PROPOSED NORTHERN RUNWAY AND SOUTHERN RUNWAY OPTIONS, AUCKLAND INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT, MANGERE: ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS ASSESSMENT

Report prepared for

Auckland International Airport Limited

By

Simon Bickler (PhD) Rod Clough (PhD)

March 2016

Clough & Associates Ltd. [email protected] 321 Forest Hill Rd, Waiatarua AUCKLAND 0612 Telephone: (09) 8141946 Mobile 0274 850 059 www.clough.co.nz

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Summary This report assesses the archaeological constraints on constructing a Northern Runway. A southern runway option being considered as an alternative is also assessed. Northern Runway Proposed changes to the Auckland International Airport Designated Northern Runway are likely to affect a number of archaeological sites. These are likely to be located at the eastern and western ends of the proposed northern runway area of influence. In the east, midden sites have been identified and these probably represent evidence of a similar type of archaeological settlement as that recently found at the neighbouring Timberly Road development. Also located along the creek banks, the features exposed have included pits, houses, hearths and middens. At the western end, archaeological evidence similar to that found in the sites excavated in 2008-9 for the previously planned northern runway (Designated Northern Runway) is likely to exist on the northern side of the stream located south of Ihumatao Road and inland around the paddocks. The sites previously investigated at the western end included the significant site R11/859, which contained numerous burials, archaeological features and artefacts. A recorded historic house R11/2570 is located within the project area but its date of construction is not known and the values not yet assessed. The property may contain pre-1900 remains. A scheduled natural heritage feature, the Ihumatao buried forest, lies in the tidal zone at the northwestern end of the Designated Northern Runway area. The proposed changes will trigger alterations to the existing designation from the Auckland Council and probably Authority requirements from Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga (HNZPT). Archaeological sites related to both Maori and early European occupation are recorded in the areas affected by the project and many of the sites are listed as Sites and Places of Value to Mana Whenua in the Proposed Auckland Unitary Plan (PAUP). In addition there is potential for further unidentified subsurface remains to be present in the project area. Additional systematic survey of the areas at both ends of the project will be a requirement for a more detailed archaeological AEE for the project. Southern Runway Option The alternative Southern Runway option would be constructed on reclamation of part of the Manukau Harbour and the area of influence would incorporate a small headland and Wiroa Island just south of the Existing Runway. This option would also affect a number of recorded archaeological sites, many of which are also scheduled as Sites and Places of Value to Mana Whenua on the PAUP. Archaeologically they are of limited significance and have largely been destroyed, though field survey would be required to confirm their current condition.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ...... 3 Purpose of Report...... 3 Project Background ...... 3 Methodology ...... 4 Environmental and Historical Context ...... 5 Physical Environment ...... 5 History ...... 9 Information from Plans and Aerial Photographs ...... 10 Archaeological Sites ...... 18 Archaeological Background ...... 18 Sites within the Northern Runway Project Area ...... 19 Sites within the Southern Runway Option ...... 24 Field Visits ...... 26 Field Visits: Northern and Southern Areas of Influence ...... 26 Discussion and Conclusions...... 29 Summary of Results ...... 29 Archaeological Value and Significance ...... 29 Maori Cultural Values ...... 30 Survey Limitations ...... 30 Resource Management Act 1991 ...... 31 Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga Act 2014 ...... 33 Conclusions ...... 35 References ...... 37

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INTRODUCTION

Purpose of Auckland International Airport Limited (AIAL), as a Requiring Authority is Report seeking to alter its existing, or seek a new, designation via a Notice of Requirement (NoR) served on Auckland Council for the future construction and operation of a second runway (Proposed Second Runway). As part of the process to prepare the NoR under the Resource Management Act, AIAL is required amongst other things, to: a) Assess the effects that the works will have on the environment and ways in which these adverse effects can be mitigated; b) Consider alternatives; and c) Outline why the project is reasonably necessary for achieving AIAL’s objectives. This report on the archaeological constraints has been prepared as part of an initial baseline assessment of environmental effects (including landscape, archaeological, cultural and ecological effects) and engineering/cost constraints within the ‘area of influence’ shown on the ARUP plan encompassing a broad area of influence (Figure 1). A Southern Runway option, involving construction of a runway entirely on land reclaimed from the Manukau Harbour is also being considered as part of the environmental baseline study (Figure 1). The southern area of influence incorporating access and related infrastructure also largely involves reclamation, with a small area of headland and Wiroa Island just to the south of the Existing Runway (Figure 1). The constraints identified will assist in the later assessment of environmental effects and the assessment of alternatives against the Project Objectives.

Project The current proposal involves changes to earlier plans for the Designated Background Northern Runway, earthworks for part of which have already been carried out. Previous archaeological assessments for the Designated Northern Runway development (NRD) covered most of the proposed development area, and an intensive archaeological investigation was carried out by Campbell and Hudson (Campbell 2011; Hudson 2011). The excavations of archaeological site R11/859 revealed a complex Maori habitation area along with a large number of burials at the western end of the Designated Northern Runway. Earthworks for the Designated Northern Runway path were also monitored by Campbell and Hudson (ibid.) and a number of middens near site R11/859 and along a stream were recorded and excavated. The new proposal includes most of the original area of the Designated Northern Runway, but extends the area of influence to the north as well as potentially both farther east and west (Figure 1). No archaeological investigation has been carried out within the area of influence of the southern runway option (Figure 1), although a number of archaeological sites have been recorded there.

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Project This desktop assessment reviews the previous archaeological assessments Background, undertaken in the area and identifies the likely archaeological effects and risks continued associated with the new proposal.

