dignitaries from both families Groom and the bride - Collect - Liturgy of the Word - The rite of marriage: - Calling of and presentation of the Groom and Bride - Admonition by one representative from each family - Interrogations - Exchange of consent - The priest will request and receive their consent to the marriage - Presentation and blessing of the traditional symbols of the bridewealth or the bride price and the rings as a seal of the mutual consent, love and fidelity of the couple, Exchange of rings - A song of joy to the dancing feet of the newly married couple. - Bidding prayers

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- Collection - The liturgy of the Eucharist continues in the usual manner - The Lord’s Prayer - The Nuptial Blessing at its usual place - Sign of peace - Lamb of God - Communion - Prayer after Communion - The signing of certificates to be done by the parents or close relatives of both the groom and the bride after the post communion prayer. In this way, the two families confirm their consent to the marriage by signing or thumb printing. - Final blessing and dismissal in the usual manner

It is obvious from the above proposed rite that it follows the usual pattern of the Eucharistic celebration. However, the presidential prayers; the collect, prayer over the gifts and the concluding prayer should be based on those prescribed in the Roman Missal but reordered to suit the Akan tradition. In the introduction to the celebration, the officiating priest goes out of the way to introduce the contracting parties, their parents and dignified representatives of both families. The service then follows the usual order until after the homily, when the rite of the merged marriage begins with the calling and presentation of the couple. Incorporated from the Akan culture is the permission for a member each from the two families to give a short word of advice to the contracting parties. The officiating priest then proceeds with interrogations about the requirements of the cultural marriage, inviting the two official witnesses and of course, all the family members to be particularly attentive to the following part of the marriage rite, the exchange of consent.

The priest requests and receives the mutual consent of the parties, using one of the forms provided in the Roman Missal. He then invites the family of the groom to bring the bridewealth and the rings for blessing. The bridewealth is presented to the lady who receives it and further submits it to her family head. The giving and acceptance of the bridewealth seals their marriage contract and the solidarity of both families in front of the participating congregation, all of whom are witnesses to the marriage. Then the giving and receiving of

262 rings follow the usual manner as prescribed in the sacramental rite of marriage. Ending the main part of the rite of marriage, a joyful song may be intoned to the dancing feet of the newly married couple. The families and the congregation will naturally join them without any invitation, as that spirit is an integral part of the Akan people.

The celebration of the Eucharist follows in the usual order until after the Lord’s Prayer, when the couple are invited forward for the nuptial blessing in the manner prescribed in the sacramental rite of marriage. The celebration continues in the usual way until after the post communion prayer when the couple and the two official witnesses are invited for the signing of the register in satisfaction for the canonical and civil requirements of law.

Alternatively, permission should be granted for the celebration of the celebration of the marriage at home, if that is the preference of the families involved. In this case, it could be celebrated within Mass or Liturgy of the Word, depending on the preference of the couple. These options hold for both the marriage between two baptised Catholics and the mixed or disparity of cult marriages. The preference, however, should primarily be the one to be celebrated in the Church.

Such a combined marriage will eliminate the existing duplication of rites but satisfy both the Akan cultural requirements and those of the Roman Catholic Church in one ceremony, by which the couple are admitted or readmitted to the reception of the Holy Communion and other sacraments, depending on their status before the marriage ceremony. Therefore, it deserves to be deeply appreciated and if possible, developed for experimental implementation in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. The next area in which a laudable attempt has been effected in the process of liturgical inculturation is the widowhood rite.

6.5. Inculturation of the Widowhood Rites

The widowhood rites have already been presented in chapter four651 of this study, which introduced the booklet containing the Christian widowhood rites, prepared by the National

651 Cf. Chapter Four, pages 188–189 of this work.

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Liturgical Commission and translated by the Diocesan Liturgical Commission of Techiman in Ghana. Chapter four described, among the liturgical books in use in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi, this booklet in which the widowhood rites are contained. It dealt with the theological background for these rites, the outline and general overview of the booklet, originally developed in English for the whole country of Ghana and translated into Akan for use in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi.

This sub-topic, on the other hand, is set to discuss the Christian widowhood rites as an example of the efforts made with regards to liturgical inculturation. The title ‘Christian widowhood rites’ presupposes that there were preceding rites, which were not Christian by nature, and these preceding rites were obviously the numerous traditional rites of the ethnic groups in Ghana. Widowhood rites are the rituals, through which wives go after the death of their husbands. In the case of our study, it is the Akan traditional rites. That is why it is necessary to discuss both the Akan traditional and the Christian rites in this part of the work, but first, the Akan traditional rites.

6.5.1. Akan Traditional Rites

The Akan traditional widowhood rites do not follow just a particular format and it is usually the widows, who undergo these rites. The local logic explains that “widowers do not have this rite simply because it is a man who marries a woman and not the other way round”652. For this reason, it is the woman who is expected to remain faithful to the husband, both during the man’s lifetime and after his death. This presupposes that the rationale behind these rituals is that the woman is expected to remain faithful to the husband even after the death of the latter until the end of the period of these rituals, since it is believed that the spirit of the dead husband possesses the powers to come back to have sex with the wife, or inflict punishment on her, should she fail to observe these rituals. To get people to humbly give in to these rituals, the above fact has been enshrined in the African traditional religious mysteries and therefore, looked upon with fears. It all boils down to the traditional concept of marriage as

652 SARPONG, Odd Customs, 15.

264 an unbreakable bond. It is believed that even death is not able to sever the bond between the wife and her deceased husband. Thus, the Akan traditional marriages are, in the strict sense, meant to last forever. It is, however, by adherence to the widowhood rites that the widow can be freed from the bond with her deceased husband.

The Akan concept of marriage as a permanent bond stands out clearly in the local proverbs, for instance: Aware[ ny[ nsa na y[aka ahw[ (marriage is not like palm wine just to be tasted and discarded)653. It is also believed that at asamando (the place of the dead), a man is supposed to be married to his wife, especially the first wife, if he has more than one consort654. If the husband and wife are not separated before the death of the husband, it is believed that the woman is still married to him and that this bond can only be dissolved by subjecting the woman through the widowhood rites, which are meant to pacify the departed husband and to prevent him from returning to look for her or becoming annoyed with her. Thereafter, he is now satisfied and no longer interested in her affairs. So, he is not expected to come back into her life again.

As already pointed out above, there are no unified formats or orders for these ceremonies. They vary from place to place. In general, they comprise different kinds of maltreatment made to the widows by their in-laws. According to Peter Sarpong, they “sometimes consist in locking up the woman in a room, in solitary confinement, and treating her in very awkward ways”655. Some of these awkward ways are being compelled to sleep on the bare floor with a stone as a pillow, splashing ground pepper onto the eyes, being given very little food to eat. Within the period which lasts up to forty days, the widow is not allowed to sleep alone in a room but in the company of two or three other women. She is not even supposed to respond, when she hears her name being called. Otherwise, she stands the risk of dying, if she responds to the call of her deceased husband. In some parts of Ghana, certain acts would have to be performed by the widow in order to ward off the ghost of the deceased husband. For example, “she would wear a string around her waist, look for a man to lie with her and during the

653 SARPONG, Odd Customs, 15. 654 IBID. 655 IBID., 14.

265 sexual act, tear the string. The unwary man does not realise that this act has brought the abomination of the woman having sex after her husband’s death on him”656. In this way, any calamities that could come to the woman are believed to be diverted to the man, and that the woman is henceforth free to have a sexual relationship with or marry another man.

The concluding rite also differs from one place to another. In one traditional area in the Catholic diocese of Sunyani, for instance, the concluding rite is said to be like this: the widow is made to receive objects for housekeeping and cooking, including broom, knife, bowls of different kinds, cooking utensils of all kinds and so on. Each of the objects is handed to her by one of the women who have lived with and guarded her throughout the forty days, three times and lays it down after the third time until all the available objects are finished. The significance of this final ritual is that she is proven to have successfully completed the forty- day rituals of widowhood and that she is now free to resume her usual life, of house-keeping, cooking and others, which she was banned from doing within the forty days period. For instance, in that period was not allowed to eat any food prepared with the foodstuffs that grow in the ground, such as all types of tubers, or root vegetables. She is now liberated from her bond with the deceased husband and is, henceforth, free to marry another man and cook for him.

These widowhood rituals are based on a traditional religious conviction, which is not removed by condemnation, denunciation or ridicule. Peter Sarpong argues that: It is rather when you force a widow not to undergo the rites that you are degrading her. Without that rite, she lives in perpetual fear of the spirit of her husband. She dares not marry when she has the natural urge. It is to be emphasised that all this is in the mind of our people. It is good logic for them and, unfortunately, the women too have come to accept it. Hence in some cases, it is the female in-laws of the widow who mete out this treatment to the widow. But they know that they will suffer the same fate if their husbands die before them. Outsiders may see it as inhuman and, by the logic of sentiments, it is, but the in-laws and the widow herself consider it a religious exigency in the interest of the widow.657

656 SARPONG, Odd Customs, 15. 657 IBID., 16.

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Thus, it is in the name of religion and out of fear that these rites have been accepted, especially by women, yet they know the type of ordeal, through which, widows have to go. Nevertheless, there must be a solution to free women from this ordeal. Peter Sarpong argues that it cannot just be stopped by enacting laws ordering it to be discontinued. Considering the strong adherence to it in many places, he foresees that any such law will not work: The practice will not stop; people would go underground to do it, if need be and, in any case, what would be the justification for enforcing the abolition of the rites?658 That means even if performing it becomes a crime, people will still manage to do it clandestinely to clear their minds of their fears. Obviously, people do not seem to want it, but for fear of the consequences, they do it. Answering the problem posed by this unwanted practice of widowhood rites, Sarpong clarifies that women must be convinced that their fears are just based on sheer superstition rather than any concrete reality: In any case their dead husbands have no power of the type they attribute to them. In any case, their dead husbands must be presumed to be kind people who have attained their aim in life and would like them rather to be happy. If the happiness is to come about through marriage, so be it. No husband is going to be angry at this, if he really loved his wife now widowed.659 It is in the quest for a solution to this problem of the seemingly unwanted traditional widowhood rites, that the Church in Ghana, through the National Liturgical Commission composed the Christian equivalence of the widowhood rites to set the Christian women free from those looming fears at the death of their husbands. Hence the production of the booklet containing the Christian widowhood rites, which is to be treated next in this chapter.

6.5.2. Christian Widowhood Rites

The Christian widowhood rites are simply the order of services, celebrated with and for the Christian widows and widowers. Unlike the traditional rites, the Christian rites are ordered for both widows and widowers. For, whether it is a man whose wife dies ahead of him, or it is a woman whose husband dies before the husband, he or she deserves God’s consolation and support of the Christian community in that moment of mourning, which the Christian

658 SARPONG, Odd Customs, 16. 659 IBID.

267 widowhood rites are arranged to provide. They are set to liberate the widow (widower) from the unnecessary fears, instilled in her or him by the loss of the spouse, and the difficult traditional rites that would otherwise be meted out to her or him. It is obvious that from the moment of the death of a married partner, the widow (widower) “travels down a journey of faith. It is a faith that could sometimes be so badly shaken by hurt feeling from acts that adversely affected their union and which, perhaps, could not be remedied before the death of the other partner”660. Thus, the Christian widowhood rites are set to accompany the Christian widow (widower) throughout the period of mourning.

The period in which these rites are celebrated is also a moment of purification, not in the sense of one being impure and contaminated on account of the death of the partner, but because of the guilty experiences of one’s shortcomings which could not properly be restored in the course of their union before the death of the other partner661. The surviving spouse needs to be supported to stand firm in the face of the challenges of loss and grief. She or he may have to be strengthened against apportioning blames on her (him) for the loss of the departed spouse. The objective of these rites is to bring back the peace and tranquillity to the widow (widower) to enable her (him) to draw strength from God and support from the Christian community, by which she (he) is enabled to resume regular life after the definitive departure of the spouse.

The Christian widowhood rites are, therefore, created as a Christian antidote to the problems posed by some of the seemingly meaningless, awkward and cruel rituals within the traditional widowhood rites. The problems are solved from the standpoint of the Christian concept of death, that after death the souls of the deceased either enjoys eternal life in heaven or undergoes eternal damnation in hell, depending on how good or bad her (his) earthly life was led. To redress the Akan traditional belief that the dead husband is able to come back into the life of the bereaved wife or can marry her in the land of the dead, Peter explains that “the husband is dead and has either gone to his rest in heaven, or God forbid, gone hell. From

660 NATIONAL LITURGICAL COMMISSION, Christian Widowhood Rites, Sunyani 2005, 2. 661 IBID.

268 neither place can the husband be interested in the marital affairs of his widow”662. The Christian truth is that the dead have neither the power to return to the lives of their living partners nor marry them in the land of the dead, after they both die. The appropriate example for this truth is Jesus’ answer to the Sadducees, when they cited the case of a woman, who married seven brothers in her life time, one after the death of another until the death of the seventh brother and lastly, her own death. Their question was, which of them would become her husband in the life after the resurrection? Jesus’ answer was: “You are wrong […]. For in the resurrection, they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like the angels in heaven” (Mt. 22:29–30)663. If this kind of explanation is understood and accepted, there is no doubt that the Akan traditional widowhood rites will die their own natural death.

This is one of the ways in which the Christian message and life penetrate the local culture, as the widowhood rites are incorporated into the Church and the Church enters the grassroots of the local culture, permitting the life of the Christian to be transformed. The Christian experiences a new life but dwells in the same cultural environment. This is, in fact, what the inculturation seeks to achieve. Taking something out of the local culture and Christianising it, is an element of inculturation.

From a closer look and careful examination, it is obvious that the structure of the Christian widowhood rites permits the blending of the Christian life and message with the local culture. It is organised to begin “from the moment of death of one’s partner through moments of mourning, sympathy and purification, until its final stage of separation and thanksgiving, when the curtains for the rites will be drawn”664. It is divided into three stages, the first of which consists of prayers and sympathy in the home of the deceased and later, in the Church. The second stage comprises the rites of separation and purification before and after the burial of the deceased. The third stage is made up of the final separation and thanksgiving.

