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Home , Burin (lithic flake), Hammerstone, Paleolithic, Stone Age, Ubeidiya, Zhoukoudian

World’s Early People

DIGGING UP DNA

STONE AGE

IN PARTNERSHIP WITH

Worlds_Early_People_FC.indd 1 2/7/17 11:22 AM 2 Who Lived in the ? When you think of “old,” what comes to But they helped hominins to thrive. ? Last ’s ? Life before the The first species to make is from the Internet? Try a little earlier – 2.5 million genus (category) we call (). It earlier! is known as , or “handy That’s about the some of the first person.” It most likely lived in 1.5 hominins, or humanlike species that walk to 2.4 million years ago. Homo habilis upright, started making tools from rocks. represented a big change. How big? Big Their tools were simple – mainly stones enough that we call its time the split to form a point or a sharp edge. era, or the Old Stone Age.

l THE ability to make of Homo habilis and use tools. were about Homo habilis’s half the size of tools and - present-day human power helped it brains. However, spread. Over the brains of Homo millennia, it habilis were larger adapted, or made than the brains changes that of the hominins helped it survive, to that came before live in regions that it. This may have earlier species had contributed to its found too harsh.

d , or early as 2.5 million communities, hunt “upright person,” years ago, Homo for , create , was probably a lot erectus was at its and control fire like Homo habilis, peak about 1.9 for warmth and but taller and thin- million years ago. preparing food. ner, with a bigger It may have been brain. While it the first to live in may have lived as

u WHAT DOES lithos, meaning lived during the Paleolithic mean? “stone.” The suffix Paleolithic period, It comes from the -ic turns the or Old Stone Age. English word paleo, whole thing into During this time, meaning “of pre- an adjective. many different historic ,” and Some of the most kinds of tools were the Greek word advanced hominins made from stone.

Worlds_Early_People_2-3.indd 16 2/6/17 1:12 PM 3 d HOMO ERECTUS and easier to eat. be split into tools. mastered fire. Have Firelight made it Eventually, fire you ever sparked easier to see things would help early a flame with a at night, and it kept smelt piece of ? It’s predators away. metals, so they not easy! Heat made could make better d HOMO ERECTUS tect them, children Scholars agree that made food tastier brittle so it could tools and . also made another were more likely our species, Homo change – mates to survive. It’s hard sapiens, began stayed together to to imagine a about 200,000 raise their young. characteristic years ago. That’s That’s called “pair more important about 50,000 years bonding.” With two to us modern before Homo erec- parents to feed, humans than our tus died out. care for, and pro- tight family ties.

ARCTIC OCEAN

Homo Erectus Migration Route l Boxgrove, England WITH ALL THESE (500,000 years ago) advantages, it’s Mauer, Germany no wonder Homo (600,000 years ago) erectus success- ASIA ATLANTIC , fully migrated, or OCEAN (1 million years ago) moved, over much , of the world. In (700,000 years ago) a period longer Tighenif, Algeria (670,000 years ago) PACIFIC than 1.5 million OCEAN years, it adapted to a wide variety PACIFIC of environments. AFRICA Lake Turkana, OCEAN (1.6 million years ago) An environment is , the surroundings N (1.8 million years ago) and conditions in Trinil, Indonesia INDIAN (700,000 years ago) a particular geo- W E OCEAN graphical area. Homo erectus lived Migration route S in many regions of Homo erectus site Africa and , 0 1,000 mi. , (1.5 million years ago) Extent of land areas, including China, 18,000 BCE 0 1,000 km. , Indonesia, and .

Worlds_Early_People_2-3.indd 17 2/8/17 2:22 PM 4 Here Comes Homo Sapiens When Homo sapiens (“wise person”) first came on the scene about 200,000 years ago, it was just one of multiple Homo species. It looked a lot like a modern human. r AT FIRST, HOMO sapiens’s brain But it could – and did – meet other was about the species that lived in the same areas same size as simi- important, its brain Most scholars and were just about as advanced. lar species’ brains. size kept growing think bigger brains But Homo sapiens from generation to made Homo However, Homo sapiens was the first was lighter, with generation. It could sapiens need more modern human. The progress it made smaller muscles. learn from expe- food. That drove it led to civilization as we know it. It was more rience and adapt to hunt and gather adaptable. Most better to change. more.