Methodology The New Zealand Archaeological Association’s (NZAA) Site Recording Scheme (SRS) (accessed via Archsite (www.archsite.org.nz), Auckland Council’s Cultural Heritage Inventory (CHI), District Plan and Proposed Auckland Unitary Plan (PAUP) schedules and the HNZPT) New Zealand Heritage List / Rarangi Korero were searched for information on archaeological or other historic heritage sites recorded on or in the immediate vicinity of the proposed development. Early plans held at Land Information New Zealand (LINZ) and aerial photographs were reviewed for information relating to past use of the development area. Previous archaeological assessments of the properties involved as well as neighbouring ones were examined and are summarised here. A brief visual inspection of the Northern Runway project area was undertaken on 14 April 2014 and of the Southern Runway project area on 5-6 November 2015, but no detailed field assessment was carried out as this is intended to be a desktop study identifying constraints and limitations.

Figure 1. Areas of influence, showing Northern and Southern Runway options

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ENVIRONMENTAL AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Physical The main Northern Runway option runs through farmland. The topography of Environment the project area is relatively flat, especially in the area of the Designated Northern Runway which has already been levelled (Figure 2). A large mound of fill also occupies an area south of the northern runway zone (Figure 2). Other work around the airport area has also clearly affected the original landscape, although few archaeological features have been recorded in the central area. The rest of the land is mostly divided up into grassed paddocks. Vegetation cover is mostly modern and related either to the former farming in the area or landscaping for the modern developments. There are few trees in the project area, the majority having been planted as windbreaks across the properties. In the eastern part of the area of influence, industrial building and roading have modified the landscape significantly. The Pukaki Creek runs along the eastern boundary and mangroves have infiltrated extensively along the waterways here (Figure 2). Geologically, the project area is to the south of the main volcanic cones of Maungataketake (Ellett’s Mountain, now almost entirely quarried away) and Otuataua, but thin volcanic tuff covers the earlier Pleistocene silts (see Ricketts 1977; Searle 1959), offering up rich soils for Maori gardens in prehistory and into the time of early European contact. The extensive Maori settlement of the area is reflected by the many recorded place names (Figure 3). Maungataketake is part of the larger volcanic area of Ihumatao. This area is composed of four volcanic cones – Otuataua, Pukeiti (Puketapapa), Waitomokia, and Maungataketake. The western end of the project area borders the Manukau Harbour with tidal mud flats. No archaeological sites are recorded in the mud flats but a sub- fossil kauri forest partly buried by eruptions at Maungataketake around 180,000 years ago (Marra et al. 2006: 2160; cf. Hayward and Hayward 1995) is clearly visible at low tide near the end of Renton Road (Figure 4). Stumps are also visible in the eroding beach section there (Figure 5). The area is recorded in the Auckland Council CHI as no. 2370 and the Ihumatao buried forest is scheduled as a natural heritage feature on the district plan. The Southern Runway option area of influence is largely located in the Manukau Harbour (requiring extensive reclamation). It incorporates a small area of headland and Wiroa Island just to the south of the Existing Runway (Figure 6). Wiroa Island has been extensively modified for a bird roosting area as part of AIAL’s Wildlife Management Programme.

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Previous earthworks for NRD

Mound of fill

Previous earthworks for NRD

Mound of fill

Figure 2. Google Earth image (top: 2009; bottom December 2013) showing areas of earthworks for previous NRD project

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Figure 3. Traditional place names on the Ihumatao peninsula (from Murdoch 2011)

Figure 4. View of the sub-fossil kauri forest at the end of Renton Road Continued on next page

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Figure 5. Sub-fossil kauri at end of Renton Road

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Figure 6. Aerial view land within Southern Runway option (source: Google Maps)

History Murdoch (2011:22ff) has carried out the most comprehensive historical research on the Ihumatao area and, with summaries of the archaeology by Campbell (2011), Clough (2011), Clough and Plowman (1996) and Lawlor (2009), there is a good understanding of the cultural heritage importance of the wider landscape, which was extensively settled in pre- and early European times. A full historical background will be required for the AEE, but has not been included for the purpose of this desktop analysis. However, of specific relevance are Murdoch’s plan (Figure 3) and Environment Court evidence (Murdoch 2011), which describes the establishment of Te Tiki pa north of Renton Road, with gardens along both sides of the current road: ‘Because they feared further conflict Ngāti Te Ahiwaru constructed a “ring ditch” pā known as Te Tiki (Site R11/846) above the sea cliffs just west of the end of Renton Road…. Inland of the pā, and in the lee of Maungataketake, Ngāti Te Ahiwaru established a village that was also known as Te Tiki. It extended along either side of the wetland that then lay to the south of Maungataketake, and along the western base of the mountain extending toward Ihumatao. When the threat of hostilities had died down, Epiha Putini and his people established a larger village on the northern side of Maungataketake at Ihumātao’ (Murdoch 2011: Section 4.6.2).

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Information Figure 7 dated to 1853 (surveyed by Commander Drury of the Pandora) shows from Plans the northern and southern areas of influence. No specific archaeological and Aerial features are identified in these areas on the plan. Photographs Early survey plans (e.g., Figure 8–Figure 10) and aerial photographs from 1939 to the 1960s show the gradual subdivision of the land, with mixed farming activities, housing and landscaping (e.g., Figure 11–Figure 14). Vegetation cover on the properties remained fairly minimal throughout the 20th century. Wiroa Island, south of the Existing Runway, consisted originally of a small high point of land in the intertidal zone with an area of swampy land to the southeast. Significant changes to the island have occurred throughout the 20th century with gardens and baches replaced with a large earth bund, radar and antenna installations and associated infrastructure, coastal reclamation and coastal erosion prevention measures such as rock breakwaters. Most of these plans and photographs do not identify specific heritage features within the current project area, although the major pre-historic settlements centred on the volcanic cones are clear from the terracing, stone arrangements and walls. Early homesteads on the farmland are visible, although none can be identified as pre-1900 on the basis of aerial photography. However, the lack of visible sites on the plans and aerials does not reflect the archaeological potential of the area, and the historical background and earlier archaeological work (see below) confirm the potential for archaeology.