662 SARPONG, Odd Customs, 16. 663 BIBLE SOCIETY RESOURCES, The Holy Bible: New Revised Standard Version with Deuterocanonical Books, New York, 2011, 1847. 664 NATIONAL LITURGICAL COMMISSION, Christian Widowhood Rites, 2.

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In the first stage, what is remarkable is the coming together of the active sympathisers in the home of the deceased from the moment of death. This is done in the traditional setting too and it is part of the local culture for the majority of the local community to assemble in the home of the deceased as soon as the death of a member of the community is announced to offer their sympathy to and to show their solidarity with the bereaved members of the family. What is new in the Christian widowhood rite is the coming in of the Christian community too. They maybe the same people, friends and relatives and resident sympathisers, but the difference they bring in is that they come and offer prayers for the dead, the surviving spouse and members of the family and to express their sympathy for them in the name of the Church.

The order of service in the home looks like this: opening song, greetings, introduction, invitation to prayer, opening prayer, scripture reading followed by a short reflection, prayer of the faithful, the Lord’s prayer, prayer of blessing, presentation of religious articles, expression of condolence and concluding rite. That the Christian community makes its presence felt in the bereaved family and ministers to the widow (widower) is a great step in the process of inculturation. Instead of the traditional charms and amulets and concoctions, Christian religious articles like holy water, candles, incense, rosary, medals, and so on, are blessed and presented to the surviving spouse for protection from fear of the superstitious belief of calamities and the deepening of her or his Christian faith. So, from the beginning, the widow (widower) is assured of God’s protection and freed from the, otherwise, maltreatment, cruel and awkward rituals. She or he is also guaranteed of the Christian presence with two or more members of the church appointed to keep company with the her (him) until the third and final stage. She (he) has the freedom of movement, otherwise denied by the traditional rites. She (he) can even attend Mass or service in the Church on the Sunday following the death of the partner.

The rite in the Church is not as elaborate as the one in the home, as it takes place within the usual order of Mass or service without a priest. In the introduction, the minister invites the congregation to pray with and for the widow (widower). The special intentions of the widow (widower) are included in the prayer of the faithful. The rest of the Mass (service) follows the usual order until after the post communion prayer, when the widow (widower) and her

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(his) family are invited forward for blessing, using the prayer provided665. The long prayer basically solicits the strength and courage of the Holy Spirit to accompany her (him) in the period of great loss and the Father’s love and support for her (him) and the entire family. It is followed by the presentation of religious articles, just as was done in the home, for use in her (his) personal prayers. The expression of condolence by the minister or one of the faithful to the bereaved family ends the rite in the Church. Here too bringing the widow (widower) to the Church, offering her (him) spiritual support, nourishing her (him) with the sustenance of the word of God and the blessed sacrament, is another good move in the right direction of inculturation.

The rites in the second stage are of the separation and purification, which are performed in two separate moments, during the funeral Mass and after the burial of the departed spouse. The rite before the burial consists of the blessing and wearing of the cross around the neck hanging down the chest. During the burial Mass or service, a special cross hanging on a chain or string is blessed, sprinkled and put around the neck of the widow (widower), standing in front and at the base of the sanctuary. Then follows the prayer of blessing and separation, which has two options666. The rite after the burial also has two moments, that is, prayers at the thanksgiving Mass or service and continuous prayer and pastoral support, of which the characteristics are listed as follows: Monthly Eucharistic celebrations or services may be offered for the intentions of the widows (widowers) during which they may receive special prayers at the end of the celebrations. The sacrament of penance may be celebrated, where applicable, for the widow (widower) and her (his) family and for all widows and widowers. Special days of retreat or recollection may be organised for them, in preparation towards the final stage of the rite. Special seats, if possible, may be allocated to the widow (widower) and her (his) family in the liturgical assembly during worship667.

665 NATIONAL LITURGICAL COMMISSION, Christian Widowhood Rites, 12. 666 IBID., 14–15. 667 IBID., 15–16.

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This period of pastoral and spiritual support offered to the bereaved spouse by the entire Christian community stretches from the moment after the burial until the third and last stage of the rites takes place.

The third stage of the rites, consisting of the final separation and thanksgiving is structured as follows: Saturday memorial Mass or service and visit to the grave, Sunday thanksgiving Mass or service, prayer of final separation and the removal of the cross. Remarkable in this final stage of the Christian widowhood rites is the prayer and removal of the cross, as against the traditional ritual of giving housekeeping and cooking utensils to the widow, who lays them down one after another. It indicates that when the Christian life and message enter a given culture, some elements of the culture that are bad or not compatible with the Christian faith fall apart as the tenets of the Christian faith permeate the culture and transforms the life of the Christians. In the Christian widowhood rites, religious objects like candles, holy water, medals, incense, rosary and the cross are given for the use of the bereaved spouse in prayer and spiritual protection.

With the prayer of the final separation the bereaved partner has completed the observance of the widowhood rites and is freed from fear of the supposed powers of the deceased partner. The removal of the cross from her (his) neck psychologically relieves her (him) of the burden that had apparently been on her (him) in the course of the period of mourning.

The texts of the prayers in the Christian widowhood rites are a clear indication of a blend of Christianity and culture, the expected result of acculturation, which eventually is inculturation. A citation of the prayer of the final separation and thanksgiving as an instance of these prayers in the booklet will be in the right direction:

ENGLISH ASANTE TWI Father of mercies and the God of all Mm]bor]hunu ne awer[kyekyer[ nyinaa consolation, you surround us with the Agya, wo na wode wo kann a [nnum da splendour of your unfailing light and to no hyer[n y[n ho hyia, ma no yi owuo replenish us with the bright dawn of sum ne ne sunsum firi h] na wode daa eternal life. We thank you for your loving nkwa hann no hy[ y[n ma. Y[da wo ase and providential care, which has enabled w] wo d] ne wo nhw[so] a wode aboa y[n d]fo] ne wo ba N., ama no atumi afa your beloved daughter (son), N., to pass saa osu ne awer[ho] ber[ yi mu yi. through these moments of grief and

sorrow.

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Aber[ a y[reyi as[nnua yi afiri ne k]n mu As we remove this cross from around her yi, y[resr[ wo, Awurade, ama woayi yea (his) neck, we pray that you, Lord, will ne awer[ho] biara afiri n’akoma mu, na take away from her heart every pain and woapopa n’ani ase nisuo nyinaa ama no. sorrow and wipe every tear from her eyes. Y[de anidie sr[ wo ara, k] so fa wo We graciously ask you to make her (his) mmoa, w’akwankyer[ ne wo banb] no ma joy complete with your continual no, na n‘anigye[ awie p[y[. Ber[ biara ne baabiara, ma no nya gyedie w] wo mu, na assistance, guidance and protection. May w’As[m ne w’Adonne[ ny[ n’aduane she (he), always and everywhere, find daa. confidence in you and be forever

sustained by your Word and sacraments.

Gather us all together under your strong Boaboa y[n nyinaa ano hy[ w’ataban a and powerful wing, so that after our aho]den ne tumi w] mu no ase. Na s[ earthly fight is done and the course is run, y[wie asase yi so ko yi na y[n nkwa nna we may, as pilgrims, journey happily in to twa a, y[n, akwantufo] yi, de anigye[ faith toward you, to reunite with all our atu kwan ab[duru w’anim na y[ne y[n loved ones who have gone before us, to ad]fo] a w]adi y[n anim kan no nyinaa receive the crown of eternal life in the ab[hyia mu, na y[agye daa nkwa abotire peace of your eternal kingdom. We ask no w] w’asomdwoe[ man no mu. this through Christ our Lord. Amen.668 Y[rebisa wo yei, w] Christ, y[n Awurade din mu, ]no na ]te ase di hene mmere a [nni awie[. {ny[.669

From above discussion and analysis, it is clear that the “Christian Widowhood Rites” stands out uniquely among the liturgical books in use in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi, because it is neither a translation of an existing liturgical book of the Roman rite nor adaptation of it to the local culture. It was rather creatively produced out of nothing as a solution to the prevailing problems posed by the traditional widowhood rites. It, therefore, serves as good move in the right direction of the so much desired liturgical inculturation. Many of such efforts have equally been done with music in the process of liturgical inculturation. An evidence of this runs throughout the previous chapters of this study. The next sub-topic sets the incorporation of one of the traditional orchestras, known as nwomkr], as an example for this study in the area of liturgical inculturation.

668 NATIONAL LITURGICAL COMMISSION, Christian Widowhood Rites, 17. 669 Translation rendered by the TECHIMAN DIOCESAN LITURGICAL COMMISSION, Akristo] Kunay] Ho Som, Techiman 2010, 21.

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6.6. The Place of Nwomkr] (Traditional Orchestra) in the Liturgy

Nwomkr] is an Akan traditional orchestra, which is a combination of vocal and instrumental music. A clearer definition is given by Peter K. Sarpong as “an orchestra that consists of singing and drumming”670. In other words, it is a vocal music accompanied with traditional instruments such as, donno, and dawuro, aweesi and firitwowa. He names and defines two of the accompanying musical instruments as follows; The drums are the donno, a special drum with idiophonic instruments attached671, and the dawuro, a gong made with iron, which resonates upon being hit672. Here are out personal definitions of the two others. The aweesi is in the form of a wooden box with a crescentic or round hole on one side having three flat bamboo strings attached to give it the sound of the bass guitar and drums. The firitwowa is an instrument made of two pieces of iron, on in the form of the knots that tighten the tyres of a vehicle, worn on the thumb and the other in the form of an empty lemon fruit skin with two holes on one end permitting the wearing on one of the small fingers. The percussion sound is produced by hitting one against the other in a rhythmic harmony with the melody of the music.673

Nwomkr] was first introduced into the catholic liturgy among other musical groups, like the kete and mpintin as part of the early attempts on liturgical inculturation by Peter Kwasi Sarpong, the Archbishop Emeritus of Catholic Archdiocese of Kumasi. In his book, An Asante Liturgy, he gives an indication of this initiative of his and explains the reason behind it, enumerating the different kinds of African music as he writes: When I became the Bishop, I set up a musical group to experiment in the liturgy. Music is essential to Asante life. It is, of course, the same for all Ghanaians and all Africans. In Africa, whatever you are doing can be musicalized. So, there is music for farming; music fo hunting, music for fishing; music for weeding, royal music, music for mourning,

670 SARPONG, An Asante Liturgy, 7. 671 IBID. 672 IBID., 4. 673 My own descriptive definitions of the last two instruments based on personal experience.

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joyful music, war music, religious music, celebration music, initiation music and what have you.674 By this explanation, he means the Africans in general are by nature musical as they put music in practically everything they do. There is no wonder that music is an integral part of the Akan people of Ghana too. The music may be only vocal (use of the voice), or corporeal (the bodily music, in which, the musical sound is produced by using parts of the body, including clapping, stamping on the floor, hitting thighs, clicks and so on), or instrumental (use of instruments). All the three, vocal, corporeal and instrumental are present in the Akan culture, but the most used is the voice music, followed by drumming.

It is from those available forms of traditional musical groups, orchestras, or bands that he chose nwomkr], kete and impintin for an experiment of liturgical musical inculturation. It will not be out of place to give a little cultural background information on kete and impintin, since enough has already been said on nwomkr]. The kete is a royal band, which was only possessed by the Asantehene (the king of the Asante kingdom), or by those who were permitted by him. It is entirely instrumental music normally used when the king is sitting in state. The mpintin, which is also a royal band, used to accompany the chief or the king when he is walking on the ground, consists of three types of donno. Each of the three donno has its own role. One of them leads, while the two others join in to complete the rhythm. The lead drum is said to request the chief to walk majestically or stand up. These are helped by the gyamadudu, which is a tall drum, hit with a club to produce a sound like “pum, pum, pum”, to provide the required pace675.

For a visual aid and a better understanding of the above instruments, find below pictures of some of those instruments:

674 SARPONG, An Asante Liturgy, 3–4. 675 IBID., 5–6.

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AWEESI DONDO676

GONG/DWURO KETE DRUMS677

From the above cultural background, one can easily understand the reason for their inclusion in the liturgical celebrations. Each of them has its place in the Eucharistic celebration. The kete was incorporated into the entrance procession as Peter Sarpong testifies: “We have introduced the kete at the beginning of the Mass to form part of the liturgical procession”678. Here are the reasons from the cultural point of view, which necessitated its inclusion in the liturgy: To understand it in religious context, we must know its use in ordinary life. When a big chief holds a big function and his subject bring along the kete to greet him, the subject is doing this to honour the chief; […]. His action demonstrates that he is the subject to the bigger chief.

676 Akan Traditional Musical Instruments, URL:https//www.Africaimport.com, [Accessed: 7 November 2017]. 677 IBID. 678 SARPONG, An Asante Liturgy, 10.

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It is common for a man or a woman to hire a kete orchestra to accompany him or her to the funeral of an in-law. This is to honour the dead person. Bringing that kete to the funeral of the in-law enhances the prestige of the dead man and not of the person who brought the kete, although the latter is praised for honouring the in-law. The priest going to say Mass takes along the kete to honour God, to tell God that he respects him so much, relies on him faithfully, regards him as do great a Lord that he cannot serve him without some visible sighs of respect, musically expressed in the kete. That is the rationale behind the use of the kete at Mass.679 The justification for the inclusion of the kete band from the cultural point of view is obviously clear enough. The instruction or rubric that comes along with it is that the choir continues to sing the entrance hymn as the priest enters with the kete to “represent the whole community before God and to tell God how much they depend upon Him, how much they respect Him and much they love and adore Him in such a way that they have even brought a kete ensemble to present themselves to Him”680. Another place of kete in the Mass is the offertory procession, in which kete accompanies the gifts of the worshiping community to the Lord. The cultural background for its place here is from the funeral celebration and the king’s courtyard as justified by Peter K. Sarpong: Just as when we have a funeral and the beloved of the bereaved wants to honour him or her, he or she brings the kete to accompany the gifts he or she must culturally present, so also when the gifts, that are part of the sacrifice of the Mass, are being brought to the King, they are accompanied by the kete. Again, this is a sign of deep respect for God, to whom, we are going to offer the sacrifice of the Holy Mass.681 The king here is undoubtedly God, himself, to whom the sacrifice of the Mass is directed and who is the ultimate recipient of the gifts that are offered at the Eucharistic celebration. He even deserves more of the honour accorded the earthly kings, who are his own creatures.

