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Kraeva Larisa, Lomova Irina

Pocket book on : topics and terminology Учебно-методическое пособие

Санкт-Петербург, 2018

К.77

Рецензенты – Толстикова Ирина Ивановна, кандидат философских наук, доцент, заведующая кафедры социальных и гуманитарных наук Университета ИТМО; Болдырева Елена Леонардовна, кандидат политических наук, доцент кафедры международных отношений Гуманитарного института Санкт-Петербургского Политехнического Университета Петра Великого.

Краева Л.Б., Ломова И.О. Pocket book on philosophy: topics and terminology. Учебно-методическое пособие на английском языке. – СПб: ПОЛИКОНА, 2018. – 98 с.

ISBN 978-5-9905951-8-7 ББК 87.3 УДК 1.101

Авторы – Краева Лариса Борисовна, доцент кафедры социальных и гуманитарных наук Университета ИТМО, Ломова Ирина Олеговна, доцент кафедры социальных и гуманитарных наук Университета ИТМО.

 Санкт-Петербургский национальный исследовательский университет информационных технологий, механики и оптики, 2018

Краева Л.Б., Ломова И.О., 2018

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Content Introduction. 4 Topic 1. as a philosophy of freedom. 6 Topic 2. Philosophy as and gnoseology. 21 Topic 3. Anthropology and as a . 52 Topic 4. . 70 Topics of practical classes and reports on philosophy. 89 Examples of tasks for control work. 94

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Introduction Philosophy is one of the leading subjects in the complex of social sciences. His tasks are determined by the general significance of philosophical as a form of worldview that reflects the spiritual of mankind and an essential element of culture. The course "Philosophy" is designed to: - give students knowledge relevant to the analysis of changes occurring both in Russian society and in the world as a whole; - form a spiritual world and world outlook culture, consisting in the ability to understand cultural diversity, to comprehend its humanistic content, to inculcate the ability to critically reflect on the meaning and values of human life; - develop a methodological culture adequate to modern requirements, allowing the modern specialist to adapt quickly to radical changes in the content and objectives of activities, to promote his social and professional mobility; - give in-depth knowledge of the historical and philosophical section; acquaint them with classical philosophical texts; - form ability for critical thinking and the ability to quickly master large amounts of ; - develop the skills of philosophical thinking, the ability to conduct discussions, convincingly and reasonably defend their views and beliefs. The course "Philosophy" is studied for one semester, two modules. The program of the discipline provides for various types of studies - lectures, practical classes. The main form of mastering philosophical knowledge is independent work. In the process of studying philosophy, the current and border control of knowledge is carried out. Border control provides for testing, control work at the end of the study of each module. The study of philosophy presupposes a close relationship with other disciplines studied at the university. Particular attention should be paid to ensuring 4 a close link between , psychology and pedagogy, culturology, social and political problems of modern society, and other disciplines. Consideration of the original concepts of philosophy, systems of dialectics and should be based on the knowledge already available to trainees in the natural and social sciences.

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Topic 1. Political philosophy as a philosophy of freedom. The concept of freedom becomes an important category of philosophy of modern . The theme of freedom was considered in various aspects: the problem of political freedom was seen in , in the theory of "", the problem of metaphysical freedom was analyzed in the philosophy of history and ethics. The determination of theory of "natural law". "Natural law" is a set of inalienable and rights derived from human and independent of social conditions. Natural law is contrasted with positive (i.e., actually prevailing) law, first, as a perfect form is the opposite of imperfect current form, and secondly, as the , arising from the nature of man and therefore remaining constant and unchanging value. The main points of the theory of natural law: 1) the Study of human nature comes from the of . Those representatives of the theory of natural rights, who argued that "man is by nature good", believed that "natural" non-state status was "the Golden age of mankind". Those who believed that man is by nature angry, believed that the natural state of society before the emergence of the state was a "war of all against all" (Bellum omnium contra omnes). For the first this was introduced by T. Hobbes in his treatise "Leviathan." 2) the Theory of explains the origin of civil society, state and law as a result of agreement between people. The social contract implies that people are partially renounce sovereignty and hand it to the authorities to obtain and maintain social order through the state and law. 3) Approval of a natural inalienable human rights to life, liberty, and acquisition. Examples of application of the theory of "natural law". Under the influence of the theory of natural law was drafted such legislation as a "Declaration of independence" of July 4, 1776. "Declaration of the rights of man and citizen" of 1789 in France also reflects the idea of natural rights, article 2 of the Declaration

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States: "the Goal of every natural Unions is to ensure natural and inalienable human rights". General characteristics of "natural law", the main and representatives. Conservative political philosophy was represented, for example, by the ideas of Thomas Hobbes. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) is one of the founders of the "contractual" theory of the origin of the state. His main social science treatise was called "Leviathan, or the , form and power of the state Church and civil" (1651). In this theory, the state is characterized as the result of a contract between people, which put an end to the state of the natural condition of "war of all against all". According to this theory, individuals have voluntarily limited their rights and freedoms in favor of the state through the social contract, and the main task of the state is to ensure peace and security. T. Hobbes adhered to the of legal , the principle of which was to recognize as legal rules only the rules positive (i.e. cash, current) law and to reduce any right to the regulations in force in this era, although true it is right or not. Hobbes praised the state as the absolute sovereign, believed that monarchy was the best form of government. T. Hobbes advocated the subordination of Church to state, believed that religion was an instrument of state power for ideological control over the people. Ethics of Hobbes comes from his understanding of human nature. The basis of morality, "natural law," defined as the desire for self-preservation and the satisfaction of needs. From the point of view of Hobbes, the virtues depend on a reasonable understanding of good and moral obligation is defined as performance of the civil obligations deriving from the social contract. The liberal direction of political thought justified various civil rights and freedoms. (1632-1704) developed a theory of political freedom of conscience. In political philosophy he was the representative of liberalism. In the works "Essay on toleration", "The message of religious tolerance" (the 1st was published in 1689, the 2nd and the 3d, in 1692, the 4th – 1706), and "The Right of the people to revolt against tyranny", "Reflections on the glorious revolution of 1688" has developed a theory of the relationship between nation and state, civil 7 and political society. Locke believed that the government created to guarantee natural rights (freedom, equality, property) and (peace and security). Locke was a supporter of constitutional monarchy, and argued in his theory of the social contract. As a theorist of civil society advocated for a democratic state, the accountability of the king and the lords of the law. Suggested separation of powers between the legislative and Executive branches, giving priority to the legislature. Hugo Grotius (1583 – 1645) laid the foundations of modern international law and justified the theory of political freedom such as freedom of movement. Grotius graduated from the University of Leiden in 1598, aged 15 years, by profession he was a lawyer. He laid down the norms of modern international law, based on the theory of "natural law". From his manuscript "Review on the law of mining", was found and published only in 1864, Chapter XII during his lifetime, in 1609, was published under the title "Mare Liberum" ("Free sea"). Already in this work was the principles that were the basis of his work on international law, "De jure belli ac pacis" ("On the law of war and peace") 1625го. In "Mare Liberum" of Grotius formulated the new principle that the sea was international territory and all Nations have the right to use it for trading. However, with Holland competing Great Britain, and to justify the rights of Great Britain John Selden (1584-1654) in his treatise "Mare Clausum" ("closed sea", 1635) argued that sea has the ability to land and, therefore, the Kingdom seeks to establish sovereignty over the seas. Hugo Grotius in his treatise 1625го, "De jure belli ac pacis libri tres" ("Three books on the law of war and peace"), dedicated to Louis XIII justified legal norms related to the conduct of the war. In the book I Grotius develops the theory of war and of natural justice, considering questions of "fair" war. Book II identifies three "just" causes for war: self-defense, reparation of loss and punishment, as well as detailed analysis of the main international legal institutions. Book III turns to the question of what norms to follow, when the war began, and outlines a way for the speedy termination of wars. By 1775 it was already 77 editions in Latin, Dutch, French, German, English and Spanish.

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Liberal and radical political philosophy was looking for ways to support civil liberties in the States, for example, with the introduction of the principle of separation of powers into different branches of government. Charles Louis Montesquieu (1689-1755) was a supporter of the geographical schools of political philosophy, he gave priority to the development of civilizations conditions of the geographical environment. Defended the ideas of liberalism and representative democracy. In the treatise "About spirit of laws" (1748), book I, "Of laws in General" developed the ideas of natural rights, argued, that people need in society, General laws determines the formation of the state. For the formation of the state (political society) and the establishment of General laws necessary to civil society, the unity of many people. Montesquieu justifies the liberal idea that freedom can be secured only by the laws. "Freedom is the right to do whatever is permitted by the laws." Montesquieu argued that the necessary separation of powers into legislative, Executive and judiciary. Montesquieu noted the connection of the laws of climate, as well as the correspondence between the laws and principles of government. In the reasoning of the three different images of the Board argued that the democratic principles are honor and virtue, to aristocratic rule, the main principle is moderation, for the monarchy the main principle is honor, despotism basic principle is fear. Montesquieu proves that the world is not run by divine Providence, and the General causes of moral and physical order, defining the "spirit of the people." Climate, religion, laws, principles of government, examples of past manners and customs are the soul of the people. The legislator must comply with the spirit of the nation, then will be political freedom. Montesquieu argued for the fundamental principles of political liberalism as the priority of individual freedom, based on the principles of natural law: the delimitation of spheres of state and civil society, as well as the separation of powers. Francois Marie Arouet Voltaire (1694-1778) became a symbol of dissent, which in the XVIII century was synonymous with his name. Sensualist, but the enemy is the materialistic philosophy was opposed to religion, in articles gives a 9 vivid criticism of religious beliefs of a Church, religious morality, denounced the crimes of the Church. The theory was the proponent of natural law, defended the ideals of liberty, property, security and equality, but believed that positive laws are needed because "people are evil". His views on between God and the world is called deism: God created the Universe and its Affairs does not intervene. While Voltaire believed that religion should be saved as "a bridle for the people": "If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent". The treatises in "Philosophical letters" (1734), "a Pocket philosophical dictionary" (1764) are part of his huge literary heritage. Voltaire was a supporter of social inequality, of enlightened absolutism and opposed the education of the common people. Denis Diderot (1713-1784) founded the "Encyclopedia, or Explanatory dictionary of Sciences, arts and crafts" (1751), together with Montesquieu, Voltaire, and has also written numerous plays. Their philosophy was materialist. Denied dualistic idea of the dichotomy of material and spiritual principles, argued that there is only matter, with the sensuality and the complex and diverse phenomena are explained as the result of the motion of its particles. Political views Diderot decorated in the theory of enlightened absolutism, which was largely addressed to the Russian Empress Catherine II. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) in his political views was a supporter of direct democracy (as in Switzerland). His work "Discourse on the origin and grounds of inequality between people" spoke out against the socio- political and material inequality. The literary-philosophical works of Rousseau developed this cultural trend, as a sentimentalism, focused on the priority of feelings, not of reason. The development of the Russian political philosophy has given many interesting examples of radicalism, liberalism and . All these areas of political thought solved the problem of freedom in different ways. Russian political thought and political history demonstrate very rich tradition of radicalism. Let’s analyze some examples of it. The founder of a Russian radicalism is Alexander Radischtschew (1749-1802), the author of many literary, philosophical and political texts such as infamous “Ode to the Liberty”, 10

“The journey from St-Petersburg to Moscow” and “About the human , his mortality and immortality”. He declared against serfdom and fought for the freedom of serfs and wrote about necessity of reforms that could be undertaken by the government. He proclaimed priority of the rights of people under the rights of monarch. Advanced and enlightened Empress of Russia, Ekaterina II, realized his proclamation as an attempt of revolution, and he was repressed. In spite of that, revolutionary activity in Russia has prolonged. Russian revolutionary radicalism of the XIX – beginning of the XX centuries has got three main periods of its development: the first period was associated with revolutionary activity of the noble rank, the second period became a period of revolutionary democracy and Russian populism and the third period was a period of revolutionary Marxism. The first period, so called Decembrist period, looked like the most paradoxical one, because the main force of revolutionary activity was privileged class of the Russian nobility, which fought for the abolition of common people from serfdom. There were two ideological branches inside the theory of the Decembrists, headed by Pavel Pestel (1793- 1826) and Nicita Muraviov (1795-1843). They had common idea about revolution and abolition from serfdom, but also there were some disagreements in their plans, as we can see in their projects of the future Constitution of Russia. Muraviov was a supporter of constitutional monarchy, restricted by federal form of the power in Russia. In his opinion, only Federation eliminates any possibility of the restoration of despotic royal power. Pestel had other, more radical plan of renovation of the state of Russia. He pursed a policy of revolutionary institution of the Republican government in the form of representative democracy. Pestel advocated for the preservation of a united and indivisible Russia. Also, he demanded not only the abolition of serfdom, but abolition of the class division of society. He was so radical, that he demanded the extermination of the ruling royal family. An attempt of revolution in December of 1825 wasn’t successful, and the participants of this movement were executed or exiled to hard labor in Siberia, also they were deprived of noble rank, so they suffered heavy punishment. Their revolutionary 11 attempt demonstrated a brilliant example of a struggle for the freedom of the Russian people. The second period of development of radical political philosophy and practice was created by people of different degrees and classes. Part of intelligentsia – A. Herzen, N. Ogarev, V. Belinsky, N. Cherhyshevsky - created antimonarchy revolutionary ideology of especial Russian , directed, most of all, against the institute of serfdom. Alexander Herzen (1812-1870), the author of many articles, for example “Dilettantism in science”, “From the other shore”, “About the development of the revolutionary ideas of Russia”, gave the philosophical and theoretical rationale of so-called "Russian peasant socialism”. He proclaimed political ideal as the unity of the individual and the state, of government and society, of communism and selfishness. Herzen believed that saving of the collective land in a peasant community was the advantage of Russian society from Western Europe. Thus, he concluded possible of a long process of non-capitalist development of Russian society by combining of traditional collective institutions and the individual freedom. Nikolay Chernyshevsky (1828- 1889), the leader of revolutionary democracy, philosopher, economist, publicist and writer, author of many books and articles, such as “Criticism of the philosophical prejudices against the communal land tenure”, “The capital and the labor”, “The anthropological principle in philosophy” and social and philosophical novel “What is to be done?”. In his social philosophy Chernyshevsky prolongs Herzen’s idea of non-capitalist movement of Russia to socialism. He believed that Russian society can achieve socialism passing stage of capitalism, on the base of peasant community, using economic experience of Western countries and community skills of Russian peasants. His formulation of non-capitalist way of Russia’s development looks like combination of patriarchal peasant community, the achievements of science and large-scale machine industry. The conception of Chernyshevsky had some contradiction: on one hand, he believed the peasant revolution as a goal of social transformation in Russia, on the other hand, he didn’t believe in the revolutionary power of the peasantry, 12 because he proclaimed special mission of intelligentsia in the history. This belief in revolutionary mission of intelligentsia is one of the main point of Russian populism. In general, we can say that in his sociological theory Chernyshevsky demonstrates revolution theory as a philosophy of action. Next stage of the second period or political philosophy developed after abolition from the serfdom in 1861. There were three main branches of Russian populism, leaded by M. Bakunin, P.Tkachyov and P.Lavrov. Michael Bakunin (1814-1876), author of many books, such as “Federalism, socialism and antiteleologism”, “The statehood and the anarchy”, was the founder of the Russian . He gives a materialistic explanation of social relations, statehood and culture. He proclaims of three main principles of the individual and the collective development in the history: 1) human wants which correspond to the social and private economy; 2) trend of the human thought which correlates with the science and 3) revolt which associates with the freedom. Bakunin substantiated the fundamental distinction between the society and the principle of the statehood. Society exists because of instinct of solidarity, but the statehood bases on the instincts of the power. He argues that the state opposes the individual freedom because statehood is a result of violence and wars, and that is why state is a temporal form of a society’s organization which connects with the exploitation, privileges and the system of injustice. That is why he demands immediate transition to the out-of-state society. Unlike other currents of populism, theory of Bakunin believes in the of socialist instinct in the peasantry, which needs just organization by intelligentsia. On one hand, he believes that Russian peasants are native rebels; on the other hand, he points negative sides of people’s ideal, such as patriarchal character, faith in God and the validity of the royal power. So, main point of his anarchy theory is a contradiction between the democracy of social goals and the elitist in achievement them. The next branch of the Russian populism, theory of revolutionary terror, supported by followers of O. Blanque (1805-1881), so called blanquism, was developed by Peter Tkachyov (1844-1886), the author of many popular articles, 13 such as “The tasks of revolutionary propaganda in Russia”, “The revolution and the State”, “The people and the revolution”, “The anarchic state”, “The revolution and the principle of nationality” and many others. His radical philosophy considers a technology for the capturing of political power and the destruction of the state by the actions of so-called “conscious minority”. He believed that there were necessary conditions of revolution in Russia: the communal structure and the Communist instinct of the people. In contrast to Bakunin, Tkachyov didn’t believe in the revolutionary power of the Russian peasantry, characterized it as a passive conservative social force. He called for a revolution in the name of people, but without people. As distinct from anarchism, Tkachyov didn’t reject the idea of state power. On the contrary, he believed that the state power is necessary in the post-revolutionary period of the building of a socialist society. Thus, his theory demonstrates a belief in the political factor of social progress and hope that using a state of the dictatorship of the revolutionaries can change not only the social environment but also human nature. The third branch of the Russian populism, headed by sociologist and writer Peter Lavrov (1823-1900) can be characterized as a theory of “Russian peasant socialism”. His historical and sociological analysis of the genesis and the evolution of the state and features of functioning of the state power after the social revolution described in such books as “Historical letters”, “The state component in the future society”, “The social revolution and the tasks of morality” and others. Lavrov determines the of philosophy as a human being in his social development. Also, he describes three main stages of the historical progress: 1) the gradual process of achievement for a domination of human being over the nature; 2) the establishment of the kingdom of human being over the animal world; 3) elimination in the society of the struggle for existence with the reasonable cooperation replacing competition. As sociologist, Lavrov used so- called “subjective method”, analyzing the evolution of forms of solidarity between people and social ideas generated by “critically thinking individuals”. Such individuals move social and cultural progress placing before the society of 14 moral purposes. According to Lavrov, political progress is a process of weakening of statehood in society and the transformation of political communication into the social ones. He rejects the bourgeois state as undemocratic and inhumane, but offers as its alternative the socialism with economic dictatorship and mutual social control. Thus, Lavrov underrated the role of the state and law-enforcement authorities. Populism has lost its historical actuality soon, because capitalist economy successfully developed in Russia in the XIX century. Moreover, conservative Russian peasantry did not accept ideas of the populism. So, in the moment of the collapse of the Russian populism, the era of Marxism was approaching. The third period of development of the political philosophy of radicalism continued until the revolution in 1917. It was a period of the emergence and the maturation of the Russian Marxism. Marxism was known in Russia since 40th years of the XIX century, but it became popular and widespread in the 80-90th years of the XIX century. Famous philosopher, sociologist, writer, historian of social thought and culture George Plekhanov (1856-1918) became the “godfather” of Russian Marxism. He passed a difficult way from the populism to Marxism. He was a member of the populist organization “The land and the freedom”, later he formed organization “Black repartition”, but subsequently he was disappointed in the ideas of populism. After reading “The Communist Manifesto” Plekhanov came to the conclusion that Russia has already embarked on the path of the bourgeois development, that was accompanied by the growth of the proletariat and the development of its class consciousness. Marxism has got a lot of areas, but in Russia there was a politicization of the Marxist doctrine, its focus on the revolutionary practice. In his articles “Socialism and the political struggle”, “Our disputes” Plekhanov used the methodology of Marxism for analysis of the statehood, power and revolution. He believed that the materialist understanding of history could help to discover the objective laws of the social development and thereby to achieve the political freedom. In his work “The basic questions of Marxism” Plekhanov develops Marx’s understanding of relationship 15 between the basis and the superstructure. In his opinion, the structure of society looks like the interaction of the several components: 1) the condition of the productive forces; 2) economic relations determined by the condition of the productive forces; 3) socio-political system that has grown up on this economic basis; 4) the psyche of the “social person”, determined by previous factors; 5) different ideologies, that reflect the nature of this psyche. Plekhanov also highlights the “geographic factor” as the natural conditions that contribute to the development of economic relations and the of the state. That is why, in his opinion, the state of Russia has got its socio-historical in the framework of the general laws of the common social development. So, he believed that the evolution of political institutes and legal norms of the bourgeois state and the development of the capitalist economy in Russia were required to prepare the working class for a future socialist revolution. As a representative of the orthodox Marxism, Plekhanov believed that Russia could exhaust all possibilities of capitalism before the transition to socialism, although he hoped for acceleration of the development of capitalism in Russia. That is why he argued that the Bolshevik revolution in 1917 wasn’t consistent with Marxism, because by the time the potential of capitalism in Russia wasn’t fully disclosed. His political philosophy was developed and converted by revolutionary Marxism of V. Lenin (Ulyanov), A. Lunacharsky, L. Trotsky, N. Buharin and many others, which became the ideology of revolution and building of the soviet society. The Soviet period of the development of Russian political philosophy was a period of dialectical and historical , but in this part of our studies we’re discussing some aspects of revolutionary Marxism and theory of bolshevism as the most original appearance in political philosophy and social practice. The founder of Soviet State, Vladimir Lenin (Ulyanov) (1870-1924) created many philosophical and political books and articles, transformed Marx’s theory and ideas of the Russian populism and orthodox Marxism. In his theory Lenin doesn’t accept the Marxist idea that capitalism must exhaust itself economically and politically by the time of the communist revolution. In his work 16

“Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism” Lenin argues that capitalism has entered into the highest and the last stage of its development – imperialism. In his opinion, the World War I could become a catalyst for destruction of imperialism. Unlike Western European social democrats, linking the beginning of the world revolution with the developed capitalist countries, Lenin believed that Russia as the weakest link in the chain of capitalism could start a world revolution. Lenin and his comrades believed in the world’s revolution, so they hadn’t special plan of the survival of the socialist state in the capitalist environment. According to classical Marxism, future communist revolution must destroy statehood and all forms of private property as tools of exploitation. In Lenin’s opinion, the institute of state could be saved during the transition period, in which the statehood and the public ownership of means of production were preserved. In the essays “Two tactics of social-democracy in the democratic revolution” (1905) and “The state and the revolution” (1917) Lenin developed the idea of the dictatorship of the proletariat as the first stage of the withering away of the bourgeois and later, the proletarian state. Lenin’s supporters (and sometimes opponents) A. Bogdanov (1873-1928), A. Lunacharsky (1875-1933), L. Trotsky (1879-1940), N. Buharin (1888-1938), J. Stalin (1879-1953) created the theory of the development of the socialist state, based on challenges of political practice. Thus, the history if the Soviet state became the synthesis of political theory and dramatic historical circumstances. The theme of freedom is also presented in the philosophy of history and practical philosophy, i.e. ethics, which are discussed in other topics.

Terminology of the topic: Anomie is a condition of the lack of social norms, leading to social disruption, disruption of social institutions, growth of social tension. Anthropogenesis is the the conception of origin of man from the animal kingdom, his transformation into a social and spiritual being, the transition of biological evolution into the history of society. Depending on the approach, the 17 essence of the anthropogenesis process can be thought of the formation of labor activity (F. Engels) or the ability to symbolically transform (E. Cassirer).

Civil society is the self-government of different levels, social control, the implementation and protection of the rights of citizens. A developed politico- cultural civil society level is a sign of democracy. Natural law is the doctrine of the state and the rights of citizens, means an eternal and immutable right, which is derived from the characteristics of the abstract nature of man. The human right to freedom, equality, property, life are natural rights that stand above the monarch's arbitrariness. Supporters of the theory of natural law were Hugo Grotius, Spinoza, Hobbes, Holbach, Russo, Radischtschew. Political ideology is a theoretical justification of law and the practical maintenance of legitimacy. The main types of ideologies are conservatism, liberalism, radicalism. Conservatism justifies or preserve the existing political system, or the restoration of recently-existing system, and also fits the moral world of the individual to conventional morality. Liberalism justifies the transformation of the political system through reform, through change of legislation. It proclaims and defends the rights and freedoms of citizens and their equality. Radicalism calls to destroy the existing political system by the revolutionary, illegal way. Left radicalism justifies the need of building a fundamentally new society, it looks forward to the future and believes in social progress. Right radicalism justifies the revival of the myth about the past power of the state or nation, uses radical methods and means, referring to conservative ideals. Political power is the social relation, which is characterized by the ability of one group to control other group or society as a whole.

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Political regime is the character and form of interaction between political and civil society. Main types of political regimes are authoritarianism, totalitarianism, democracy. Political society is a system of organizing power in the state. Politics is the social institution through which power, social order, resource distribution are established in society. Politics is the art of government. Scope of activities related to the relationship between classes, nations and other social groups. The concept of politics covers the political system of society, the role and correlation in this system of the state, parties and public organizations, the content of political power, ways to develop and implement public policy. Secondly, the participation of various social strata in political life, the political culture of people and their education, the regulation of social and political relations, then it includes the foreign policy activity of states, the activities of various international movements and associations, international relations. Politics in the narrow sense of the word is understood as the direction of the state's activity in this or that sphere of public life. State as the main element of the political system is the political integrity, formed by national or multinational community embodied in a certain territory, where the government supports the established social order, having the legislative right of coercion. The main attributes of a state are territory, population, system of government (e.g., in terms of separation of powers - it is the interaction of the legislative, Executive and judiciary), as well as the sovereignty political independence and separate the activities of the state in domestic and foreign policy. State is the central institution of the political sphere of the life of society, political integrity created by a national or multinational community in a certain territory where, with the help of a political elite monopolizing power, a legal order is maintained, including the legal right to use violence. The following are the signs of the state: public authority, disposing of special administration and enforcement (army, police, court); territory subject to the jurisdiction of that state (the right to execute a court); the system of law is a set of obligatory norms, the observance of 19 which is provided by the authorities. State power is universal, since it applies to all citizens, to all organizations and institutions of the country. The state sovereignty presupposes complete independence in internal affairs and external relations, that is, over the power of a state recognized as sovereign, there is no other power capable of subordinating it to itself or obstructing it in the implementation of its will. In the international sphere, the sovereignty of a state is expressed in its right independently, independently of other states, to resolve all its internal issues and enter into international agreements.

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Topic 2. Philosophy as ontology and gnoseology. Philosophy as science solves such basic problems as an ontological theory of substance, epistemology as theory of knowledge and the development of universal methodology of scientific knowledge. The philosophy as science arose in Ancient Greece and Rome. Ancient Greek natural philosophy. Philosophical Outlook was looking for the first substance constituting the world, the universe. Already in ancient Greek thought surfaced in a dramatic confrontation between the marshalling space of harmony and disruptive chaos. Different philosophers have found different first substance. Thales of Miletus (founder of the of natural philosophy, 640/ (625 G. the conjecture of Diels-Kranz) – 1st half of the VI century BC) argued that the beginning elements of mere things. Water is the first principle from which comes all things, and what all is allowed. Water is compared to the Divine self-sufficient early. Thus, all forms of water: by its solidification or evaporation, the water becomes other elements – earth, air. Anaximander (representative of the Milesian school, 610 – CA. 540 BC) believed that the source of all things, infinite in time and infinite in space indestructible the beginning of the "Apeiron", which is in constant motion and containing all possible opposites. Apeiron – something devoid of borders as external, i.e. it is quantitatively infinite and internal, that is, it is qualitatively indeterminate. It's endless the first principle is divine, immortal and indestructible. The divine does not die and is not born. If the infinite source, the infinite and worlds that are born from infinities. In the treatise "On nature" (546/547 G. BC), the disclosure of which was cosmogony, cosmography, the etiology of meteorological phenomena, Anaximander formulated a law like the law of conservation of matter: "of those things of which all things are born things in the same kinds of things they are destroyed according to the purpose". Anaksimen (representative of the Milesian school, approx. 584 – 528(5) BC) believed the fundamental principle of the world the air. In the treatise "On nature" Anaksimen also explored the cosmogony, cosmography, and the 21 etiology of meteorological elements. "Comprehensive" space formatter from Anaximenes, like Anaximander's "boundless". By defining air as the cosmogonic root cause Anaksimen describes him as a "thickening and rarefaction" and the first single infinite substance. Thus, the diversity of things is opposite and equivalent to the processes of condensation (cooling) and vacuum (heating) of air that lead him to various States. Heating transforms it into the fire, the vacuum in the water, land, etc. Heraclitus (of Ephesus, circa 540 – 480 BC) believed the origin of the fire that transforms in air, water, earth and back because of their variability and inconsistency. Attributed to him the phrase "Everything flows, everything changes" represents the formation as a continuous transition from one extreme to the other. Opposites unite in harmony. This harmony and unity of opposites is God and Divine. Primordial world in the philosophy of Heraclitus – fire. In the treatise "About the Universe, about the state, about theology," he wrote about the struggle and harmony. Heraclitus expounded the idea of fire as the continuous movement, the development of opposites, contradiction as the source of development. Thus, already in antiquity there were foundations of dialectics – the doctrine of development of opposites. A symbol of the unity of opposites for Heraclitus is the Logos – the backbone of the law, managing processes, space. (of Elea, founder of the Eleatic school, his follower Zeno of Elea, the representative of the school of Elea, age akme Parmenides was approximately 504-501 BC) in his poem "On nature" argued that the existence of the same mind. A philosophical poem "On nature" (the title later, there are about 160 verses) is preceded by the mystical and allegorical introduction, and breaks down into two parts: "the Way of " and "the Way of opinion." It is theoretically conceivable two ways: 1) to assume that something "is and cannot not be"; 2) to assume that something "is not and should not need to be." The first of these is the path of persuasion and truth, the second must be rejected as absolutely unknowable, because the denial of the existence of something presupposes the knowledge of him, and thus his reality. So, outputs the identity of being and thinking: "to Think and to be are one and the same" (FR. 3). Being is and cannot not be; nothingness 22 is not, and nowhere and never can be. Being is pure existence, nothingness, pure negation. Being is what is not born and is indestructible, has no past and future, existence eternal present without beginning and without end. (about 570 BC – 497/496 BC) believed that in the development world, there are quantitative laws, "all things are numbers", to understand the world is to know the control number. Good must be peculiar to the order, shape and size, and the evil was attributed to the chaos, darkness and uncertainty. Number was understood as the beginning of all things, a reality, not a mental . For the mystical teachings of Pythagoras, was characterized by the belief in "metempsychosis" - the embodiment of souls in different bodies, that is, the rebirth of souls. The ethical theory of Pythagoras implied the desire for cleansing ("catharsis") that is achieved for the body through vegetarianism, soul – through the knowledge of musical and numerical structure of the . Reconstruction of the original teachings of Pythagoras and the Pythagorean evolution early in the history of philosophy is hindered by the secrecy characteristic of the Pythagorean communities, as well as a demand to ascribe to Pythagoras all open students. Ancient V-IV centuries BC in the face of Leucippus (V century BC) and Democritus of Abdera (460 – CA. 360 BC) argued that things are composed of indivisible particles – atoms that do not arise and are not destroyed. Atomist claimed that indivisible, not arising, indestructible, unchangeable atoms form small existence in its entirety. The collision of atoms is the cause of everything. Atoms naturally inherent movement in the void, but because of the different shapes, size and position of the atoms either engage or repel. The founder of atomism Leucippus is considered his works "A Great diakosmos" and "On mind". Unlike Parmenides, Leucippus admits the existence of non-existence as emptiness, separating the smallest particles of existence (atoms). Atoms are indivisible, changeless and without qualities differ from each other only by size and shape. They are in a state of perpetual motion. Facing and coupled to each other, the atoms form a variety of things. The process of formation of the cosmos, as all that is done in the world, and is subordinate to natural necessity. The 23 philosophy of Democritus, follower of Leucippus, is the prototype of a consistent materialistic doctrine. The Democritus appears detailed theory of cognition based on the distinction between sensual and rational knowledge. Sensory experience is the starting point of knowledge, but it gives an incomplete knowledge, as the true "nature" of things (atoms) are not accessible to the senses and apprehended only through thinking. Developing the views of Leucippus about the necessity and regularity, Democritus was closer to the mechanistic understanding of the world, consider as the result of movement, resistance and collisions of atoms. Randomness in the sense of wanton, they were rejected: those seem to be random events, the reasons for which we do not know, that is, all knowledge was to establish the causes of events. Democritus adopted the concept of Leucippus on space vortices, generating countless worlds, changing it only in some details. For antique atomism is also characterized by the development of ethical theories. For example, Democritus believed that the purpose of life is a good mood, which is not identical with the sensual pleasure and means serene and happy as when a person is not exposed to passion and fear. The highest virtue Democritus recognizes serene wisdom. The most well-known ethical theory atomistic school is the ethics of Epicurus (341 - 270 BC) and , as will be discussed later. In general, it can be noted that initially for cosmocentrism was typical, which later gave way to an emphasis on anthropocentrism, and this is reflected in the ancient social philosophy and philosophical anthropology. The metaphysical doctrine was developed by the ancient Greek philosophers-idealists and . Plato (lived in Athens in 427 – 347 BC) is known primarily as the author of the doctrine of ideas. According to this theory, Genesis includes timeless beyond-space world of ideas and the spatial temporal world of things, where things receive their existence through emanation, that is, the embodiment ideas into the world. Truly real and perfect in the teachings of Plato is the world of ideas and the world of things is the reflection and distortion of the world of ideas. Therefore, true knowledge is found in the world of ideas. 24

Aristotle (Stagira, 384 – Chalcis, 322 BC), the founder of Lyceum, the , the tutor of Alexander the great, created a metaphysical concept based on the interaction of such notions as matter and form. If the analogy with the teachings of Plato, the notion of form, "Eidos" of Aristotle corresponds to the concept of ideas in Plato and the Aristotelian concept of matter – the idea of the variability of the Platonic things. The difference between these two metaphysical concepts that Plato separated the world of ideas and the world of things, and Aristotle believed that to know the form of the thing in its material embodiment, that is, the physical existence of a thing embodies its metaphysical essence. In his "" Aristotle outlined the doctrine of the four causes and the first principles of all things. 1) formal cause is the essence of a thing, "that", the reason for the formation of multiple things out of matter. In the analogy with sculpture, the formal cause is a project of the statue, the of the sculptor; 2) material cause is "something". Matter is the "first" matter, eternal, indestructible, passive, lifeless, unable to do of themselves generate, and "the last" matter furnished in things. By analogy with sculpture it is the material from which the statue is made (copper, marble); 3) producing driving cause is "where the movement". A combination of dynamics as possible (bearer capabilities is matter) and "energy" as fact. By analogy with a sculpture this sculpture as an art, the skill of the sculptor; 4) the task is "what", the implementation of the mission. For example, the creation of the statue. Thus, Plato and Aristotle formulated the primacy of ideas over matter, proclaimed the priority of the metaphysical principle in relation to the physical world. In modern times the doctrine of substance was developed by B. Spinoza, R. Descartes, G. Leibniz. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) was a proponent of the mechanistic, believed that matter (including subtle) consists of elementary particles, the local mechanical interaction of which produces all phenomena. Descartes proved the existence of two substances – extended and thinking ones. The human being is a manifestation of both substances, that is extended and thinking substance, but the 25 rest of the phenomena of the physical world are only a manifestation of the extended substance. Descartes was a representative of idealist philosophy, and the idea of God as the substance constituting the world, was proclaimed as the basis of human cognition. The assertion that human consciousness is constituted of innate ideas of mind, laid the Foundation of this direction in the theory of knowledge, as is . The main topics of theory of Descartes was reflected in such treatises as “Rules for the Direction of the Natural Intelligence” (1628), “Discourse on the Method” (1637), “Principles of Philosophy” (1644). Benedict (Baruch) Spinoza (1632-1677) was a pantheist, he argued the identity of God and nature. Believed that nature is uniform, eternal, and infinite substance that excludes the existence of any other beginning, which is the cause of itself (causa sui). Spinoza defined the attributes as the inherent properties of the substance. The human mind can realize only two attributes – thought and extension. If Descartes asserts the existence of two substances, thinking and extended ones than justifies dualism, Spinoza proves the existence of the one substance with two attributes - length and thinking, justifying . 1664 Spinoza published "the foundations of Descartes's philosophy," the "Metaphysical reflections," in 1675 he completed "Ethics", but had not have time to publish, it was published after his death in 1678 in the Dutch translation. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) argued that the real world consisted of countless mentally active substances indivisible primary elements of life – monads, which were among themselves in respect of pre-established harmony, arguing substantial pluralism. Monads constitute the intelligible world, which produces the phenomenal world, that is, physical space. Harmony as one- to-one correspondence originally is established by God. All actions of monads are fully interrelated and predetermined. In the world there is a rising hierarchy of monads from simple, capable of (perceptions) to complex monad of monads (souls of people), capable of perceptions and apperception (consciousness). The main work of Leibniz, "Discourse on metaphysics" (1685),