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Figure 7. Overlay of Northern and Southern areas of influence on 1853 Drury Plan (source: Sir George Grey Special Collections, Auckland Libraries, NZ Map 890). Maungataketake is named Thumatoa [sic] and Otuataua is named Moerangi

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Figure 8. DP 1344C dated 1851 showing Wakarongotukituki Block (neighbouring the areas of influence)

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Figure 9. SO 236 dated 1866 showing project area

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Figure 10. Wiroa Island shown on ML 642 dated 1867

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Figure 11. Aerial photograph of the western area dated December 1939 (Ihumatao SN 139 H)

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Figure 12. 1959 Aerial of project area (Auckland Council GIS Viewer)

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Figure 13. Ellett's Mountain and Mangere Aerodrome in 1962, Auckland. Whites Aviation Ltd Ref: WA- 58388-G. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. http://natlib.govt.nz/records/23157965

Figure 14. Wiroa Island in 1959 prior to airport development (Auckland Council GIS Viewer)

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ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES

Archaeological Maori gardening systems and landscapes in the Auckland region are Background recognisable by their archaeological footprint, which in the area around Otuataua includes the ‘stonefields’ – a large agricultural settlement system on a lava flow visibly expressed by a range of stone features including stone mounds, walls, house enclosures and shelters. Gardening was carried out over a wider area than the stonefields, with use of other productive soils in the Ihumatao region, but due to the lack of stone tends to leave less of a recoverable footprint. A large number of surveys and assessments, many associated with the Otuataua Stonefields, have been carried out in the general area near the airport (see, e.g., Veart 1986; Clough 2003, 2007; Lawlor 1988, 2002, 2009; Plowman 2008; Gibb 2010). The main surveys relating to the northern runway area are by Foster (2003, 2004) and Furey (2007a), with additional survey to the north of Renton Road by Furey (2007b). Figure 15 and Figure 16 show the distribution of recorded archaeological sites across the northern Proposed Second Runway area of influence from the NZAA and CHI databases. In the 1970s and 1980s excavations were carried out on Maungataketake/Ellett’s Mountain, a significant pa, before it was quarried away. Stone-faced terraces, pits and living platforms were excavated (McKinlay 1974; 1975), but a detailed investigation report has never been written. The archaeology indicated at least two phases of occupation, one of which was of potentially early date (Robert Brassey, pers. comm. to M. Campbell, cited in Campbell 2011). During development of the eastern approach to the airport, excavations were carried out at Papahinu (R11/229) on the Pukaki Creek, an early 19th century Maori settlement. At least 14 houses and an associated area of large kumara storage pits (R11/1800) were uncovered (Foster and Sewell 1995). The settlement was abandoned in the 1820s in response to attacks from Ngapuhi, and reoccupied from the mid 1830s until 1863, when Te Akitai departed to the Waikato (Sullivan 1973; Foster and Sewell 1995: 15, 56; Campbell 2011). There was also evidence of earlier occupation, with a shell midden layer dated to AD 1450–1690. Extensive investigations were undertaken in 2008-9 as part of the Designated Northern Runway Development for Auckland International Airport Limited (Campbell 2011). These excavations recorded nine areas of archaeological interest (Figure 17) near the southern end of the Designated Northern Runway, with a diversity of features ranging from pits and postholes through to dense midden covering multiple pit and house features, and numerous artefacts. A large number of burials (88) were also uncovered (Hudson 2011). Eleven radiocarbon age determinations were obtained, many of which were broadly similar and indicated occupation dates of the 1600s and early 1700s (Campbell 2011: 153).

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Archaeological Excavations carried out on AIAL land at Timberly Road north of the eastern Background, end of the northern runway area of influence were monitored by Clough & continued Associates in 2014, and Maori settlement remains were exposed and investigated. In addition to the middens originally recorded as R11/2379 (Farley and Clough 2013b), a number of structural remains including possible houses, pits and hearths were identified. Other middens closer to the project area have also been identified. Significant early European heritage remains have also been investigated in the general area. In 2005 during Stage 1 of The Landing development on the western side of George Bolt Drive (accessed from Landing Drive), an investigation of the historic Westney Homestead was carried out (Campbell and Furey 2007; Campbell and Furey 2013). The homestead, dating from 1855, was modified a number of times over the years as finances and family changes allowed. The building was recorded in detail and a range of artefacts analysed. Surrounding the house, subsurface features and midden relating to earlier Maori occupation were also encountered. In 2007 a similar investigation of the 1860s Scott Homestead, south of Ihumatao Road, was carried out (Furey 2011). Farley and Clough (2012, 2013a) more recently carried out an assessment and recording of features in the Stage 2A Landing Development, identifying two hawthorn fence and ditch sites relating to historic occupation. Stage 2B works have also exposed Maori settlement features (yet to be reported on). These are north of the northern area of influence.

Sites within the The recorded archaeological sites within the northern area of influence are Northern shown in Figure 15–Figure 16 and listed in Table 1. There is a range of sites Runway relating to both Maori and early European settlement. Some, such as the Project Area Westney Church and graveyard and nearby house sites (R11/2348, R11/2334, R11/2274, R11/2358) and the sites within the original planned extent of the Designated Northern Runway, such as R11/859, have been excavated previously. Many of the sites are listed in the Proposed Auckland Unitary Plan (PAUP) as Sites and Places of Value to Mana Whenua (Figure 16). Where there are no further remains of the sites, as at the Westney Church, graveyard and nearby house sites, there should be no further statutory requirements. Site R11/859 has been investigated (Figure 17), but the area will still contain intact features. As noted, the area to the south of Renton Road does have a historical association with a village and pa at Te Tiki (originally recorded as R11/846), although middens such as R11/846 (see Furey 2007a), R11/848, R11/2273, R11/2292 and R11/2571, may relate either to that village or to earlier periods. Koiwi discovered in 2011 (Lawlor 2011) are associated with R11/846.