BY THEN, ALL THE existing Homo species walked upright, used fire, and made similar stone tools. Within their own species, they began to work together to hunt large animals. This helped them get more protein. Some scientists think some species may have learned -making techniques from each other.

Worlds_Early_People_4-5.indd 16 2/8/17 2:30 PM 5 l AS HOMO attacked by sapiens changed predators or larger AND from scavengers clans, or freeze. Homo erectus and Homo sapiens lived into hunter- Groups of about at the same time as Neanderthals and gatherers, 30 extended family Denisovans. These two Homo species communities members began also used tools, lived and hunted in became more to work together. groups, and used fire. common. Survival They built shelters, was very hard for gathered food, people on their and protected own or in small one another. groups. They could easily starve, be

Migrations of Early Humans

ARCTIC OCEAN

NORTH u NEANDERTHALS EUROPE AMERICA ASIA were squat and muscular. They had PACIFIC heavy brows and big noses. People OCEAN ATLANTIC joke that Neanderthals weren’t smart. OCEAN AFRICA But they practiced and buried their dead, activities that usually SOUTH INDIAN Homo erectus happen in fairly complex . migration route AMERICA OCEAN They lived in Western and Central Homo sapiens N AUSTRALIA migration route Europe and much of Asia. Their Extent of land areas, barrel-chested bodies were 0 1,000 mi. W E 18,000 BCE adapted to surviving cold winters in 0 1,000 km. S the north, where the weather was so different than on the warmer u MANY HOMO They also moved food was especial- determine, from African plains. species followed on when they had ly scarce, such as looking at this herds of animals. gathered all the during a drought. map of early They had no choice nuts, berries, and Then they would migration, which but to stay close to edible plants in an travel to new of the species was their food source. area. Sometimes regions. Can you more adaptable?

r AS HOMO erectus had before it, early Homo sapi- ens also migrated out of Africa to other . But with its greater adapt- u DENISOVANS ability, it was much were discovered in 2010 in the better prepared to Denisova in the mountains of survive. Taller and . Not much is known about built to travel faster, their appearance. Bone needles it could cross terrain and other tools show that, like much more quickly. the Neanderthals, they used tools – tools, extensively. Denisovans appear , fire, and to have lived at the same time as other innovations – Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. helped Homo sapiens adjust to new environments more rapidly.

Worlds_Early_People_4-5.indd 17 2/8/17 2:30 PM 6 The Mystery of Analyzing evidence isn’t just the secret to solving crimes on TV. Carbon dating of bones and weapons, DNA evidence of family relations, and food remains – archaeologists use all these things and more. They treat many things they dig up as evidence of events that happened long before people could write things down. What is ? It comes from the Greek word for the study of ancient things. Archaeologists study early humans, but they also examine and learn from – sometimes as recent as the last century.

STONE TOOLS AND WEAPONS a story of how early people survived. The tools they used were adapted to the types of animals they hunted and the plants they ate. If they pounded grain or nuts into flour, they most likely left behind tools for that purpose. and other weapons reveal the ways they protected themselves.

BONES can be carbon-dated, a technique that determines when a person or animal lived. Bones can be examined to analyze health, age at death, and even, some- times, how someone died! If a bone has marks on it, it might tell scientists what kinds of tools or weapons were used. It can also show which animals were part of the diet.

DNA ANALYSIS tells scientists where an animal or an early person’s parents and ancestors came from. It reveals whether any of those ancestors belonged to another Homo species. It can determine if an early human had certain diseases. It can even tell which people were descended from a certain individual.