The impintin drums are used immediately after the Sanctus, but just before the Epiclesis. Just as they accompany the chief when he is walking, they are made to sound in a very low tone to accompany Christ the King as he comes into the Eucharistic species of bread and wine. Depending on which Canon the priest starts using, he stops right before the Epiclesis to allow

679 SARPONG, An Asante Liturgy, 10–11. 680 IBID., 11. 681 NTIM, Email correspondence, 31 October 2016.

277 the choir to come in with a song that announces the coming of the Lord, the sacrificial victim in the following words: ASANTE TWI ENGLISH {soro rekeka o, asase so rewoso o The heavens and the earth are moving {soro ne asase so rewoso o The heavens and the earth are moving Onyame sunsum e, sane o, sane o, God’s Spirit, come down, come down, sane o come down. Onyame sunsum e, sane o, sane o, God’s Spirit, come down, come down, 682 sane o. come down.683

The priest begins the epiclesis, as the choir reaches, Onyame sunsum sane. At the same time, therefore, the priest and the congregation address the Holy Spirit together at the Epiclesis. They in fact say the same thing, but with slightly different words, the priest vocally and the congregation musically. The congregation then stops for the priest to continue with the words of the institution audibly enough to be heard by the congregation. The drumming comes in again but this time louder as the priest raises the consecrated bread and wine, one after the other. Each time, the people sing: ASANTE TWI ENGLISH Wiase Agyenkwa no reba o The Saviour of the world is coming }nam mununkum mu reba o He is coming on the clouds Ab]de[ nyinaa ny[ dinn All creatures should keep quiet Ab]de[ nyinaa ny[ komm All creatures should keep silent 684 Momm] mo mu ase mma no. Bow down in reverence for him.685

The drumming is intensified each time the priest lifts up one of the consecrated species but cools down when he places it down on the altar. Then the choir and congregation sing Momm] mo mu ase mma no (Bow down in reverence for him) to coincide with his genuflection or deep bow. The impintin is used again at the recession, for the same reason of accompanying the chief as he walks. Similarly, it is used to accompany the priest, who is at

682 SARPONG, An Asante Liturgy, 12. 683 IBID., English translation from Asante Twi on the same page. 684 SARPONG, An Asante Liturgy, 12. 685 IBID.

278 this stage pictured as Christ the High priest, as he returns from the sacrifice: He has just finished offering the sacrifice and is walking back home686.

The nwomkr] comes in after the congregational singing of the Amen. At the singing of the Amen, everybody joins in. A few specially trained dancers (boys, girls or women) in representation of the congregation, “dance to God the Father to thank him and to express dependence on him”687. This is because, at this stage, God the Father is pictured as seated on his throne to receive all honour, and glory through, in and with Christ, with the congregation and in the unity of the Holy Spirit. Thereafter, “the nwomkr] orchestra plays to welcome Jesus, who has condescended […] to become our sacrificial meal”688. The next place where the nwomkr] orchestra features again is at the kiss of peace, where it is used to move the people into a joyful mood. In that sentiment of joy, the faithful are stirred to move around and exchange the peace of Christ with one another.

As we have just seen above, the nwomkr] has only a small role to play in the Mass at the initial stages, but as time went on, its role at Mass began to be developed to the extent that many liturgical songs using the texts of the liturgy have been composed for it. At the moment it is able to sing all the sung parts of the Mass from the entrance song to the recessional song. While some of the compositions fulfil the theological and liturgical spirits, others still have to be fine-tuned to perfection. Is this enough for nwomkr] to be fully accepted for use in the whole of the Mass?

In an answer to the above question, Pius Agyemang argued that: “in music we have contours and cadences and these are gifts helping us to express moods in life situations. For music to be a life situation of the people, you have to use their motives, their lyrics, their contours, their cadences, ending expressing joy or sorrow. So, when you are due to use things judiciously, then you need to have the musical judgement of the Church and the musical judgement of the people and blend them together. When you are able to do this then your music is going to be accepted as inculturated music. That is how I see that nwomkr] has a role in the liturgy.689

686 SARPONG, An Asante Liturgy, 15. 687 IBID., 13. 688 IBID. 689 AGYEMANG, a recorded Interview, Accra 4 July 2015.

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As a person with the both the musical judgement of the Church and that of the Akan people, Pius Agyemang’s answer in the above citation indicates that the nwomkr] orchestra fulfils the requirement and has a role to play in the liturgy. This conclusion raises the question about which part of the liturgy the nwomkr] orchestra will appropriately fit in. If its songs are composed with the appropriate liturgical and theological texts and if the musical judgement of the motives, lyrics, contours, cadences and moods are right, then it can fit in every part of the mass. Already some groups in some dioceses within the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi are singing the whole mass and seem to compete with the local choirs for the opportunity to sing more frequently at Sunday Masses. For instance, they want an arrangement, alternating with the choir, one Sunday for the choir and the next one for the nwomkr] orchestra. The problem is not about competing with the choir, but whether the contents of the songs they sing are planned for the appropriate places in the Mass. Are they not swapping positions with the ordinary of the Mass, for example, or does what they sing conform to the theological and liturgical texts? To address these problems, we need to examine some of the songs composed for the nwomkr] orchestra. Let us take the nwomkr] orchestra of Bamire in the Catholic diocese of Techiman within the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi in Ghana for our case study.

For the sake of this study, we paid a visit in 2014 to Bamire where an nwomkr] orchestra had been formed with the members of the Christian Mothers’ Association. This group led the congregation in singing all the sung parts of the Mass, which we celebrated with them on that day, as it was used to doing. The songs from the entrance, through the ordinary of the Mass, to the recession, were all said to have been composed and taught by one of the local choirmasters, by name Philbert Popealo, with liturgical and biblical texts. A few examples of such songs here will be suitable for this discussion, namely, Alleluia before the Gospel, collection, offertory and sanctus, all of which are in the Asante Twi language. First, the texts of the Alleluia: Momma y[nto Alleluia nwom ee Let us sing Alleluia hymn Momma y[nto Alleluia nwom ee Let us sing Alleluia hymn

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Momma y[nto nye Awurade tataa.690 Let us sing it to welcome the Lord.691

The significance of this hymn of acclamation is that we sing alleluia in praise of the Lord, who is about to speak to us in the Gospel. The texts and the place of singing them are, therefore, not out of proportion. The musical judgement, however, must be left for the consideration of the experts in liturgical music. The second one to be examined are the texts of the collection song: {mmer[ bi, Yesu bisaa Peter s[: Once upon a time, Jesus asked Peter: Ao Peter ee, [nti wod] me anaa? Peter! Do you love me? {nna Peter se, Awurade, med] wo. Then Peter answered: Lord, I love Wo ara wonim o, s[ med] wo. you. You know it yourself that I love you. Wo ara wonim o, ao, Awurade Yesu ee, s[ med] wo paa. You know it yourself, Lord Jesus, that

I love you very much. Y[ne me nnwamaa, Peter ee, y[ne me

nwamaa ma me. Tend my sheep, Peter, tend my sheep Mese, s[ wod] me ampa a, y[ne me on my behalf. nwamaa ma me.692 I say, if you truly love me, tend my sheep on my behalf.693

The texts of this song are biblical. They are from the conversation of Jesus and Peter in the Gospel of John, after the resurrection, where Jesus tested the level of Peter’s love and commitment for him, when he asked if he (Peter) loved him, and Peter answered: Yes, Lord, you know I love you. There is nothing wrong with the texts, which proclaim a gospel truth. However, their choice for collection is rather questionable. Though the melody is lively and

690 BAMIRE NWOMKR] ORCHESTRA, Recorded at Mass, Bamire 25 July 2014. The words were copied from a recorded video clip of the Mass we celebrated with the Nwomkr] Orchestra of the Christian Mothers’ Association at Bamire, an outstation of the Catholic Cathedral Parish of Techiman in the Ecclesiastical Province of Kumasi as a case study for the progress of inculturation in the province. The songs sang at the Mass were: Entrance, Kyrie, Gloria, Alleluia, Collection, Offertory Procession, Sanctus, Kiss of Peace, Agnus Dei, Communion and Recession. Of these songs, the words of the Alleluia, Collection, Offertory Procession and Sanctus are chosen for our study in this chapter. The translation into English are my own. 691 My own translation from Asante Twi to English. 692 BAMIRE NWOMKR] ORCHESTRA, Recorded at Mass, Bamire 25 July 2014. 693 My own translation from Asante Twi to English.

281 the mood is joyful, the words in the songs do not seem to fit in properly at the place of collection. Again, experts can better take the musical judgement into consideration.

The next one to be considered is the song for the offertory procession: Y[de y[n abisade[ yi aba w’anim o, We bring our petitions before you, Nana Nyame ee, gye ma y[n o. Gracious God, accept them.

Awurade ee, gye ma y[n o, Lord, accept it. Nana Nyame ee, gye ma gye ma y[n Gracious God, accept it. oo. We bring before you, our money too. Y[de y[n sika yi nso aba w’anim oo, Gracious God, accept it. Nana Nyame ee, gye ma y[n oo

We bring before you, our farm Y[de y[n nn]bae[ yi nso aba w’anim produces. Gracious God, accept them. o, Nana Nyame ee, gye ma y[n o. We bring before you, our wine. Y[de y[n bobisa yi nso aba w’anim o, Gracious God, accept it. Nana Nyame ee, gye ma y[n o. We bring before you, our bread too. Y[de y[n paano nso aba w’anim o, Gracious God, accept it.695 Nana Nyame ee, gye ma y[n o.694

The content is good for the part of the Mass that it serves, with exception of the first stanza, which should be part of the prayer of the faithful and not the offertory procession, unless the words are reordered. For instance, if the word “petitions” is replaced with “gifts” to make the sentence read: “We bring our gifts before you […], it can perfectly fit into the offertory processional song. Besides this problem with the first stanza, only the order of the stanzas needs to be reorganized in the order of importance and conformity.

After replacing “petitions” with “gifts” in the first stanza, the second stanza should in fact be “bread” followed by “wine” in the third, “farm produces” in the fourth and “money” in the fifth and while the bearers of the gifts are in front of the altar, the leader of the orchestra needs to pay attention to the action of the priest on the altar, in order that the words of the

694 BAMIRE NWOMKR] ORCHESTRA, Recorded at Mass, Bamire 25 July 2014. 695 My own translation from Asante Twi to English.

282 song may conform to the right action of the priest. For example, when the bread is lifted by the priest, the stanza with the word “bread” must be sung, and similarly, when the wine is lifted, the stanza with “wine” must be sung. Like the others, the melody and mood in the lay man’s judgement appear to be appropriately lively and joyful, but the experts in music might think otherwise.

The fourth and last one to be considered is the Sanctus-Benedictus hymn. Here are the texts: Kronkron o, osee yee! Kronkron o, Holy, praise him! Holy! Praise him! osee yee. Kronkron, momma y[nto nwom, na Holy! Praise him! Let us sing him y[mm] se ee. praise!

Pempemamkoma ee, Pempemankoma Almighty, Almighty, Lord God! Awurade Nyankop]n ee. Your glory has filled heaven and W’animuonyam ahy[ ]soro ne asase yi earth. ma

Osee yee! Osee yee! Osee yee, Osana Praise him, praise him, praise him, w] sorosoro, momm] no se ee. Hosanna in the highest, praise him. Nhyira nka nea ]nam Awurade din mu reba o! Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord. Osee yee! Osee yee! Osee yee, Osana w] sorosoro, momm] no se ee.696 Praise him, praise him, praise him! Hosanna in the highest.697

The texts of the sanctus hymn conform to those of the liturgical texts provided in the Roman Missal. There is nothing wrong with them. The melody and the mood too rightly correspond to this part of the liturgy which they serve. With the African spirit of joy, they praise God, the Father Almighty, who is in the highest heavens but whose glory fills the heavens and the earth. They also acknowledge the one who comes in the name of the Lord as the one who is blessed. Again, the musical judgement must be referred to the experts in liturgical music.

696 BAMIRE NWOMKR] ORCHESTRA, Recorded at Mass, Bamire 25 July 2014. 697 My own translation from Asante Twi to English.

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There is no doubt that the composers of such liturgical songs for the nwomkr] orchestras need to be commended for their sense of creativity and for their courage to come out with these unique hymns. Nevertheless, their compositions need to be fine-tuned as Pius Agyemang would put it698. They have surely initiated something good, which needs to be properly trimmed with the right theological context and liturgical structure, without which their composition will be a raw music, as if it is just there to fill a gap. If one takes the traditional melody and inserts the theological and liturgical texts too, without being fine- tuned with the musical judgement of experts, it becomes a raw music too, according to Pius Agyemang, the liturgical musician who, arguing that taking the music raw from the people, is tantamount to misleading them, gave the following analogy: In secular music like: Me yere ab] m’asom nn[, me yere ab] m’asom nn[. Kwaku ee! Me yere ab] m’asom a na m’akonta fa ho b[n? (My wife has slapped me today. My wife has slapped me today. Kwaku! What has my brother-in-law got to do with it, if my wife has slapped me?). If these words were changed to Christian words, it is likely that most people in the congregation would still be singing me yere ab] m’asom nn[, since those are the words they are used to. All the other compositions were like that but because they were able to be fine-tuned, they became perfect. So, I congratulate them.699 He implies that most of the melodies of the liturgical musical compositions in Akan were initially taken directly from some existing traditional melodies with the secular words, substituted with Christian words. However, because they were later polished with the right theological, liturgical and musical judgement, they became appropriate liturgical music.