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Sites within Two sets of possible pits, R11/1792 and R11/1793, were recorded in 1992 but the Northern do not seem to have been identified subsequently. A well, R11/2179, was Runway recorded in 2002 and reburied. Project Area, A historic house, R11/2570, is recorded at 8 Ihumatao Road near George Bolt continued Drive. Although its exact age is not known it probably dates from the early 1850s (Campbell, Harris and Maguire 2011). Other mid-late 19th century houses, or the sites of demolished houses, are also potentially located in the project area. Associated with these will be features such as outbuildings, wells, rubbish pits and fences. Three sites, R11/544, R11/1357 and R11/2357, are located along the banks of the Pukaki and Tautauroa Creeks at the eastern end of the project area. R11/544 is reported as a large midden site extending underneath the vegetation. It is possible that it related to a village located here. The other two midden to the north are recorded as less substantial, but may be indicative of other settlement nearby. Overall the potential for buried archaeological sites in areas that have not been modified remains high, as previous assessments carried out in the area (e.g., Furey 2005) have indicated (Figure 18).

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Table 1. Archaeological sites in the northern area of influence recorded on the NZAA and CHI databases CHI NZAA NZTM NZTM Description Easting Northing 10451 R11/544 1759996 5904509 Taotaoroa village 4442 R11/846 1756058 5903674 Midden at top of cliff scarp; originally recorded as ring-ditch pa. Koiwi reported in 2011. 4443 R11/847 1756538 5903291 Midden site along cliff edge and end of beach 3920 R11/848 1756198 5903601 Midden 4557 R11/859 1756420 5903527 Extensive site with several occupation areas containing midden, terraces, pits and burials. Largely excavated for the Designated Northern Runway project 3928 R11/860 1756298 5903402 Midden 4035 R11/1357 1759996 5904709 Midden 11726 R11/1792 1757598 5903604 ? Pits 11727 R11/1793 1757698 5903704 ? Pits 14100 R11/2179 1758317 5903846 Well 17052 R11/2273 1756217 5903658 Midden 16714 R11/2274 1758750 5904556 Westney Homestead relocated and area excavated 17054 R11/2291 1756136 5903731 Midden 17055 R11/2292 1756637 5903636 Midden - R11/2334 1758918 5904364 Westney Methodist Church Denominational Graveyard, removed 2365 R11/2348 1758913 5904336 Westney Methodist Church, removed 17057 R11/2358 1757864 5904003 The site of an historic house. The house has been demolished and the yard excavated 16631 R11/2377 1759877 5904764 Thin shell lens containing small cockle and fire-cracked rock, c.200mm thick 16630 R11/2378 1759931 5904881 An exposure of midden in a 15m radius from the edge of the embankment. - R11/2570 1758824 5904090 Hip-roofed house on Allotment 66. The Crown Grant was issued to John Gibson in 1852 and sold to Thomas Cook with buildings in 1869. Exact date of original construction not determined. - R11/2571 1756075 5903709 Midden near R11/846

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Figure 15. Archaeological sites (red stars) as shown in the NZAA ArchSite Database, Northern Runway

Figure 16. Close-up of the location of archaeological sites shown in the CHI and those identified on PAUP planning maps as Sites/Places of Value to Mana whenua within the Northern area of influence Continued on next page

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Figure 17. Excavation areas for R11/859 (Campbell 2011: Figure 3.2)

Figure 18. Furey’s (2005: Figure 3) plan identifying the likelihood of unrecorded archaeological sites within the northern area of influence (circled)

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Sites within the An overlay of recorded archaeological sites from the CHI and NZAA ArchSite Southern databases indicates that there are some 17 sites recorded in this area and c.13 Runway of these are within the ‘Southern Area of Influence’ (Figure 1, Figure 19, Option Table 2). They are all shell midden sites, except for one red ochre source site. Examination of the PAUP overlays (Figure 20) indicates that 13 of these sites are recorded on the Sites and Places of Value to Mana Whenua overlay, 9 of these being within the area of influence, and a tenth whose buffer area extends into it. A review of the site records indicates that the sites were mostly destroyed, largely destroyed or ‘soon to be destroyed’ by coastal erosion when first recorded in 1973 (Table 2). Some sites were subsequently revisited and found to have eroded further.

Figure 19. Recorded archaeological sites in the Southern area of influence (source: CHI)

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Table 2. Recorded archaeological sites in or near the southern runway area of influence (source: CHI and NZAA ArchSite). Those within the area of influence are shaded NZAA Site CHI No. Type Description No. R11/242 10496 Midden Poor, eroding and partly removed by construction. Mostly gone by 2000. R11/243 10497 Midden On beach below tide line, uncovered and tidal erosion 1973. and Duskovich records more elements of same site further inland but basalt buried under later works scatter R11/244 10498 Midden Poor, doubtful, disturbed – surface scatter probably recent in 1973 R11/245 10499 Midden Eroding beach section of redeposited midden R11/246 10500 Midden Very poor, most taken by sea erosion 1973 R11/247 3324 Red Poor, base covered with breakwater, top stripped – possible ochre ochre source R11/248 10501 Midden Poor, clay dumped on top, heavy erosion R11/249 10502 Midden Extensive sea erosion 1973. Removed by slipway R11/250 10503 Midden Poor condition, strong sea erosion 1973, hammer dressed basalt find nearby R11/251 10504 Midden Completely eroded in 1973 R11/252 10505 Midden Poor condition 1973 R11/253 10506 Midden Surface scatter, doubtful site 1973 as no in situ material R11/254 10507 Midden Fair, eroding edge 1973 R11/255 10508 Midden Poor, slumping, eroded in 1973 R11/256 10509 Midden Poor condition, almost eroded 1973 R11/257 10510 Midden Poor condition not observed on recheck in 1973 R11/2089 13847 Midden Small and in poor condition (might be part of R11/243?) Druskovich 2000