Worlds_Early_People_6-7.indd 16 2/6/17 1:19 PM 7 r IF YOU WERE an early Homo sapi- ens, what one tool would you find most useful? Would you want a stone to cut and vegetables? A for hunting? A bone needle to sew clothing?

FOOD REMAINS tell scientists which edible plants and animals grew nearby. They show if the plants that were eaten in the past are the same plants that grow today. They give clues about how much of a group’s diet was plants and how much was animal protein. Bones can reveal whether people cooked their food and if they ate large animals.

CRANIAL (HEAD) SIZE MEASUREMENTS help archaeologists put together a timeline that shows which species’ brains grew over time. Measurements help scientists estimate a species’ intelligence. Researchers can compare the size data with other information and see how brain size affected survival.

Try This!

PLAY ARCHAEOLOGIST! Archaeologists often need to identify strange and unusual things. Invite your friends to bring a few weird items. To start the game, set one of yours on the table. What is it? Each player gets one guess per round, and if nobody guesses right, you move on to the next CAMPSITES reveal more than just a group’s player’s item. When it’s diet and how it used fire. They can also your turn again, you have show whether a group lived there year- to answer one question round or only sometimes. Such sites give about the item before clues about life, types of shelter your friends guess again. and clothing, and whether the people who The last player whose stayed there had any possessions. item is identified wins!

Worlds_Early_People_6-7.indd 17 2/7/17 11:24 AM 8 Meet the Hunter-Gatherers Imagine that winter is clos- ing in. You and your clan have collected and eaten all the edible plants around you for . You’re competing for food not only with other humans, but with other animals, too, and the herds have been growing small- u How did humans froze over much revealed, opening melted again er by the day. It’s time for find their way of Earth, trapping pathways for early 15,000 years ago, you and your clan to leave. to nearly every a large amount of humans to travel others may have by the the oceans’ water. from Africa to crossed a land You’ll spend tonight in a time the last As a result, sea Asia. Later, some bridge from Asia shelter made of reeds and Ice Age ended? levels dropped, may have traveled to . branches found near your Scientists think and land bridges over the ocean that during that that had once been to Australia. And campsite. Ice Age, underwater were when the glaciers Last summer and fall, life was a breeze. Tasty food was so easy to come by that finding the day’s food took d Hunter- and their usual gatherers were territory no longer just a few hours. Your clan often provided food, they might come back here next – people who had to adapt to summer, but right now travel from place to survive. One option place. They found was to migrate you’re heading for places makeshift to new regions. where you found food last or made shelters Another was to winter. You’re hoping for with materials develop strategies, that were easy to or plans of action, the best. carry. They didn’t that would help own much. If the them thrive in weather changed one location.

Worlds_Early_People_8-9_v2.indd 16 2/6/17 1:25 PM 9 d AS DIFFERENT groups of nomads ARCTIC established patterns OCEAN of migration, each began to develop its own society, or way of living together. People took on roles, or jobs and duties that they carried ATLANTIC out for the group. OCEAN

Groups that returned PACIFIC to a particular place OCEAN PACIFIC each year developed OCEAN a , or rules and traditions, they N INDIAN followed at that OCEAN location. The more W E 0 1,000 mi. they interacted with S 0 1,000 km. an environment, the more complex their society became. Common languages and shared In NORTH AMERICA, In SOUTH AMERICA, In EUROPE, people In AFRICA, In ASIA AND THE systems took shape. the Clovis people people lived in fished with nets hunter-gatherer PACIFIC, the set- used spears to communities like and groups adapted tlement of Abu bring down big Monte Verde, and hunted to survive in Hureyra along Ice Age animals. which had with bows and the deserts, the Euphrates Later, as those wooden homes . They , and River grew animals’ num- draped with built wood woodlands and to about 300 bers decreased, animal skins. shelters and coastal areas. members. In the people adapted settle- and In a cave found north, people to the conti- ments began established long- near Nelson’s made pots. nent’s many to form where term camps. Bay, in what They made environments. rivers met the is now South tools and . Africa, sci- weapons made entists have of bamboo. found evidence of many eras of occupants. Fishers there used hooks and nets. Hunters used bows and arrows.

