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Where is the ?: Controversy in Chinese on the Nature of Pure Land

by Kenneth K. Tanaka

BACKGROUND

ccording to the Pure Land , Sukhii­ Land Buddhists went through in their own A vatT Pure Land is a realm located billions understanding of the nature of Pure Land. of Buddha lands to the west, established by Some of the issues are just as alive today as Amitabha (Ch. O-mi-t'o; lpn. Amida) Bud­ they were 1,400 years ago, particularly the dha as a result of his compassionate bodhi­ question concerning the location of the Pure sattva vows to lead all sentient beings to Land to which this paper is devoted. enlightenment. I The sutras depict Sukhiivati in glorious splendor, describing the bejewelled The polemics as to "where is the Pure ground, trees, lakes and palaces, where Land?" centered upon two conflicting inter­ mellifluous music is heard, and where the ma­ pretations of the Pure Land, which this paper jestic appearances of Amitiibha (or Amitiiyus) will refer to as "objective" and "subjective." and his attendant can be seen.' There are other related sets of terms that Appealing to both monks and laity alike, the characterize this relationship, for example, sutras exhort aspirants for in the Pure form and formless, mythological and Land to engage in a broad range of practices demythological, celestial and psychological, which include , precepts, virtuous futuristic and present, transcendent and im­ acts, slupa building and contemplation. Those manent, phenomenal and noumenal, prescrip­ reborn in the Pure Land, an ideal environ­ tive and descriptive, poetic and philosophical, ment in contrast to this world for consum­ ontic and epistemological, and hypostatized mating their practices, are assured of not and non-substantial. Each of these carry vary­ retrogressing to lower spiritual levels and of ing shades of meaning and perspective to ex­ realizing the ultimate goal of press a particular dimension of the relation­ perfect enlightenment (saTTlyaksambodhl). ship between the two interpretations of Pure Land. I have, however, for this paper chosen In from the mid-sixth to early Uobjective" and "subjective" on account of ninth century, known as the" golden age" of their comprehensive character and relevancy Pure Land Buddhist doctrinal development, to the subject matter at hand. the idea of rebirth in the Pure Laml came under attack from other Buddhist schools, The objective position, based on a lileral notably by Ch'an (lpn. ) and reading of the Pure Land sutras, sees (lpn. Miroku) followers . The Pure Land pro­ Sukhiivati as an independent realm outside the ponents vigorously defended its position by mind, epitomized by the stock phrase, "There referring to earlier Indian Mahayana concepts exists a realm called billions of and scriptural authority. These controversies Buddha lands to the west.'" It denotes a afford us with a glimpse at the process of specific location in the universe where practi­ refining and clarification that the early Pure tioners actually go to be reborn upon death.