Therefore, the nwomkr] compositions, which have an impressive beginning can be reworked to perfection. Their artistic skills can be tuned into the spirit of the liturgy and prolific composers will be born out of them. The composers need to be guided in specific areas of the liturgy, especially the ordinary of the Mass, taking for example the “Lord have mercy”. They need to know the theology of it, as some of the songs are not theologically and liturgically fitting for the places of the liturgy which they are supposed to serve. The “Lord, have mercy sung by the Bamire Nwomkr] Orchestra exemplifies such compositions that need to be reshaped theologically and liturgically. Here are some of the words in that composition:

698 AGYEMANG, a recorded interview, Accra 4 July 2015. 699 IBID.

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[…]. […]. Adam nanaa ne y[n, Adam nanaa ne We are Adam’s grandchildren. We are y[n. Y[afom wo, Awurade ee, Adam’s grandchildren. We have Awurade Nyame ee ! Hu y[n mm]b] offended you, Lord, Lord God! Have o. Wo y[ b]ne aduro. mercy on us. You are remedy of sin. […]. […]. Hu y[n mm]b] o, hu y[n mm]b] o Have mercy on us. Have mercy on us. Amfa b]ne ntua ka, Christ ee, hu y[n Christ, who does not repay with sin, mm]b] o, }domfo ee ! the Gracious one! Have mercy on us. […]. […]. Awurade ee, wo mma afom wo. Hu Lord, your children have offended y[n mm]b] o.700 you. Have mercy on us.701

Generally, the theological and liturgical contents are good, except the address of the petition in the first stanza to the Lord God. This is example of the errors regarding the liturgical technicalities, easily made by the lay composers, who have no training in theology or liturgy. The petition for mercy is addressed to the Lord Jesus Christ and not God the Father, as pointed out by Stephen Ntim: “[…] the Kyrie is a variant of the Kurios in Greek and the Lord here refers to the resurrected Christ and certainly not God the Father, who the Asantes will call Onyankop]n Kwame. These were some liturgical technicalities that people who are not priests and have no formal training in liturgy will take for granted in composing liturgical music”702. Many of the early liturgical compositions in Akan had some similar errors, which in the course of time have been rectified. Other than that, the style and rhythm being typically Akan, fit in well. The mood too conforms to the part of the liturgy it serves, the expression of sorrow and plead for mercy. They will certainly have an immense contribution to the inculturation of the liturgy, if such composers are given the necessary assistance by the experts in liturgical music and theology.

Acknowledging the importance and usefulness of the traditional orchestras like nwomkr] and kete, Professor Dr Stephen Ntim emphasised that: Nwomkr] or kete are used sparingly even in Ashanti culture. In other words, they are not used anyhow or anywhere. Nwomkr] can be used to express sorrow, joy and kete is

700 BAMIRE NWOMKR] ORCHESTRA, Recorded at Mass, Bamire 25 July 2014. 701 My own translation from Asante Twi to English. 702 NTIM, Email correspondence, 30 October 2016, 11.

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used among Ashantis for kings and chiefs. There is nothing wrong using these same instruments to praise God the King par excellence so far as they do not interfere with the solemnity of the Liturgy especially during Mass.703 The above quotation from Ntim, is some sort of a summary and confirmation of what has been seen earlier on in this chapter from Sarpong. Kete and nwomkr] are good enough to serve the liturgy, just as they are in the kings’ and chiefs’ palaces. God, who is much bigger than these earthly kings and chiefs, deserves even more of the services of such orchestras. The frequency of their usage, however, can be suggested by the provincial liturgical commission for the final decision of the bishops in the province.

Having looked into the general overview of inculturation in the Roman Catholic Rite in the light of Vatican II and the extent of its reception in Ghana with a particular reference to the liturgical inculturation in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi, the question, which now arises is whether it is possible to have a distinctively inculturated Akan liturgy or order of Mass in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. The next and last sub-topic of this chapter is set to deal with this puzzle.

6.7. Possibility of an Inculturated Order of Mass for the Ecclesiastical Province of Kumasi

On the basis of the efforts of inculturation, examined throughout this study and more elaborately in this chapter, one can admit that some level of inculturated Akan liturgy is achievable but a distinctly inculturated one is not yet possible. Many efforts have been put in place. Some were successful, while the others were not. The successful ones can be collected and documented. That means the liturgical books may need to undergo a revision to ensure the inclusion of the elements of inculturation and their rubrics in the liturgical books and celebration, with the approval of the provincial bishops’ conference. In this way, the cultural identity can be recognised in the local liturgy, but that cannot be said to be a typical Akan liturgy distinct from the Roman rite. All the experts consulted on this issue agree that the

703 NTIM, Email correspondence, 30 October 2016, 11.

286 level of inculturation so far achieved in the province is that of translation and adaptation, which are not the final products of inculturation.

In the preamble to his book, Asante Liturgy, Peter Sarpong clarified that there was nothing like Asante liturgy, but only an insertion of some cultural elements in the liturgy as he wrote: “There is nothing like an Asante Liturgy. The book only talks about the introduction of a few Asante cultural elements in the celebration of the liturgy, with particular reference to the Eucharist”704. It is the same as saying the attempts already made on liturgical inculturation, which the book contains, do not make the local liturgy an Asante liturgy or Akan liturgy, but rather an adapted liturgy. In other words, the incorporation of some cultural elements in the liturgy is only an adaptation, which is not enough to render it a distinctive Akan or Asante liturgy.

According to Pius Agyemang, “we can never have a mass, which is our own, in that we will be out of the existing elements of the Roman Rite. We have to know that the elements we have now are those of the universal Church”705. He, however, pointed among other things that certain things that are authentic and useful for the local people’s better understanding could be accommodated in the liturgy. Thus, a new character and a new flavour of Ghanaian touch could hopefully be added and consequently people would come to appreciate that Christ is comfortable in the Ghanaian soil.706 Therefore, anybody from outside the Akan culture celebrating with the Akan people, will understand that the celebration is Catholic, but he is in a situation, where the Catholic people of the Akan culture have made the liturgy their own.

In a similar way, Stephen Ntim too has his own doubts with regards to having a distinctive Akan Mass or liturgy as he argues: I doubt if there can ever be a purely Akan liturgy without links to and with the Roman Liturgy. What we can do for now is simply the adaptations for some parts of the Roman liturgy since this goes back to centuries and has biblical roots. For example, the two essential parts of the Mass: The Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of the Eucharist

704 SARPONG, An Asante Liturgy, ix. 705 AGYEMANG, a Recorded interview, Accra 4July 2015. 706 IBID.

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can never be changed, since this is from Apostolic times. There is no reason, for example, to say that in Akan we eat first before we admonish. Therefore, the meal part of the Mass should precede the Liturgy of the Word. Yes, the people of Zaire tried with the so-called Zairian Mass, but in actual fact they are all adaptations of the Roman Missal.707 The argument put forward by Stephen Ntim, conforms to the declaration of Vatican II regarding the reform of the liturgy and its caution that attention be paid to the immutable and the mutable: “For the liturgy is made up of unchangeable elements divinely instituted, and of elements subject to change”708. On this background, one can understand him to mean, therefore, that some parts of the liturgy are unchangeable since they are of divine institution. While those that are not changeable are being preserved, adaptations are being made to some of the changeable ones in harmony with the local culture. However, having done all these adaptations, it is still not enough to classify the local liturgy as a distinct Akan liturgy without any link to the Roman rite. Otherwise, the liturgy so created would be a break away from the Roman rite.

Gathering the opinions of our interviewees above, it is obvious that there is a possibility for adapting the Mass or the liturgy to suit the Akan culture in order to make it more meaningful to the local faithful, without deviating from its unity with the Roman rite. After a careful study and mutual assimilation between the liturgy and culture, the resulting liturgy will exhibit some traces of the local culture but will not lose its identity with the Roman Rite, as long as no alteration is done to the unchangeable elements of the Roman liturgy. The people will remain Catholics, their worship will remain the Roman Catholic Liturgy, while they themselves remain who they are, Akans, as Peter Sarpong expresses: “We must be Catholic and at the same time Igbo or Ewe or Ga or Dagao. Stressing one at the expense of the other throws inculturation out of gear. Hence inculturation cannot go against the stream of Catholic teaching”709. Therefore, both the cultural and Roman Catholic identities must be clearly visible in the local liturgical liturgy as a result of inculturation.

707 NTIM, An Email Correspondence, 11. 708 Sacrosanctum Concilium 21 (FLANNERY, Vatican II, 9). 709 SARPONG, Peoples Differ, 38.

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Conclusion

Chapter six has examined the prospects of inculturation in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi on the basis of the provisions of Vatican II. It has been seen that inculturation was warmly welcomed by the Bishops’ Conference of Ghana, who gave some guidelines for its implementation, especially for a possible fusion of the traditional and sacramental rite of marriage. The efforts so far made are centred on liturgical inculturation. As translation is an integral part of inculturation, it is expedient to mention that most of the liturgical books of the Roman Rite, have so far been translated into the Asante Twi. Some gestures, postures and movements have also been replaced with some cultural elements. For instance, the gesture that accompanies, the mea culpa, mea culpa, mea maxima culpa in the Confiteor has been replaced with an Akan cultural gesture. Therefore, instead of striking one’s chest three times, one strikes the back of the right hand inside the left palm three times, symbolising a sense of sorrow, remorse and a plea for mercy and forgiveness. It is observed, however, that there is a confusion in the province regarding the use of these gestures with publication of the English translation of the third editio typica of the Roman Missal. In some places, there is a return to the striking of the chest indicated in the rubrics of the new translation, as it is considered to be mandatory and nothing else. This calls for education to ensure uniformity of the practised elements of inculturation, after their approval by all the bishops in the province and that of the National Episcopal Conference, not forgetting the recognition or confirmation of the Apostolic See. To show the progress of the initiatives that have been put in place so far regarding liturgical inculturation, three instances were examined; marriage rites, widowhood rites and liturgical music showcasing the nwomkr] orchestra with some instances of kete orchestra.

Examining the tenets of the Akan traditional and sacramental rites of marriage, it was established that there were common grounds for the unification of the two rites into one simple ceremony, notably; the public declaration of the mutual consent of the contracting parties, the approval and ratification of the parents (families) of the couple, the presence of at least, two witnesses and the indissolubility of marriage. After looking into some suggestions from Ghana and Nigeria, we came up with our own proposed outline for the common celebration that could satisfy both ecclesial and the cultural requirements. This

289 proposed fused ceremony could eliminate the existing duplication of rites and would also be time-saving, if it were accepted, developed and approved for implementation within the ecclesiastical province.

As a second instance, the Akan traditional and Christian widowhood rites were considered. Having taken a survey on the Akan traditional widowhood rites, it became obvious as to why a Christian rite needed to be developed. It was observed that some of the treatments that the poor widows had to undergo, were just too inhuman, painful and sometimes shameful. They did not like it, but because they had been enshrined with superstitious beliefs under the guise of the traditional African religion, they had no option but to observe those rituals in fear. The Christian rites, which have come as a pastoral solution to these problems, therefore, eliminate those negative rituals and substitute them with rites that are rather helpful, encouraging and healthy. They replace the traditional rituals with those of Christian prayer in the home of the deceased and in the church for the widow (widower) and the bereaved family, including the liturgy of the word and the giving of blessed religious articles, like the rosary, candles, medals, scapulars, crucifixes, holy water and so on to the widow (widower). Remarkable in the Christian widowhood rites is the inclusion of the widowers as beneficiaries of these rites, otherwise, excluded in the traditional rites. We recommend the enforcement of its implementation throughout the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi after the approval of the competent territorial authority and the subsequent approval by the National Bishops’ Conference for use in all corners of Ghana.

As a third example, nwomkr] and kete orchestras were showcased for the significant effort made on liturgical music and inculturation. More efforts have been exhibited on the inculturation of liturgical music than any other area, in that, many hymns and songs have been composed by local musicians in the Asante Twi language and with the mixture of the traditional Akan styles and melodies for the choir and congregation. Moreover, a significant creativity has been shown by the attempts to include the traditional orchestras like nwomkr] and kete in the liturgy. However, just as their compositions need some fine-tuning by experts, the composers of the nwomkr] music require the guidance, assistance and encouragement of the professional liturgical musicians and they will be able to contribute immensely to the process of inculturation.

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With a careful study, approval and implementation of the attempted efforts of inculturation, it will be possible to have a liturgy that has the identities of both the Akan culture and the Roman Rite. A care must, however, be taken so that its unity with the Roman Rite is preserved.

SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER

A short Introduction and Analysis of the motu proprio Magnum principium

The motu proprio Magnum principium is the Apostolic Letter, by which the recent introduction of changes to some norms of Canon 838 was made public by Pope Francis with regards to the translation and adaptation of liturgical texts into the vernacular language. Published on 3rd September 2017, it came into force on 1st October 2017. It has become necessary to insert this Apostolic Letter in this part of the work, because, the modification of the formulation of the texts in Canon 838, affects the norms of Vatican II, the Apostolic Letters and the previous instructions guiding translation of liturgical texts and adaptation, which have been referred to earlier in this work. They include the Sacrosanctum concilium, Inter oecumenici, and especially, Liturgiam authenticam and Varietatis legitimae. Here is a brief examination of the changes effected by the new Apostolic Letter.

The modification affected only paragraphs two and three of Canon 838. Before the changes, the paragraphs in question read as follows: §2. It is the prerogrative of the Apostolicc See to regulate the sacred liturgy of the universal Church, to publish liturgical books and review their vernacular translations, and to be watchful that liturgical regulations are everywhere faithfully observed.

