◀ Pakistan-China Relations Comprehensive index starts in volume 5, page 2667. Paleolithic Era Jiùshíqì shídài ​旧石器时代 c. 2 million y.b.p.– c. 10,000 y.b.p. China’s Paleolithic era, also known as the for- in Africa. Slightly later Homo erectus appeared in East aging era, started about 2 million years ago Africa. Their fossils were discovered in Asia as well. The and ended about 10,000 years ago. The large fossils of Homo erectus are the oldest human fossils dis- span of this era can be divided into the Lower, covered beyond Africa. Middle, and Upper periods, each generally correlating with significant change in hu- man evolution. As time went on, human-made​­ The Lower Foraging Era tools became more sophisticated and human Most of the lower foraging-era​­ human fossils and cultural population also increased. layers were found above ground. It is difficult, however, to determine whether stone objects from some early Pleis- tocene sites were human made or natural. he Paleolithic, literally the “Old Stone Age” (also known as the foraging era), is a prehistoric era Model for Banpo, a Neolithic (or New Stone Age) characterized by the use of percussion stone tools village dating to about 4,000 bce. The villagers by humans. In geological terms this period falls within of Banpo, despite their more advanced stage of the Pleistocene period, which began some 3 to 2 million civilization, still used many of the tools con- years ago. Archaeological materials suggest that China’s ceived during the Paleolithic era. Photo by Joan foraging era started some 2 million years ago and ended Lebold Cohen. about 10,000 years ago. It was followed by the Neolithic era, or the New Stone Age. More than 200 foraging-era​­ sites have been excavated in twenty-​­seven provinces and autonomous regions in China. These sites can be divided into the Lower, Mid- dle, and upper foraging-​­era cultures, each correlating with the evolution of humans in general: Homo erec- tus (upright man), Homo sapiens (knowing man), and Homo sapiens sapiens (modern humans). In the world context, the earliest hominids emerged in Africa 7 to 6 million years ago, while the earliest Homo was Homo habilis (skillful person), whose fossils were found only 1709 © 2009 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC T 1710 Berkshire Encyclopedia of China 宝 库 山 中 华 全 书 Dated to 2.4 to 2 million years ago, the Renzidong 48 kilometers southwest of modern-​­day Beijing, the site Cave in Anhui Province is the oldest foraging-​­era site was first discovered in 1921. Excavation of the site began found in China, if the stone objects from this site are in 1927. Before 1941 five nearly complete crania were found indeed human-​­made tools. The site of the Xihoudu cul- at the Zhoukoudian cave site. Unfortunately, these fos- ture in Shanxi dates to about 1.8 millions years ago, on sils mysteriously disappeared in 1941. Since 1950, a few a paleomagnetic analysis. Unfortunately, the Xihoudu teeth, a skullcap, a mandible, and several long bones of relics suffered from severe erosion, which blurred pos- human fossils have been discovered at Zhoukoudian. sible traces of human processing of the stone objects. Taken together, the fossils from Locality 1 represent a Another famous site, Shangnabang, Yuanmou, Yunnan, population of more than forty Homo erecti. Clearly, Pe- was initially dated as 1.7 millions years old, according to king Man had used this site for a long time. More than paleomagnetic evidence. A few scholars have recently re- 30 meters of cultural remains in thirteen different layers examined the paleomagnetic evidence and identified the had accumulated on the site. Multiple dating methods, age of two human incisors from Yuanmou to be 600,000– including paleomagnetic analysis and the uranium fis- 500,000 years old. During the lower foraging era, people sion technique, place these layers at between 500,000 and either settled in certain areas for an extended amount of 200,000 years old. Peking Man’s main food source was the time or stayed temporarily in one place. A close exami- meat of wild animals, among which 70 percent were deer nation of the animal bones illustrates their hunting and with heavy horns. All together more than ninety kinds scavenging methods. Stone tools were used to cut animal of mammal fossils have been found at the site, includ- meat; sometimes the broken animal limbs suggest that ing remains of leopard, cave bear, Pachycrocuta sinensis (a marrow was dipped out of these bones. Fire was probably kind of giant hyena), elephant, rhinoceros, water buffalo, used as well because the Shangnabang and Xihoudu sites and ostrich. Many pieces of charcoal, burned bone frag- yielded ashes, although natural, rather than human, fire ments, and hearths suggest that Peking Man had used fire could have left the ashes. and cooked meat, although there is no direct evidence to China’s lower foraging