36 Sukhl'lvati is just one of the billions of such non-Pure Land but a major Mahayana scrip­ lands that fill the universe in the ten direc­ ture, this position regards Pure Land as none tions, among which are included other Bud­ other than an expression of the enlightened dha lands such as Buddha Ak~obhya's state, and refutes the assertion that Pure Land and Buddha Bhaisajyaguru's has an ontic existence in the distant corner of Yaidilryanirbhasa. The subjective interpreta­ the universe. This finds full support as we tion, in contrast, regards Pure Land as an read the entire section of the VimalakTrti- analogical expression of the purified or passage cited by the Ch'an master, "If a enlightened mind of the bodhisattvas and re­ desires to obtain Pure Land, he jects the idea that it has an independent ex­ must purify his mind. In accordance with the istence outside the mind. The scriptural purity of the mind, the Buddha Land is authority most often cited in support of this pure."· The Master in the Platform Sulra pro­ as noted also below, is the ceeds to elaborate, "There is no doubt that Vimalakrrtinirde.fa-sutra. the Western [Pure] Land can be seen here in China.''' D.T. Suzuki, perhaps the most CH' AN (ZEN) CRITICISM famous modern Zen interpreter in the West, echoes the same view: In the , a major Ch'an text attributed to Hui-.neng (638-713), is the The Pure Land is not many millions following dialogue between a Ch'an master and millions of miles away to the west. and his disciple: According to my explanation, the Pure Land is right here, even in this very hall The prefect bowed deeply and (New York Buddhist Academy in the asked, "I notice that some monks and Spring of 1958). Amida is not presiding laymen always invoke the Buddha over a Pure Land beyond our reach. His Amitabha and desire to be reborn in the Pure Land is this dirty earth itself.' West. I beg of you to explain whether one can be born there or not, and thus Also, for the Ch'an master, the objective resolve my doubts. " Pure Land that existed "far to the West" was a provisional teaching meant to convert peo­ The Master said: "Prefect, listen ple of inferior capacity. Such a view of Pure and I shall explain things for you. At Land from the Ch'an position was acceptable Sravasti the World-Honored One only as a provisional position but not as the preached of the Western Land in order ultimate teaching. The Pure Land proponents to convert people, and it is clearly stated did not object to this. Concreteness, they in the sutra, '(The Western Land) is not would assert, was the very hallmark of the far.' It was only for the sake of people Pure Land teaching. The anonymous Pure of inferior capacity that the Buddha Land Buddhist author of the Ten Doubts spoke of farness; to speak of nearness is Concerning the Pure Land, compiled in the only for those of superior attainments. late eighth century, expresses this in the ... The deluded person concentrates on metaphor of constructing a house, a favorite Buddha and wishes to be born in the among Pure Land advocates. The metaphor other land; the awakened person makes extolls the effectiveness of a tangible example pure his own mind. Therefore the Bud­ that rests firmly on the ground but not in thin dha said: 'In accordance with the purity air. of the mind is the Buddha land pure.' '" The -sutra states, "Even Based on the Vimalakfrtinirde.fa-sutra, a though the Buddha knows that the Bud-

37 dha Land and sentient beings are empty, A more convincing rebuttal than he perpetually establishes the Pure Land Hui-jih's is found in the second of the 10 in order to convert the multitude." doubts, cast presumably by a Ch'an adherent, Also, the [Ta-chih tu-Iun] says, "A man in the Ten Doubts Concerning the Pure Land: who in constructing a mansion is suc­ cessful when he builds it on a vacant Since (fundamental ground, but fails when he tries to build it psycho-philosophical elements that con­ in space." stitute human experience) are by nature empty and essentially do not arise, they In the same way, the [Buddhas] are equanimous and tranquil. But now always rely on the two truths to explain you have abandoned this and seek ultimate reality without destroying the rebirth in the Western Pure Land of provisional name.' Amitabha; how could it not go against the truth? Moreover, the [Vimalakirti­ However, the subjective Ch'an inter­ sutra] says, "if one seeks the Pure Land, pretation of the Pure Land did not go un­ first purify the mind because when the challenged. One of the influential Pure Land mind is pure the Buddha Land is pure." figures of the mid T'ang was Hui-jih or T'zu­ How do you reconcile this? n min (d. 748), whose was strengthened by a revelation of sorts in during his To this, the Pure Land author responds: thirteen years in India.' In his only surviving work A Collection of Scriptural Passages on You claim we are not in accord with the Pure Land Teaching, Hui-jih responds to the truth when we seek the Western a host of Ch'an criticisms by citing an array of Land of Amitabha's Pure Land since we sutras and commentaries in support of the seek one [position] While abandoning Pure Land position. In it, presumably a Ch'an another. But you also are at fault for not antagonist is quoted: being in keeping with the truth, for in adhering to your position of not seeking There is a group of monks and nuns the Western Land, you have abandoned and laymen and lay women who truly one position while becoming attached to believe that the Pure Land really exists. another position. U The Pure Land is none other than the time when the mind is pure. There does In the classic Mlidhyamika mode of the Western Pure Land exist separate reasoning that rejects any and all positions [from the mind]?" (dr~fJ) as ultimately not real, he attempts to disqualify the Ch'an argument by rendering it Hui-jih refutes the criticism by reminding simply another self-serving, limited position. the antagonist of the traditional Buddhist ac­ As one limited position among equals, the ceptance of 84,000 equally legitimate paths Ch'an position lacks the authority and for attaining the Buddhist goal. The Pure justification for nullifying the Pure Land Land path is not only one of them but also a poSition. Then he proceeds to say, in so many superb and important one at that. Hui-jih words, that his position transcends all posi­ continues the argument primarily on the basis tions in the same manner expounded in the of the swiftness of Pure Land teaching in Sutra; when one aspires to be leading all beings to Bodhi, thereby enlistinll a reborn in the Pure Land, he understands the common Pure Land theme of universal salva­ essence of rebirth to be "non-birth," which is tion and speedy attainment frequently cited by another way of expressing the extraordinary the Pure Land proponents." nature of rebirth in the Pure Land." His argu-