§3. It pertains to Episcopal Conferences to prepare vernacular translations of liturgical books, with appropriate adaptations as allowed by the books themselves and, with the prior review of the Holy See, to publish these translations.710 The two paragraphs above were modified by the new Apostolic Letter as follow:

710 Code of Canon Law, 154–155.

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§2. It is for the Apostolic See to order the sacred liturgy of the universal Church, publish liturgical books, recognise adaptations approved by the Episcopal Conference according to the norm of Law, and exercise vigilance that liturgical regulations are observed faithfully everywhere.

§3. It pertains to the Episcopal Conferences to faithfully prepare versions of the liturgical books in vernacular languages, suitably accommodated within defined limits, and to approve and publish the liturgical books for the regions for which they are responsible after the confirmation of the Apostoic See.711 The highlighted texts depict the changes made to the two paragraphs of the mentioned canon. The roles of the Apostolic See and the Episcopal Conference are clearly defined by the motu proprio. Both roles are seen to be complementary, regardless of their corresponding competence. Previously, it was the prerogative of the Apostolic See to review the vernacular translations as seen in paragraph two. However, the specific role of the Episcopal Conference for the preparation of the translation and adaptation was contained in paragraph three.

In the new motu proprio, on the other side, the Episcopal Conference has the responsibility to approve adaptations and forward them to the Apostolic See for recognition as indicated in paragraph two. The recognition of the Apostolic See means “to review and evaluate such adaptations in order to safeguard the substantial unity of the Roman Rite”712. Paragraph three regards the translation of liturgical books in verncacular languages, where the role of the Episcopal Conference to faithfully prepare the translation suitably placed within its confines, approve and publish the resultant liturgical books after obtaining the confirmation of the Apostolic See. Thus, role of the Apostolic See is to confirm the liturgical books translated and approved by the Episcopal Conference. The confirmation of the Apostolic See is the authoritative act by which the Dicastery ratifies the liturgical books approved by the Bishops’ Conference. This ratification obviously “presupposes a positive evaluation of the fidelity and congruence of the text produced in respect to the typical editions on which the unity of the Rite is founded, and above all, taking account of the texts of greatest importance, in particular

711 Magnum principium, in: Bolletino Sala Stampa della Santa Sede, English Version, URL: http://www.press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bolletino/2017/09/09/170909a.pdf, 3. [Accessed 25 January 2018]). 712 IBID., 7.

292 the Sacramental formulae, the Eucharistic Prayers, the Prayers of Ordination, the Order of Mass and so on” (MP 8)713.

Therefore, in accordance with new formulation of paragraps two and three of Canon 838, the responsibility of faithful translation of the liturgical books into vernacular languages, their approval and publication rests on the Epicopal Conferences. So is it the responsibility of the Episcopal Conferences to prepare and approve adaptations. Nevertheless, the recognition of the Apostolic See, in the case of the adaptations and the confirmation, in the case of the translation, are required before the approved liturgical books can be published for use in the given territory by the territorial Episcopal Conference.

On the other hand, as already pointed out, the coming into force of this motu proprio has in one way or another affected some earlier norms, instructions and guidelines for the translations of liturgical books and adaptation, and therefore, calls for some adjustments. Naturally, this modification to the Codex iuris entails an adjustment to the Apostolic Constitution Pastor bonus n.64 §3, as well as to the norms surrounding translations. This means for example that it will be necessary to readjust some numbers of the Institutio generalis missalis Romani and of the Praenotanda of the liturgical books. The Instruction Liturgiam authenticam itself, which is to be appreciated for the attention it brings to bear on this complicated work and and its implications, must be interpreted in the light of the new formulation of Canon 838 when it speaks about seeking the recognitio. Finally, the motu proprio provides that the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacrament will also modify its own Regolamento on the basis of the new discipline and help the Episcopal Conferences to fulfil their task (MP 8).714 It follows from the above statement that the norms, instructions, principles and guidelines already referred to in this work from Sacrosanctum Concilium nn. 22 §2, 36 §4, 37, 39 & 40, and especially from the Instructions Liturgiam authenticam and Varietatis legitimate, are still valid, just that in matters concerning the need for the recognition of the Apostolic See regarding translation of the liturgical books, an interpretation on the basis of the newly formulated Canon 838 is called for.

713 Magnum Principium, 8. 714 IBID., 8.

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Though the roles have been made clearer by the Magnum principium, the Episcopal Conferences need to work in close collaboration with the competent Dicastery in reference to the stages of translation and or adaptation of liturgical books into the native languages in order to establish a close familiarity and understanding for its members. By so doing the review and evaluation of the completed and approved books will be easier for the Dicastery, which will in turn grant the needed recognition or confirmation. Otherwise, the question one may raise is, will the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments be well represented by experts for all the major liturgical languages in the world? Even in a given territory like Ghana, for instance, it will not be easy for the Episcopal Conference to prepare and approve liturgical books in the vernacular languages, since the bishops do not speak the same languages, apart from English, which is the official language. Besides, there do not seem to be many experts of the Latin and the native languages, whose services can be employed by the Bishop’s Conference. There is no wonder that most of the liturgical books produced in the Akan language have no indication of the approval of the local Episcopal Conference or that of the Apostolic See in accordance with the liturgical norms and instructions issued prior to the promulgation of the Magnum principium.

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GENERAL CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The foregoing has been a study of the development of liturgical books in the Church of the Roman Rite with a particular attention to the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi in Ghana. It became necessary and beneficial to begin with an overview of the historical development of the liturgical books in the Roman Rite. The reason was that the historical overview served as the basis for the critical analytical study of those that were developed in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi.

The first chapter of this work was, therefore, devoted to that historical overview. A critical look at this historical dimension of the liturgical books has revealed to us that the earliest true liturgical book to have been orderly developed was the Sacramentary. This organised book, which contained the texts of orations and prayers needed by the celebrant of the Holy Mass, together with evangeliaries, was attributed to Pope Gelasius (492–496)715. It went through a gradual development under many popes throughout the middle ages. Prominent among them were Pope Gregory the Great (590–604), whose modifications in the canon of the Mass are featured in the sacramentary, “notably, the insertion of the prayer Hanc igitur”716 and Popes Sergius I (687–701) and Gregory II (715–731, who are said to have introduced the Masses for the Thursdays in Lent to the book in question717. Equally significant development is the first revision of the sacramentary, its renaming as the Roman Missal in 1471 and publication in 1474718. The intervention of the Protestant Reformation in the middle ages, spearheaded by Martin Luther, also played a significant role in the subsequent revision of the Roman missal. Prompted by the reforms of the Council of Trent, it went through another revision and got published by Pope Pius V in 1570. It equally underwent a series of revision under different popes at different times in history until Vatican II, of which stages the revision was occasioned by some form of reforms.

715 PALAZZO, A History of Liturgical Books, 44. 716 IBID., 45. 717 IBID., 52. 718 REID, The Organic Development of the Liturgy, 29.

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Among other liturgical books, developed alongside the Roman Missal prior to Vatican II, were the Breviary, Missals, Lectionaries, the Gospel Book, the Roman Pontifical, the Ceremonial, the collection of Roman Rituals for celebrating the Sacraments, Sacred Music Books such as the Psalms and the Gradual, the Acts of the Martyrs and many others. Besides, the Bible featured as the indispensable element in the liturgical celebration. Though all those books were important, we devoted more attention to the study of the Roman Missal, Lectionaries, Music Books and the rituals for the administration of the Sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Reconciliation, the Sick, Holy Orders and Marriage. Those were basically the books that emerged in our first chapter of this study as the officially approved liturgical books for use in the Churches of the Roman Rite and they were enough to set the pace for the next chapters.

Since the development of the liturgical books in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi began in an area beyond the confines of the province, the second chapter of this study set out from the wider perspective of the Akan speaking area of Ghana prior to Vatican II. It was then gradually narrowed down to the area of our concentration in the subsequent chapters.

The second chapter unravelled the liturgical books that were produced in the local Akan languages of Fanti and Asante Twi in the pre-Vatican II era. These consisted of books used at Mass, para-liturgical services, like the Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament and services led by the catechists or other lay leaders in the absence of the priest. The use of the native languages prior to Vatican II presupposes that the use of the vernacular was already in force within the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi and its environs long before it was officially permitted by the Second Vatican Council.

We esteem that this early use of the vernacular in our area of study did not indicate any sort of disobedience on the part of the early missionaries or the ordinaries of the local church against the Supreme Pontiff. It was rather to help the poor native congregants to understand, follow and participate in the local liturgical celebrations. Besides, it was set to promote effective ministry for the native lay leaders, who were illiterates or half-literates. They obviously understood, read, led and taught better in the vernacular than English and Latin, which were used alongside the native languages. It is presumed that some of the books were in the French language, since the earliest missionaries who wrote the first books in the

296 vernacular came from France. No indication was, however, detected in our research that the French language was ever used in the liturgical celebrations in the pre-Vatican II period.

The sum-total of the liturgical books that emerged in the pre-Vatican II era in the Akan language, included translated parts of the Roman Missal, rites of the sacraments, funeral rites, catechism, hymns, prayers led by the catechist in the absence of the priest and benediction of the Blessed Sacrament.

In chapter three, we explored the stages through which the liturgical books came to be developed in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. The two main periods for this investigation were the pre-Vatican II and the post-Vatican II. In both periods, the development of the liturgical books passed through the stages of manuscripts, mimeograph and printing. It was discovered, however, that some books in the Akan language were printed in Europe as early as 1883. A typical example is the Atwifo Kristofo Asore ne Dwom (Hymn book for the Twi-speaking Christians) with the translation ascribed to Johann Gottlieb Christaller, who also played a key role in the first translation of the Bible into Asante Twi. In addition, we discovered that the translation in the pre-Vatican II period was characterised by individual efforts, notably Fr. Auguste Moreau, who first single-handedly translated the catechism, some parts of the Mass, the Gospel books and composed some hymns. Praise- worthy were the contributions of native people like Johnson Owusu-Ansah, who translated the benediction songs of O Salutaris Hostia and Tantum Ergo, from Latin to Asante Twi and Fr. Daniel Tawiah-Y[sere, who transcribed the catechism from Fanti to Asante Twi.

The development of the liturgical books in the post-Vatican II era, on the other hand, can be ascribed to both individual and mandated group efforts. Individuals like Rev. Fr. Charles Lejeune of the Archdiocese of Cape Coast played a very significant role in the translation of most of the liturgical books from Latin and ICEL texts to Fanti. The part played by the commissions like the National Liturgical Commission, Provincial Liturgical Commission and the diocesan Liturgical and Catechetical Commissions of Kumasi Cape Coast and Sunyani cannot be overemphasised.

However, there were challenges involved with the development of the liturgical books in all stages. The initial stage involving the missionaries revealed the challenges of language to the

297 extent of the native languages, which had no literary patterns to be followed in writing or reading. There were no written grammar books and dictionaries to assist them. Yet, they painstakingly developed their own style of writing in accordance with their own manner of hearing. One can, therefore, notice a vast difference between the spelling of words in the earliest editions and the current ones. All the same, those early writings can be read with sufficient understanding and their authors deserve a reasonable commendation.

Another challenge identified in the stages of the development of the books is the complexity of the Akan language, due to the multiplicity of dialects involved. This also posed a problem for the early writers and translators and is still a problem. The texts written in Fanti for example are not easily legible to the Asante Twi and Bono speakers and vice versa. Among other challenges identified are lack of experts in the area of translation, lack of accurate words and inadequate funding, lack of interest and collaboration of some bishops. These problems stagnated the progress of the work entrusted to the commissions and committees set up by the bishops on the national, provincial and diocesan levels. Even in the present time, they basically constitute the reason for the delay in the translation work on some of the books and some others that are not yet translated.

In the fourth chapter of this study, we identified the current editions of the liturgical books in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. With critical and analytical mindset, we perused their publication data, contents and the sizes. We observed that, though significant efforts had been made with the translation of liturgical books and the composition of liturgical music in the Akan language, there was still room for improvement. For, we spotted errors and omissions and came out with pertinent suggestions where necessary. We discovered that some of the books and booklets had the right publication details, while others had none. Some of them had been officially approved while others had not. In addition to the sporadic typographical errors and wrong translations, it was also discovered that the font sizes of the texts in all the books were not big enough for smooth and easy public reading, except those of the Twi Sacramentary (the Twi version of the Roman Missal).

So far, it has been discovered that the practised elements of inculturation were absent from the rubrics and the texts of the prayers in the main liturgical books like the Twi Sacramentary and the Rites, except the locally composed liturgical music. Most of the hymns and songs

298 composed by native musicians had not yet been compiled into books or booklets for better preservation and future use. Moreover, the rubrics in the other books for the services and prayers led by lay leaders show some discrepancies, which require rectification in order to forestall any confusion. As already pointed out, suggestions were made for their improvement, in order that the criticisms might be constructive. General recommendations will again be given towards the end of this general conclusion.

Chapter five of this study surveyed the relevant points of Vatican II’s Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy (Sacrosanctum Concilium) and the effects of the reforms of Vatican II on the liturgy and the liturgical books in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. On the basis of the principle of active participation, one of the effects of Vatican II’s liturgical reforms was the rediscovery of the roles of laity in the liturgical celebration. These include the roles of the readers, ushers, altar servers (acolytes), cantors, congregation (singing and recitation of the responses) and the ordained ministers of deacons and priests. When all of them perform their respective functions with due diligence, the sacramentality of the roles is exhibited. In other words, when the priest exercises his role as the head and the people exercise theirs as the body, the Church as the sacrament of the body of Christ is clearly exhibited. Another effect is that the distinction between a high Mass and a low Mass ceded way to the distinction between the Mass with or without congregation. Yet another effect is the permission for concelebrated Masses. Popular devotions too were separated from the Mass and not completely abolished.