era can be further divided prove that he knew how to make fire. Peking Man made into at least three cultural zones. Zone 1 includes the Xi- six kinds of stone tools: scrapers, points, chopper ham- houdu and Qiahe cultures in Shanxi and the Lantian cul- mers, awls, engravers, and balls. Many are multipurpose ture in Shaanxi. These cultures were distributed mainly objects. Zone 3, in southwestern China, is represented by throughout southern Shanxi, eastern Shaanxi, and west- the Guanyindong culture in Guizhou. The predecessors ern Henan. Although large, stone tools manufactured in of the Guanyindong culture were probably related to the Zone 1 are rather simple. Many of these tools are chop- Yuanmou culture of Yunnan. Stone tools from this cul- pers. In particular a mandible (lower cheek bone) from a tural zone differ to a great degree from the other zones, pithecanthropoid (a hypothetical species thought to be and there are quite a few different types. Most stone arti- intermediate between humans and the anthropoid apes) facts were skillfully fabricated. found near the village of Chenjiawo in Lantian, Shaanxi, dates to about 650,000 years ago. In 1964 a human skull was discovered in Gongzhuling of the same county. Pa- The Middle Foraging Era leomagnetic analysis indicates that the Gongzhuling fos- sil is 1.15 to 1.1 million years old. Both fossils were probably The middle foraging era was between 128,000 and 35,000 from remains of females. years ago. During this time the natural environment Zone 2 covers northern Hebei, northern Shanxi, and changed dramatically. In north China the climate be- southeastern Liaoning and is marked with cave sites. came drier and cooler. As a result the saber-​­toothed ti- Many of the stone tools from Zone 2 are small. The main ger (Smilodon), the giant beaver (Trogontherium), and types are scrapers. In Zone 2, Zhoukoudian Locality 1 is Pachycrocuta sinensis became extinct, while wild donkeys, the most renowned of all foraging-​­era sites in China. Its horses, deer, Bos primigenius (a kind of cattle), and many occupants were collectively called Peking Man. Located other species gradually emerged. © 2009 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC Paleolithic Era n Jiùshíqì shídài n 旧石器时代 1711 In this period a deposit of wind-​­blown sand and clay, combination of hunting and food gathering was more known as the Malan loess, transformed north China. By viable. Sometimes certain stone tools, including balls, comparison changes in the tropical and subtropical natu- characterize a specific site, suggesting that people were ral environment in south China were less significant. Gi- engaged in specialized hunting or food-​­gathering activi- ant panda, oriental Stegodon (a n e l e p h a n t - like creature), ties. Small, well-​­polished tools, such as engravers, were the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus), rhesus monkey, produced at this time. Such tools could be used to process sambar deer, and water buffalo were the typical animal other small-​­scale and more refined objects, which could species living there. The middle foraging-​­era cultures be used for ornamental purposes. At this time in Europe showed varying characteristics. For instance, the Xuji- and West Asia, graves emerged, but so far no tombs from ayao culture in Shaanxi and Hebei produced a number of this era have been found in Asia. The middle foraging era types of small stone tools, most of which were small scrap- also saw an increase in human population. ers. By comparison the Dingcun culture from Shanxi used larger stone tools. The typical Dingcun tools were points with three ridges. The Xujiayao culture might have devel- The Upper Foraging Era oped from the Zhoukoudian culture while the Dingcun may have come from the Qiahe culture. The upper foraging era began about 35,000 years ago Humans during this time lived in caves or camps and ended approximately 10,000 years ago. This period above ground near to water. The middle foraging-era​­ cave witnessed the peak of the glacial period. Many parts of sites were used mainly for dwelling rather than for slaugh- northwest China changed into frozen zones, deserts, tering animals. Many caves have hearths inside. No build- or grasslands, while subtropical forests gave way to ings from this time have been found to be constructed or temperate-​­zone forest grassland or semiarid grassland modeled clearly by humans. north of the Nanling Mountains in south China. Fol- Lifestyles differed according to location. In the trop- lowing the peak of the glacial era, the weather gradually ical and subtropical forest areas, food gathering was changed and warmed the land. From the end of the Pleis- probably common. In the temperate zone grasslands, a tocene period, followed by the Holocene period, weather Bone artifacts from the Banpo Neolithic village, dating to the Paleolithic (foraging) era.