38 ment does not appear convincing, for he this deviated from the Indian unilaterally elevated his position to a level Understanding." According to the original which only those with wisdom are capable of Indian , Tu~ita is one of comprehending but not the ordinary the heavens of the within the unenlightened beings, the very audience of Sahi!. World-Realm (lokadhatu), the "galaxy" Pure Land teaching. in which we dwell. However, Sukhavati Pure Land exists far beyond the Saha World­ While we must reserve judgement, f9r Realm. another occasion, on the effectiveness of the refutations against Ch'an criticism, it is clear During the seventh century, Pure Land that the Pure Land apologists did not advocates such as Tao-ch'o (Jpn. Doshaku, subscribe to the subjective interpretation of 362-643), Chia-tsai (Jpn. Kazai, ca. seventh the Pure Land as advocated by the Ch'an pro­ century), and Huai-kan (Jpn. Ekan, d. 701) ponents. However, this did not then imply asserted the superiority of Sukhivati over that the Pure Land advocates subscribed to Maitreya's Tu~ita Heaven. Their arguments the opposite view of an objective Pure Land. relative to the present discussion can be sum­ This becomes more evident as we now look at marized as follows: their controversy with the followers of Maitreya Buddha. I) While Sukhavati transcends the Saha World-Realm, Tu~ita (as one of the heavens AMITABHA'S SUKHAvATI of the Desire Realm) still lies within the SaM VERSUS MAITREYA'S TU~ITA World-Realm.

Until the early T'ang period, Maitreya 2) While the life span in the Sukhivati is -at least in North China-had com­ limitless like that of the Buddhas and peted and even exceeded Amitii.bha worship in transcends sa/TISara (realm of births and popularity. This observation rests primarily deaths), life span in Tu~ita lasts 4,000 heaven on tabulations of dated Buddha images found years and at the end of that time, one is forced in the caves of North China, such as ­ back into the stream of saf]lsara. men. They revealed that images of Maitreya far exceeded those of Amitabha during the Six 3) While Sukhavati is a realm of non­ Dynasties and Sui periods (ca. 3861-618). Not retrogression, Tu~ita is not. Rebirth in until well into the T'ang period (ca. 7(0) did Sukhi!.vati assures not only attainment of Bud­ the number of Amitiibha images come to sur­ dhahood but also no retrogression to lower pass those of Maitreya ... levels on the cultivational path (marga)."

The competition was fueled partly by the The argument for the supenonty of tendency during this period, despite the Sukhavati rested primarily on the Sukhi!.vati's distinct historical and doctrinal background transcendence of Saha World-Realm in con­ of the two traditions, to regard both Maitreya trast to Tu~ita Heaven which occupied a and Amitabha worship as one and the same specific locus within the Saha World-Realm. practice. The syncretic tendency is supported The Pure Land proponents stressed Tu~ita's by numerous inscriptions on stone images that proximity and affinity to the human realm in express concurrently salutations to Maitreya order to point out Tu~ita's ties to saf]lsiira. and the desire to be reborn in Amitabha's Chia-ts'ai, for example, claims in an in­ Land ... The rivalry was intensified in part to teresting analogy that in Tu~ita, boys are the elevation, by some, of Maitreya's Tu~ita reborn on the laps of their fathers and girls on Heaven to the status of a Pure Land, though the laps of their mothers, . while in the