Figure 20. Sites and Places of Value to Mana Whenua scheduled on the PAUP (purple circles)

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FIELD VISITS

Field Visits: A project team field visit to the northern area of influence was undertaken on Northern and 14 April 2014. No detailed survey or archaeological testing was undertaken. Southern The western portion of the northern area of influence is relatively low-lying Areas of (Figure 21) and the signs of farming activities and previous earthworks across Influence the property are also visible across the landscape. To the south is the main airport terminal (Figure 22) and, like much of the area west of George Bolt Memorial Drive, this has been modified by earthworks in the past. There is little chance of archaeological features being found in those areas that have been modified for buildings and parking areas. However, in pasture land north of the Driving Range at Nixon Road alongside Pukaki and Tautaurao Creeks (Figure 23), archaeological sites have been identified by previous surveys and further unidentified subsurface remains are likely. No systematic survey of the southern area of influence has been undertaken but a recent visit (5-6 November 2015, Bickler 2015) to Wiroa Island highlighted the significant changes that have occurred there. The substantial earthworks that have occurred on the island during the 20th century are clearly visible (Figure 19, Figure 24), with a large circular earth bund across the high part of the island and the lower margins levelled and planted in pasture. Limited probing and testing in an area for a new antenna (Figure 24) revealed no archaeological deposits. The archaeological sites are concentrated along the coastal fringe but are now hard to identify given the coastal erosion, reclamation, and breakwaters built there. Natural shell, concrete and basalt blocks have been moved in to limit the erosion on the western side (Figure 25). Mangroves surround the island. One previously located site, a possible source of ochre (R11/247), located on the western side of the island, was revisited (Figure 26) and the site record updated in the NZAA ArchSite database, which was not accurate. There is no evidence that the material here was actually used in pre-historic times but it remains a possible source. A detailed archaeological survey was beyond the scope of this desktop study, which broadly identifies the constraints and limitations within the two areas of influence. A more detailed archaeological assessment will be undertaken in the future.

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Figure 21. View looking north across western end of the Northern area of influence

Figure 22. View looking SE across Northern Runway area of influence

Figure 23. Eastern end of the Northern Runway area of influence

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Figure 24. View of antenna locations and buildings at south-eastern end of the island, with area probed and test pitted indicated

Figure 25. View of coastal fringe along western side of the island showing shell, rock and other debris used in breakwater

Figure 26. View of eroding ‘cliff’ in area of recorded ochre source (R11/247) with rock breakwater in foreground

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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of Prior to European occupation the Mangere landscape was occupied by Maori, Results in some areas quite intensively. This occupation has created areas of particular archaeological significance, such as the Otuataua stonefields. The archaeological literature relating to the area is extensive, attesting to the length and extent of pre-European settlement in this area of rich volcanic soils and easily accessible marine resources. Historical records indicate that the Mangere area was initially subdivided in the 1850s with farms established soon afterwards. By the early 1900s these farms were well established, along with other features of the rural community, such as schools and churches. There are 21 recorded archaeological or other historic heritage sites within the Northern area of influence, seven of which relate to early European settlement. Four of the sites (the Westney Church and graveyard and two historic house sites) are no longer present, while a substantial part of site R11/859 has already been investigated. Those areas where intact archaeological sites are now concentrated are at the western and eastern ends of the northern area of influence, though some smaller sites are more centrally located. Apart from the recorded sites it is likely that additional subsurface remains are present within the area of influence and will be exposed during future development. One possible historic house R11/2570 is within the project area but has not been fully assessed. The property may contain pre-1900 archaeological features. In the Southern area of influence there are 13 recorded archaeological sites, all consisting of coastal midden sites with the exception of a red ochre source site.

Archaeological The general area has a rich history and archaeological legacy relating to Maori Value and and early European occupation, with the Otuataua Stonefields located to the Significance north, the former mission station site near the coast and numerous other recorded sites in the area, collectively making up a significant archaeological landscape. Today that heritage is concentrated around the coastal and riverine margins, including within the northern area of influence. R11/859, investigated previously, proved to be a highly significant archaeological site which contained a large number of burials, occupation features and artefacts. It is possible that the site extended to the north on the north side of the stream and the potential for extensive archaeological remains is high. R11/846, although currently recorded as a midden, has the potential to contain more complex archaeological features relating to the settlement including pits, structures remains relating to whare and koiwi (Lawlor 2011). Other sites relating to pre-historic Maori occupation are also present along the banks of the Pukaki and Tautauroa Creeks.

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Archaeological Overall, this is consistent with Furey’s (2005) assessment, which concluded Value and that the northern area of influence was likely to contain archaeological Significance, features (Figure 18). continued In the Southern area of influence, the recorded archaeological sites are considered to be of low archaeological significance as coastal middens are a common element of the Manukau’s coastline and these are largely destroyed by coastal marine processes and development of Wiroa Island as a bird roosting area. More detailed evaluation of archaeological value/significance will be required at the AEE stage.

Maori Cultural This is an assessment of archaeological values and does not include an Values assessment of Maori cultural values. Such assessments should only be made by the tangata whenua. Maori cultural concerns may encompass a wider range of values than those associated with archaeological sites. There are a number of archaeological sites previously identified in both the Northern and the Southern Runway areas of influence, many of which are included in the PAUP planning maps as Sites and Places of Value to Mana Whenua. Cultural Impact Assessment(s) of the effects of the project on those sites will be required.