Worlds_Early_People_8-9_v2.indd 17 2/6/17 1:25 PM 10 The Stone Age Toolbox It’s hard to believe that these simple tools represented the first . But that’s how progress happens. Someone invents a simple tool to do a job better, and then someone improves on it. That’s how humankind has gone from spearheads to smartphones!

Bone needles were used for hides or soft bark into clothing or shelter materials.

Hammerstones were flat stones used to , break open nuts, flake flint, and make tools.

Hand were made of flint or other flaky stone. They were used to cut meat, dig for tubers, throw at prey, and chop wood and bark.

Worlds_Early_People_10-11.indd 16 2/6/17 1:27 PM 11

Burins were -like tools made of sharp- edged flakes of stone used to carve or engrave wood or bone.

Spearheads were made of stone or bone and mounted on sticks. They were used to hunt and , and as weapons.

Scrapers were sharp-edged stones used to prepare animals to be eaten, to clean hides, and to make bark or wood smooth.

Awls were long pointed spikes used for piercing wood or hides.

Worlds_Early_People_10-11.indd 17 2/6/17 1:27 PM 12 The Agricultural Revolution If you lived 10,000 years ago, you might And it was better. Major change happened have never traveled. Sitting around the fire when people realized they could grow a lot pit, however, your grandfather might tell of food in one place. Large groups could live stories about the old days. He might recall close together, and almost everyone could when your people were always on the move. eat well. That innovation, or new idea, was Your father might reply, “Traveling was at the heart of the agricultural revolution. It exciting, but the great thing about growing probably started in the , an area food instead of searching for it is simple: that includes southwestern Asia and north- nowadays, we usually have enough to eat. eastern Africa. Then the basic techniques Yes, we have to stay close by to protect the of farming – sowing seeds, watering soil, livestock, water the plants, and scare away harvesting – spread quickly through major pests. We also have to sow seeds and harvest regions of the world. For many, these crops before animals get to them – but isn’t techniques replaced hunting and gathering life better now?” as a way of life.

l At some point way back in time, a drought, or dry spell, made it difficult to rely on the nomadic people usually ate. They needed more reliable sources of food, so they began to take steps to make sure food would be available. They started planting seeds by scattering them on top of the soil, knowing some would grow, and keeping livestock, or animals, in pens.

Worlds_Early_People_12-13.indd 16 2/6/17 1:33 PM 13 r ANIMALS LIKE the help of dogs, living this way for sheep and over many miles many years. They goats became of grazing grounds. moved their herds domesticated, or This is called “pas- from one pasture conditioned to toral nomadism.” to another, stop- work with humans. People who did not ping to Then they could be settle in towns or for supplies. shepherded, with villages continued

l WITH SO MUCH permanent camps. food in one place, Then they expand- there was no need ed the camps to roam far to into settlements. find it. People had Eventually, the set- moved between tlements that had seasonal camps, been populated the but they started longest grew into staying put in villages and towns.

l ABU HUREYRA IS a good example of a place that was changed by the agricultural revolution. It was a settlement along the Euphrates River in the Tigris- Euphrates River Valley. Nomads had been stopping there for a very long time, because herds of gazelle liked the area – probably because fields of grain u CLOTHING WAS same time that naturally grew usually made of first plant- there. It was logical animal pelts, or ed cotton: about for people to stay skins, before the 6,000 years ago. there, farming the agricultural rev- Why do you think grain and keeping olution. But then people started the gazelles close people started using cotton and by. The camp shearing sheep for wool instead of slowly grew into their wool. That pelts? a village. was around the