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"New system of nature" (1695), "New experiments about the human mind" (1704),"Theodicy" (1710), "Monadology" (1714). The above-mentioned philosophers were the founders of such direction in the theory of knowledge, as rationalism. Rationalism, also known as the rationalist movement, is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth can best be discovered by reason and factual analysis. In an old controversy, rationalism was opposed to , where the rationalists believed that reality has an intrinsically logical structure. Because of this, the rationalists argued that certain exist and that the intellect can directly grasp these truths. That is to say, rationalists assert that certain rational principles exist in , mathematics, ethics, and metaphysics that are so fundamentally true that denying them causes one to fall into contradiction. The rationalists had such a high confidence in reason that empirical proof and physical evidence were regarded as unnecessary to ascertain certain truths – in other words, there are significant ways in which our concepts and knowledge are gained independently of sense experience. Different degrees of emphasis on this method or theory lead to a range of rationalist standpoints, from the moderate position "that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge" to the more extreme position that reason is "the unique path to knowledge". Rationalism consists of three basic claims. The ones who consider themselves as rationalists must adopt at least one of these three claims. The intuition/deduction thesis is: "Some propositions in a particular subject area are knowable by us by intuition alone; still others are knowable by being deduced from intuited propositions." Generally speaking, intuition is a priori knowledge or experiential belief characterized by its immediacy; a form of rational insight. We simply just "see" something in such a way as to give us a warranted belief. Beyond that, the nature of intuition is hotly debated. In the same way, deduction is the process of reasoning from one or more general premises to reach a logically certain conclusion. Using valid arguments, we can deduce truth from intuited premises. The innate knowledge thesis is: "We 27 have knowledge of some truths in a particular subject area as part of our rational nature." Our innate knowledge is not learned through either sense experience or intuition and deduction. It is just part of our nature. may trigger a process by which we bring this knowledge to consciousness, but the experiences do not provide us with the knowledge itself. It has in some way been with us all along. The innate concept thesis: "We have some of the concepts we employ in a particular subject area as part of our rational nature." Similar to the Innate Knowledge thesis, the Innate Concept thesis suggests that some concepts are simply part of our rational nature. These concepts are a priori in nature and sense experience is irrelevant to determining the nature of these concepts (though, sense experience can help bring the concepts to our conscious mind). Since the Enlightenment, rationalism is usually associated with the introduction of mathematical methods into philosophy which is seen in the works of Descartes, Leibniz, and Spinoza. This is commonly called continental rationalism, because it was predominant in the continental schools of Europe, whereas empiricism dominated in Britain. Rene Descartes is one of the earliest and well-known proponents of Rationalism. He believed that knowledge of eternal truths (e.g. mathematics and the epistemological and metaphysical foundations of the sciences) could be attained by reason alone, without the need for any sensory experience. Other knowledge (e.g. the knowledge of physics), required experience of the world, aided by the scientific method - a moderate rationalist position. For instance, his famous dictum "Cogito ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am") is a conclusion reached a priori but isn’t through an inference from experience. Descartes claims that some ideas (innate ideas) come from God; others ideas are derived from sensory experience; and still others are fictitious or creation by the imagination. Of these, the only ideas which are certainly valid, according to Descartes, are those which are innate.

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In his “Discourse on the Method” he attempts to arrive at a fundamental set of principles that one can know as true without any doubt. To achieve this, he employs a method called hyperbolical or metaphysical doubt, also sometimes referred to as methodological skepticism: he rejects any ideas that can be doubted, and then reestablishes them in order to acquire a firm foundation for genuine knowledge. Thus, in epistemology, Descartes was a proponent of rationalism as a theory of innate ideas (e.g. cogito ergo sum) and as a universal method of knowledge by means of deduction as reasoning from General to specific. Nature of deduction as a whole suggests that if all A (A1, A2, A3...an) = A, so any a=B. expanded upon Descartes' basic principles of Rationalism. His philosophy was based on several principles, most of which relied on his notion that God is the only absolute substance (similar to Descartes' conception of God), and that substance is composed of two attributes, thought and extension. He believed that all aspects of the natural world (including Man) were modes of the eternal substance of God, and can therefore only be known through pure thought or reason. The pantheism of Spinoza asserted the identity of God and nature, which he interpreted as a single, eternal and infinite substance, the cause of itself (causa sui). The number of attributes of the substance is infinite, but the human mind can understand only two – thought and extension. For Spinoza characteristic of the mechanistic interpretation of , the identification of and necessity, that is, a mechanistic fatalism. The world is like a mathematical system and it can be known geometrical method. In "Ethics", considering man as part of nature, Spinoza argued that body and soul were mutually independent as a consequence of the ontological independence of the two attributes of substance. This view of Spinoza combines with the trend in the explanation of human mental activity: the dependence of human thinking from its bodily condition is detected, according to Spinoza, at the stage of sensory . Perceptual knowledge provides the first kind of knowledge is opinion (opinio). Perceptual knowledge can lead to confusion. The rationalism of Spinoza is evident in the juxtaposition of cognition and understanding (intellection) as the only source of reliable truths. 29

Understanding acts as the second kind of cognition, consisting of reason (ratio) and intellect (intellectus). Achieving adequate truths, only possible at this stage, it is because the human soul as the modus of the attribute of thinking is able to grasp all that comes from substance. It may also be due to the fundamental thesis of the rationalistic panlogism, identifying the principles of thinking with the principles of existence: the order and connection of ideas is the same as the order and connection of things. The third kind of knowledge is intuition as the Foundation of reliable knowledge. Intuition is interpreted by Spinoza as an intellectual one; it gives knowledge of things from the point of view of eternity through the necessary modes of a single substance. Based on these arguments, Spinoza rejects the idea of Agency in anthropology, as the will in the theory of Spinoza coincides with the mind. Spinoza believes that all human actions are necessary, that is, freedom and necessity are compatible, they are the so-called "free necessity" (libera necessitas). Freedom is identified with cognition, the desire for self-knowledge recognizes the strongest human desire. Spinoza put forward a position about the intellectual love of God (amor Dei intellectualis) and the eternity of the human soul, so human death is understood as the return to a single first substance. In the center of the anthropological system of Spinoza is the notion of "free man", guided only by reason. Gottfried Leibniz attempted to rectify what he saw as some of the problems that were not settled by Descartes by combining Descartes' work with Aristotle's notion of form and his own conception of the universe as composed of monads (simple substances). Monads are the fundamental unit of reality, according to Leibniz, constituting both inanimate and animate objects. These units of reality represent the universe, though they are not subject to the laws of causality or space. Leibniz, therefore, introduced his principle of pre-established harmony to account for apparent causality in the world. Gottfried Leibniz's theory of pre- established harmony is a philosophical theory about causation under which every "substance" (monads) only affects itself, but all the substances (both bodies and

30 minds) in the world nevertheless seem to causally interact with each other because they have been programmed by God in advance to "harmonize" with each other. The successor of rationalism in the theory of knowledge was I.Kant. The most famous works of I. Kant (1724-1804) are "Critique of pure reason" and "Foundations of the metaphysics of morals". Theory of knowledge Kant divides the a “priori” (prior experienced) the knowledge of noumenon (things-in- themselves) and “a posteriori” (empirical, experienced) knowledge of phenomena (things-for-us). The truth is not in the , but in the judgment about it. In relation to the experience judgments are divided into a priori and empirical. Informative judgments are divided into analytic (explaining, for example, "all bodies are extended") and synthetic (that is, for example, "all bodies have weight"). Transcendental philosophy as the knowledge of the types of knowledge engaged in the sphere of a priori synthetic judgments. Method of a priori cognition is a transcendental apperception, which manifests itself in two main forms of sensuality and reason. For sensuality basic methods to advanced knowledge are the space (it is studied by geometry) and time (it is studied by algebra or transcendental ). To the mind the basic methods to advanced knowledge are the quantity (unity, plurality, totality), (reality, negation, limitation), relation (substantiality and accident, cause and effect, interaction) and modality (possibility and impossibility, existence and nonexistence, necessity and chance), which is studied by transcendental logic. Thus, Kant grounded universal methodology of knowledge based on the principles of rationalism. In the justification of the theory of knowledge rationalism was opposed by empiricism. The justification of the theory of knowledge rationalism was opposed by empiricism. Empiricism is the theory that the origin of all knowledge is sense experience. It emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory perception, in the formation of ideas, and argues that the only knowledge humans can have is “a posteriori” (i.e. based on experience). Most empiricists also discount the notion of innate ideas or (the idea that the mind is born with ideas or knowledge and is not a "blank slate" at birth). In order to build a more 31 complex body of knowledge from these direct observations, induction or inductive reasoning (making generalizations based on individual instances) must be used. This kind of knowledge is therefore also known as indirect empirical knowledge. Empiricism is contrasted with Rationalism, the theory that the mind may apprehend some truths directly, without requiring the medium of the senses. The term "empiricism" has a dual etymology, stemming both from the Greek word for "experience" and from the more specific classical Greek and Roman usage of "empiric", referring to a physician whose skill derives from practical experience as opposed to instruction in theory (this was its first usage). The term "empirical" (rather than "empiricism") also refers to the method of observation and experiment used in the natural and social sciences. It is a fundamental requirement of the scientific method that all hypotheses and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world, rather than resting solely on a priori reasoning, intuition or revelation. Hence, science is considered to be methodologically empirical in nature. Sir Francis Bacon can be considered an early Empiricist, through his popularization of an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry, which has since become known as the scientific method. In the 17th and 18th Century, the members of the British Empiricism school

John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, and David Hume were the primary exponents of Empiricism. They vigorously defended Empiricism against the Rationalism of Descartes, Leibniz and Spinoza. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) has created a system of mechanistic materialism. In controversy with Descartes rejected the existence of a special thinking substance, argued that the thinking thing is material. Argued that sensory qualities are not properties of things themselves, and the properties of perception. Recognized two modes of cognition: logical deduction rationalist "mechanics" and the induction of empirical "physics". The main philosophical work – the trilogy "Fundamentals of philosophy", which consists of three parts: The "body" (1655), "The man" (1658), "On the citizen" (1642). The main social science treatise "Leviafan, or the Matter, form and power of the state Church and civil" (1651). 32

The doctrine of Empiricism was first explicitly formulated by the British philosopher John Locke in the late 17th Century. John Locke (1632-1704) in his theory of knowledge defined the self through a continuity of consciousness. According to his concept, the human mind is born "blank slate" (tabula rasa), gradually fill the empirical perception. Thus, contrary to Descartes, Locke argued that people are born without innate ideas, knowledge is determined only by the experience obtained by sensory perception. Locke argued in his "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" of 1690 that the mind is a tabula rasa on which experiences leave their marks, and therefore denied that humans have innate ideas or that anything is knowable without reference to experience. However, he also held that some knowledge (e.g. knowledge of God's existence) could be arrived at through intuition and reasoning alone. Philosopher and bishop George Berkeley, concerned that Locke's view opened a door that could lead to eventual Atheism, put forth in his "Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge" of 1710 a different, very extreme form of Empiricism in which things only exist either as a result of their being perceived, or by virtue of the fact that they are an entity doing the perceiving. He argued that the continued existence of things results from the perception of God, regardless of whether there are humans around or not, and any order humans may see in nature is effectively just the handwriting of God. Berkeley's approach to Empiricism would later come to be called Subjective

Idealism. Philosopher David Hume (1711-1776) brought to the Empiricist viewpoint an extreme Skepticism. He argued that all of human knowledge can be divided into two categories: relations of ideas (e.g. propositions involving some contingent observation of the world, such as "the sun rises in the East") and matters of fact (e.g. mathematical and logical propositions), and that ideas are derived from our "impressions" or sensations. In the face of this, he argued that even the most basic beliefs about the natural world, or even in the existence of the

33 self, cannot be conclusively established by reason, but we accept them anyway because of their basis in instinct and custom. John Stuart Mill, in the mid-19th Century, took Hume and Berkeley's reasoning a step further in maintaining that inductive reasoning is necessary for all meaningful knowledge (including mathematics), and that matter is merely the "permanent possibility of sensation" as he put it. This is an extreme form of Empiricism known as (the view that physical objects, properties and events are completely reducible to mental objects, properties and events). The next step in the development of Empiricism was Logical Empiricism (or ), an early 20th Century attempt to synthesize the essential ideas of British Empiricism (a strong emphasis on sensory experience as the basis for knowledge) with certain insights from mathematical logic that had been developed by Gottlob Frege, and . This resulted in a kind of extreme Empiricism which held that any genuinely synthetic assertion must be reducible to an ultimate assertion (or set of ultimate assertions) which expresses direct observations or perceptions. Thus, in philosophy of New Time there were two methodologies in the theory of knowledge: rationalism and empiricism, which are applicable to the description of knowledge, including scientific knowledge. We can compare them and use their advantages for the analysis of the characteristics of knowledge.

Rationalism Empiricism Applies the deduction, the knowledge Applies the induction, the knowledge from the General to the particular. from the particular to the General. Believes that the mind plays a primary Believes that in the process of role in cognition due to the existence understanding the primary role of of innate ideas. Representatives – R. sensory experience perceived by the Descartes, B. Spinoza, G. Leibniz. mind because the mind is a tabula rasa (a clean slate). Representatives of

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empiricism are T. Hobbes, F. Bacon (1561-1626), John Locke, D. Hume (1711-1776).

The empiricists: Empiricists share the view that there is no such thing as innate knowledge, and that instead knowledge is derived from experience (either sensed via the five senses or reasoned via the brain or mind). Locke, Berkeley, and Hume are empiricists (though they have very different views about metaphysics). The rationalists: Rationalists share the view that there is innate knowledge; they differ in that they choose different objects of innate knowledge. Plato is a rationalist because he thinks that we have innate knowledge of the Forms [mathematical objects and concepts (triangles, equality, largeness), moral concepts (goodness, beauty, virtue, piety), and possibly color – he doesn’t ever explicitly state that there are Forms of colors]; Descartes thinks that the idea of God, or perfection and infinity, and knowledge of my own existence is innate; G.W. Leibniz thinks that logical principles are innate; and Noam Chomsky thinks that the ability to use language (e.g., language rules) is innate. Rationalism is any view appealing to intellectual and deductive reason (as opposed to sensory experience or any religious teachings) as the source of knowledge or justification. Thus, it holds that some propositions are knowable by us by intuition alone, while others are knowable by being deduced through valid arguments from intuited propositions. It relies on the idea that reality has a rational structure in that all aspects of it can be grasped through mathematical and logical principles, and not simply through sensory experience. Rationalists believe that, rather than being a "tabula rasa" to be imprinted with sense data, the mind is structured by, and responds to, mathematical methods of reasoning. Some of our knowledge or the concepts we employ are part of our innate rational nature: experiences may trigger a process by which we bring this knowledge to

35 consciousness, but the experiences do not provide us with the knowledge itself, which has in some way been with us all along.

Terminology of the topic: Absolut is the concept of idealistic philosophy and designating an unconditioned and independent entity. For example, Plato has ideas, the scholastics have a god, Hegel has a world spirit. It contrasts with finite things, considered individually. is a direction in Western and of the 20th century, which regards philosophy itself exclusively as the use of linguistic means and expressions, interpreted as a true source of the formulation of philosophical problems. In analytical philosophy, two areas: linguistic philosophy and the philosophy of logical analysis. The philosophy of logical analysis, using the apparatus of modern mathematical logic, represents the line of in , whereas linguistic philosophy, which rejects logical formalization as the main method of analysis, opposes the cult of scientific knowledge and defends the "natural" attitude to the world. Antinomy is the mutual contradiction of two principles or inferences resting on premises of equal validity. Kant shows, in the Antinomies of pure Reason, that contradictory conclusions about the cosmos can be established with equal credit; from this he concluded that the Idea of the world, like other transcendent ideas of metaphysics, is a purely speculative, indeterminate notion. Agnosticism is the philosophical view according to which, a person is not able to know the essence of things, and cannot receive reliable knowledge about them. These ideas were expressed by D. Hume and I. Kant. Hume believed that a person deals only with his own feelings, factors of subjective experience, so he cannot know anything about the outside world, whether he exists or not, what he really is. Kant recognized the objective existence of things in themselves, but the essence of them considered unknowable, believing that things in themselves are not given in experience. In his opinion, a person with the help of reason and reason 36 is able to know only phenomena. Agnosticism is characteristic of such philosophical currents as Neo-, neopositivism, . Apperception - (from Latin ad - at, perceptio - perception) conscious perception. The term was introduced. Leibniz for denoting the seizure by the mind of its own internal states; apperception contrasted perception, understood as an internal state of mind, aimed at a representation of external things. I. Kant meant the original unity of consciousness of the cognizing subject, which determines the unity of his experience. In psychology, A is understood as a process by which a new content of consciousness, new knowledge, and new experience is included in a transformed form into a system of already existing knowledge. Being the category fixing the basis of existence in the structure of philosophical knowledge is the subject of ontology; in the theory of knowledge is considered as the basis for any possible picture of the world and for all other categories the natural philosophy of the first philosophers. Philosophy as such aims primarily to find the true (in contrast to the perceived) being and his comprehension (or - participation in it). Science-like philosophy proceeds along the path of defining the concept of being and its place in the structure of knowledge, and also distinguishes levels and types of biological objects as objective existence. To the greatest extent he concentrated various aspects of the concept being Parmenides. It highlights the main characteristics. - integrity, truth, goodness and beauty - and manifests the unity of thought and being (and - non- thought and non-being). The division (more precisely, doubling) of the world in Plato's world of ideas (the world of truth) and reality (the world of similarities) is the beginning of European metaphysics and in its decline it passes into Marxism in the division of the material (the world) and the ideal (associated with consciousness) being Classifying Aristotle's analysis of Aristotle (in particular, he singles out levels-a possible and actual being) still serves as an example for every scientific approach to being. During the being is viewed from a religious standpoint: the true being is God, the world is not dependent, created from noun and that without the care of God will disappear into nothingness. 37

Revival considers being as a nature, on the one hand - independent (all existing - the creation of nature), on the other - in need of man as the creator and master. New time accentuates attention precisely on the subordination of being to man as a formative, collecting from him the world (both in terms of cognitive and in terms of practicality. "Being - now it is perceived as external, elusive by a person in his cognition, and soon begins to be perceived as a philosophical illusion Materialism considers being as primary in relation to consciousness. Material existence is eternal and primary, it determines the development and functioning of consciousness. Matter as a unity of diversity generates in the constant movement the diversity of the material world. Categories (from Greek - utterance, Latin mediation) are fundamental concepts, forms of thought, the types of connection of the subject and the predicate in judgment, stable methods of predication existing in the language that constitute the conditions for the possibility of experimental knowledge and having a priori significance as universals and limiting concepts. Category in their function, being generic genera of utterance, differ from the original being and from the principles underlying the foundation of philosophical and scientific knowledge, although often, especially in ancient philosophy, the first principles of being were identified with categories as universal of being. Causa sui is cause of itself; necessary existence. Causa sui conveys both a negative and a positive meaning. Negatively, it signifies that which is from itself (a se), that which does not owe its being to something else; i.e., absolute independence of being, causelessness (God as uncaused). Positively, causa sui means that whose very nature or essence involves existence; i.e., God is the ground of his own being, and regarded as "cause" of his own being, he is, as it were, efficient cause of his own existence (Descartes). Since existence necessarily follows from the very essence of that which is cause of itself, causa sui is defined as that whose nature cannot be conceived as not existing (Spinoza).