39 Sukhiivati one is reborn among the lotus The essential refers to "One Phrase" flowers." The symbolism of mother and (i-fa-chu; Jpn. ichihokku), which constitutes father was intended to strengthen the fact that another term for the ultimate truth. The two life in Tusita does not differ qualitatively are mutually dependent. The decorated forms from the human realm. of Pure Land (expanded) and the ultimate truth (essential) are mutually dependent. The former emerges based on the latter, while the RECONCILIATION OF THE EXTREMES latter is expressed through the former." We have seen the Pure Land proponents reject what they perceive to be two extreme From the ultimate standpoint, the Pure views of Pure Land: the subjective and the ob­ Land is not to be taken as an existent place, in the way ordinary beings are predisposed to jective. If the Pure Land is neither, how was it understanding it. The admonition against understood? One of the principle heuristic such a view of the Pure Land is found in the methods was to employ a major Mahayana following passage: concept of the two-fold truths: ultimate truth (paramiirlha-salya) and conventional truth A foolish person in hearing (saf!lVrli-salya). In this scheme, the Pure Land possessed both an ultimate as well as a con­ "birth" [in the Pure Land] understands it as "birth" and in hearing IInon-birth" ventional dimension. The ultimate dimension was none other than the ultimate realm understands it as I 'non-birth. " He, thus, (talhalii, dharmalii), which was absent in fails to realize the identity of "birth" and "non-birth" and of "non-birth" Maitreya's Tu~ita Heaven as we examined and "birth.uu above. On the other hand, the conventional dimension proved to be the objective Pure T'an-Iuan, almost two centuries earlier, Land, the very interpretation which the Ch'an similarly described, "That [Pure] Land is the Buddhists criticized. Realm of Non-birth.''''

The Pure Land commentators expended Having said that, however, the Pure much energy in trying to reconcile these two Land proponents acknowledge that the dimensions. Tan-Iuan expressed this mode of capacity of ordinary, unenlightened people is existence as "subtle" (wei) and explained, such that they have no choice but to regard the "Though it is extra-phenomenal, it exists.'''' Pure Land as ontically existent, namely, to The question that now demands asking con­ take a literal reading of the Larger and cerns the manner in which the Pure Land ex­ Smaller Sukhiiva/f Sulra. Tao-ch'o, for exam­ ists extra-phenomenally. Shan-tao expressed ple, asked rhetorically: this relationship in the concept of "Giving Direction and Establishing Form" (shih-fang If those of the lowest grade attain /i-hsiang; Jpn. shiho risso)." Tan-Iuan called rebirth through reciting [the name of it the" Interpenetration of the Expanded and Amitabha] ten times, how can they the Essential" (kuang-/Ueh hsiang-ju; Jpn. possibly not grasp it as real birth?" koryaku sonyii). The expanded refers to the 17 decorated forms of the Pure Land, The objective presentation of the Pure Land Amitabha and the two Bodhisattvas described accords with the emotional and intellectual in the Trealise on Ihe Pure Land attributed to make-up of ordinary beings whose capacity . These are of forms that are in affords only a literal understanding of the accord with the emotional and intellectual sutra description. What is often ignored is comprehensive ability of the unenlightened. that for these seekers, initially at least, the ob-

40 jective Pure Land as described in the sutras understand the birthlessness of the dhar­ was taken literally at face value as an ab­ ma nature, will attain the realm of birth­ solute; for them there is no ultimate reality to lessness and will see the fire of rebirth be found "lurking behind" the Pure Land of spontaneously disappear at that time." cool breezes and bejewelled palaces. Direct in­ sight into ultimate truth for them is beyond The fire and ice refer to the ignorant, passion­ their ability, and only through their relation­ ridden people who aspire to be reborn in an ship with the Pure Land of form can the existent, objective Pure Land. The melting of ultimate reality be realized. the ice refers to the soteriological process of their single-minded resolve to be reborn in But the question remains as to how be­ Sukhavati, which eventually leads them to the ings are able to realize enlightenment through attainment of wisdom. This attainment "grasping at forms" of Pure Land, which automatically extinguishes the fire of the false strikes as being antithetical to the fundamen­ notion that the aspirant actually is reborn in tal Buddhist practice. Tao-ch'o again argues: an objective Pure Land.