Worlds_Early_People_12-13.indd 17 2/6/17 1:34 PM 14 From Farm to Village Once people didn’t have to spend all their So did weapons. There were advances in time hunting and gathering, they had time clothing, sewing, -making, and even for new things. Lots of new things. With storage containers. People started smelt- the agricultural revolution in full effect, ing, or melting, metals to create tools, communities advanced quickly. Huge containers, and weapons. Greater need for changes in technology, communications, metals led people to start . At first, , jewelry, art, and self-expression people smelted . Later, they added were all part of human progress. to copper to make , a stronger Many new technologies sprang from the alloy, or mix of metals. That led to the aftermath of the agricultural revolution: , beginning about 3500 bce. better tools such as plows made farming Still later, people smelted iron, which led to easier. Boats became more sophisticated. the , starting about 1200 bce.

l More free time ing their emotions meant people and thoughts. could sit and think. These changes led Around this time, to deeper forms people began to of reflection and explore . communication, They worshipped including philos- their ancestors, ophy. This era who they believed saw advances in were watching the , such as over them. People , dance, also started shar- and painting.

r In many agricultural com- munities, just a few families owned the land and passed it down to their children. These people became community leaders and the wealthy elite. Because the wealthy had so much control over food production, others were forced to obey them. The richest and most powerful people became rulers.

Worlds_Early_People_14-15.indd 16 2/6/17 3:14 PM 15

u Advances in made of wood, so be pulled by work technology, such they moved slowly animals. Likewise, as better plows and did a poor job ditches that and , of breaking the brought water from allowed people to ground. Once stone faraway sources farm more easily tips were added, helped crops get and efficiently. plows performed enough water to Early plows were better and could produce big yields.

u Farms need Their systems its place in agri- water. In order became more and culture. Farmers to farm, early more complex, so could burn down peoples needed a that they could plants to clear land consistent source deliver just the for new crops in of water, so they right amount of a process called created ditches to water at the right “slash-and-burn” irrigate their plants. time. Fire, too, had farming.

r In areas with good soil, farmers planted many crops. They grew grains, roots, and medicinal plants. They learned to grow plants they could use for cloth- ing, such as flax for making linen. They raised many types of animals to help with work, to provide wool for clothing, and to eat. In Europe, they built homes of wood, straw, and other materi- als. By 5500 bce, u People all over farmers built steps, in what is now the world adapt- or “terraces.” They , the ed ideas from flooded these flat Bandkeramik peo- the agricultural areas with water ple had established revolution to suit to grow rice, which farming commu- their needs. On became a staple of nities and started the steep slopes of their diet. producing uniquely southeastern Asia, marked .

Worlds_Early_People_14-15.indd 17 2/6/17 1:35 PM 16 The First Towns Many farming communities that did well Towns with plenty of surplus goods eventually grew into larger communities. became important centers for barter. They expanded from camps, to villages, Merchants (sellers) and landowners to towns. Up to 3,000 people might call formed the highest social classes when one of these towns home. With so many economies began to develop. The towns people living together, some were able with the most resources were able to to offer services. They would use special negotiate exchanges not only for goods skills or provide labor in exchange for the but also for political power. goods they needed.

l IN 7000 BCE, would often stop Jericho was a for the night in flourishing town Jericho, which lies with plenty of near Jerusalem. water for irriga- It grew into an tion. Crops grew important trading well, and farmers town. When people produced plenty needed some- of surplus. Jericho thing, they were had special rituals more likely to find for honoring the somebody willing dead, which indi- to trade for it in cates that it had Jericho than any- a sophisticated where else nearby. culture. Travelers

r ÇATAL HÜYÜK WAS much like Jericho, with excellent farming, trade routes, and rituals to honor the dead. Located in what is now Turkey, this town is believed to have been the first place where people wove linen cloth from flax. They made some of the world’s earliest plant- based clothes.