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Concepts are the constituents of thoughts. Consequently, they are crucial to such psychological processes as categorization, inference, memory, learning, and decision-making. This much is relatively uncontroversial. But the nature of concepts—the kind of things concepts are—and the constraints that govern a theory of concepts have been the subject of much debate. This is due, at least in part, to the fact that disputes about concepts often reflect deeply opposing approaches to the study of the mind, to language, and even to philosophy itself. In this entry, we provide an overview of theories of concepts, and outline some of the disputes that have shaped debates surrounding the nature of concepts. The entry is organized around five significant issues that are focal points for many theories of concepts. Not every theory of concepts takes a stand on each of the five, but viewed collectively these issues show why the theory of concepts has been such a rich and lively topic in recent years.

Conventional theory (from the Latin conventio - agreement) - the direction of ideas in the , according to which the adoption of certain judgments that express this or that solution of empirical problems within the framework of scientific theories, follows from earlier accepted conceptual (terminological) agreements. The empirical criteria of truth are not applied to these agreements themselves; they are conditioned by considerations of convenience, simplicity, aesthetic co-perfection, etc. The founder of conventionalism is considered to be A. Poincare. Deduction (from Latin derivation) is a concept that denotes the process of logical inference, the transition from the general to the particular. The term was first used by Boethius, but the concept of deduction was introduced by Aristotle as a proof of this proposal through syllogism. Deism (from the Latin - god) is a concept opposing theism, based on the idea of divine providence, the constant connection between man and God. By deism, God created the world, but after that does not interfere with its processes

39 and events. The ancestor of deism is considered the Englishman Lord Cherberry (XVII century.). Deists were Voltaire, I. Kant, M. Lomonosov. Dialectic (from Greek - the art of conversation, dispute) is the theory and method of cognition of the phenomena of reality in their development and self- movement, the science of the most general laws of the development of nature, society and thinking. Dialectics is the opposite of metaphysics. The most important categories of dialectic: contradiction, quality and quantity, randomness and necessity, possibility and reality, etc. Its main laws are: unity and struggle of opposites, the transition of quantitative changes to qualitative changes, negation of negation. Essence expresses the universal, necessary and stable internal connections inherent in this subject, uniting its various sides. It reveals the unity in the variety of properties of the object. Kant, for example, saw the essence as an unknowable "thing-in-itself," Plato and Hegel recognize the knowability of the essence, but consider it to be ideal. The subjective idealists of Berkeley and Mach deny the existence of an entity, since for them a phenomenon is a collection of sensations, and apart from them, nothing is given to an individual. Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every , including human cognition and behavior, decision and action, is causally determined by an unbroken chain of prior occurrences. With numerous historical debates, many varieties and philosophical positions on the subject of determinism exist from traditions throughout the world. Epistemology is a theory of knowledge, of reaching the truth in science and humanities. Gnoseology is a theory of cognition. is the category of philosophical systems that claim reality is dependent upon the mind rather than independent of the mind. Or, put another way, that the ideas and thoughts of a mind or minds constitute the essence or fundamental nature of all reality. Extreme versions of Idealism deny that any 'world' exists outside of our minds. Narrower versions of Idealism claim that our 40 understanding of reality reflects the workings of our mind first and foremost - that the properties of objects have no standing independent of the minds perceiving them. If there is an external world, we cannot truly know it or know anything about it; all we can know are the mental constructs created by our minds, which we then (falsely, if understandably) attribute to an external world. For the first time in the history of philosophy, the system of consistent idealism was based on the Greek philosopher Plato. According to Platonic Idealism, there exists a perfect realm of Form and Ideas and our world merely contains shadows of that realm. This is often called "" because Plato seems to have attributed to these Forms an existence independent of any minds. means that only ideas can be known or have any reality (this is also known as or Dogmatic Idealism). Thus, no claims about anything outside of one's mind have any justification. Bishop George Berkeley was the main advocate of this position, and he argued that so-called "objects" only had existence insofar as we perceived them - they were not constructed of independently-existing matter. Reality only seemed to persist either because of people continuing to perceive objects or because of the continuing will and mind of God. The greatest of all the German idealists was G. W. F. Hegel, who methodically constructed a comprehensive system of thought about the world. Focused like Kant on the goal of showing how some fundamental unity underlies the confusing multiplicity of experimental contents, Hegel took a much more systematic approach by making absolute consciousness the key source of ultimate connections among all other things. Above all else, Hegel held that reality must be rational, so that its ultimate structure is revealed in the structure of our thought. Everything that is thinkable, especially apparent contradictions, must be resolvable under some common concept of the reason. In what follows, we will examine in detail the logical apparatus Hegel employed in pursuit of knowledge. Being, for example, is a basic concept that serves as a clear starting-point for any serious thinker, but serious contemplation of its nature reveals it to be so utterly devoid of specific content 41 that the mind is naturally led to the thought of Nothing as its opposite; but these two are not really contradictory, since both may be unified under the more sophisticated and comprehensive notion of Becoming. If, on the other hand, our thesis is the concept of Being as a naive immediate presentation of experience, then its natural antithesis is the idea of Essence as knowledge mediated by classification; and the synthesis that unites these concepts is that of the Notion as a self-mediating interpretation of thought and reality combined. On the grandest scale of conceivability, all of thought (including the dialectical logic itself) is comprised by the thesis Idea, whose natural antithesis is Nature, the otherness of the known considered independently of its relation to the knower; and the grand synthesis of the two is Spirit, the self-knowing, self-actualizing totality of all that is—namely, The Absolute itself. This embodies Hegel's fundamental convictions that reality is wholly rational and that whatever is rational must be real. Human thought is merely one portion of the Becoming of Absolute Spirit, which is (through us) thinking and creating itself as it goes. Even this development, as Hegel described it in the Phenomenology of Spirit, is best understood as the triadic transition from subjective to objective to absolute Spirit. Indeterminism (from Latin determinatus) theory that volitional decisions are in certain cases independent of antecedent physiological and psychological causation. Induction (from Latin guidance) is a logical inference from single data to a common conclusion. By its nature, induction is the opposite of deduction. Induction is complete when all similar cases are considered to obtain a general conclusion, and not complete, when all similar cases cannot be considered.

Intelligible – is an object or phenomenon that serves as an object only of reason, intellectual intuition. The concept of the intelligible in some systems of idealistic philosophy means the supernatural, supersensible nature of the essence. Plato has a world of ideas, an ideal reality, the reflection of which is the material world. In Kant, these are "things in themselves," which are outside of experience.

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Irrational (irrational - unreasonable) - a philosophical concept that expresses beyond the control of reasonable judgment. In irrationalist teachings in cognition, intuition or direct contemplation, imagination, is brought to the fore. Intuition as direct perception means the ability of a direct, unjustified comprehension of the truth. The notion of sensual and intellectual intuition was formed. The status of intuition as a higher kind of knowledge was defended by Descartes, Leibniz, Spinoza. Logic is concerned to provide sound methods for distinguishing valid from invalid arguments or, on a wider conception, good from bad arguments in terms of criteria for determining how much support the conclusion receives from the premise(s). Arguments may be considered ordered sequences of propositions in which some—the premise(s)—are conceived as supporting another—the conclusion. A standard example is the following syllogism, which has a very common form: its premises are that all human are mortal and that is mortal; its conclusion is that Socrates is a human being. Deductive logic is concerned with appraising arguments in relation to the question whether the premises entail (or logically imply) the conclusion, as with the syllogism just presented. Inductive logic is concerned with appraising arguments in relation to probabilistic support. From premises about the factors that cause influenza, medical experts may conclude that millions of people will be infected during the next flu season. Inductive logic addresses the problem of how we may tell what probability this conclusion has given those premises. More generally, logic helps us to assess how well our premises support our conclusions, to see what we are committed to accepting when we hold a view, and to avoid adopting positions for which we lack supporting reasons. As applied to everyday thinking, the use of logic also helps us to find arguments where we might otherwise simply see a set of loosely related statements, to discover assumptions we did not know we were making, and to formulate the minimum claims we must establish if we are to prove (or inductively support) our point.

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Materialism is a philosophical worldview in which matter is the basis of being, and all other being-forms-spirit, man, society-are the product of matter; according to the assertion of the materialists, matter is primary and represents a present being. Materialism is the philosophy that in the problem of the relation of existence and consciousness argues that matter is primary, consciousness is secondary. Philosophical materialism has different flows, for example, vulgar materialism and dialectical materialism. Matter is the infinite set of all objects, existing in the physical world. Forms of existence of matter are space and time, the mode of existence of matter is motion. Metaphysics seeks basic criteria for determining what sorts of things are real. Criteria of this kind are the special concern of ontology, which is central in metaphysics. Among major ontological questions are these: Are there mental, physical, and abstract things (such as numbers)? Or is there just the physical and the spiritual? Might there be merely matter and energy? Are persons highly complex physical systems, or do they have properties not reducible to anything physical? How much can a person—or other kind of thing—change and remain the very person or thing it is? In the case of persons, this question is central for the problem of personal identity, which, in turn, is crucial for understanding the possibility of nonembodied life. Another question about persons is whether they can be free in a sense not possible for lower animals and whether their freedom is possible if the world should be a deterministic system, that is, one in which every event is entailed by a universal law of nature and some simultaneous or antecedent event. What constitutes a law of nature, and, in particular, what constitutes a causal law, are themselves major questions in metaphysics. Metaphysics has also been traditionally taken to include , which is concerned with the nature of the universe as a whole and pursues such questions as whether it must have a beginning in time, whether it can be infinite, and whether it must have been created and, if so, by what kind of being or in what way. The nature of time is itself an important metaphysical question. 44

Methodology is a logical organization of human activity consisting in determining the purpose and subject of research, approaches and guidelines in its conduct, the of means and methods that determine the best result. Any human activity is characterized by methodology. The methodology of the study should also include the definition and formulation of benchmarks and constraints. They allow conducting research more consistently and purposefully. Landmarks can be flexible and rigid, and restrictions are explicit or implicit. Monism (from the Greek one, the only one) is a philosophical position recognizing the unity of the world, at first, the substrate similarity of all the objects included in it, secondly, their interrelationship and, thirdly, self-development of the whole. Monism is opposed to pluralism and its variety - dualism. There are worldview and concrete scientific monism. The task of the first is to find the common basis of all phenomena, including the human consciousness, the task of the second is to find it only for a specific class of phenomena-mathematical, physical, chemical, social, etc. By the nature of the solution of the basic question of philosophy-the question of relation thinking to being - there are three varieties of ideological monism: subjective idealism, materialism and . A consistent subjective idealist (solipsist) interprets the world as the content of his own consciousness and it is in this that he sees his unity. The materialist recognizes an objective world, all the phenomena of which he interprets as forms of the existence of matter or its properties. The property of matter is also the human consciousness - the only kind of consciousness recognized by materialism. The objective idealist recognizing both the personal consciousness, and the world existing outside it, postulates another essence - the world spirit, the creative world, the person and his consciousness. Ontology (from Greek on, ontos - real and logos - doctrine) – is the doctrine of being (existent) as such as the most important element of any philosophical system. Ontology is a theory of being. This section forms the core of the teaching and forms the direction of any philosophical system. In ontology, being is understood as extremely general, as all surrounding reality, what exists, and this 45 universe as a collection of everything objectively and subjectively existing is not limited to the data of specific sciences and is not reduced to them. Phenomenology – is an idealistic idea of the historical development of human consciousness from direct sensory perception to "absolute knowledge", interpreted as self-development and self-knowledge of the spirit; subjective- idealistic theory, created by the German philosopher E. Husserl. He defines phenomenology as the basic philosophical science. Its subject is the phenomena of consciousness in their relation to objects. Philosophy means the "love of wisdom". Philosophy defines itself as a philosophical problem. Perhaps a great many philosophers would agree that whatever else philosophy is, it is the critical, normally systematic study of an unlimited range of ideas and issues. But this characterization says nothing about what sorts of ideas or issues are important in philosophy or about its distinctive methods of studying them. Doing this will require some account of the special fields of the subject, its methods, its connections with other disciplines, its place in the academy, and its role in human culture. Philosophy pursues questions in every dimension of human life, and its techniques apply to problems in any field of study or endeavor. It may be described in many ways. It is a reasoned pursuit of fundamental truths, a quest for understanding, a study of principles of conduct. It seeks to establish standards of evidence, to provide rational methods of resolving conflicts, and to create techniques for evaluating ideas and arguments. Philosophy may examine concepts and views drawn from science, art, religion, politics, or any other realm. The best way to clarify these broad characterizations of philosophy is to describe its principal subfields (all of which are addressed in more detail in entries in this Encyclopedia devoted to them alone). It is appropriate to start with what might be called traditional subfields of philosophy, most commonly taken to be epistemology, ethics, logic, metaphysics, and the history of philosophy. These remain central in philosophical research; and although they are by no means its exclusive focus, they are intimately connected with virtually every other field of 46 philosophical research and are widely treated as core areas in the teaching of the subject. The covers all philosophical topics pertaining to the mind and mental states. Its subtopics can be divided in two main ways. First, by the traditional divisions drawn between kinds of mental states: consciousness, intentionality, perception, and other states and processes. Second, by the types of philosophical questions asked about these activities: especially metaphysical questions that have to do with their nature (especially the relation between the mental and the physical) and epistemological questions that have to do with our knowledge of them. The philosophy of mind also overlaps with the philosophy of cognitive science and the philosophy of action. Philosophy of science. This is probably the largest subfield, generated in substantial part by epistemology and in part by metaphysics. Philosophy of science has been commonly divided into philosophy of the natural sciences and philosophy of the social sciences. It has recently been divided further, into , of biology, of psychology, of economics, and of other sciences. Philosophy of science clarifies both the quest for scientific knowledge and the results yielded by that quest. It does this by exploring the logic of scientific evidence; the nature of scientific laws, explanations, and theories; the nature of the theoretical entities posited in explaining observable phenomena; and the possible connections among the various branches of science. How, for instance, is psychology related to brain biology, and biology to chemistry? And how are the social sciences related to the natural sciences? Are they methodologically like the latter but incapable of discovering universal as opposed to statistical laws? Must they work with mentalistic concepts such as belief and desire? Does explanation have the same form across the several kinds of science. Positivism is a direction in philosophy and science (since Kant's time), which proceeds from the "positive", that is, from the given, factual, stable, indubitable, and limits their research and presentation, and abstract philosophical ("metaphysical") explanations considers it theoretically impracticable and practically useless. The system of positivism was established in the 19th century 47 by the sociologist A. Comte; known "second positivism" (G. Spencer, J. St. Mill), empirio-criticism (E. Mach, R. Avenarius), neopositivism (L. Wittgenstein), postpositivism (K. Popper). Scientism (from the Latin word “Scientia” - "knowledge, science"), presenting science as a cultural-worldview model, appeared in the eyes of its supporters as the ideology of a "pure, value-neutral, great science." He prescribed to focus on the methods of natural and technical sciences, and the criteria for scientific dissemination to all types of human development of the world, to all types of knowledge and human communication, including. The opposite scientism is anti-scientism. It was very pessimistic about the possibilities of science and proceeded from the negative consequences of scientific and technological revolution, demanded limiting the expansion of science and a return to traditional values and methods of activity. Scientism and anti-scientism are two sharply conflicting orientations in the modern world. Supporters of scientism include all those who welcome the achievements of scientific and technological revolution, modernization of life and leisure, who believe in the boundless possibilities of science and, in particular, the fact that it can solve all the acute problems of human existence. Science is the highest value, and scientists welcome more and more evidence of technological advancement. Solipsism is the theory of subjective idealism, according to which only the subject exists, I, and the rest of the world is the product of the activity of his consciousness. The tendency to solipsism is characteristic of the philosophy of Descartes, Spinoza, Fichte. Space – is the form of existence of matter, which characterizes its length, structure, order of location simultaneously coexisting objects. The most common properties of space are: ; absoluteness and relativity; multidimensionality and reversibility; properties of objects to be extended, to occupy a certain place, to border (correlate) with other objects. Spirit – is a concept identical to the concepts of "ideal", "consciousness", "thinking", "mind". The spirit is opposed to matter. Ancient Greek thinkers, when 48 speaking of the spirit, use the terms "mind" and "logos". In Anaxagoras this active principle is both a material and spiritual, expediently acting force. Plato regards it as ideal. According to Aristotle - the highest form of activity is a mind that thinks itself, that is, self-conscious thinking. Medieval theologians distinguish the soul from the spirit and identify it with God "God is the Spirit." God is a being who creates the material world. In modern times, the philosophers who defended subjective idealism considered the essence of the Spirit to be some element of the individual's consciousness. Thus, according to Hume, "the spirit consists of only perceptions that follow one after another." Those who stand on the point of view of objective idealism see the foundation of the Spirit in thinking and the idea, isolated from man and endowed with an independent existence. According to Hegel, the Spirit is the last stage in the development of the absolute idea. It goes through three stages of development, first as a subjective spirit (individual consciousness), then as an objective spirit (society, morality), finally as the unity of the one and the other, that is, the absolute spirit that takes the form of art, religion and philosophy. Materialism understands the spirit as a property of matter. The materialists of the new time Spinoza, Hobbes, Helvetius, Feuerbach use the terms "spirit", "consciousness", "mind" as identical. Marxism views the spirit as an individual and social consciousness derived from material factors. Subject and object of knowledge. The subject of cognition is the bearer of activity, consciousness and cognition, it is a person who recognizes a fragment of objective reality, distinguished in the course of practical activity, that has mastered the world created by mankind and forms of culture, actively uses the knowledge accumulated before it, preserves and generates them. The object of knowledge is a fragment of reality that opposes the subject in his cognitive activity. In modern epistemology, it is customary to distinguish between the object and the object of knowledge. The object of cognition is the real fragments of reality that the subject is exploring. The object of cognition is the specific aspects to which cognition is directed. In Kant, Fichte, Schelling and Hegel, this activity was considered primarily as a spiritual activity that spawned objects. In Marx and 49