Therefore, although this is grasping According to this explanation, an or­ onto form, such grasping does not con­ dinary being is able to engage the ultimate stitute binding attachment. In addition, realm without that person fully understanding the form of the Pure Land being dis­ the ultimate nature. This process skillfully cussed here is identical to form without utilizes the form (rooted in truth) to transcend defilements, form that is true form ..... form in order to enter the formless. When the formless is attained, the previous attachment T'an-Iuan had earlier explained that, based on to form disappears. The form is skillfully the theory of the "arising of dharma/ii" as utilized so that the beings of low ability are taught in the Ava/af/1Saka-su/ra, the Pure catapulted to attain the realm of ultimate even Land is a manifestation commensurate with though they themselves do not possess the ultimate reality, the dharma/ii." The Pure wosdom about the nature of reality. The emi­ Land emerges based on ultimate reality, while nent Buddhist scholar Edward Conze has apt­ the latter is expressed through the former. ly described this process in terms of faith and Hence, the "grasping at form" is permitted wisdom: on the strength of the form being "form that is true form". As soon as we judge it by the stan­ dard of self-extinction, the "Buddhism The mechanism of the soteriological pro­ of Faith" is in the direct line of Buddhist cess is explained by Tao-ch'o in an ingenious orthodoxy. Surrender in faith involves a metaphor of fire and ice: high degree of extinction of separate selfhood, partly because one does not re­ It is like lighting fire on top of ice. lyon oneself, or one's own power, part­ As the fire intensifies, the ice melts. ly because one sees the futility of all con­ When the ice melts, then the fire goes scious and personal efforts and allows out. oneself to be 'carried' to salvation, and partly due to superior or wisdom. Those of the lowest grade of rebirth ... For it must never be forgotten that who are intent on attaining rebirth based that which is represented to the relatively solely on the power of reciting the Bud­ ignorant in the form of a personal savior dha's name with the resolve to be reborn and of a paradise is exactly the same in his land, even though they do not thing as that which is taught to the

41 relatively learned as the Absolute itself. enveloped in a lotus flower. Third, the ... A sincere heart and , unaware Japanese Shingon school regarded the Gan­ of the merit of its sincerity, is all that is dhavyiiha realm that appear in the needed. The Buddha's demand that, in Ga!lrfavyuha-sutra as Buddha order to be saved, one should learn to do Mahllvairocana's Pure Land that was none nothing in particular, is fulfilled in this other than our present Sahii realm. Fourth, way as perfectly as in any other." Potalaka Mountain, where Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara dwells, is sometimes referred In a sense the Pure Land proponents to as Pure Land. Unlike Sukhavati and other steered a middle path to advocate that objective Pure Lands, all five are Pure Lands SukhllvatI Pure Land was not simply subjec­ that are located primarily in the Saha world." tive (Zen position) or simply objective (Tu~ita Heaven). It could not simply be subjective The term "Pure Land" is an English because the Pure Land teaching was directed rendering of a Chinese term "ching-t'u" (Jpn. to those incapable of realizing enlightenment jiido) , which has no one determinative San­ in the present life. Their aim in the Pure Land skrit original. The Chinese translators, in­ was the attainment of and was cluding Kumarajiva (344-413), are believed to not an escape to an eternal paradise to enjoy have coined the term based on the concept of the extension of pleasures of this life. In this "purification of the land," which found ex­ respect, Pure Land Buddhists made no false pression in such terms as claims of enlightenment in the present life and buddhak~etra-parisuddhi (the purification of thus remained faithful to the Mahayana Bud­ the Buddha land), parisuddhaf!l bud­ dhist goal. But at the same time, the Pure dhak~etram (purified Buddha land) and Land was more than just another celestial k~etram parisodhayati (to purify the land). body for it was rooted and enveloped in The concept of the purification of the Buddha ultimate reality. Thus, It was quality not is found in the earliest in­ found in Maitreya' s Tu~ita, that allowed those cluding the Praj/lapiiramitii-sutra (in 8,000 reborn to transcend the cycle of births and verses) and . As an integral ele­ deaths and be guaranteed Buddhahood. ment in the bodhisattva practice, "purifica­ tion" was achieved when a bodhisattva had HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND THE expounded the teaching to lead all beings in ORIGIN OF THE TERM "PURE LAND" his land (k~etra) to enlightenment."