Worlds_Early_People_16-17.indd 16 2/6/17 1:39 PM 17

u IN TOWNS AND to collect a portion cities, some large of the crops, live- bills – like the stock, and goods costs of building produced by the walls and fortress- people who lived es – had to be paid in the towns they by the people. On controlled. Usually, top of that, rulers people had no said they should choice but to pay u AS SUCH TOWNS each doing what to work as artists. be paid for serving as much as the became more he or she did best. Painters were paid as rulers, since it ruler demanded. prominent, the Abundant food to decorate homes. took up all their That’s how taxes people who meant that more Sculptors were time. They began got started. worked in them people had extra paid to carve bulls began to follow a goods. They were or other significant division of labor, able to hire people items.

l DIVISION OF LABOR led to a class sys- tem, with wealthy merchants and landowners at the top. Important fam- ily members held When people first top government began living in positions, which settlements and means they decid- towns, hunting ed the laws and and gathering was who had to follow the only way they them. In gener- had ever lived. If al, they handed new people started down their ruling moving in near privileges to their the camp where children. Those your clan lived, you who had no land or might be meeting goods to exchange unfamiliar families. were at the bottom Would you feel of the social class- excited? Angry? es, or hierarchy of Afraid? What would the powerful and you do? wealthy.

Worlds_Early_People_16-17.indd 17 2/6/17 1:39 PM 18 Activities

WRITE A NARRATIVE Think about what life might have been like in ancient Çatal Hüyük. How did people spend their time? What did they do together? What might they have talked about? Write a short narrative set in Çatal Hüyük. Create charac- ters and a plot that are realistic in this setting. Include details from the magazine to make the history of this ancient MAKE A town come alive. RESEARCH NOTEBOOK What do you wonder about the world’s early people and how they were able to adapt to their environments? Scientists often use research notebooks during their studies. Like a scientist, create your own research notebook, filling it with ideas, information, and any questions you may have. Be sure to illustrate your notebook with drawings and maps.

Worlds_Early_People_18-19.indd 18 2/6/17 1:44 PM 19 MAKE CONNECTIONS WITH THESE RELATED TITLES

Archaeology Language Mesopotamia Understanding the daily lives of ancient It’s more than just the words and Ever wonder when the first written people is the driving force behind sounds we use to communicate. records appeared, when the was archaeology. The pottery, tools, and The study of language helps us invented, or where our modern count- weapons these civilizations left behind understand our past. From ancient ing system came from? Believe it or provide a window into their culture. hieroglyphs and the first papyrus not, these and many other innovations From mapping a site and sifting dirt, scrolls, to sign language and computer – like , farming, complex legal to using delicate brushes to unearth programming, language is at the center systems, and basic astronomy – came artifacts, learn all about the essential of human society. from one civilization, the very first: the work of archaeologists. Mesopotamians.

CALIFORNIA STANDARDS

HSS 6.1 Students describe what is known through archaeological studies of the early physical and cultural development of humankind from the Paleolithic era to the agri- cultural revolution. 6.1.1 Describe the hunter- gatherer societies, including the devel- opment of tools and the use of fire. 6.1.2 Identify the locations LEARN of human communities that populated the major regions of the world and MORE describe how humans adapted to a variety of environments. 6.1.3 Discuss ONLINE! the climatic changes and human mod- ifications of the physical environment that gave rise to the of plants and animals and new sources of • The San culture • When archaeol- • One benefit of • The population clothing and shelter. of the Kalahari ogists arrive at traveling as a of the world Desert in south- a new site, they clan was that grew dramati- Historical and Social Sciences ern Africa is a can’t just grab a hunters could cally because of Analysis Skills: hunter-gatherer shovel and dig. work together. the introduction society that still They might miss That way they of . Chronological and Spatial Thinking exists. The San a rock that is could bring Successful farm- 1. Students explain how major events use bows and actually a spear- down bigger ing produced are related to one another in time. arrows to kill head. They might animals than excess food for 2. Students construct various time and accidentally they could alone people and for lines of key events, people, and periods of the historical era they are rope traps to break a hominin or in small livestock. studying. catch small bone. So what groups. animals. can they do?