Engels, this activity was of a material and sensual nature, it was practical. The subject and object acted in Marx and Engels as a part of practical activity. The subject is the bearer of a material, purposeful action that connects him to the object. The object is the object to which the action is directed. Substance is a self-contained entity, which itself is the basis for its existence, it is the cause of itself (causa sui in Latin). the theory of purpose, ends, goals, final causes, values, the Good. The opposite of Mechanism. As opposed to mechanism, which explains the present and the future in terms of the past, teleology explains the past and the present in terms of the future. Teleology as such does not imply personal consciousness, volition, or intended purpose. Time is a philosophical category reflecting the general properties of material phenomena: 1) to appear or disappear earlier or later than others; 2) last, exist more or less than others. Time does not exist by itself, outside material changes; It is also impossible for the existence of material systems and processes that do not have a duration that do not change from past to future. Time and space are inextricably linked, their unity manifests itself in the movement and development of matter. However, unlike space, time is one-dimensional: "flows" from the past through the present into the future. In modern science and philosophy, in particular in synergetics, the notion that the present is "time-bound" by the future is developed, that is, the future is capable of influencing. In modern science and philosophy, in particular in synergetics, the notion that the present is becoming the future and the future is able to influence the present is developed. The "Oedipus effect" is also known, the essence of which is that knowledge of the future changes the very future. The new theory of time in the study of the origin of the universe, in cosmology, was built by Nobel Prize laureate I. Prigogine. According to his views, the visible world, the physical universe, arose not as a result of the Big Bang, after which it began to expand rapidly (the hypothesis of Lemaitre-Gamow), but as a result of fluctuations (perturbations) of the vacuum.

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The category of time refers to a number of the most complex in science and philosophy, its essence is still not fully understood. World outlook is a system of ideas about the world and about the place in it of a person, the relation of a person to the surrounding reality and to himself, as well as the basic life positions and attitudes of people, their beliefs, ideals, principles of cognition and activity, value orientations conditioned by these concepts.

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Topic 3. Anthropology and ethics as a practical philosophy. Socrates and the (paid teachers of rhetoric) produced the anthropological turn in ancient philosophy. Socrates lived in Athens in the 470 - 399 years BC. At the end of life was brought to trial for "introducing new deities and corrupting the young." Was sentenced to death and, refusing to flee, took in prison poison. The teachings of Socrates – an example of oral philosophical works, and information about his views of the history of philosophy received from secondary sources – the "Socratic" works of Plato and Xenophon. Socrates, a negative attitude toward philosophical views of the previous epoch, considering worthy of attention only to purely human problems. The teachings of Socrates, turn in from the consideration of nature and the world to consider the human. For Socrates was unacceptable epistemological and ethical of the sophists, which, judging by the dialogues of Plato, he has repeatedly engaged in disputes. In the ethics of Socrates adhered to strict rationalism, arguing that virtue is identical to knowledge and that the person knows what is good will not do wrong. The most important merit of Socrates in the history of philosophy consisted in the fact that in his practice the dialogue became the main method of finding the truth. The method of Socrates maieutics (which means the art of the midwife) – was to ask questions that forced him to realize the truth. If the early thinkers dogmatically postulated the main principles of his teachings, Socrates sought to critically discuss all possible points of view, are not adhering to any of them. Because of this, Socrates considered himself not a teacher of wisdom, and the only person able to awaken in others aspiration to truth, the method of maieutics called "Know thyself." As for political views, they were based on the belief that the power of the state should belong to "the best", that is moral, fair and experienced in the art of management citizens. Based on this, he sharply criticized the shortcomings of contemporary Athenian democracy. The sophists are the ancient Greek paid teacher of rhetoric and at the same time the representatives of the philosophical schools that flourished in the 5th – first 52 half of 4th century BC. To the "older" sophists (second half of V century BC) rank as , , Hippias, Prodikos, Antifona, . The younger sophists Lycophron, Acidulant, Trasimene belonged to the next generation. Unknown belongs extant essay "the double speech". A common feature of the doctrines of the sophists was relativism, which has found classic expression in the position of Protagoras "Man is the measure of all things". The sophists taught that the truth is impossible to know. This was facilitated by the nature of the activities of the sophists: they had to teach turned to them young man to convincingly defend any point of view that just might need his Affairs. The basis of those studies was a perceived lack of absolute truth and objective values. The comparison of the conflicting standards that prevailed among various peoples, the rapid collapse of traditional ideology in the Greek cities shook the idea of a single divine moral law. Protagoras of Abdera (CA. 480 – CA. 410 BC) indicated the element of the relativity of knowledge because of its subjectivity. Believed that there is no "essence of the phenomena" besides the phenomena, the phenomenal world is contradictory, and relatively everything you can to expose two opposite theses. All truth is someone's opinion, and every opinion is true. This principle was formulated by Protagoras in the initial words of his main philosophical works “On truth” (another name for "Tipping (each other's) language"): "Man is the measure of all things, existing and non-existing ". Gorgias of Leontine (480 - 380 BC) in his treatise "About what is not or about the nature," argued the following theses: 1) nothing; 2) even if something was, then it would be unknowable; 3) even if it were knowable, it would be to Express in word and to interpret the other. Protagoras wrote about the complexities of knowledge and explanation, therefore, claimed that "all statements are equally false." Ethical issues and socio-political life was also considered by Plato and Aristotle. The Platonic concept of the ideal state isn’t associated with the historical experience of ancient States, but with ideas of what should be state. Plato's dialogue "the State", built about 360 BC, presents the project of the ideal state, utopia. From the point of view of Plato, the state is an expression of the idea of 53 justice. Fair is the division of labor in the ideal state according to the needs and natural inclinations. According to Plato, the ideal state should be three main classes. Upper class – the class of sages-philosophers – manages, cares about the welfare of the state and the education of citizens. The caste of soldiers-the guardians concerned about the safety of the state. Women of this class can perform the same obligations as men, but Plato suggests that this class needs to be community of wives and children, the absence of private property. The class of producers, of workers, of citizens (artisans, farmers, and merchants) must produce for the state the required surplus for exchange and trade with other States. Thus, on the one hand, Plato's ideal state is the prototype of a totalitarian state controlling the private lives of citizens. On the other hand, progressive for its time, is the idea of equal participation of women in the professional division of labor, and the use of free labor producers and absence of slave labor. In accordance with his metaphysical concept, Aristotle is not looking for abstract ideas of ethics and policies, and analyzes and summarizes the practical experience of ancient cities-policies. In his treatise "Politics" Aristotle argues that man is by nature a social being, political (Aristotle identifies society and the state). The first natural Association of people – family, second, larger – state. The purpose of policies – justice as a benefit of the majority. Aristotle was a defender of citizens ' rights, private property, monogamous family, a supporter of slavery as a form of private property. Depending on the goals that put the rulers, form of government divided into right and wrong. Right one is the monarchy (autocracy) as the rule by one for the benefit of many; aristocracy, the rule of a privileged class (usually hereditary) to the interests of the majority; polity – the rule of the majority in the interests of many. Wrong (deviation from the correct forms) – tyranny, autocracy in the interests of the ruler; oligarchy – rule of the few for their own benefit; democracy – rule of many for the benefit of the majority of the Freeborn poor. Democracy Aristotle thought the best of the deviant forms, but it can degenerate into mob rule, the power of the crowd. The most preferable form of government Aristotle thought the polity is the rule, not the poorest and not the 54 richest, and most middle social class. Thus, the public good is achieved through moderation, common sense, the ability to find a "middle ground" in political life. The same concept of action as the common good is reflected in the practical (moral) philosophy of Aristotle, for example, in the work "Nicomachean ethics" and "Big ethics". Practical philosophy of Aristotle is devoted to concepts of the soul and virtue. The soul is the entelechy of a person (similar to how form is the essence of a thing). Virtue is a way of achieving happiness. Thus, the subject of ethics is happiness as "activity of the soul in the fullness of virtue." Virtue is between two extremes, and consists in moderation, knowing sense of proportion, the Golden mean. For example, courage is the middle between reckless courage and cowardice, generosity is the mean between prodigality and miserliness, modesty is a mean between shamelessness and shyness, etc. as a philosophical category is becoming a regular feature of ancient ethics and social philosophy. The cynics. Ancient Greek philosophical school that arose in the 4th century BC. The founder of the school became a student of Gorgias, a disciple of Socrates, Antisthenes (who lived at Athens in 455 - 360 BC). He argued that to achieve good need to give up the comfort of civilization to live in harmony with nature. The views of Antisana obey the principle of radical asceticism, nominating as a rule of nature (natural). The basis of the ethics of Antisana the same ascetic principle: in no way need, doing the minimum benefits and achieve self- sufficiency, which the deity has, thanks to the overabundance of good. The conditions of happiness of Antisthenes limited virtue, which learn without resorting to over-learning (the same principle of "minimize"). In politics Antisthenes denied the state, political activities and social conventions (the latter he took the equality of people, contrary, in his opinion, nature). The most famous of the cynics was Diogenes of Sinope (died circa 330-320 BC). Diogenes of Sinope rejected any knowledge devoid of ethical orientation. He lived in a barrel (pithos) reducing to a minimum their needs and existing on charity. Achieved in this way independent from external influences was, according to Diogenes of Sinope, valor, and Supreme happiness, erecting cynic to the level of divine. 55

Diogenes of Sinope brutally ridiculed by those who cherish traditional forms of life, he did not recognize the Fatherland, declared himself a "citizen of the world", the only relevant for the law considered the law of nature. The basic principles of the cynics: 1) asceticism (austerity) is the easy life, disdain for the conventions; 2) autarky is the ability to stand up for themselves and their way of life, independence and autonomy; 3) alienation (aloofness) is the detachment from culture and society, especially writing. The doctrine of the cynics, established in the conditions of crisis of the antique policy people who did not have their share in a civil way of life, summarizes the experience of the individual, which can spiritually rely only on himself, and invites that individual to become aware of their isolation from the Patriarchal ties as an opportunity to achieve the highest benefits of spiritual freedom. Ethics of Epicurus. Epicurus was an ancient Greek philosopher (341 - 270 BC). Epicurus founded in Athens in 306 BC, the philosophical school named "the Garden of Epicurus". From the extensive heritage of Epicurus reached us only "Letter to Herodotus" and "Letter to Pipolo" reflecting the views of Epicurus on nature, and "Letter to Menoeceus", outlining his ethical views, as well as "Main points", formulate the main ideas of Epicurus in aphoristic form. Epicurus divided his teaching into three parts – "the Canon", i.e. the theory of knowledge, physics - knowledge of nature, and "ethics". The source of our knowledge, according to Epicurus, are sensory perception, acceptance, and based on these General ideas – criterion of the truth of knowledge. Epicurus was willing to accept multiple explanations of the same phenomena, if these explanations proceed from natural causes. As for teaching about nature, Epicurus embraced the atomistic doctrine of Democritus: according to Epicurus, the Universe contained only the body is in space. All bodies are connections tight indivisible particles – atoms, differing in size, weight, and shape; atoms move forever in the void with equal speed. Epicurus had challenged taken by Democritus reign Supreme need in the world of atoms, as the need in the movement of the atoms of the soul makes it impossible for the Agency of man. Epicurus put forward a position about the random 56 deviations of atoms from the natural trajectories, resulting in a possible collision of atoms and the freedom of the human will (Cicero, "On the limits of good and evil"). Epicurus admitted the existence of an infinite number of worlds in infinite space, consisting of infinite numbers not appearing and vanishing atoms. The soul also consists of atoms – particularly thin and dispersed throughout the body and is similar to the wind. Anybody eventually break down, including the human body, and with it his soul. The basic meaning of Epicurus was paid to ethics and educate people believed that to achieve happiness one must break free from the fear of death. This liberation is necessary for the happiness of man, that is enjoying bodily and spiritual. "The purpose of philosophy is the providing the serenity of spirit, freedom from the fear of death and the phenomena of nature." ("Pipolo" 85, "Main points" XI). Epicurus argues the need for deliverance from the fear of death as follows: "Death has nothing to do with us: when we are, death has not come, and when death comes, we no longer have" ("To Menoeceus" 125). Epicureanism as a developed by the followers of Epicurus. The most eminent disciple of Epicurus, Metrodorus of Lampsacus, argued that the source of all wealth are bodily pleasures. However, Epicureanism did not deny the laws and norms of morality for the sake of the priority of bodily pleasures. Earmark of Mytilene, the successor of Epicurus, insisted that the feasibility is the basis of all laws. Polistrat in the essay "On groundless neglect walking of views," argued that moral principles were adopted with the consent of the people for the common good. The Epicureanism developed several centuries, in the late II century BC appear the followers of Epicurus among the Roman philosophers, the most prominent of which was Lucrezias (I century BC). Judging by the controversy, which led him to his opponents, Epicurus had a lot of supporters in the II century of new era. originally was a Greek philosophical school, but in later period it became popular in ancient Rome. Founder of stoicism was Zenon of Kition (circa 333 - 262 BC). The Stoics had grounded cosmopolitanism – the doctrine that all men – citizens of the world (cosmos), so everyone should have equal rights. The 57 main idea of ethics that all events in the world is predetermined, therefore, the main human virtue is the ability to make destiny, it's the only way to achieve harmony with the world through such conditions as apathy and Ataraxia. Ataraxia is the recognition of serenity. Apathy is passionless, but if the skeptics understand the apathy as deliberate indifference, the Stoics saw it as the ability to overcome the affects, 4 main passions: grief, fear, lust and pleasure. According to stoicism, happiness is life according to the logo, the nature. It is achieved by understanding that there are "good" (knowledge of good) and that is "indifferent things", among which can be the preferred (health, wealth) and not the preferred. Representatives of stoicism, Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius. Lucius Anna Seneca was Roman philosopher and poet, life (around 5 BC – 65 ad). The representative of the philosophical school of stoicism, which argued that the main human virtue – the ability to accept his fate calmly and with dignity. He wrote many works, including

"Moral letters to Lucilio". Seneca affirmed: " Fate leads the willing ones and it drags the dissent ones" Epictetus was Greek philosopher, years of life (about 50 years – 140 BC). His reasoning recorded in the work "Conversations". Developed the ideas of stoicism: the main task of philosophy is to learn to discern what to do in our power and what we daunting. The external world beyond our control. Not the things themselves, but our perceptions of them make us happy or unhappy. Our thoughts control – by controlling our thoughts, we can become happier. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was Roman philosopher, (26.4.121 – 17.3.180 ad), and from 161 to 180 and was Roman Emperor. Writings - "Alone with you", "Reflections". Everything that happens in the world of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was considered as a manifestation of the Providence of nature, identified with the God active, intelligent and material beginning, throughout the whole world and unifying it into a coherent whole. Marcus Aurelius stressed the distinction between the external world, independent of man, and their own inner world, the only subject to man. Happiness is achieved by bringing their behavior, feelings and attitudes in correspondence with the external world in which everything happens according to natural law, that is, the mind of a General nature. 58

In later periods ethics exists as a philosophy of relationship between private freedom and social duty in their methaphysical aspect. For example, the Dutch philosopher Benedict (Baruch) Spinoza (1632-1677), developed a theory of ethics as a consequence of his theory of substance. In anthropology, Spinoza rejected the idea of : in the theory of Spinoza the will coincides with mind. Spinoza believed that all human actions are necessary, that is, freedom and necessity are compatible, are free need (libera necessitas). Freedom is identified with cognition, the desire for self-knowledge recognizes the strongest human desire. Spinoza put forward a position about the intellectual love of God (amor Dei intellectualis) and the eternity of the human soul, human death is understood as the return to a single substance. In the center of the anthropological system of Spinoza, the concept of a "free man", guided only by reason. Ethical problems of modern philosophy were discussed in the later period and became an important topic of German classical philosophy. (1724 - 1804) was German philosopher, his most famous works became "Critique of pure reason" and "Foundations of the metaphysics of morals". Basic concepts of ethics Kant were the maxim (the decision in a particular situation) and the imperative (command). The imperatives are divided into hypothetical (recommendation) and categorical (compulsory). Kant's categorical imperative reads: "act only according to such Maxim, guided by which you can wish to become universal moral law." Another option: "act to treat humanity in his person and in the person of another as an end and never as a means". Kantian ethics identifies freedom with the performance of moral duty. (1788-1860) introduced a different interpretation of ethics. His main work "the World as will and representation", "Idea of ethics." The world as thing-in-itself is understood by Schopenhauer as groundless "the will to live," which crushed many objectively. Schopenhauer argues that any explanation of the peculiar desire to "rule" that creates a "war of all against all". Many objectivities will exist as hierarchical integrity. The highest step in a series of objectivity will have. Each individual is understood as the will to live, which is 59 the source of endless human selfishness. The state is understood as a balanced system of private wills and does not destroy selfishness. Overcoming selfish impulses possible in the sphere of art and morality. Art is a creation of genius, based on the ability of "disinterested contemplation," in which the subject becomes "a pure weak-willed subject". Schopenhauer believes that the highest art – music – is not the reproduction of ideas but rather the direct reflection of the will. "Will to life" leads to the realization of the illusory nature of happiness and the inevitability of suffering. Eternal dissatisfaction makes you think the world is "the worst of all worlds". The true basis of morality is compassion, by which the deceptive appearance of individuality is dissolved into the consciousness of oneness of all things. Resignation is a restraint, self-denial as a way of spiritual development looks more moral, if the person realizes that the amount of selfishness in the world remains constant. (1844-1900) produced another revision of the doctrine of morality in philosophy. His main books were "The Birth of tragedy from spirit of music" (1872), "Untimely reflections" (1873), "Thus spoke Zarathustra" (1883- 84), "Beyond good and evil" (1886). Nietzsche identified two principles of existence and culture: 1) "the Dionysian", ("life", naturally-violent and tragic); 2)