These controversies in China were occa­ It is often taken for granted that sioned because each school assumed that their Amitabha's SukhiivatI was a Pure Land from own version of the Pure Land was more its origin, but the earliest Pure Land sutras do authentic than the others', when in fact we not refer to Sukhavati as a Pure Land. Ap­ now know that, besides those expounded by parently the identification of a Buddha land, Amitabha, Ch'an and Maitreya advocates, Sukhavati, and Pure Land began in China other kinds of Pure Land also generated their among commentators of Pure Land scrip­ followings in Mahayana Buddhism, par­ tures. One of the earliest textual evidence for ticularly in . First, some have re­ this occurs in T'an-Iuan's commentary, garded Grdhrakula (the where Wang-sheng lun-chu (Jpn. Ojiiron-chu, Com­ the Buddha preached in the Lotus Sutra) as a mentary on the Treatise on Rebirth) which Pure Land. Second, the Pure Land that the speaks of a "Pure Land of Sukhavati" (an-lo Chinese Hua-yen and Japanese schools ching-t'u; Jpn. anraku jiido)." This iden­ advocated is the Buddha's Pad­ tification constituted a significant step in the magarbha, in which the entire world is development of the idea of Sukhavati, since

42 Buddha lands (Buddha-k$etra) and Pure Land passages that describe it as the "Land of Un­ were two independent ideas. created ."" While his Chinese predicessors had identified Sukhavati Pure Through this assimilation the Amitabha's Land with the nirvana on the level of ultimate Sukhavati gained depth and broadened its truth, it took to present "Pure Land scope; for example, an idea originally relevant as nirvana" on the level of conventional truth only in the Saha World-Realm context was ap­ for the benefit of ordinary, unenlightened be­ plied to a transcendent, celestial body. ings. However J it also, as we witnessed in this paper, invited inevitable clashes with other The identification of the Pure Land with Buddhist schools which had similarly in­ nirvana poses a challenge to the second point tegrated the idea of Pure Land into their own alluded above concerning the need for ap­ doctrinal framework. In essence, Amitabha's propriate imagery and symbolism. It opens up Pure Land was one of many forms of Pure more possibilites for presenting the Pure Land that competed in China for acceptance Land, unshackled by traditional scenes of and, supremacy at times, around the early Pure Land sutras. One such possibility would T'ang period. be to simply depict the Pure Land as a "realm of uncreated nirvana" in accord with POSTSCRIPT: SHINRAN'S VIEWS Shinran's understanding, especially now that IN THE MODERN CONTEXT "nirvana" has earned its status as a standard English term and some understanding within From the standpoint of presenting the the religious and learned circles in the West. I Pure Land as a soteriological concept in the ,believe "nirvana" carries sufficient meaning modern Western context, new approaches and "for generating positive responses as a religious adaptations will undoubtedly become increas­ symbol, just as the mythic adornments had, in ingly necessary. In order for the Pure Land to Shan-tao's words, "met the emotional and in­ be a viable religious idea, I believe it must tellectual needs of the aspirants" of the tradi­ have the following qualities: I) it maintains tional, largely agricultural Asian societies. the objective dimension as a realm that transcends the present life, 2) it provides sym­ It must be qualified here that in present­ bols and imagery that appeal to the modern ing the Pure Land as a "realm of uncreated mind, 3) it offers the subjective dimension so nirvana," it in no way implies that the modern that the Pure Land can be identified in one aspirants realize nirvana or enlightenment in form or another with the present life, and 4) it the present life. The aspirants continue to be contains values that transcend individual "passion-filled, ignorant foolish beings" needs to playa role for the collective good. (bonno guzoku no bonbu) while alive, until they enter Pure Land upon death. All four points arc found, albeit in vary­ ing degrees, in the position reached by There will be those who find this ra­ Shinran (1173-1261), the founder of J6do tionalized presentation emotionally unsatisfy­ Shinshii of Japanese . ing and thus prefer the traditional presenta­ Shinran arrived at a radical interpretation in tion rich in imagery. For such people, Pure the historical process of reconciliation and Land as nirvana can be presented, for exam­ synthesis that was initiated by his Chinese ple, as a "realm of ideal relationship." Pure predecessors some 600 years earlier. Accor­ Land Buddhism has regarded the Pure Land ding to his view, Pure Land is identified with as an ideal forum for hearing the teaching and the ultimate reality itself, for he calls it the cultivating practices. Hence, rather than em· "Land of Immeasurable Light" and cites phasizing its physical features, we may focus