Survey A detailed archaeological survey of parts of the project area will be required Limitations for the completion of an AEE report. However, it should be noted that archaeological survey techniques (based on visual inspection and minor subsurface testing) cannot necessarily identify all sub-surface archaeological features, or detect wahi tapu and other sites of traditional significance to Maori, especially where these have no physical remains. It should also be noted that the rules of the PAUP, which currently have legal effect (see below), limit any subsurface testing to the use of a probe, which will inhibit identification of subsurface remains for effects assessment purposes.

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Resource Section 6 of the RMA 1991 recognises as matters of national importance: ‘the Management relationship of Maori and their culture and traditions with their ancestral Act 1991 lands, water, sites, waahi tapu, and other taonga’ (S6(e)); and ‘the protection of historic heritage from inappropriate subdivision, use, and development’ (S6(f)). All persons exercising functions and powers under the RMA are required under Section 6 to recognise and provide for these matters of national importance when ‘managing the use, development and protection of natural and physical resources’. There is a duty to avoid, remedy, or mitigate any adverse effects on the environment arising from an activity (S17), including historic heritage. Historic heritage is defined (S2) as ‘those natural and physical resources that contribute to an understanding and appreciation of New Zealand’s history and cultures, deriving from any of the following qualities: (i) archaeological; (ii) architectural; (iii) cultural; (iv) historic; (v) scientific; (vi) technological’. Historic heritage includes: ‘(i) historic sites, structures, places, and areas; (ii) archaeological sites; (iii) sites of significance to Maori, including wahi tapu; (iv) surroundings associated with the natural and physical resources’. Regional, district and local plans contain sections that help to identify, protect and manage archaeological and other heritage sites. The plans are prepared under the rules of the RMA. The Auckland Council District Plan: Operative Manukau Section (2002) and the PAUP (notified 2013) are relevant to the proposed activity. The Operative Plan is a legal document which sets out the Council’s policies and strategies for managing the natural and physical resources of the Auckland Isthmus for the future. This remains the current operative plan. The PAUP will replace former regional and district plans with one document. While the majority of the provisions do not have any legal effect until the Council’s decision on submissions is publicly notified, some of rules that relate to historic heritage, mana whenua, and natural heritage have legal effect from the date of notification. The statutory requirements in relation to both plans for the heritage effects are therefore relevant. Operative Plan schedules: There are no scheduled heritage items within the northern runway area of influence on the Operative Plan.

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Resource PAUP schedules and overlays: Management The PAUP planning maps also identify a number of Sites and Places of Value Act 1991, to Mana Whenua (Figure 27). All are recorded archaeological sites, and are continued identifiable in Appendix 4.2 as: Northern Area of Influence: R11/544, R11/846 (ID 346), R11/847 (ID 347), R11/848 (ID 68), R11/849 (ID 69), R11/859 (ID 398), R11/860 (ID 76), R11/1357 (ID 162), R11/1361 (ID 233), R11/1792 and R11/1793 (ID 2128), R11/2273 (ID 2945), R11/2291 (ID 2947), R11/2292 (ID 2948), R11/2377 (ID 2837), R11/2378 (ID 2836) (see Figure 16). Other sites are located just outside the project area (R11/540 - ID 210, R11/849 - ID 69, R11/1361 - ID 233), but their surrounding buffers extend into the project area. Southern Area of Influence: R11/242 (ID 1815), R11/243 (ID1816), R11/244 (ID 1817), R11/248 (ID 1818), R11/253 (ID 1823), R11/254 (ID 1824), R11/255 (ID 1825), R11/256 (ID 1826). One site is located just outside the project area – R11/252 (ID 1822) – but its buffer extends into the project area. Statutory Constraints: Earthworks affecting Sites and Places of Value to Mana Whenua will require resource consent as a restricted discretionary activity under the PAUP. Any application must be accompanied by a Cultural Impact Assessment by a mandated mana whenua representative and an archaeological assessment (Ch. G:2.7.4). Under current council practice all 12 mana whenua groups with an interest in the Otara-Papatoetoe Local Board Area should be consulted. In addition, any archaeological investigation (including for initial assessment purposes) must not involve land disturbance except for the use of a probe, and must be carried out under the supervision of a mandated mana whenua representative (Ch. J:5.2.1 and 5.2.2). In addition, under the PAUP (Ch. G.2.2.5) accidental discovery protocols will apply to the discovery of archaeological remains exposed during earthworks. However, it should be noted that some of the protocols as currently set out in the PAUP may be contrary to the provisions of the HNZPTA, and the requirements of the HNZPTA must take precedence. Although not an archaeological site, it is also noted that the Ihumatao buried forest at the end of Renton Road is a scheduled Outstanding Natural Feature under the PAUP (Appendix 3.1 ID 52).

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Figure 27. PAUP overlay identifying Sites and Places of Value to Mana Whenua (purple circles) and nearby scheduled Historic Heritage Places (purple hatching)

Heritage New In addition to any requirements under the RMA, the HNZPTA protects all Zealand archaeological sites whether recorded or not, and they may not be damaged or Pouhere destroyed unless an Authority to modify an archaeological site has been issued Taonga Act by Heritage NZ (Section 42). 2014 An archaeological site is defined by the HNZPTA Section 6 as follows: ‘archaeological site means, subject to section 42(3), – (a) any place in New Zealand, including any building or structure (or part of a building or structure) that – (i) was associated with human activity that occurred before 1900 or is the site of the wreck of any vessel where the wreck occurred before 1900; and (ii) provides or may provide, through investigation by archaeological methods, evidence relating to the history of New Zealand; and (b) includes a site for which a declaration is made under section 43(1)’ Under Section 42(3) an Authority is not required to permit work on a pre-1900 building unless the building is to be demolished. Under Section 43(1) a place post-dating 1900 (including the site of a wreck that occurred after 1900) that could provide ‘significant evidence relating to the historical and cultural heritage of New Zealand’ can be declared by Heritage NZ to be an archaeological site.