" Apollonian" (contemplative, logical, intellectual). Nietzsche saw the ideal in the balance of these polar started, Genesis was understood by him as a natural formation, "will to power" as inherent in all living beings is a craving for self- assertion. The concept of "life", "will to power" is polysemous symbols, asserting the existence in its dynamics, passion, the instinct of self-preservation that drives the society energy. Nietzsche condemned the decline of morality in the 19th century in Europe. Causes of moral decay he believed the spread of democratic ideas, religious values and "pollution" of the European Nations. In the book "thus spoke Zarathustra" (1883) Nietzsche proclaimed "God is dead". He believed that the old Christian morality of love, mercy, kindness have lost its actuality. His ideal is "Superman", which will destroy the old morality, the morality of the "human herd", will subordinate the weak to his will. "Superman" will measure the value 60 of people and things in terms of greatness and superiority. The measure of greatness is will power. This force must overcome the morality of others and the suffering of others. Declarative statement "God is dead" reflected the attitude of the 19th century, when the traditional triad of "God-world-man", the concept of "God" was pushed out, excluded from the interaction between the world and man. Nietzsche introduced the concept of "Superman" that you want to overcome the "Apollonian" and "Dionysian". From the idea of being forsaken by God arise such philosophical trends like existentialism and Freudianism. Thus, in the 20th century ethical issues developing these innovative philosophical directions. In the modern period the theme of self-determination and freedom was developed by existentialism. Existentialism is philosophical movement of the late 19th and early 20th century, the name of which is derived from the concept of "existence". Existentialism asserts the priority of existence over essence, the key concepts of existentialism art the absurdity, desperation, "the wall". The main concept of existentialism is the freedom associated with responsibility. Representatives of existentialism were Kierkegaard, S., L. Shestov, K. Jaspers, M. Heidegger, A. Camus, J. P. Sartre. Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) was Danish philosopher and theologian, one of the founders of the philosophy of existentialism, the author of philosophical works "either-Or", "Fear and trembling", "Philosophical crumbs". Coined the concept of "existing" or "subjective thinker," as opposed to "abstract", "objective", or "systemic thinker", the embodiment of which he found in Hegel. The truth, according to Kierkegaard, cannot be opened to the abstract, divorced from the existence of thought, in truth can only be. Eksisterande as genuine the existence of a single entity, determined by passion, reaching its fullness in a personal faith that does not require any guarantees from the mind. The paradox or absurdity of faith is that the infinite God as eternal truth, becomes in time and comes into relation with the finite individual. To appear before the living God, to whom all possible means to be the face of their own freedom as endless possibilities. This infinite possibility of freedom opened to man in the existential 61 fear, terror, great fear of the end, or fright. "The one who brought up fear, says Kierkegaard, is brought up the possibility, according to his infinity." Albert Camus (1913 – 1960) was a French philosopher, existentialist, writer and dramaturge, author of numerous works, including the novel "the Stranger", a philosophical essay "the Myth of ", a philosophical treatise "the Rebellious man", as well as of the novel-parable "the Plague". In their thinking stems from a sense of the absurd, born in the interaction of man and the world. The flight from the absurdity or meaninglessness pushes us to two illegal conclusions: 1) suicide, like the destruction of the questioner about the meaning, and 2) philosophical suicide, bringing the idea to sacrifice the illusory sense. The solution proposed by Camus is the active acceptance of the absurd as a burden of our existence, in this connection to the fore the theme of rebellion. People are rioting there, not for any sense of, but in spite of the senselessness and injustice of his inheritance. And if the original rebellion was interpreted individually Camus (myth of Sisyphus), then later as a manifestation of human solidarity: to rebel against injustice in the world, so to rebel for the sake of others (myth of Prometheus). Rebellion, thus, needs to be understood not as meaning, but as the creative source of many meanings. Albert Camus in "the Myth of Sisyphus" (1942), "the Rebellious man" (1951) analyzed the critical issues of human existence. For Camus, the fundamental question of philosophy is whether life is to live – asserts the value of human life as such. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905 -1980), the representative of atheistic existentialism. A specific synthesis of the philosophy of Hegel, Husserl and Heidegger created by Sartre in "Being and nothingness" (1943). Sartre made the intentional analysis of the forms of being in human reality. "being-in-itself" Pure "nothing" compared with the immediate life of consciousness, the "hole" in Genesis, the dense massive repulsion, denial "being-for-itself" The immediate life of consciousness "being-for-other" The fundamental conflict of interpersonal relations engenders the 62

attitude towards "the other" as a struggle for the recognition of individual liberty in the eyes of the "other"

"Fundamental project" of human existence is "the desire to be God", that is, to achieve self-sufficient (self-sufficient) "being-in-itself", keeping the free subjectivity of "being-for-itself". Since this is not possible, "vain desire" reveals the illusory nature of the Nietzschean ideal of the Superman as the infinite affirmation. Despite this, human freedom is inalienable and indestructible. In "existentialism is a " Sartre affirms the value of human life, to overcome the alienation of man from himself. In the implementation of human between socialization and individualization it is important to preserve individualization, the intrinsic value of human life. The literary works of Sartre's "the Wall", "Nausea", "Flies" and other artistic form to Express a sense of existential absurdity, the cultural worldview of the 20th century. (1889-1976) in "Being and time" (1927) expresses a desire to reveal the "" through the consideration of the human being, because only human nature to the primordial understanding of being. In Heidegger, the ontological basis of human existence is its finiteness, temporality, and therefore should be considered as the most essential characteristic of life. Heidegger seeks to rethink the European philosophical tradition, considers existence as something timeless. The reason for this "false" understanding of being Heidegger sees the absolute one time – the present, the "eternal presence" when authentic temporality as if disintegrating, turning into a succession of moments of "now", in a physical, according to Heidegger, the "vulgar" time. Focus on the future gives the individual true existence, whereas the advantage of the present leads to the fact that the "world of things", the world of everyday life hides from man his limb, "being towards death". Concepts such as "fear", "resolve", "conscience", "guilt", "concern" and similar expressed in Heidegger spiritual experience of identity, feeling unique, one-time and mortality. In the

63 future, Heidegger focuses on the concepts, not only personally ethical, but impersonal cosmic reality: being and nothingness, hidden and open, the Foundation and baseless, earthly and heavenly, human and divine. Now Heidegger tries to understand the person on the basis of "truth of existence". Analyzing the origin of the metaphysical way of thinking and world perception in General, Heidegger tries to show how metaphysics, as the basis of all European life, gradually preparing the new European science and technology to the subordination of everything human, for lack of religiosity and around the modern lifestyle of society, urbanization and mass. In general, it can be noted that in existentialism exist primarily in relation to the entity, first is "abandoned" in this world, and then defines the meaning of his existence. The only act in which a person cannot be replaced is his own death, through the understanding of the inevitability with which we must look for his "project" and the meaning of everyday life.

Terminology of the topic: Anthropology is the study of the man and the humanity in totality, which studies human beings in aspects ranging from the biology and evolutionary history of Homo sapiens to the features of society and culture that decisively distinguish humans from other animal species. Because of the diverse subject matter it encompasses, anthropology has become, especially since the middle of the 20th century, a collection of more specialized fields. Physical anthropology is the branch that concentrates on the biology and evolution of humanity. Absurd is the contradiction of reason, it’s beyond the limits of rational thought; paradoxical, nonsensical, or meaningless. According to Camus, Sartre, and other existentialists absurdity is an inescapable consequence of any sensitive effort to live in the face of an indifferent reality. The all-too-human inclination to yearn most passionately for those things which we can never possess, for example, is absurd in this sense.

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Categorical imperative - is a command which expresses a general, unavoidable requirement of the moral law. Its three forms express the requirements of universalizability, respect and autonomy. Together they establish that an action is properly called 'morally good' only if we can will all persons to do it, it enables us to treat other persons as ends and not merely as the means to our own selfish ends, and it allows us to see other persons as mutual law-makers in an ideal 'realm of ends'.

Deviation is the rejection of the accepted norms. Ethics is the philosophical study of morality, particularly conceived as a set of standards of right and wrong conduct. Its most theoretical branch concerns the meanings or, more broadly, the logic, of our moral concepts—such as right action, obligation, and justice—the kinds of evidence we have for propositions about the corresponding subject matter, and the sorts of properties that apparently underlie the application of the concepts. On some major ethical views, such as J. S. Mill's , our obligations derive from our potential contributions to enhancing what is good. For this reason, among others, the concept of the good and the distinction between intrinsic and instrumental goodness are also major concerns of ethical inquiry. On other major ethical views, such as Immanuel Kant's, moral duty is a property possessed by acts themselves by virtue of their falling under principles, for instance, a principle that, quite apart from the consequences of lying, prohibits it. is commonly contrasted with metaethics and is concerned to formulate and assess principles meant to guide moral decisions, whether in private or public life. A major question it raises is what moral specific obligations we have. Another is what moral rights persons as such have and, related to this, what legal rights a just society must accord its citizens. Still another is what constitutes a valid excuse for wrongdoing. Any moral philosopher may be concerned with the broad question of how moral disagreements may be rationally settled, and here we have a question that has both metaethical and normative aspects.

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God is the supreme, supernatural object of philosophical and religious thought and the main subject of religious worship. In religious philosophy this concept means the absolute beginning, the root cause of the world, physical and moral. Endowed with such qualities as incomprehensibility for reason, uniqueness (in monotheistic religions), spirituality, identity, goodness, eternity, boundlessness, immutability, omnipotence, omniscience, etc. In the history of thought, the doctrine of God took the forms of theism, pantheism and atheism. The concept of God in the evolution of religion was increasingly endowed with personal traits and qualities. This is especially characteristic of the philosophical and theological systems of the twentieth century, which understand the idea of God as the primary givenness of human consciousness and the task of man to become a godlike being, ally and accomplice of God. The incomprehensibility of the mind is connected with the deepest mystery that surrounds the manifestation of God and is the basis for an infinite knowledge of God. The essence of God is devoid of any materiality and possesses a quality of identity, i.e. does not have any higher reason for its being. Goodness is an inalienable quality of God that is transmitted to man. The remaining qualities characterize the universality of the existence of God in the world. In Christianity, God is one in essence, threefold in his personal being. He is God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit. As the absolute fullness of being and ultimate perfection, God embodies the eternal and unconditional values: Goodness, Beauty, Truth, Freedom, Immortality. Hedonism comes from the ancient Greek for ‘pleasure’. Psychological or motivational hedonism claims that only pleasure or motivates us. Ethical or evaluative hedonism claims that only pleasure has worth or value and only pain or displeasure has disvalue or the opposite of worth. Jeremy Bentham asserted both psychological and ethical hedonism with the first two sentences of his book An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation: “Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain, and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to 66 determine what we shall do”. Debate about hedonism was a feature too of many centuries before Bentham, and this has also continued after him. Other key contributors to debate over hedonism include Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, Aquinas, Butler, Hume, Mill, Nietzsche, Brentano. Irrationalism. Arthur Schopenhauer was the most famous philosopher of irrationalism. He wrote “The Words as Will and Representation”. He said: “We are, for better or for worse, manifestations of our own wills, rarely exhibiting the universal compassion for others that would render our egoistic impulses aesthetically valuable. Only by eliminating desire can we hope to achieve harmony and peace, he argued, but even that is possible only in ascetic living or death. Our very name for the "world," Schopenhauer suggested, is an acronym for the characteristics of human life—woe, misery, suffering, and death. Marginality is a condition edge location of the individual between different social groups, when an individual moved from one social group, but did not socialize to the other one. Personality is a concrete, integral human individuality in the unity of its natural and social qualities. Personality is a subject of social activity. The development of personality in an individual is related to its creative potential. Socialization is the process of individual assimilation of social norms. Social role is a set of actions corresponding to the position of the individual in society. Social status is the totality of the social roles of man. Prescribed social status is predefined by social structures and biological characteristics. Achieved social status is determined by personal achievements and human actions. Transhumanty is a modern philosophical trend, based on the assumption that man is not the last link in evolution, and therefore can be perfected to infinity. Followers of the movement argue that it is possible and necessary to eliminate aging and death. To significantly increase the mental and physical capabilities of man; to study the achievements, prospects and potential dangers of using science,

67 technology, creativity and other ways of overcoming the fundamental limits of human capabilities. Unconscious level of cognition is a concept used by psychological endings to denote the motivations of a person who does not pass through her consciousness, transforming or distorting conscious motives that impose certain automatisms of behavior on a person. S. Freud focused on the hidden, irrational forces of human actions and experiences. KG Jung proposed the consideration of schemes of unconscious motivation (archetypes) inherent in social groups and entire peoples. Freud insisted on the irreconcilable opposition between consciousness and the unconscious. It is innate and determines all human behavior. Value is a concept that indicates the meaning of certain phenomena of reality. All the variety of objects of human activity, social relations and natural phenomena included in human perception, can act as values, i.e. to be evaluated as good and evil, truth and not truth, beauty and disgrace, as just and unjust, permissible or forbidden. The criteria by which the evaluation procedure is carried out are fixed in culture and public consciousness as subjective values. These include imperatives, goals, projects in the form of normative representations, attitudes. In this way, values exist in two forms-as objective values and subjective values. Philosophical theory of values is called (from the Greek valuable), it examines the relationship of different values among themselves. It originated in the era of Socrates, who first posed the question: "What is good?" Values are that which one acts to gain or keep. Living entities act to achieve various ends. They decide, by some standard of evaluation, which ends are wanted, and to what degree. The combination of an end to which one can act towards, and the wanting to accomplish those ends, is a value. Values are automated judgments about particular ends. Similar to emotions, they are originally derived through the use of reason. They are derived from an initial judgment about the merits of particular ends to achieve some goal. The automated response comes in the form of "wanting" something. Since it is based on a 68 previous judgment, it can sometimes be stale or incorrect, just as an emotion is. Values are not desires. A desire is an emotional longing for something. It differs from values in a couple ways. First, the desire may not be achievable. One may desire to grow wings and fly. Values are concerned with goals one is able to pursue. Only when a course of action is apparent can one value something. Another difference between values and desires is the emotional content. Desires are emotions, so a desire without an emotional response is a contradiction. A value, on the other hand, need not have an emotional response. It is an automated judgment, which often produces a desire, but not necessarily. One may value getting a college degree to get a better job, but certainly during a long, boring lecture, the emotion desire is not applicable, except in reference to wanting to leave class. Values are important to men because they are the motivation to act. Purposeful action requires values. Since there can exist many values, they need to be compared in order to decide which action to take. At a quasi-emotional level, this is easy. Whichever value is wanted the most. However, since the values are based on a previous judgment, and on a goal to which the ends produce, the degree of wanting needs to be rationally determined. It is the goal by ethical values.