43 on the supportive relationship among those This is also called the attainment of the reborn in the transcendent . Liberated equal of perfect enlightenment." from the demands of self-preservation, physical needs and familial and social respon­ Further, for Shinran, the Pure Land is sibilities, one overcomes self-centeredness in not an end in itself or an abode of eternal rest, the Pure Land. Based on the absolute trust but part of an universal process of saving all and respect for one another based on the other sentient beings in the transmigratory cy­ newly-acquired other-centered ness, total har­ cle of birth and death. Although he does not mony and mutual support prevail. Everyone describe in detail the mechanism of this pro­ works sincerely and earnestly for the cess of returning from the Pure Land to the enlightenment of all in accord with the yearn­ Saha World-Realm, Shinran speaks of the ing to liberate all beings, which is none other dynamics of the "phase of returning" (gens6) than the dynamic compassionate dimension of to fulfill the Mahayana ideal of working to nirvana. benefit others. The Pure Land is, thus, the dynamic realm of enlightenment that encom­ Needless to say, the Pure Land cannot passes both the present life and realm as well fully be appreciated or understood apart from as the other realm in which the reborn become the soteriological process of a liido Shinshu part of the compassionate seeker. The Pure Land comes to hold a deep (hongan) that not only originally established personal meaning only within the deep self in­ the Pure Land, but now relentlessly aspires to trospection and struggles of a sincere religious lead all sentient beings to enlightenment. search, not as an outcome Qf a detached in­ tellectual inquiry. In this context, Shinran ad­ vocated that with the realization in this life of shinjin (the mind of true faith and insight), the aspirants, upon death, no longer spent any FOOTNOTES: time in the Pure Land for cultivation but im­ mediately attain perfect enlightenment: I. The primary Pure Land sutras are the so-called Larger SukhlJvarfvyuha Sutra, There is no discrimination based on Smaller Sukhiivat/vyiiha Sutra and Medita­ hierarchical grades of rebirths in the tion Sutra. Their Chinese are in purified recompensed land, established TaishOshinshiisaizoky6 Vol. 12, no. 360-367. by [Amida's] great vow. In the moment Originally in these sutras, Sukhiivati as a Bud­ [of rebirth] one immediately attains the dha land (buddha-k~etra) is not regarded as a highest true path." "Pure Land"; it is only in the hands of the c commentators, beginning with T'an-Iuan (ca. His position, in one sense, can be interpreted mid-sixth century) that the two came to be to mean that for a person with shinjin the identified. See below in the text for section Pure Land begins in this life: "Historical Perspective and the Origin of the Term Pure Land" for detail. The use of the [The passage "Then they attain phrase "Sukhllvati Pure Land" thus follows rebirth in the Pure Land"] means that the practice of the commentators. For best when a person realizes shinjin, he is born English of all three sutras, see F. immediately. To be born immediately is Max Muller ed. Buddhist Mahayana Texts to dwell in the stage of non­ (1894. Reprint. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, retrogression. To dwell in the stage of 1965), Sacred Books of the East Series Vol. non-retrogression is to become estab­ 49, pp. Part II, 1-107 and 161-201. lished in the stage of the truly settled. 2. See Fujita Kotatsu, Genshi Jodoshiso