Worlds_Early_People_18-19.indd 19 2/6/17 1:44 PM hmhco.com

Editor: Jennifer Dixon Fact-Checker: David Stienecker Art Direction: Brobel Design Designers: Ian Brown, Ed Gabel, Author: Janice Ridenour David Ricculli, Jeremy Rech Author Team Lead: Barak Zimmerman Photo Research: Ted Levine, Elisabeth Morgan, Jenna Minchuk President and CEO: Ted Levine Activities Writer: Kristine Scharaldi Chairman and Founder: Mark Levine Proofreader: Margaret Mittelbach

GRADE 6 TITLES (); North Wind Picture Archives: p.12 bottom center ( sowing grain), p.13 top right (herding sheep), p.14 bottom right (wealthy family), p.17 top left (laborers); Oldtime: p.13 center left (Central African village); Photo Researchers: p.13 World’s Early People Ancient India bottom left (Tigris and Euphrates River Valleys); Marka: p.14 center left (early painting); Mesopotamia Indian Empires Interfoto: p.15 top left ( plow); Classic Image: p.15 top right (Assyrian irrigation); Ancient China Mary Evans Picture Library: p.15 bottom right (Roman plowing); Lanmas: p.19 top right (Assyrian palace). Art Resource: Snark: p.15 center left (terraced farming). Archaeology Early Romans Bridgeman Images: Natural History Museum, London, UK: p.3 center left ( Language Roman Empire man); Museum of London, UK: p.4 top right (Swanscombe Man); Look and Learn: p.16 center left (Jericho); De Agostini Picture Library: p.16 bottom right (Catal Huyuk), p.17 Ancient Hebrews Christianity and ’s Legacies bottom left (ancient Thebes). Getty Images: David Gifford: p.2 bottom right (human Early Greeks Olmec and Maya ); Jenny E. Ross: p.7 top left (food cache at ancient village); Jorge Fernández: p.19 bottom (San woman and child, Kalahari Desert). Granger Collection: ullstein bild: of Civil Rights p.5 top right (Neanderthals). Science Source: James King-Holmes: p.6 bottom center Ancient Persia (carbon dating); John Reader: p.7 bottom left ( site); Des Bartlett: p.7 center ( ); Dr. Juerg Alean: p.8 top right (Ice Age). Shutterstock: Russell Shively: p.5 center (human skull); Vasilyeva Larisa: p.18 top (vintage journal); ArtMari: p.18 bottom (primitive old man); Vladimir Zhoga: p.19 top center (Japanese hieroglyphs); LuFeeTheBear: p.19 top left (archaeologist). On the Cover: A of hunters makes use of the woolly they have caught. Wood Ronsaville Harlin, Inc.: Greg Harlin. Original Illustrations: Brobel Design: Maps: Migration of Homo Erectus, p.3; Migrations of Early Humans, p.5; Picture Credits: Alamy: The Natural History Museum: p.2 top left (Homo habilis in World Map, p.9. action), p.3 top left (Homo erectus), p.10 center left ( tools), p.11 bottom right (awl); Thomas LENNE: p.2 center left (Stone Age tools); Sputnik: p.5 bottom Michael Kline Illustration: Digging Up DNA, cover; Cave Kid, p.7; Sheep’s Clothing, right (); Zoonar GmbH: p.6 center left (human bones), p.10 bottom left p.13; Tax Collector, p.17. (hand ); robertharding: p.6 top right (Palaeolithic axes); Geoffrey Kidd: p.11 bottom left ( flint ), p.11 center right (Neolithic flint spearhead); Agencja Wood Ronsaville Harlin, Inc.: Rob Wood: Hunter Spearing Mammoth, p.4, Gathering Fotograficzna Caro: p.10 lower right (); Thomas LENNE: p.11 top left by the Fire, pp.8–9; Greg Harlin: Hunters, p.5, Hunters and Mammoth, pp.8–9.

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