7. CENTRAL DIVINITIES in the ESOTERIC BUDDHIST PANTHEON in CHINA Henrik H. Sørensen Introduction the Esoteric Buddhist Pantheon

7. CENTRAL DIVINITIES IN THE ESOTERIC BUDDHIST PANTHEON IN CHINA

Henrik H. Sørensen

Introduction The Esoteric Buddhist pantheon in East Asia is on the one hand a reflection of Indian Buddhist developments, and on the other hand the result of local imagination. The formation of the Esoteric Bud- dhist pantheon in China, i.e., that which became codified during the second half of the Tang, was the result of a long process lasting at least three centuries. This development took place simultaneously with the gradual introduction of Esoteric Buddhist texts. The cults of certain divinities that came about at a later stage in the history of Chinese Buddhism, in particular those associated with the full-fledged Tantric Buddhist tradition, developed in the post-Tang period, but by and large the Esoteric Buddhist pantheon was in place by the end of the ninth century. Nevertheless, it is important to note that many of the divinities in the mainstream Buddhist pantheon were also shared by the Esoteric Buddhist tradition. Indeed, in many cases the context and type of ritual procedures used to worship or invoke these deities deter- mine their exoteric or esoteric nature. The cults of the most popular Esoteric Buddhist divinities during the Tang (618-905) are also reflected in religious art. Clearly, the iconic norms for the Esoteric Buddhist pantheon as set forth in its literature were followed more or less faithfully in the production of sculptures and votive paintings. Iconic differences and interpretations certainly existed, especially on the local level, but by and large it is possible to trace most of the major iconographical forms back to the written sources.

Buddhas Vairocana: Esoteric Buddhism, especially in its mature forms, including the Tantric phase, signals a significant shift in focus from Śākyamuni as the spiritual center of attention to his transcendental form, Vairocana, usually referred to in the primary texts such as the Mahāvairocana sūtra, as “Great Sun” (figure 1). . central divinities 91

Figure 1. Vairocana of the Mahāvairocana sūtra. Illustration from traditional iconographical manual. Japanese line-drawing, late Heian period.

There is still some uncertainty as to when Vairocana first arose as a central divinity in Indian Buddhism, but clearly the visionary elab- orations of the Avataṃ saka sūtra played a major role in bringing about this shift.1 Of course Śākyamuni is Vairocana, and Vairocana is Śākyamuni, in accordance with the doctrine concerning the “reward body” (nirmānakāya) and the “body of the Law” (dharmakāya), and what later was expanded and elaborated on in the teachings on the three bodies (trikāya). This development introduced an additional aspect of Śākyamuni, namely his “body of bliss” (sambhogakāya) as Rocana. In brief, both Mahāvairocana and Rocana eventually superseded Śākyamuni in importance as primary buddhas in Esoteric Buddhism.

1 The Vairocana of the Avataṃ saka is a cosmic buddha, a transcendent principle of enlightenment and creative energy onto whom the Esoteric Buddhist Vairocana was grafted. For a discussion of the former, see, for example, Howard 1986.