The revision of the liturgical books was ordered by Vatican II in order that the divinely instituted elements that were immutable might be preserved, while those that were mutable might undergo appropriate reforms. By so doing the additional elements that found their way into the liturgy and were no longer suitable could be deleted from the books. All this was to ensure active, conscious and full participation of all in the liturgy.

It was also discovered that the reforms of Vatican II allowed the translation of the Latin liturgical texts into vernacular languages. Guidelines for this task of translation and possible adaptation, its approval by the competent territorial ecclesiastical authority and its

299 recognition by the Apostolic See were seen in the SC 22, 36–40719, more elaborately expressed in the LA 15, 70–84720. In these principles for the preparation of the translation of liturgical texts and the subsequent approbation and recognition just as already pointed out in the supplementary chapter, the roles of the Apostolic See and the competent territorial ecclesiastical authority (Bishops’ Conferences) have recently been clarified and reaffirmed by Pope Francis in his Motu Proprio Magnum Principium on the basis Canon 838721. The Episcopal Conferences possess the power to prepare and approve liturgical translations and adaptations in the vernacular languages ensuring that the character of each language is safeguarded, and the sense of the original text is rendered fully and faithfully722. The Apostolic See too has the right to recognise the translated and adapted texts already approved by the Bishops’ Conferences in order to ensure its substantial unity with the Roman Rite.

As the introduction of every new thing in life invites both positive and negative reactions, so did the implementation of the liturgical reforms of Vatican II have positive and negative reactions from the general point of view of the Roman Rite and from the particular level of the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. Those who were in favour of the reforms outnumbered those who had some negative reactions to them. In the same way the introduction of the Mass in Asante Twi was not an easy task. Those who welcomed it with joy were more than those who rather preferred to hear the Mass in Latin. However, the negative reactions gradually gave way to its acceptance. As the older generations gradually disappeared, more and more of the contemporary people became happy to hear and participate in the Mass and other liturgical celebrations in their native language. Apart from the few initial oppositions, the reforms of Vatican II were generally well accepted, especially in the now ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. Besides the translation of most of the liturgical books into the Asante Twi language and the acceptance of the removal of the altars from the wall, Vatican II has also paved the way for liturgical inculturation. Liturgical vestments and decorations exhibit

719 FLANNERY, Vatican II, 9, 10–14. 720 Liturgiam Authenticam, 41, 105–123. 721THE CODE OF CANON LAW, 154. (cf. MAGNUM PRINCIPIUM URL: http://www.press.vatican.va/content/| salastampa/en/bolletino/2017/09/09/170909a.pdf [Accessed 25 January 2018]). 722 Ibid.

300 a blend with the local cultural elements, like Kente and adinkra symbols. (See the appendix). Liturgical music has also blended with the traditional melodies, rhythms and styles. More local liturgical musicians are springing up. However, not all their compositions, have yet been compiled into books.

Departing from the overview of inculturation in the entire Roman Rite, chapter six focused on the prospects of inculturation in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. It was discovered that the Church in Ghana had been open to inculturation in compliance with the liturgical reforms of Vatican II. However, due to the multiplicity of ethnic groups and cultures in Ghana, there has not been any kind of uniformity with regards to the process of inculturation in the Church. This kind of uniformity is rather possible on diocesan and provincial levels, since common languages and cultures are shared on those levels. Subsequently, our concentration came to be centred on the liturgical inculturation in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. Examining the Akan traditional and the sacramental rites of marriage, we delved into the possibility of merging the two into one common ceremony in order to save time, finances and forestall any stress related consequences.

One of the greatest challenges confronting the Catholic Church in Africa is the proliferation of the Pentecostal, Charismatic and Evangelical Protestant Churches and their influences on the Catholic Church. These Churches make the admission to the Holy Communion much easier for the traditionally married members of their Churches. Those who are already married in accordance with the traditional rites are recognised and admitted to the Holy Communion just by a short prayer of blessing in the Church or in the family house of one of the spouses. That means that those Churches and Sects have already taken the lead in fusing the two rites by getting involved in the traditional marriage in the home of the couple, witnessing to the public expression of their mutual consent and blessing their union at the end of the ceremony. Thus, the marriage becomes automatically recognised by the Church and the couple are permitted to do all that is permitted to those, who are validly married in their Church.

Since the people in those Churches are relatives or friends of those in the Catholic Church, they naturally invite their Catholic counterparts to such important ceremonies in their Churches. After experiencing such fused ceremonies, the Catholic counterparts often refer to

301 such rites and question why the Catholic Church does not permit its members to go through such simple ceremonies in order to be able to receive the Holy Communion and other sacraments. The suggested fused ceremony of the traditional and sacramental rites of marriage comes as a possible solution to this problem, if only it is approved for use in the province.

Moreover, the Akan traditional widowhood rites and the Christian widowhood rites were equally examined. The Christian widowhood rite was discovered as the pastoral solution to the maltreatment, to which the Christian widows and widowers were otherwise subjected in the observance of the traditional widowhood rites. This shows how the Christian faith permeates a given culture and transforms the life of the Christians in that culture. Considering the extent of inculturated elements in the liturgical music, we examined the possibility of acceptance and inclusion of the traditional orchestras like nwomkr] and kete in the liturgy.

Furthermore, we tried to look into the possibility of an inculturated order of Mass in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. The conclusion was that an inculturated order of Mass would be possible, but a care needs to be taken in order not to deviate, in the process, from its substantial unity with the Roman Rite.

The study of the development of the liturgical books in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi has proven that the translation of the liturgical texts into the Akan languages of Fanti and Asante Twi began long before Vatican II. Among the earliest liturgical books in the province were Twi Ndwom-Nhoma (Twi Hymn Book) and Mfantsifu Katolikfu hon Asor Buku (The Church Book of the Fanti Catholics) printed as early as 1883 and 1902 respectively. Those were the books that contained the translated version of the basic morning and evening prayers led by the lay leaders such as the Catechists in the absence of the priest. Many of such books evolved in the missionary era prior to Vatican II. This presupposes that even before the express permission of the Church for the translation of the liturgical texts into the vernacular languages, translation into the Akan language was already in force in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. It was done out of the pastoral judgement of the early missionaries, because, that was the only way they could bring the Christian message and life to the understanding of the local people, who were predominantly illiterates, and could not easily learn to use Latin, which was the only liturgical language at the time.

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More liturgical books were translated after Vatican II, but the problems that we came across were that not all the books had been translated into the local Asante Twi, the reasons being lack of experts in linguistics and the classical languages of Latin, Greek and Hebrew and of the local Asante Twi. Another reason is the lack of adequate funds to promote and speed up the work of translations. Yet another reason is the lack of interest on the part of some local ordinaries. Many of the the translated books unfortunately had some errors. Furthermore, only a few of them satisfy the requirements of the norms, principles, instructions and guidelines laid down in the Sacrosanctum cocilium, the Lithugiam authenticam, the Varietatis legitimate and of course, the recently published Magnum principium by having proofs of the approval of the competent authority. Even those with the approval of the local competent authority, do not have evidence of the approval of the Episcopal Conference, let alone, the recognition, confirmation or approval of the Apostolic See. The sizes of most of the books and their font sizes were too small and not dignified for use in the public worship.

It was also discovered that many liturgical songs had been composed by many local musicians and many of them were used frequently and commonly in the liturgical services. Many others were forgotten and so could no longer be used in the liturgy, for, their written copies could no longer be traced. There were still others which were never written on paper as they were composed by those who were not musicians but possessed the natural charism for music. It was equally found out that liturgical inculturation was very much evident in such compositions. Unfortunately, however, only a few of them had been compiled into books and booklets. No planned efforts had been put in place for the proper documentation of such salient liturgical elements.

At this juncture, we hope our analysis and argumentation are enough to draw attention to the need to get the liturgical books properly documented and scrutinised by experts, who will in turn have to make the necessary recommendations to the competent territorial authority. On this background, therefore, we come to the conclusion of our study of the development of the liturgical books in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi by making the following recommendations:

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1. That translation committees be set up in every diocese within the province, to work in close collaboration with the diocesan, and provincial liturgical commissions. Obviously, they will need to be supported with adequate funds and equipment. That those commissions and committees be equipped with liturgical, canonical, sacramental and catechetical experts, who will study, develop and after ensuring the accuracy of the translated texts in comparison to their original sources, recommend the books to the competent territorial ecclesiastical authority for approval and further recognition or confirmation by the Apostolic See before it is published by the Bishops’ Conference in accordance with the provisions of the Liturgiam authenticam, the Varietatis legitimae and the Magnum principium. 2. That people of the requisite qualities are sent to be trained as experts in linguistics and especially, in Latin, which is the language in which all official documents of the Roman Rite are published. As the translation committees are equipped with such experts, who are also well versed in the local Asante Twi, translations could be carried out directly from the original Latin sources, instead of the English sources as has been the practice until now. 3. That all the translated books be carefully revised, by the committees and liturgical proper documentation. A particular attention is to be paid to the rubrics for the rectification of errors, omissions and discrepancies. Then the finished copies need to be presented first to the clergy and then to the faithful in accordance with the provisions of the Varietates Legitimae723. Furthermore, as required by the provisions in the Liturgiam authenticam and the Magnum principium, the completed books must be approved by the local Episcopal Conference, who will seek the recognition or confirmation of the Apostolic See prior to their publication. 4. That the remaining liturgical books, such as the Book of the Gospels, the Roman Pontifical, the Ceremonial, the Book of Blessings, the Breviary be translated from their original Latin sources and those that are already being translated be completed in due course.

723 Varietates Legitimae, 32.

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5. That the books that are meant for use in the liturgical assembly, like the lectionaries, Roman Missal, books of the sacramental rites, books of the burial rites, books for the services without a priest be produced in bigger prints to ensure better and more fluent legibility within the liturgical assembly. 6. That each sacramental rite be printed in a separate and bigger book. In the same way, the funeral rite could be printed in a separate book. Each of such books needs to be big enough to accord it the deserving dignity and integrity. Typical examples to be emulated are the books used in the German-Speaking Countries, such as, lectionaries, Mass Book, separate books for the sacraments and that of the burial rites. (See the pictures in the appendix). 7. That the liturgical music compositions by the local composers be collected and compiled into books like the Gotteslob of the German speaking countries, the New Catholic Hymnal, or the Westminster Hymnal with their proper tonic sofa notations and where possible with their staff notations, too. That the music books include suggestions of selected liturgical songs for all Sundays and feast days in order to ensure uniformity of the liturgical celebrations throughout the ecclesiastical province, following the examples of the German-speaking countries, United Kingdom and the United States of America (see the pictures in the appendix), Australia and New Zealand. 8. That the liturgical books be revised to show the practised elements of adaptation and inculturation, such as music, gestures and movements. That the suggested outline for merging the sacramental and customary rites of marriage be considered for development and implementation. That the use of the Christian widowhood rites be encouraged throughout the province. That traditional orchestras, like nwomkr] and kete be officially admitted as elements of liturgical music. That all such elements of inculturation be properly documented in their corresponding liturgical books clearly guided by the requisite rubrics. 9. That all the books produced, obtain the competent ecclesiastical approval at the diocesan level, provincial level and where necessary at the national level, without neglecting the need for the recognition or confirmation of the Apostolic See in accordance with the provisions of Vatican II, the code of Canon Law and Liturgiam

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Authenticam, which now need to be interpreted in the light of the recently published Magnum Principium. 10. That the details of publication data, including the author, translator, editor, places and dates be shown on the first, or the inside the cover page of the books. Equally, the approval details of the competent authority, place and dates are to appear clearly. 11. To ensure uniformity of practice across the province, a sufficient period of time for thorough education be stipulated before the implementation of all the approved elements of adaptation and inculturation throughout all the dioceses within the province. 12. Notwithstanding the uniqueness of the Asante Twi as the main liturgical language within the province, the languages of the migrant ethnic communities within the same province are to be given a due recognition. This recognition is to be made manifest by granting those migrant ethnic groups with significant membership, the opportunity to hear and participate in the Mass once a while in their own native languages. There will be no need to think about another translation, since they come with prepared liturgical books in their own languages.

As the ultimate objective of the revision of the liturgical books is to significantly foster the active, conscious and full participation of the faithful backed by a profound personal religious experience of the native worshippers, the following points need to be considered by the local competent authority. All the given recommendations must accordingly be upheld, and all the liturgical books of the Roman Rite correctly translated into the Akan language with the corresponding adaptations and inculturation, approved and published by the competent authority in accordance with the norms of Vatican II, the guiding instructions like the Varietates legitimae, Liturgiam authenticam and the clarifying Apostolic letter Magnum principium. Finally, sufficient teachings are to be meticulously enforced across the dioceses in the province prior to the introduction of any changes in the liturgical books. Thus, the perception of a typical Akan liturgy that maintains its substantial unity with the Roman Rite can be a reality. For, the resulting liturgy will in the end reflect the identities of both the local culture and the Roman Rite and be clearly evident in the corresponding liturgical books.

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APPENDIX

1. This map depicts the 10 Catholic Dioceses in Ghana with the Ecclesiastical Province of Kumasi marked with a deep black colour.

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2. The from cover of the weekday 3. Pages 158–159 of the weekday lectionary for use in the lectionary. German Speaking Countries.

4. Schott Mass Book for use in the German-Speaking Countries. The pictures show the front cover and the opened pages.

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5. The front cover and the title page of the English translation of the Lectionary, approved by the Antilles Episcopal Conference.

6. The front cover and the title page of the book of Children’s Baptism for use in the German-Speaking Countries.

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7. The picture on the left-hand side shows the front cover of the Gotteslob, while the one on the right-hand side depicts, the same book, opened. It is the liturgical music book approved for use in the German-Speaking Countries.

8. On the left is the front cover of the Catholic Hymnal, which is opened on the right. It is for use in the United Kingdom.

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9. The front cover and the title page of the first volume of Lectionary, for use in England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland.

10. The front cover and the title page of the Weekday Missal for use in England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland and South Africa.