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Topic 4. Philosophy of history. In the history of philosophy there are two main ways of explaining the historical process. The first involves a unity and a common historical development of humanity, dividing this process into certain stages at a specific methodological principle. Let's call it "structural method". The second approach to the study of history presupposes that human history consists of the history of individual civilizations that exist in similar laws in different periods and in different places. Let's call it "cultural-civilizational method". Let us first consider the basic ideas of different representatives of cultural and civilizational method of studying history. Cultural and civilizational concept was born in the 19th century in Russian philosophy as a protest against the ideology of Eurocentrism in the education system and culture of the time. In search of a solution to this problem the original theory of development of different Nations was created, in particular, as the philosophy of Slavophilism. The debate of the Slavophiles and the so-called Westerners have become a unique phenomenon of searching of cultural identity, typical for Russian philosophical thought of the late 19th - early 20th century. Philosophical discussions about cultural self-determination took place in the 19th century as a fact of awareness of the gap between folk and aristocratic culture. There were two main camps in this discussion: Westernizers and the Slavophilies. Westernizers proclaimed Russian culture as a special part of the European one, but the Slavophiles insisted on the uniqueness of Russian culture. The most provocative actor of the discussion became Peter Chaadaev (1794- 1856), the author of notorious “Philosophical letters”, published in magazine “Telescope” and “ of Madman”, whose judgments set the tone for debates between the Slavophiles and Westernizers. After the publication of the first “Philosophical letter” Chaadaev was declared insane, and the publisher exiled. What was filled the society and the authorities with indignation in the cultural discussions? Let’s try to analyze. The main topic in the Chaadaev’s 70 philosophy is the historical destiny of Russia. He refuses to determine a place of Russia as a coin between Europe and Asia, western and eastern civilizations. He argues that Western Europe is the only right form of civilization and all other civilizations are perverse form of European one, dead-end line of its development. Chaadaev makes an exception only for Eastern civilization, recognizing its absolute originality. Originally Chaadaev idealizes Western Europe, identifying its ideal civilization with European history, but later the French revolution of 1830 and the European revolution of 1848 forced him to tear his ideal from this European life. Chaadaev compares Russia with his western ideal of social justice and spirituality. He believes that Russia is neither European no Asian civilization, it generally cannot be characterized as a civilization. Chaadaev criticizes the “passivity” of the Russian people, the Russian choice of residence and climate, the adoption of Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium and the Russian “lack of originality”. He claims that Russian nation is not a part of humanity, and it exists to teach the world some important lesson. Thus, Chaadaev firstly wondered about the historical mission of Russia, while he didn’t try to answer the question. Ideology of Chaadaev was developed by other westernizers – N.V. Stankiewich (1813-1840), T.N. Granovsky (1813-1855). What was the response of the Slavophiles? How did they discuss the Russian cultural identity? Let’s see it. Such Slavophiles, as K.S. Aksakov (1817- 1860), A.S. Khomyakov (1804-1860), I.V. Kireevsky (1806-1856), proclaimed originality of the Russian culture. Nineteen-Century Slavophilism felt that Russia should follow its own path, based on the values and principles embodied in Russian Orthodoxy and expressed in social institutions such as the family and the peasant commune. The Slavophiles held that Western culture was in a state of moral and social decline, but proclaimed that the Russian civilization was unique. Konstantin Aksakov (1817-1860) analyzed the fundamental distinction between political and civil society, the state and the provincial governments. In a “Note about the international condition of Russia” addressed to Alexander II, Aksakov has explained the idea of political indifference of the Russian people. He believed 71 that the government should have unlimited right to act within the law, and the people should have the right for opinion, expressed as a freedom of speech. In his opinion, apolitical Russian people separated themselves from the state, giving unlimited power to the government. Mutual non-interference of the state and the County Affairs was characteristic of the political life of the Russian society until the reign of Peter I, but later the situation changed. Since the period of Europeanization in Russia in the 18th century upper class broke away from the Russian origins and became as a foreigner. Russian land seemed to have been conquered by its own government. So, the despotism of the government provoked the potential of the revolutionary sentiment among the Russian people, but, in opinion of Aksakov, true Russian character hadn’t got revolutionary spirit, but natural conservatism. In his opinion, to resolve the situation, it’s necessary to restore the ancient civil device and the ability for Russian people to live a spiritual and moral life, but not political. Thus, in the philosophy of Aksakov we can see a vivid example of political and cultural conservatism. Slavophilism and neoslavophilism discovered the uniqueness of the Slavic culture, not only in peculiar forms of peasant life, but in such original basis, as the community, catholicity and all-unity (the unity of souls in God). Ideas of the neoslavophilism were expressed by soilers, such as F.M. Dostoevsky (1821- 1881), and representatives of organicism, such as K.N. Leontiev and N.I. Danilevsky. Organicism argues that as the various parts of the body have a purpose, and the members of the society perform different functions, so that social inequality is necessary and justified. Society exists in accordance with the biological laws: it emerges, develops, matures, grows old and dies. Organic branch is a civilizational approach, which understands each community as unique and original phenomenon in the human history, existing in the same space, but not in the same time with other cultures, because each culture has its own internal rhythm. Organic direction. The representatives of this direction likened society to an organism, and how the various parts of the body have their purpose, and the 72 members of the society perform different functions, so social inequality is necessary and justified. Society exists in accordance with biological laws: it is born, develops, Matures, grows old and dies. This direction is characterized by a civilizational approach: each society is seen as unique and original phenomenon in human history, existing suprastructure, and not simultaneously with the other, as each culture has its own time that does not match the internal biological rhythm. Political views of this trend were conservative, that is sought to the maximum possible preservation of the existing order, seeing social ideal in the past. K. N. Leontiev (1831-1891) was a medical doctor by education. His social views are most clearly outlined in the works of "Byzantism and Slavdom", "Tribal politics as a weapon of world revolution." In Leontiev's philosophy of history the idea of a triune process plays an important role. The same law defines the biological and historical development, and has three periods: from the original simplicity, to the "blossoming complexity", from which "secondary mixing simplification" development goes to the end of civilization. Plethora of culture can only be defined aesthetically. Culture then a high and influential when it has a lot of beauty. Harmony is not the peace of balance, but fruitful struggle for existence. Social sin is an invisible social truth, truth of public health, which cannot be contradicted even the best of . If in nature there is no place for moral evaluation, then it has no place in history, and in society. Equality as "egalitarian beginning" is alien to nature. Morality has its limits, it is the Supreme value to personality, but not for the historical process. Therefore, it is justified national self-interest. The normal period of existence of the state is about 1000 years, Russia's goal is to survive longer. Leontiev sees the following ways: first, it is necessary to isolate themselves from Europe, which has already started the process of egalitarian mixing, evidenced by the emergence of revolutionary and socialist ideas; second, as in other empires, fresh power can be obtained by integration over the "young" Nations. Britain chose the path of colonization, Russia has chosen the advance to the East. These themes are

73 developed in the context of the ideology of pan-Slavism, that is, the desire to unite the Slavic peoples on the basis of Orthodoxy. N. I.Danilevsky (1822-1885), a paleontologist by profession, applied biology for the study of social development. In his work "Russia and Europe" (1871, reprint 1991, 1995) Danilevsky uses biological "morphological" principle, according to which there is no single development process, each species evolves independently of the others. National racial structures are distinctive, irrespective of other existing suprastructure, as evidenced by the mismatch of the same order of phases of development of the peoples in time. Cultural-historical types differ on "solitary" and "continuity". Not every nationality creates a cultural-historical type. There are also peoples as "scourges of God" (Mongols, Huns), which sweep away weak or obsolete civilizations, and peoples as "ethnographic material" that become the basis for other cultural-historical types. N. I.Danilevsky describes ten distinctive civilizations: 1) Egypt; 2) China; 3) the Chaldean or old Semitic; 4) Indian; 5) Iran; 6) Jewish; 7) Greek; 8) Roman; 9) new Semitic or Arabian; 10) Germano-Romanic or European. Danilevsky also identifies five laws of existence and the cultural-historical types: 1) kinship of languages; 2) political independence; 3) the inability of the heritability of civilizations; 4) diversity components of ethnographic items; 5) the short period of flowering of civilizations. Different cultural-historical types have different "bases" of cultural activities in different combinations. Just Danilevsky detects the four foundations of cultural activities: 1) religious activities; 2) actually the cultural (theoretical- scientific, aesthetic-artistic, industrial and technical); 3) political activities; 4) socio-economic activities. From the point of view of Danilevsky, potentially, the Russian cultural-historical type is the most versatile, because it has all four foundations of cultural activities. Oswald Spengler (1880-1936) in his book "The decline of the West" (1918) considered as N. I.Danilevsky and K. N. Leontyev, the development of cultures subordinate to the biological rhythm. From the point of view of Spengler, culture is like an organism, which, firstly, has a tough through unity, that is identical to 74 itself throughout life; second, this organism is isolated from other similar "organisms". Thus, a single universal culture does not exist. Every cultural body lived about a thousand years. When the culture passes the highest point of its development, it grows old and approaches death. Aging, culture becomes a civilization when there is a decline of creativity and heroic spirit. Creativity is replaced by technicism, mass society, the formation is replaced by ossification, heroic "acts" is replaced by the mechanical work, and creativity is replaced with consumption. For Greco-Roman culture civilization begins in the Hellenistic period, for the West in the 19th century, which begins with his "sunset". Spengler counted eight cultures: Egyptian, Indian, Babylonian, Chinese, "Apollonian" (Greco-Roman), "magic" (Byzantine-Arab), "Faustian" (Western European), problematic (not exhausted) culture of the Maya, he also suggested that perhaps the "manifestation" of the Russian-Siberian culture. With the advent of civilization artistic and literary creativity becomes unnecessary, therefore, in the period of civilization must, from the point of view of Spengler to deny the cultural claims and "surrender" only to technicism. British philosopher Arnold Joseph Toynbee (1889-1936) in "a Study of history" also divided the world community into incompatible socio-cultural systems, living and original with their "historical destiny". The criteria for civilizations: 1) ethnicity; 2) geographic and cultural range of its habitat; and 3) worldview, that is, the style, the "spirit" that forms the originality of civilization. Human history is interpreted as a development of civilizations which have passed the stage of emergence-growth-breakdown-decomposition. The driving force of civilization is the "creative minority", which is the carrier of the "élan vital", which, answering calls, carries the "inert majority". The originality of "challenges" faced by civilization, and the answers it gives, defines the specific civilizations. The progress of mankind is manifested in spiritual accomplishment, the course of history is determined by the creative force, and while the elite retains spiritual potential, civilization viable. The primary civilization arises directly from the primitive societies on the basis of pre-literate cultures, the transition from 75 the second to the third type of civilizations is the ascent of civilization through "the Church" one of the world's religions. The original version of the cultural-civilizational conception was the theory of L.N. Gumilev's passionarity. L. N. Gumilev (1912-1992) in the work "Ethnogenesis and biosphere of the Earth" (Leningrad, 1989), "Rhythms of Eurasia. Epochs and civilizations" (Moscow, 1993), "The ethnosphere: History of people and the history of nature" (M.,1993) has substantiated the theory of development of national ethnogenesis. Ethnogenesis consists of several components. First, it is the diversity of natural conditions (for example, the combination of mountain + steppe or forest + meadows + lakes). Secondly, the diversity of the original "human" component to the formation of ethnic groups (for example, every ethnic group consists of ancestors of different nationalities: (angles + Saxons + Celts + Normans = English) or (Slavs + Finns + some Turks = Russian). Thirdly, Gumilev introduces some additional "factor X", that is, the concept of drive. Passion is defined as a special effect of excess biochemical energy, which is manifested in increased thrust of people to action. Holders of this quality are defined as passionaries. Passionaries initiate long hikes, offensive and defensive war, the creation and the preaching of new religions and scientific theories. Passionaries are enzyme ethnogenesis and its driving force. The formation of a new ethnic group, associated with the breaking of old of behavior and creating new ones, requires a powerful release of human energy, this requires a high concentration of movers in the population. In history there are several examples of explosions of ethnogenesis, when in different parts of the world almost at the same time born many new nations. Regions of ethnic origin are located along meridians or Parallels, always in the form of a continuous strip. Thus, natural factors, primarily the geomagnetic operate a certain time on a certain plot of land that gives rise to the passionate impulse to ethnic origin. Civilization can survive for 1200-1500 years. The flowering of civilization is defined as the Acme phase, when there is the maximum number of movers. After the "breakdown" of civilization comes the blossoming of culture, accumulation of 76 wealth, the creation of large States. The opposite of passionaries be a harmonious hard-working people, "inhabitants". Lost passion civilization can long remain in the phase of obscuration, where the selfish and lethargic people dominate everywhere, they are only able to consume the accrued benefit. Then the memorial phase can be followed when it is lost the ability to be creative, but there is the memory of tradition. Then homeostasis can be followed when memory is lost, and energy is only enough to support the established ancestors of the economy. There is also such a thing as interference, i.e. the superposition of the histories of ethnic groups in time and space. For example, the XIII – XV century in the history of Russia was an example of the interference of the fading East Slavic ethnicity and the emerging Russian one. The breakdown of the Russian ethnic group was around 1800, which was followed by the "Golden age" of Russian culture. Thus, Gumilev's concept is another example of application of methods of natural Sciences to the analysis and interpretation of the philosophy of history. The concept of the unity of historical development, which presupposes the universal development, divided into distinct historical periods presented, such as the Marxist theory. We define this concept as the formational approach to the explanation of history. An example of an idealistic approach to the explanation of a single universal historical process is the philosophy of history by Hegel. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) developed the concept of the unity of history in his philosophical concepts. His system of contained in "Phenomenology of spirit" (1807), "Science of logic" (1812-1816), "" (1821). The basis of all that exists it is assumed the spirit of the World. For self-knowledge, he needs the manifestation. Manifestation is carried out by means of dialectical development. Dialectics is a science about the development of all that exists from the two opposites in a state of unity and struggle of opposites. The laws of dialectics to explain the nature of the historical process either Hegel or Marx used in their theories, and they based either on the idealistic or the materialistic principle, respectively. The laws of dialectics: 1) the law of 77 unity and struggle of opposites (dialectical contradiction); 2) the law of transition of quantity into quality and Vice versa; 3) the law of negation of negation. Development is from the abstract one to the concrete one. The self-revelation of the World spirit in space manifests itself as nature. The self-revelation of the World spirit in time manifests itself as history. Levels of understanding the world (philosophy of mind) are built hierarchically. First, the Subjective spirit (anthropology, phenomenology, psychology). Secondly, this knowledge of the world is manifested as the Objective spirit (abstract right, morality (the distinction between law and moral debt), morality (the ability to follow a moral duty within the law, its forms - the family, civil society, state)). Thirdly, this knowledge manifests itself as the Absolute spirit (its form - the art of (sensuous contemplation), religion (an abstract representation) and philosophy (concept)). "Everything real is rational, everything rational is real". The state in the history is in the process of development of the spirit world constituted by separate peoples. Any nation carries out its private idea. The tyranny of the Ancient East gives way to partial democracy of antiquity, and the most complete realization of freedom occurs in the modern Germanic peoples. Thus, the history according to Hegel is carried out as progress in awareness of freedom. Subsequently, the dialectical method used by K.Marx (1818-1883) in his materialist conception. If according to Hegel the development goes from the abstract to the concrete, Marx argues that development occurs from the concrete to the abstract. Marx with the three laws of dialectics is the Absolute spirit of Hegel is developing a self-developing matter. From the point of view of Marx, the dialectical unity of production relations and the productive forces develops in human history as economic history, economy and revolution. Marxist direction is based on the principle of determinism, that is, the conditionality of social development to external factors, primarily economic. Karl Marx in the "Critique of political economy" (1859), “Capital” (1867) argued that the basis of social life lies the economic activity. Method of production of material wealth as the dialectical interaction of productive forces and relations of production determines 78 the functioning of the ideological superstructure, consisting of policy, law, morality, religion, art, science and other political and ideological resources that support the state as an instrument of exploitation in the hands of the exploiting class. Each level of development of productive forces corresponds to a certain mode of production and, consequently, a certain socio-economic system. Human history, according to Marxism, has 5 socio-economic formations, in each of which there are two main antagonistic (opposing) classes: the exploiters and the exploited. 1) the Primitive communal social-economic formation; 2) In the slave-owning socio-economic formation slaveholders are the exploiting class and the exploited class are slaves; 3) In the feudal socio-economic formation of the exploiting class are feudal lords and serfs are exploited; 4) In the capitalist socio-economic formation of the exploiting class is the bourgeoisie and the exploited class is the proletariat; 5) In the Communist socio-economic formation, there is no exploitation through public ownership of the means of production, as a result, the state and money withers away as instruments of exploitation in the hands of the exploiting class. The changing of socio-economic formations occurs through revolutions, and in the course of historical development, from the point of view of Marxism, would lead to the establishment of communism, which will disappear and operation will increase the public wealth. Thus, only the primitive and Communist formation are free from class division of society: primitive because of the primitive and the lack of production, Communist because of the socialization of production. Theory of postindustrial society and the theory of globalism have become the representatives of the formational conception of the philosophy of history in the twentieth century.

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The concept of a postindustrial society developed European and American researchers. Differently it is called the theory of the information society. In France, the representatives of this direction were F. Braudel, A. Touraine, in the United States this theory was developed by D. Bell. D. Bell argued that the concept of post-industrial society represents an attempt of a scientific prediction of changes in the social structure of Western society. For methodological justification of the theory he uses a certain conceptual scheme. The conceptual scheme is defined as a logical connection through which the researcher organizes a number of facts. There may be different schemas for the same period, it depends on the researcher. From the point of view of Bell, a conceptual scheme is based on the idea of an axial principle. The axial principle for his sociological concept – is the production and use of knowledge. Based on this principle, Bell identifies the notion of "pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial society." Pre-industrial one is a traditional, agrarian society. Industrial society is characterized by industrial production, and post-industrial society in similar theories defined as informational society. The axial principle of the postindustrial society Bell declares that "the Central position of theoretical knowledge as the axis around which is organized the new technology, economic growth and the stratification of society." Thus, the main task of post-industrial society is defined as the organization of science and education. Signs of transition from industrial society to post-industrial one: 1) the axial principle is the Central position of theoretical knowledge for policy in society. It involves the control of technology and technological assessment of innovations and the creation of new intellectual technology. 2) In the economic life is shifting from producing goods to a service economy. Accordingly, there is a movement of workers from industry and agriculture into the service sector. In the post-industrial society service sector includes not only trade, Finance, and transportation and governance, health, education. 80

3) In the professional field there is a predominance of professional and technical classes. Some economically developed countries such as the US, have already approached this type of companies. If in the industrial society the standard of living was determined by the quality of the consumed goods, in post-industrial society it is determined by the quality of services. The requirements of the new quality of life in post-industrial society concentrated mainly in two areas: 1) healthcare that ensures reduction of morbidity and increase life expectancy; 2) education, which is the basis of social status. In a postindustrial society there is a shift in the principle of stratification. This shift from the criterion of ownership towards knowledge as the basis of power. Post-industrial society is divided into independent from each other spheres. According to Bell, changes in the economy necessarily involve changes in politics and culture, but only put before them. Parts of society according to Bell’s theory:

Social structure Polity Culture

It includes: It regulates the Culture is the field of - economy distribution of expressive symbolism and - technology power and examines meanings. - professional system the conflict groups The axial principle is a The axial principle of and the needs of sociological review. economization individuals. In post-industrial society (sustainable production, The axial principle social programs, not the optimal allocation of is the principle of market serves as a resources to achieve the participation. mechanism for the greatest profit at the distribution of benefits. lowest cost). Because of this, problems The main characteristics arise more in ethical than in of the social structure is a economic sphere: functional rationality. 1) the problem of the development of the

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mechanisms of conscious social justice; 2) determination of the optimal ratio of private and public sector in the economy.

There is a contradiction between the axial principle of social structure and culture. According to the principle of education and professionalism of the bell determines the following social strata d post-industrial society: 1) Professional grade consists of four classes: scientist, technological, administrative, and cultural ones; 2) employees are clerks and workers of trade and sphere of services; 3) highly Skilled workers; 4) semi-skilled workers. Based on this division of society into spheres and stratification according to the principle of access to knowledge, bell foresees in the post-industrial society the following conflicts: A) the Main social conflict of post-industrial society – between those who had high level of knowledge and the bulk. "If the struggle between capitalist and worker in the factory was a symptom of industrial society, the clash between professionals and populists in the organization and the state is a sign of conflict in post-industrial society". B) Another source of tension is a fundamental contradiction between the technical and humanitarian intelligentsia. Bell argues that in post-industrial society increases "the gap between the technical intelligentsia, which supports the functional rationality and technocratic methods of production and management, and humanitarian intelligentsia that is becoming more hedonistic and nihilistic". The theory of globalism. The topics of globalization arise in sociology from the 70s of the twentieth century. American scientist I. Wallerstein argued that sociology should not 82 analyze individual companies but world (global) social system. He described three types of world systems corresponding to the main stages of social evolution: 1) The earliest is the world Empire, which politically unites a variety of local cultures. For example, Ancient Egypt, the Roman Empire, the Russian era of serfdom. 2) Prevailing in the New age type of world system is a world economy (or world economy). World economies are politically independent States, each of which was formed around a common national culture. Involved into global economy countries are united by a common economic system. The only historical example of a world-economy is a modern European economy, including the countries of Eastern Europe. 3)World-socialism is a purely theoretical construction have not yet had the historical incarnation. World socialism is a unified political-economic system ("world government"), which will completely replace economic inequality and political division of the modern nation state. In 1974 in New York city was firstly published the book by I. Wallerstein "Modern world system" (Wallerstein I. The modern world-system: capitalist agriculture and the origins of the European world-economy in the 16th century. N.-Y., 1974). It traced the origins of the modern capitalist economy since the 16th century. Already in this early period of the world economy, not as a political Empire, it has become Imperial in scope and characteristic features: "It "world system" not due to the fact that it embraces the whole world, but because it is more than any legally defined political unit. This "world economy" because the basic linkage between the parts of this system is economic one." From the point of view of I. Wallerstein modern world economy consists of three types of States parties: - "nuclear" highly developed States with strong and effective political organization, dominant in the global economy and extracting maximum benefit from the global division of labor.