44 no Kenkyu, (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1970), the heavens (Tu~ita being one of the heavens) pp. 307-309. These two names "Amitabha" among the pure lands. TaishO,44.834b5. (immeasurable light) and "Amitayus" (im­ 18. TaishO, 47.9bff; 100a-b; 53b. measurable life) are used interchangebly to 19. Ibid., 47.100bI4-15. refer to the one and the same Buddha. 20. Ibid., 4O.830a20. 3. In the Larger Sukhiiva!ivyuha Sutra, 21. Ibid., 37.267bI0. TaishO. 12.270a5-6 and in Smaller Sutra, 22. Ibid., 4O.841blO-I5. TaishO.12.346c 10-11. 23. Ibid., 47.78a27-29. 4. Philip Yampolsky, The Platform Sutra 24. Ibid., 4O.839b6. of the Sixth Patriarch (New York and Lon­ 25. Ibid., 47.l1cI6-17. don: Columbia University Press, 1967), 26. Ibid., 47.18cI5-17. pp. 156-157. 27. Ibid., 4O.828cb27. 5. TaishO. 14.538c5. 28. Ibid., 47.l1c27-12a2. 6. Yampolsky, p. 158. 29. Edward Conze, Buddhism: Its 7. Daisetz Suzuki, "Shin Buddhism: Part Essence and Development, (1951, Reprint. 1," The Eastern Buddhist 17-1 (Spring, 1985): New York: Harper and Row, 1975), 2. pp. 159-160. 8. TaishO.47. 78a22-26. 30. Kotatsu Fujita, "Pure and Impure 9. Mochizuki Shinko, Chugoku Jodo Lands," Encyclopedia of , Vol. 12 Kyorishi (1942. Reprint. Kyoto: Hozokan, (New York: MacMillan Publishing Co., 1964), pp. 260-261. 1987), p. 91. 10. TaishO, 85.1236-1242. 11. For example, see Taisho 31. Fujita, "Pure and Impure Lands," p. 47.122c21-123a2; 128bI2-c28. 90; see also his Genshi jodoshiso no kenkyu, 12. Ibid., pp .. 78a2-4. (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1970), pp. 506-51 I. 13. Ibid., pp. 78a7-9. 32. TaishO.40.829a24. See Fujita, Genshi 14. Ibid., pp. 78a26-27. jOdoshiso, p. 507. 15. Tsukamoto Zenryu, Shina-bukkyo­ 33. Shinshu shOgyo zensho Vol. 2, pp. shi Kenkyu: Hokugi-hen, (Tokyo: Kobundo, 120:4 & 139: 14; Shinran elsewhere states, "In 1942), pp. 564-595. arriving in the land of immeasurable light, one 16. Matsumoto Bunzaburo, Shina­ attains complete nirvana," pp. 35:5. bukkyo Ibutsu, (Tokyo: Daichokoku, 1911), 34. Ibid., p. 73:13. pp. 286-299. He cites numerous examples of 35. Yoshifumi Ueda, general editor, stone engravings that reflect the syncretic Notes on "Essentials of Faith Alone", Shin view. Buddhism Translation Series. (Kyoto: 17. Ching-ying Hui-yiian, for example, in Hongwanji International Center, 1979), his encyclopedic Ta-ch 'eng I-chang includes pp. 34-35.

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