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11. The Book of Blessings prepared by ICEL and approved for use in the Dioceses of the United States of America by the National Conference of Catholic Bishops and confirmed by the Apostolic See.

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12. The front cover of the ICEL translation of the Roman Missal according to the third typical edition, approved for use in the Dioceses of the United States of America.

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13. Rev. Frs Andrew Kwame Takyia and Enoch Duah in chasubles with kente design.

14. A Rev Deacon in a dalmatic with kente design. Two newly ordained priests in chasubles with kente design.

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QUESTIONNAIRE

1. What was the bishops’ early response to the provisions of Vat II for the liturgical reforms? 2. What liturgical books were in use before Vatican II? Was any of them translated into Akan before Vatican II? What are the books produced so far? 3. Not all the Roman Catholic Rites have been translated into Asante Twi. Why have all the Roman Liturgical Rites not been translated into Asante Twi, to date?

4. What kind of adaptations was done in the course of the translation? What were the first copies of the translated liturgical books and from which language were they translated, editio typica, English?

5. Who (which groups of people) were officially tasked to do the translation?

6. Were there individual initiatives that later won the approval of the bishops?

7. What stages did the translation go through? 8. The translation of the third typical edition of the Roman into the Asanti Twi began in 2011 but seems to have been put on hold. Why is such a long delay? 9. How does such lack impede full, active and conscious participation in the liturgy? 10. Have there been any attempts on liturgical inculturation, on the Mass, Ordination Rites or other sacraments? If so what has been done? 11. The adaptations and inculturated elements are not yet seen in the liturgical books within the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi. What are the taken measures in ensuring proper documentation of adapted and inculturated elements in the liturgy? 12. What were the challenges involved with the introduction of vernacular in the local liturgy? 13. Many songs have been composed by a number of liturgical musicians and being used frequently in the liturgy in the province of Kumasi, yet only a few of them have been compiled into books. Why have the majority of such beautiful compositions not yet been compiled into books? 14. Brother Pius initiated the Adehyemma Groups across the Akan dioceses. How did it all start? What were the objectives for their formation, and how did they contribute to the inculturating of the liturgical music? How did they help with the active, conscious and full participation of the faithful?

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15. Nnwomkro is traditional orchestral music. What do you think of its inclusion in the liturgy? What about the inclusion of other traditional orchestras like Kete? What would be the possible reactions from the faithful of their inclusion in the liturgy? 16. What are the effects of Vatican II on the Church in Kumasi Province? What were the early reactions from the general public and have the changes been fully accepted up to date? 17. What have been the major shifts in the area of liturgical music with regards to the local culture? 18. Vatican II provides that “Translations from the Latin for use in the liturgy must be approved

by the competent territorial ecclesiastical authority […]” (SC 36, 4)28? Does the Ecclesiastical province adhere to this required norm of Vatican II?

19. What kind of approval has been obtained for the books produced (diocesan, provincial, national, Vatican)? 20. Is there any basis for a perception of a distinctly Inculturated Akan Liturgy? Can you suggest any practical steps toward this end?

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ABBREVIATIONS

AAS = Acta Apostolicae Sedis

AG = Ad Gentes

CV = The Catholic Voice ( A monthly magazine of the Catholic Church in Ghana)

DOL = Documents on the liturgy 1963–1969

GS = Gaudium et Spes

ICEL = International Commission on English in Liturgy

LA = Liturgia authentica

LG = Lumen Gentium

MP = Magnum principium

SC = Sacrosanctum Concilium

SMA = Société Missionaire Africaine (Society of African Missionaries)

VApS = Verlautbarungen des ApostolischenStuhls, hg. vom Sekretariat der Deutschen Bischofskonferez, Bonn 1975ff.

VL = Varietates Legitimae

317

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources

Latin Liturgical Books

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Missale Romanum ex decreto Sacrosancti Oecumenici Concilii Vaticani II instauratum aucoritate Pauli PP. VI promulgatum. Editio typica, Vatican City 1970; Ordo Missae, Editio typica tertia, 2002, 501–603.

Missale Romanum ex decreto Sacrosanti Oecumenici Concilii Vaticani II instauratum auctoritate Pauli PP. VI promugatum. Ordo lectionum Missae. Editio typica, Vatican City 1969; Editio typica altera, 1981.

Liturgical Books in Ghana

ALBERT, Maximiliani, Mfantsifu Katolikfu hon Asor Buku onyi Ndwim Buku: Liber precum et canticorum, Christifidelium Vicariatus Apostolici a Litore Aureo usui accomodatus, Monasterii 1902.

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ARCHDIOCESE OF CAPE COAST, Catholic Mfantse Ndwom Buukuu [The Book of Catholic Hymns in Fantse], Cape Coast 2007.

ARCHDIOCESE OF CAPE COAST, Fantse Catholic As]r Na Ndwom Buukuu [Fantse Catholic Hymnal], Cape Coast 1991

ASARE-BEDIAKO, David O., Akristofo Momma Y[nto Dwom [Christians, Let us Sing], Akwatia 1974.

CATECHETICAL OFFICE, CATHOLIC ARCHDIOCESE OF KUMASI, Asante Akenkans[m [The Book of the Lectionary in Asante] Cycles A, B, and C, Kumasi 2002.

318

IBID., Asante Mpaeb] Nwoma [Asante Prayer Book], Kumasi 2003.

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IBID., Catholic Badwam Som Ahodo] Nhyehy[e[ Nwoma [The Book of Assorted Catholic Liturgical Rites], Kumasi 2004.

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CATECHETICAL TEAM, CATHOLIC ARCHDIOCESE OF KUMASI, Nso Wukuada ne Nnaw]twe Kronkron Som a Catechist di anim [Ash Wednesday and Holy Week Service led by a Catechist], Kumasi 1994.

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CHRISTALLER, Johann Gottlieb, Twi Dwom-Nhoma anase Atwifo Kristofo Asore Dwom: Tshi Hymn-Book or Liturgy and Hymns in the Asante and Fante Language called Tshi (Chwee, Twi), Basel 1883.

NATIONAL LITURGICAL COMMISSION, Infant Baptism: Guidelines and Pastoral Directives, n.p. 1988.

Primary Sources in Other Languages

BUGNINI, Annibale (ed.), Documents on the Liturgy, 1963-1979, Conciliar, Papal, and Curial Texts: International Commission on English in Liturgy, Launching the Reform, Collegeville 1982.

BUGNINI, Annibale, The Reform of the Liturgy 1948–1975 (trans. Mathew J. O’CONNELL), Collegeville 1990.

DESCLÉE – MAME (eds.), Missel Romain, Paris 1978.

Die Feier der heiligen Messe. Messbuch für die Bistümer des deutschen Sprachgebietes. Authentische Ausgabe für den liturgischen Gebrauch. Teil 1: Die Sonn- und Feiertage deutsch und lateinisch. Einsiedeln u.a. 1975.

319

Die Feier der heiligen Messe. Messbuch für die Bistümer des deutschen Sprachgebietes. Authentische Ausgabe für den liturgischen Gebrauch. Teil II: Das Messbuch deutsch für alle Tage des Jahres auẞer der Karwoche. Benziger Einsiedeln u.a. 1988.

FLANNERY, Austin (ed.), Vatican Council II: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Documents– Sacrosanctum Concilium (A completely Revised Edition in Inclusive Language), New York 2007.

HÜNERMANN, Peter (ed.), Die Dokumente des Zweiten Vatikanischen Konzils Konstitutionen, Dekrete, Erklärungen, Freiburg 2004.

Inter Oecumenici, Sacred Congregation of Rites: Institution on the Liturgy, N.C.W.C. Translation, Rome 1964.

Liturgiam Athenticam, Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments: Fifth Instruction on Vernacular Translation of the Roman Liturgy (Latin- English Edition), Washington D.C. 2001.

Liturgiam Authenticam, Kongregation für den Gottesdienst und die Sakramentenordnung: Fünfte Instruktion „zur ordnungsgemäßen Auführung der Konstitution des Zweiten Vaticanischen Konzils über die heilige Liturgie“ (zu Art. 36 der Konstitution), Lateinisch – Deutsch (VApS 154), Bonn 2001.

Musicam Sacram, no. 6 (Lat. text: EDIL 1,738; English text: Liturgy Documents 3, 178). =Instruction Musicam Sacram – On Music in the Liturgy, 5 March 1967, no.6. – Lat. edition: Enchiridion Documentorum Instaurationis Liturgicae, vol. 1, ed. Reiner Kaczynski, Turino 1976, 277 [text unit no. 738]; English edition: The Liturgy Documents, vol. 3, Chicago 2014, 178.

Music in Catholic Worship, National Conference of Catholic Bishops, Washington D.C. 1983.

Redemptoris Sacramentum, Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, Instruction on certain matters to be observed or to be avoided regarding the Most Holy Eucharist, Boston 2004.

Römische Liturgie und Inkulturation, Kongregation für den Gottesdienst und die Sakramentenordnung, Decret: (25.01.1994) (VApS 114), Bonn 1994.

The Roman Missal, International Commission on English in Liturgy (ICEL), The English Translation According the Latin Typical Edition, New York 1974.

The Roman Missal, International Commission of English In Liturgy (ICEL), English Trans- lation According to the 3rd Latin Typical Edition of 2008, Washington DC 2011.

320

The Sacramentary, International Commission of English In Liturgy (ICEL), English Translation Revised According to the Second Typical Edition of the Missale Romanum (19751), Collegeville 1985.

Varietates Legitimae, Fourth Instruction for the Right Application fo the Conciliar Constitution on the Liturgy (nos. 37–40), Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, Vatican City 1994.

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IBID., The Power of the Eucharist: Understanding the Mass of Vatican II, Accra 2011.

AGYEMANG, Pius F.K., Understanding the Order of Mass, Tema 2012.

BIERINGER, Andreas, A Halfway House to Aggiornamento? Die ersten muttersprachlichen Messbücher in den USA (1964 – 1966) (Studien zur Pastoralliturgie 38), Regensburg 2014.

BRADSHAW, Paul F, The Search for the Origins of Christian Worship: Sources and Methods for the Study of Early Liturgy, London 22002.

BRADSHAW, Paul F. – JOHNSON, Maxwell E. (eds.), The Eucharistic Liturgies: Their Evolution and Interpretation, Collegeville 2012.

BOKENKOTTER, Thomas, A Concise History of the Catholic Church, New York 2005.

CHRISTALLER, Johann Gottlieb, Twi Dwom-Nhoma anase Atwifo Kristofo Asore Dwom: Tshi Hymn-Book or Liturgy and Hymns in the Asante and Fante Language called Tshi (Chwee, Twi), Basel 1883.

CHUPUNGCO, Anscar J., Cultural Adaptation of the Liturgy, New York 1982.

IBID., Liturgical Inculturation: Sacramentals, Religiosity, and Catechesis, Collegeville 1992.

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IBID., Worship Beyond Inculturation, Washington D.C. 1994.

DAVIES, John Gordon (ed.), A New Dictionary of Liturgy and Worship, London 1996.

DEVINE, George, Liturgical Renewal, New York 1973.

DIX, Gregory, The Shape of the Liturgy, London 1993.

ELVINS, Mark Twinham, Towards a People’s Liturgy: The Importance of Language, Leominster 1994.

FINK, Peter E. (ed.), The New Dictionary of Sacramental Worship, Collegeville 1990.

FREI, Fritz (ed.), Inkulturation zwischen Tradition und Modernität: Kontexte – Begriffe – Methode, Freiburg 2000.

GALE, Thomas (ed.), New Catholic Encyclopaedia, 2nd Edition, Washington D.C., 2003.

GANZER, Klaus – STEIMER, Bruno (eds.), Lexikon der Reformationszeit 2 (Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche Kompakt), Feiburg im Breisgau – Wien [u.a.] 2002.

IBID., Dictionary of the Reformation 2 (Encyclopedia of Theology and Church) (trans. Brian MCNEIL), New York 2004.

GLÄSER, Jochen – LAUDEL, Grit, Experteninterviews und qualitative Inhaltsanalyse als rekonstruirender Untersuchungen vol. 2, Wiesbaden 2006.

HERMANS, Jo, Die Feier der Eucharistie: Erklärung und spirituelle Erschlieβung, Regensburg 1984.

JONES, Cheslyn et al., The Study of Liturgy, New York 1992.

KACZYNSKI, Reiner, Theologischer Kommentar zur Konstitution über die heilige Liturgie. Sacroscanctum Concilium, in: Peter HÜNERMANN – Bernd-Jochen HILBERATH (eds.), Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Zweiten Vaticanischen Konzil vol. 2, Freiburg/Br. 2009, 11–227.

KASPER, Walter, Die Liturgie der Kirche (Gesammelte Schriften Vol. 10), Freiburg – Basel – Wien 2010.

KLEINHEYER, Bruno, Ordinationen und Beauftragungen in: Sakramentliche Feiern II (Gottesdienst der Kirche. Handbuch der Liturgiewissenschaft 8/2), Regensburg 1984, 7–67.

322

IBID., Riten in um Ehe und Familie, in: Sakramentliche Feiern II, (Gottesdienst der Kirche. Handbuch Liturgiewissenschaft 8/2), Regensburg 1984, 67–157.

IBID., Sakramentliche Feiern I. Die Feiern der Eingliederung in die Kirche (Gottesdienst der Kirche. Handbuch der Liturgiewissenschaft 7/1), Regensburg 1989.

KLÖCKNER, Martin, et al., (eds.), Liturgiereformen 1: Biblische Modelle und Liturgiereformen von der Frühzeit bis zur Aufklärung (LQF 88), Münster 2002.

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LENGELING, Emil Joseph, Die neue Ordnung der Eucharistiefeier: Allgemeine Einführung in: das Römische Meẞbuch [...] (LG 18/19), Münster 1970.

LEVER, Robin A. – ZIMMERMAN, Joyce Ann (eds.), Liturgy and Music: Lifetime Learning, Collegeville 1998.