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Heritage New Authorities to modify archaeological sites can be applied for either in respect to Zealand archaeological sites within a specified area of land (Section 44(a)), or to Pouhere modify a specific archaeological site where the effects will be no more than Taonga Act minor (Section 44(b)), or for the purpose of conducting a scientific 2014, investigation (Section 44(c)). Applications that relate to sites of Maori interest continued require consultation with (and in the case of scientific investigations the consent of) the appropriate iwi or hapu and are subject to the recommendations of the Maori Heritage Council of Heritage NZ. In addition, an application may be made to carry out an exploratory investigation of any site or locality under Section 56, to confirm the presence, extent and nature of a site or suspected site. Under Section 52(2) of the Act, Heritage NZ may impose an Authority condition requiring that an archaeological investigation is carried out, if this is ‘likely to provide significant information in relation to the historical and cultural heritage of New Zealand’. This provision allows the information contained within a site affected by development (and any associated artefacts) to be recorded and preserved, in mitigation of the modification of the site. Under Section 65 of the Act, Heritage NZ has the power to list significant historic places and areas, wahi tupuna, wahi tapu and wahi tapu areas on the New Zealand Heritage List. The purpose of listing is to inform members of the public and landowners about the values of significant places and to assist in their protection under the RMA. Heritage NZ would be considered an affected party in relation to any consent application affecting an item on the List. The criteria used to assign the level of significance (Category 1 or 2) are set out in Section 66, and generally form the basis of the assessment criteria used by Regional Councils. There are no listed heritage items within the areas of influence. Statutory Constraints: A number of archaeological sites are recorded within both the Northern and Southern areas of influence (Table 1, Table 2), most of which are still present and come under the archaeological provisions of the HNZPTA. Constraints under the HNZPTA include:  A requirement for the detailed development plans to take account of the locations of the recorded archaeological sites, and ensure that they are avoided where feasible to achieve the project objectives.  If any of the recorded sites cannot be avoided, an Authority must be applied for and obtained from Heritage NZ prior to the start of any works that will affect them. (Note that this is a legal requirement).  As additional unrecorded sites may be exposed during earthworks, provision should be made for this possibility in the Authority application, ensuring that any archaeology uncovered during the development would be dealt with appropriately and without undue delay.

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Heritage New  There is potential for human remains (koiwi tangata) near the previously Zealand excavated remains at R11/859 and R11/846 (northern area of influence) Pouhere which will require appropriate cultural and archaeological provision to be Taonga Act made for the identification, excavation, and reburial of any human remains 2014, encountered, as part of any Authority. continued  Archaeological investigations of any sites to be modified or destroyed are likely to be a requirement of any Authority issued by Heritage NZ.  Earthworks in the vicinity of the recorded sites will have to be monitored by an archaeologist to establish whether any unrecorded subsurface remains are present, and if so to investigate and record them.  An assessment of the effects of the project on Maori cultural values will be required as part of the eventual application to alter the existing, or seek a new, designation, involving consultation with all relevant iwi groups.

Conclusions The proposed changes to the Auckland International Airport Designated Northern Runway are likely to affect a number of archaeological sites. While previous investigations and earthworks have meant that some archaeological sites have either been investigated or avoided, the new proposal is likely to affect additional archaeological features. These are likely to be located at the eastern and western ends of the proposed northern area of influence. In the east, midden sites have been identified and these probably represent evidence of a similar type of archaeological settlement as that recently found at the neighbouring Timberly Road development. Also located along the creek banks, the features exposed have included pits, houses, hearths and middens. At the western end, archaeological evidence similar to that found in the sites excavated in 2008-9 for the Designated Northern Runway is likely to exist on the northern side of the stream and inland around the paddocks. The sites previously investigated at the western end included the significant site R11/859, which contained numerous burials, archaeological features and artefacts. Burials have also been reported from R11/846. A recorded historic house R11/2570 at 8 Ihumatao Road is located within the project area but its date of construction is not known and the values not yet assessed. The property may contain pre-1900 remains. A scheduled natural heritage feature, the Ihumatao buried forest, lies in the tidal zone at the northwestern end of the proposed Northern Runway area.

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Conclusions, In summary, the Proposed Second Runway will trigger consent requirements continued from the Auckland Council and Authority requirements from HNZPT. Archaeological sites related to both Maori and early European occupation are recorded in the northern area of influence and many of the sites are listed as Sites and Places of Value to Mana Whenua in the PAUP. In addition, there is potential for further unidentified subsurface remains to be present in the northern area of influence. Additional systematic archaeological survey will be a requirement for a more detailed archaeological AEE if this option is chosen, as well as consultation with Mana Whenua. The Southern area of influence would also affect a number of recorded archaeological sites, some of which are listed as Sites and Places of Value to Mana Whenua in the PAUP. Due to their limited archaeological value it is unlikely that these would put any serious constraints on development of the southern option on archaeological grounds, but input from Mana Whenua regarding effects on cultural values would also be required.