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- "peripheral" States, serve predominantly raw-material base of the world economy controlled by weak governments and economically dependent on the core. These include some countries in Asia, most of Africa and Latin America. - "semi-periphery" countries, which occupies an intermediate position in the degree of political autonomy within the world system, producing less technologically advanced products and to some extent dependent on the "nuclear" countries economically. These include the States of Central and Eastern Europe, the emerging countries of Southeast Asia. The basis of differentiation of the world economy is the international division of labor: proximity to the countries constituting the "core" of the world economy, is directly proportional to the proportion of highly skilled (including organizational-administrative) labor, as well as the achieved level of capitalization (the harder currency is closer to the "core" ). Wallerstein, traces the main stages of the emergence of economic domination, which lies at the basis of the modern world system: between the expansion and the slave trade, which served as a source of super cheap labor in the initial phase, to the modern differentiation of labor markets in different zones of the world economy. Europe has traditionally supplied the ruling class, managers, skilled workers, Africa has supplied low-skilled labor. The predominance of free labor market in the center and the unfree market for less skilled labor in the periphery is not just a feature, but the Foundation of the capitalist world economy. Alignment of economic development, that is modernization and General "emancipation of labor" would end the world economy and the transition to world socialism. Modern "European" world economy is the world's only system that included the whole civilized world. Unlike other world systems, it has a unique motor built into it as a structural principle – it’s the pursuit of the endless accumulation of capital. Capitalist accumulation is characteristic of other systems, but only the modern world economy has a built in structural mechanisms that create constant pressure of capitalist accumulation. Institutions of the world economy provide a constant and 84 growing rewarding for those who accumulate capital, as well as punishment for those who do not. Traditionally, the concept of capitalism related to the concept of the market, but Wallerstein put these concepts in opposition.

Market capitalism Market assumes equivalence of Capitalism is a parasitic growth on barter, healthy competition, rational market relations, enriched by the pricing and fair wages. violation of the principles of The market is unthinkable without equivalent exchange. To generate the permanent cessation of capital commensurate with labor speculative tendencies, undermining efforts and manufacturing capabilities its basis. Hence a certain reticence of its owner, only in the way different markets, and their tendency to sorts of speculative adventures. localization, is traditionally centered Capital in search of maximum profits, around emerging market centers. which is achieved only through Limit the expansion of the market unequal exchange, tends to economy is a separate country. globalization, working on the changes Market needs it is necessary to secure in prices of local markets, and protect by the state government. geographically and culturally remote from one another. Capitalism seeks to embrace the entire world.

Thus, the anti-globalization seeks to protect local markets from predatory speculative tendencies of global capitalism.

Terminology of the topic: Accommodation of cultures is an adaptation of the culture to changing environmental conditions, and to interaction with the other culture. Acculturation is the process of acquiring artifacts (material objects, inventions, recipes) of one culture by other culture. Aesthetics the branch of philosophy dealing with beauty or the beautiful, especially in art, and with taste and standards of value in judging art. Also, a theory or consistent attitude on such matters. The word aesthetics was first used by Baumgarten about 1750, to imply the science of sensuous knowledge, whose aim is beauty, as contrasted with logic, whose aim is truth. Kant used the

85 term transcendental aesthetic in another sense, to imply the a priori principles of sensible experience. Aesthetics achieves a more independent status as the subject (whether it is or can be a "science" is a disputed issue) which studies (a) works of art, (b) the processes of producing and experiencing art, and (c) certain aspects of nature and human production outside the field of art -- especially those which can be considered as beautiful or ugly in regard to form and sensory qualities.

Aggression is any expression of anger, malice, envy, lust for power, other forms of violence of one side of conflict against other one. Direct aggression aimed directly at its object, indirect aggression pointedly ignores it. In addition to physical, nonverbal aggression can still detect this kind of aggression, from verbal aggression. For example, indirect verbal aggression is manifested in the refusal of the subject of aggression from the conversation with its object. Assimilation is the fusion of one nation with another loss of one of them their language and cultural peculiarities and differences. Catholicism is one of the main directions in Christianity. The division of the Christian Church into Catholic and Orthodox took place in 1054-1204; in the 16th century. In the course of the Reformation, Protestantism broke away from Catholicism. The organization of the Catholic Church is distinguished by strict centralization, hierarchical character; the monarchical center is the papacy, the head is the Roman pope, whose residence is in the Vatican. Sources of the dogma are Holy Scripture and Sacred giving. Features of Catholicism: adding to the "symbol of faith" (in the dogma of the Trinity) the outcome of the Holy Spirit and the Son; the presence of dogmas about the virgin birth of the Virgin Mary and her bodily ascension, the infallibility of the pope; a sharp distinction between the clergy and the laity; celibacy.

Civilization is the totality of all forms and types of material expression of cultural activities of man and society: technology, forms and ways of organizing production, all types of communications, social institutions. The concept of civilization is correlated with the notion of culture. Spengler regards civilization

86 as a stage of development when the whole culture is embodied in the external, freezes, after which the old age of culture and its death comes. Sometimes the notion of culture and civilization is considered interchangeable. Culture is the totality of transmitted from generation to generation meanings, norms, traditions, beliefs, material and spiritual values that ensure the reproduction of the social system. Dialectic is a doctrine about the development of two opposing principles, invented by G. W. F. Hegel. His system of absolute idealism contained in "Phenomenology of spirit" (1807), "Science of logic" (1812-1816.), "Philosophy of law" (1821). The basis of all existence is the absolute spirit. For self- knowledge, it needs the manifestation. Manifestation is carried out by means of dialectical development. Dialectics is the science of the development of the two opposites. The laws of dialectics: 1) the law of unity and struggle of opposites (dialectical contradiction); 2) the law of transition of quantity into quality and Vice versa; 3) the law of negation of negation. Development is from the abstract to the concrete. Ethnicity is a group of people united by unique culture, identity, language. Ethnocentrism is a set of national stereotypes of one group, through which it assesses the culture of another group. Formation is a concept, which characterizes a certain stage of development of society. In the history of human society, socio-economic formations replace one another. K. Marx distinguished the following formations: primitive communal, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist and communist. Each formation is based on the mode of production. The basis of the formation is economic relations. The superstructure of the formation is an ideological and political relationship, morality, religion, art. The transition from one formation to another is the result of the contradictions between the productive forces and the production relations. Each socio-economic formation is a complete cycle, after which another cycle begins.

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Modernization is the transition from traditional agrarian society to an industrial society. Scholastic is a philosophy occupying a dominant position in the ideology of feudal society. The main goal of their theories the scholastics considered the defense of the Christian religion. The scholastic doctrines were based on the ideas of the ancient thinkers Plato and Aristotle interpreted in the spirit of Christianity, the works of the Neoplatonist pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. An important role in the formation of was played by Eriugena, P. Abelar, and Anselm of Canterbury. The systematic completion of the idea of scholasticism was received in the writings of Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, . The focus of scholasticism is the , which divided the scholastic schools into and realism. Social class is a stratum whose position in society is determined by ownership of the means of production: the owners of the means of production are the exploiters, and the employed people are the exploited ones. Technique – is a system of objects created by man, necessary to carry out its activities. Technology is created on the basis of knowledge and practical use of forces and laws of nature. In the system of technical means an important role belongs to the instruments of production. Stages of technology development: case technology, handicraft technology, machinery, information technology. Technocracy is a group of theories, according to which technology and its planned development in themselves, independently of other facts, can solve all social problems. The founder of the theory of technocracy T. Veblen believes that the power of the scientific and technical intelligentsia will replace the power of the capitalists. In the technocratic society, the "council of technical specialists" will govern the whole social life. The main purpose of which is effective use of natural resources and increase in the volume of production of goods and services for all members of society.

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Topics of practical classes and reports on philosophy: Lesson 1. "Philosophy as science". Discussion questions: "why do you think...?": 1. The word "philosophy" means "love of wisdom"? 2. Philosophy flourishes in economically stable and technologically advanced societies? 3. The philosophy is taught from ancient times to the present? 4. Philosophy exists in parallel with mythology, religion and science? 5. Philosopher and life coach are different professions? 6. Many people like to post on social networks quotes of philosophers, but do not have idea about their philosophy?

Lesson 2. "Philosophy of freedom". Discussion of reports: 1. Freedom and anarchy: what's the difference? (The cynics and anarchists); 2. Freedom and society: how to combine them? (Stoicism); 3. Freedom as recognition of necessity (B. Spinoza); 4. Freedom and ethics as the sense of duty (I. Kant and the categorical imperative); 5. Freedom as the meaning of history (G. W. F. Hegel, N. Berdyaev); 6. Freedom of conscience and the guarantees (John Locke's "Essay on toleration"); 7. Freedom and the social contract (T. Hobbes); 8. Freedom and power (N. Machiavelli); 9. Freedom of movement and boundaries (G. Grotius "Free sea"); 10. Liberty and freedom: a history of Russian revolutionary thought (P. L. Lavrov, M. A. Bakunin, P. N. Tkachev, G. V. Plekhanov); 11. Freedom and revolution (K. Marx).

Lesson 3. "Philosophy of love". Discussion of reports: 1. Types of love in the philosophy of Plato; 2. Love of neighbor: religious ethics (the Sermon on the mount);

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3. Romanticism and love (the philosophy of German romanticism of the 19th century); 4. Love as a social resource (social exchange theory by G. Homans and P. Blau); 5. How the love for the Motherland is possible? (the theory of passionarity of L. N. Gumilev); 6. The religious anarchism of Leo Tolstoy as a philosophy of love; 7. Love and despair (S. Kierkegaard); 8. Love and aggression (F. Nietzsche, O. Kernberg, D. V. Winnicot); 9. Love and property (E. Fromm "To have or to be?").

Lesson 4. "Philosophy and science. Philosophy of science". Discussion of reports: 1. The methodology of knowledge. A) Nominalism and realism; B) Rationalism and empiricism; 2. A General definition of epistemology (M. Foucault: episteme educational field of language in culture); 3. Noosphere as a category of philosophy (V. I. Vernadsky and P. Teilhard de Chardin); 4. and his followers (K. Tsiolkovsky, N. F. Fyodorov); 5. The methods of the natural Sciences in the philosophy of history (N. I. Danilevsky, K. N. Leontiev, L. N. Gumilev); 6. Space and time as philosophical categories. Substantial and relational conception of space and time; 7. The ethos of science (R. Merton); 8. The paradigm of scientific knowledge and scientific evolution (C. Toulmin "Human understanding"); 9. T. Kuhn the structure of scientific revolutions; 10. The externalism and internalism as a model for the development of science; 11. Karl Popper and the theory of the "third world"; 12. The theory of and verification of scientific knowledge; 13. Historical examples of scientific revolutions: the Copernican turn; 14. Positivism and postpositivism in philosophy of science.

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Lesson 5. "The philosophy of history. The concept of the unity of the historical process (structural)". Discussion of reports: 1. The idealistic philosophy of history (G. W. F. Hegel, N. Berdyaev); 2. The materialist conception of history (Material production as basis of social development in the concept of Karl Marx); 3. The theory of socio-economic formations Karl Marx; 4. Theory of postindustrial society (D. Bell, A. Touraine, F. Braudel); 5. The theory of the "third wave" by A. Toffler; 6. The theory of the "leisure class," by T. Veblen; 7. The "End of history" as the theme of Francis Fukuyama; 8. Global sociology of I. Wallerstein.

Lesson 6. "The philosophy of history. Cultural and civilizational concept." Discussion of reports: 1. The debate between Slavophiles and Westernizers as the emergence of a cultural-civilizational approach to explaining history; 2. N. I. Danilevsky: the theory of cultural-historical types; 3. K. N. Leont'ev and organic theory; 4. Eurasianism and its followers; 5. O. Spengler: the theme of culture and civilization in his book "The decline of the West"; 6. Civilization in the conception of A. Toynbee; 7. L. N. Gumilev and his theory of passionarity.

Lesson 7. "Philosophical anthropology and existentialism". Discussion about analysis of texts: 1. M. Sheller, "Еhe state of man in space"; 2. P. Teilhard de Chardin. "The phenomenon of man"; 3. S. Kierkegaard, "Fear and trembling";

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4. Martin Heidegger "Being and time"; 5. Karl Jaspers, "The Meaning and purpose of history; 6. A. Camus "Myth of Sisyphus"; 7. J. P. Sartre, "Existentialism is a humanism."

Lesson 8. Written analysis of texts: 1. What is the fundamental question of philosophy by A. Camus? (analysis of the text A. Camus "The Rebellious people"; 2. What is the meaning of morality: my polemic with Nietzsche (analysis of the text Friedrich Nietzsche "Thus spoke Zarathustra"); 3. What is the philosophical meaning of work and money? (analysis of the texts of Marx "Critique of political economy" and of V. Pelevin "The Macedonian critique of French thought"); 4. How a political principle of liberty of conscience was justified by J. Locke (analysis of text J. Locke's "Essay on toleration"); 5. How Sigmund Freud explained the origin and evolution of religion as a social institution? (analysis of the text of Freud's "The Future of an illusion"; 6. Does Russia have a historical mission and the historical progress: a look at the philosophy of P. Chaadaev 200 years later (analysis of the text by P. Chaadaev's "Philosophical letters"). 7. How to explain the formation of objective knowledge in the text of K. Popper's "Objective knowledge: an evolutionary approach"; 8. How to explain the mechanism of formation of the scientific paradigm in the book of T. Kuhn in "The Structure of scientific revolutions?"; 9. How to explain the mechanism of paradigm shift of scientific knowledge in the book of S. Toulmin "Human understanding"? 10. How was justified the importance of falsification in science in the book I. Lakatos "Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programmes"? 11. How is possible the artificial "ideal language" from the point of view of L. Wittgenstein's reflected in his book "Logical-philosophical treatise"? 92

12. What is the relationship of philosophy and science in the context of the book of R. Karnap "Philosophical Foundation of physics. Introduction to the philosophy of science"?

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Examples of tasks for control work: Topic "Philosophical terminology" (module 1) Option 1. Task 1 - match the term with its definition: Logic theory of knowledge Ontology the science of the forms of thought Gnoseology, epistemology the doctrine of being

Task 2 - match the term with its definition: Ethics the science of beauty Aesthetics the science of reading the texts a science about morality

Task 3 - match the term with its definition: Philosophy the doctrine of human being Anthropology the justification of religious dogma Theology the love to wisdom

Task 4 - match the term with its definition: Pantheism the doctrine of supersensible, supernatural Metaphysics teaching about values Axiology the doctrine, identifying God and the world

Task 5 - match the term with its content: Anomie the universal moral law The categorical imperative the lack of norms Utopia project of imaginary ideal society

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Option 2. Task 1. Select a concept that corresponds to the definition: "the view which most scientists recognize as the scientific truths": - parallel, - paradigm, - logic.

Task 2. Select the synonym of the concept "post-industrial society": - agricultural, - classless, - information.

Task 3. Define the word "cosmogony" as: - the doctrine of the origin of the world; - a set of physical laws; - ecology of space.

Task 4. Choose a concept that defines the doctrine of scientific truth: - verification; - epistemology; - falsification.

Task 5. Find the concept that corresponds to the definition of "the science of reading texts, taking into account historical and cultural peculiarities of their creation":

- theodicy;

- eschatology;

- hermeneutics.

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Topic "Philosophy as science and humanity" (module 2) Option 1. Task 1. Match the name of the author with his book: I. Kant "Human understanding" S. Toulmin "The structure of scientific revolutions" T. Kuhn "Critique of pure reason".

Task 2. Define what formulates the phrase "Knowledge is power": - the principle of verification of scientific knowledge; - categorical imperative in the ethics of Kant; - the theory of Francis Bacon.

Task 3. Name the author of the concept "third world" as the objective world of scientific knowledge: - Aristotle - B. Russell - K. Popper.

Task 4. Select a characteristic of a term called "scientific paradigm" in the concept of S. Toulmin: - stage of scientific revolution; - the process of scientific evolution; - the opinion that most scientists recognize as scientific truth.

Task 5. Match the name of the philosopher with the appropriate direction in philosophy: K. Popper dialectical materialism K. Marx cultural and civilizational concept N. I. Danilevsky .

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Option 2. Task 1. Match the name of the author with the title of his book Plato “Metaphysics” Aristotle "Critique of pure reason" I. Kant dialogue "The Republic"

Task 2. Match the author name with the title of his book I. Kant "Essay on toleration" J. Locke "The idea of ethics" A. Schopenhauer "Foundations of the metaphysics of morals"

Task 3. The phrase "Act as if the decisions of your will become a universal moral law" formulates:

- the principle of complementarity in the theory of ethnogenesis by L. N. Gumilev; - categorical imperative in the ethics of Kant; - statement of the principle of will and faith in the teachings of A. Schopenhauer.

Task 4. Name the author of the concept of "three estates" in the ideal state: - Aristotle; - Plato; - N. Machiavelli.

Task 5. Select the characteristics of the political regime, called the "polity" in the conception of Aristotle: - polity is the power of the military; - polity is a combination of the advantages of aristocracy, monarchy, democracy and oligarchy; - polity is anarchy. 97

Учебно-методическое пособие

Краева Лариса Борисовна, Ломова Ирина Олеговна.

Pocket book on philosophy: topics and terminology.

Формат 60x90 1/16. Усл. печ. л. 6,1. Тираж 100 экз.

Отпечатано в типографии “ПОЛИКОНА”

190020, Санкт-Петербург, наб. Обводного канала, д. 199.

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