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METZGER, Marcel, History of the Liturgy: The Major Stages, Collegeville 1997.

MEYER, Hans Bernhard, et al. (eds.), Eucharistie - Geschichte, Theologie, Pastoral (Gottesdienst der Kirche. Handbuch der Liturgiewissenschaft 4), Regensburg 1989.

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AFRIFAH-AGYEKUM, Joseph Kwaku, The History of the Liturgical Life of the Church in Ghana 1880- 1980: A History of the Liturgical Praxis of Five Dioceses of the Southern Ecclesiastical Province of the Church in Ghana [published dissertation, Pontifical Institute of Liturgy, St. Anselm, Rome], 1992.

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NJOKU, Annistus, Igba Oriko Rite of the Igbos (as a Meal of Reconciliation) Vis-á-vis the Christian Agape: An Impulse to Liturgical Inculturation [unpublished doctoral dissertation University of Vienna], 2013.

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ABSTRACT

Liturgical books contain the prayer of the Church and the word of God. They began their evolution in the course of the history of the liturgy, which cannot be separated from the historical development of the Church itself. Just as there is a close connection between the history of the Church and that of the liturgy, so is there a rapport between the development of the liturgical action and the creation of liturgical books. Similarly, the development of the liturgical books in the Akan or Asante Twi began in the early missionary era, long before the permission for translation of liturgical books was granted by the Second Vatican Council, held from 1962 to 1965. A provision for liturgical adaptation was equally made by the Vatican Council II. From then on, the development of the liturgical books in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi proceeded alongside some spells of inculturation with a higher level of acceleration.

With a reasonable inspiration from the norms of Vatican II, guided by some post-conciliar documents, Varietates legitimate and Liturgiam authenticam this study of the development of liturgical books in the said province was eventually directed toward the establishment of the progress of liturgical inculturation in the ecclesiastical province of Kumasi and the possibility of identifying inculturated elements in the local liturgy, reflected in the corresponding liturgical books. To this effect, three instances were showcased for critical examination: the possibility of merging the traditional and sacramental marriage rites into one ceremony, the possible implementation of the Christian widowhood rites as a pastoral substitute to the traditional widowhood rites and the possibility of including traditional orchestras like nwomkr] and kete in the realm of catholic liturgical music.

The first chapter surveyed the historical dimension of liturgical books in the entire Roman Rite. Going through the periods before and after Vatican II, the gradual process of the development of the Sacramentary (the Roman Missal) and other liturgical books was established as a stepping stone for the next chapters of this study. Dealing with the key points of the development of liturgical books in the Akan language prior to Vatican II, the second chapter revealed some liturgical books translated into the Asante Twi even before Vatican II, by way of a pastoral judgement on the part of the early missionaries rather than disobedience. Chapter three explored the stages and challenges through which the liturgical books were

327 developed in the province before and after Vatican II. Characterised by individual and mandated group efforts, the development faced the following challenges: lack of literary patterns of the Akan language, complexity of the language, lack of experts in translation, lack of interest on the part of some bishops and inadequate funding.

Chapter four perused the publication data, contents and sizes of the liturgical books in the Kumasi province, observing that there was still a room for improvement despite the significant efforts made. Notable discrepancies, such as lack of indication of the practised elements of inculturation and others, were identified. Chapter five examined the effects of the reforms of Vatican II on the liturgy and the liturgical books in the province, exemplified by active participation, use of vernacular, adaptation and inculturation. The sixth chapter dealt with the overview of inculturation and its prospects in the province, examining three main instances of inculturation. As a supplementary chapter, the motu proprio Magnum principium was introduced and analysed in relation to the rest of this study.

In conclusion some practical recommendations are offered for the improvement of the development of the liturgical books for use in the ecclesiastical province in question. As the ultimate objective of the revision of the liturgical books is to significantly foster the active, conscious and full participation of the faithful backed by a profound personal religious experience of the native worshippers, the following points need to be considered by the local competent authority. All the given recommendations must accordingly be upheld, and all the liturgical books of the Roman Rite rightly translated into the Akan language with the corresponding adaptations and inculturation, approved and published by the competent authority in accordance with the norms of Vatican II, the guiding instructions like the Varietates legitimae, Liturgiam authenticam and the clarifying Apostolic letter Magnum principium. Finally, sufficient teachings are to be meticulously enforced across the dioceses in the province prior to the introduction of the changes in the liturgical books. In this way, a typically Akan catholic liturgy in union with the entire Roman Rite can be achieved.

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ABSTRACT (DEUTSCH)

Liturgische Bücher enthalten die Gebete der Kirche und das Wort Gottes. Ihre Entstehung im Verlaufe der Liturgiegeschichte kann nicht getrennt werden von der historischen Entwicklung der Kirche selbst. Wie es einen engen Zusammenhang gibt zwischen der Kirchen- und der Liturgiegeschichte, so auch einen engen Konnex zwischen der Entwicklung der liturgischen Handlungen und der Schaffung von liturgischen Büchern. In ähnlicher Weise begann die Entwicklung liturgischer Bücher in der Akan- oder Asante-Twi-Sprache in der frühen missionarischen Ära, noch lange bevor die Erlaubnis zur Übersetzung der liturgischen Bücher (in die Landessprache) durch das Zweite Vatikanische Konzil (1962-1965) erteilt wurde. Ebenso wurden auch Auflagen für die liturgische Adaption durch das II. Vatikanum gemacht. Von da an begann die Entwicklung der liturgischen Bücher in der Kirchenprovinz Kumasi, begleitet von manchen Phasen der Inkulturation, mit größerer Beschleunigung voranzuschreiten.

Angemessen inspiriert durch die Normen des II. Vatikanums und geleitet durch einige nach- konziliare Dokumente wie Varietates legitimate und Liturgiam authenticam, wandte sich diese Studie der Entwicklung liturgischer Bücher in der besagte Provinz letztlich der Frage zu, was der aktuelle Stand des Prozesses der liturgischen Inkulturation in der Kirchenprovinz von K. ist, und ob die Möglichkeit besteht, bereits inkulturierte Elemente in der lokalen Liturgie, insofern sie in den entsprechenden liturgischen Büchern zu finden sind, zu identifizieren. In diesem Sinne wurden drei Beispiele präsentiert und kritisch untersucht: die Möglichkeit, die traditionellen und sakramentalen Trauungsriten in e i n e r Zeremonie zu verschmelzen, die mögliche Einführung der christlichen Riten betreffend den Witwenstand als ein pastorales Instrument, um die traditionellen Rituale des Witwenstandes abzulösen und die Möglichkeit, traditionelle Orchester wie nwomkr] und kete in den Bereich der katholischen Liturgiemusik zu integrieren.

Das erste Kapitel untersuchte die historische Dimension der liturgischen Bücher im gesamten Römischen Ritus. Im Durchgang durch die Perioden vor und nach dem II. Vatikanum wurde der schrittweise Entwicklungsprozess des Sacramentary (des Römischen Missale) und anderer liturgischer Bücher als ein Aufbaustein dem nächsten Kapitel zugrunde gelegt.

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Indem es sich mit den Kernpunkten der Entwicklung liturgischer Bücher in der Akan- Sprache vor dem II. Vatikanum beschäftigte, zeigt das zweite Kapitel einige liturgische Bücher, die von den frühen Missionaren in die Asante-Twi-Sprache übersetzt wurden (wohl mehr aus einem pastoralen Ermessen heraus als aus Ungehorsam). Das dritte Kapitel erforschte die Etappen und die Herausforderungen, durch welche die Entwicklung der liturgischen Bücher in der Provinz vor und nach dem II. Vatikanum hindurchging. Die Ent- wicklung ist sowohl durch individuelle als auch durch (beauftragte) Arbeit in Gruppen gekennzeichnet und sah sich mit folgenden Herausforderungen konfrontiert: einem Mangel an literarischen Ausdrucksformen in der Akan-Sprache, der Komplexität der Sprache, dem Fehlen von kompetenten Übersetzern, einem Mangel an Interesse seitens einiger Bischöfe und einer unzureichenden Finanzierung.

Kapitel 4 nahm die Publikationsdaten, die Inhalte und die Größenformate der liturgischen Bücher in der Kumasi-Provinz unter die Lupe, mit der Beobachtung, dass durchaus noch Raum für Verbesserungen besteht, trotz der bereits erfolgten signifikanten Anstrengungen. Kapitel 5 untersuchte die Auswirkungen, welche die Reformen des II. Vatikanums auf die Liturgie und die liturgischen Bücher in der Provinz hatten, beispielhaft angeführt anhand der aktiven Teilnahme am Gottesdienst, des Gebrauches der Landessprache sowie der Adaption und Inkulturation. Das sechste Kapitel brachte eine Übersicht über die Inkulturation und ihre Zukunftsperspektiven anhand der Untersuchung der drei Hauptbeispiele der Inkulturation. Ein ergänzendes Kapitel führte das Motuproprio Magnum principium in die Studie ein und analysierte es in Bezug auf den Rest dieser Studie.

Zuletzt wurden noch einige praktische Empfehlungen für die Verbesserung der Entwicklung der liturgischen Bücher, die in der angeführten Provinz in Gebrauch sind, gemacht. Da als oberste Zielsetzung für die Revision der liturgischen Bücher eine signifikante Förderung der aktiven, bewussten und vollen Teilnahme der Gläubigen – abgesichert durch eine profunde persönliche religiöse Erfahrung der einheimischen Kirchgänger – angesehen werden muss, sollten die angeführten Punkte von der lokalen zuständigen Autorität erwogen werden.

Alle gemachten Empfehlungen müssen entsprechend unterstützt und alle liturgischen Bücher des Römischen Ritus´ korrekt in die Akan-Sprache übersetzt werden, mit entsprechenden

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Änderungen im Hinblick auf Inkulturation, approbiert und veröffentlicht durch die zuständige Autorität in Übereinstimmung mit den Normen des II. Vatikanums und den richtunggebenden Instruktionen, die in den Dokumenten Varietates legitimae und Liturgiam authenticam sowie dem klärenden Apostolischen Schreiben Magnum principium enthalten sind. Schließlich muss noch sorgfältig für eine ausreichende Unterweisung in den Diözesen der Provinz gesorgt werden, ehe man die Änderungen in den liturgischen Büchern einführt. Auf diese Weise sollte es möglich sein, eine Akan-typische katholische Liturgie zu schaffen, die in Einheit mit dem gesamten Römischen Ritus steht.

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CURRICULUM VITAE

1. BIOGRAPHY Name: Very Rev. Fr. Andrew Kwame Takyia Date of Birth: 16th June 1961 Place of Birth: Atrensu in the Techiman Municipality Father’s Name: Paul Kwasi Krah (Catholic) Mother’s Name: Mary Adwoa Bour (Catholic) Position in the family: 3rd of 7 Family profile: 100 percent Catholic, healthy, no chronic or hereditary disease Priestly Ordination: 21st July 1990 Place of Ordination: Christ the King Cathedral, Sunyani

2. EDUCATION 1966–1976 MSLC: Atrensu/Ayeasu L/A Primary& Middle Schools 1978–1982 ‘O’ Level: St. James Minor Seminary, Sunyani 1982–1984 ‘A’ Level: St. Hubert’s Minor Seminary, Kumasi 1982–1990 Philosophy & Theology: St. Peter’s Regional Seminary, [Pedu] Cape Coast 1996–1997 Higher Diploma in Pastoral Studies: Pontifical University, Maynooth, Ireland 1997–1999 MA Pastoral Liturgy: Heythrop College, University of London, England 1998–1999 Certificate in Counselling Skills and Pastoral Care: Westminster Pastoral Foundation, London, England

3. PASTORAL EXPERIENCE 1990–1991 Associate Priest: St. Bernard’s Parish, Yeji 1991–1992 Associate Priest: St. Patrick’s Parish, Atebubu 1992–1993 Associate Priest: St. Peter’s Parish, Kenyasi 1993–1996 Fidei Donum Missionary: Diocese of Abengourou, Cote d’Ivoire [Associate Priest, Bongouanou] 1996– Parish Priest: Techimantia 1996–1999 Associate Priest: Our Lady Queen of Heaven, Queen’s Way, London 2000–2001 Acting Diocesan Chancellor, Sunyani/ Priest in Charge: Kotokrom- Yawhimakrom 2001–2004 Fidei Donum Missionary: Vicariate of Francistown, Bostwana [Parish Priest: Selebi Phikwe] 2005–2008 Parish Priest: St. Anna; Wamanafo 2008–2012 Administrator: St. Paul’s Cathedral, Techiman Diocese

4. OTHER DIOCESAN RESPONSIBILITIES 2000–2001 Diocesan MC, Sunyani 2001–2008 Member, Diocesan Liturgy Commission, Sunyani 2005–2008 Diocesan Commentator, Sunyani 2005–2008 President, Sunyani Diocesan Priests’ Association 2005–2008 Member: Priests’ Senate, Sunyani

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2005–2008 Member: Diocesan Pastoral Team, Sunyani 2008–2012 Dean of Techiman Deanery, Techiman Diocese 2008–2012 Consultor, Diocese of Techiman 2008–2012 Member: Priest’s Senate, Diocese of Techiman 2008–2012 Chairman: Diocesan Liturgical Commission 2008–2012 Coordinator: Inter Religious Dialogue and Ecumenical Relations, Diocese of Techiman 2008–2012 President: Techiman Diocesan Priests’ Association 2008–2012 Member, Diocesan Catechetical Commission

5. MINISTRY IN AUSTRIA 2013–2014 Assistant Priest – Pfarre Neufünfhaus, Vienna 2014–2015 Assistant Priest – Pfarre St. Florian, Vienna 2015– Assistant Priest – Pfarre Pressbaum, Pressbaum

6. LANGUAGES KNOWN Twi (Ghanaian), English, French, Agni (Ivorian), Setswana (Botswana), German and a little knowledge in Latin

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