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REFERENCES

Bickler, S. 2015. AIAL Wiroa Island Antenna Replacement Archaeological Appraisal. Clough & Associates report to K. Roland, AIAL. Bulmer, S.1990. Statement of Evidence in the Matter of the Town and Country Planning Act 1977 and In the Matter of the Proposed Second Review of the Manukau City District Scheme, and In the Matter of Objection nos. 1200:1 and 1200 :2 by the Minister of Conservation under Section 45 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1977. NZ Historic Places Trust, Auckland, Wirifiles, Department of Conservation. Brassey, R. and P. Adds 1983. Archaeological Investigations at Mangere, Site N42/779. Heritage NZ, Auckland, 1983/5. Bulmer, S. and B. Tubb. 1988. A Proposal for the Protection of Historic Stonefields at Otuataua (Mangere). Department of Conservation, Auckland. Campbell, M. 2011. The NRD Site. Vol. I. The Archaeology. CFG Heritage Ltd report to the Heritage NZ and Auckland International Airport Ltd. Campbell, M. and L. Furey 2007. Archaeological Investigations at the Westney Farmstead, Mangere. Report prepared for the Heritage NZ. Campbell, M. and L. Furey 2013. Identity in rural Mangere. In M. Campbell, S. Holdaway and S. Macready (eds) Finding our Recent Past: Historical Archaeology in New Zealand. New Zealand Archaeological Association Monograph, 29: 123–142. New Zealand Archaeological Association, Auckland. Campbell, M., J. Harris and W. Maguire 2011. 8 Ihumatao Road, Mangere: archaeological assessment. CFG Heritage report to Auckland International Airport Ltd. Clough, R. 1995. Otuataua Stonefields: Archaeological Survey of the Margin adjoining the Mangere Wastewater Treatment Plant. Clough & Associates report for Manukau City Environment. Clough, R. 2003. Ihumatao Quarry: Archaeological Assessment. Clough & Associates report prepared for Ihumatao Quarries Ltd. Clough, R. 2007. Under the Radar Lizard Garden, Otuataua Stonefields, Manukau City: Archaeological Assessment. Clough & Associates report Unitec New Zealand. Clough, R. 2011. ENV-2010-304-000004 – Manukau City Council (proponent) – Proposed Plan Change 13 to the ARPS (Extension to the Metropolitan Urban Limits at the Mangere Gateway Heritage Area). Evidence to the Environment Court. Clough, R. and M. Plowman. December 1996. Independent Comparative Archaeological Study of Stonefields in the North Island, New Zealand. Clough & Associates report to Manukau City. Coster, J. 1997. Rennie Block, Mangere. Archaeological Survey for Penihana Nominees Ltd. Heritage Works Ltd report. Environment Court. 2011. Consent Order in the Matter of Appeals under Clause 14(1) of the First Schedule to the Act in respect of Proposed Plan Change 14 (Mangere Gateway Heritage Area) ... and in the Matter of appeals under Clause 14(1) of the First Schedule to the Act in respect of Proposed Plan Change 13 to the Auckland Regional Policy Statement (extension to the Metropolitan Urban Limits – Mangere Gateway Heritage Area) ... Continued on next page

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REFERENCES, CONTINUED

Farley, G. and R. Clough. 2012. The Landing Development Stage 2, Mangere: Archaeological Assessment. Report prepared for Auckland International Airport Limited. Farley, G. and R. Clough. 2013a. The Landing Development (Stage 2A), Auckland Airport, Mangere: Final Archaeological Report in Fulfilment of NZHPT Authority 2013/273. Clough & Associates report prepared for Auckland International Airport Limited. Farley, G. and R. Clough. 2013b. Lot 2 DP 461285 and Lot 29 DP 423042, Timberly Road, Mangere: Archaeological Assessment. Report prepared for Harrison Grierson and Auckland International Airport Ltd. Foster, R. 2000. Oruarangi Creek Restoration Archaeological Assessment. Foster, R. 2003. Auckland International Airport Designation Area North of Proposed Second Runway Archaeological Assessment. Foster, R. 2004. Auckland International Airport Designation Area of Proposed Second Runway Archaeological Assessment. Report prepared for Auckland International Airport Limited. Foster, R. and B. Sewell. 1995. Papahinu: The Archaeology of an early 19th Century Maori Settlement on the Bank of the Pukaki Creek, Manukau City. Auckland Conservancy Historic Resources Series 12. Department of Conservation. Furey, L. 2005. Mangere Puhinui Rural Zone Review: Archaeological Appraisal. Report for Manukau City Council. Furey, L. 2006. Archaeological Inspection Stage 3, 4, 5 - North Ihumatao Road. Furey, L. 2007a. Archaeological Assessment: Proposed Northern Runway, Auckland International Airport. Unpublished report. Furey, L. 2007b. Archaeological assessment: Renton Road, Mangere. Unpublished report for Auckland International Airport. Furey, L. 2011. Excavations at Scott Farmstead, Ihumatao. CFG Heritage report to The New Zealand Historic Places Trust and Auckland International Airport Ltd. Gibb, R. 2010. Otuataua Stonefields Geophysical and Laser Scan Surveys. Geometria report. Hayward, J. and B. Hayward. 1995. Fossil Forests Preserved in Volcanic Ash and Lava at Ihumatao and Takapuna, Auckland. Tane 35:127-142. Horrocks, M., and I. Lawlor. 2006. Microfossil analysis of soil from Polynesian stone fields in South Auckland, New Zealand. Journal of Archaeological Science 33, 200-217. Hudson, B. 2011. The NRD Site. Vol. II. The Koiwi. CFG Heritage Ltd report to the Heritage NZ and Auckland International Airport Ltd. Lawlor, I. 1988. An Inspection of the Archaeological Remains on the West Mangere Otuataua Volcanic Lava Field (Properties of Monaville Farms Ltd. and L.B. Mendelsson). Report for Wilkins and Davies Marine Design Ltd. Lawlor, I. 2002. Otuataua Stonefields Historic Reserve Archaeological Sites. Lawlor, I. 2009. An Assessment of Heritage Resources located within the Proposed Otuataua Stonefields Historic Reserve Visitor Centre Development ‘Footprint’, and Measures to Avoid, Remedy and Mitigate Effects.

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Lawlor, I. 2010. Archaeological Values and Effects Assessment: Manukau City Council Historic Places Act 1993 s.11 Authority Application (14 Dec 2009) No. 2010/210 additional information request (21 Jan 2010) under HPA93 s.11(2)(c) by Bev Parslow Heritage NZ Auckland Area Archaeologist. Lawlor, I. 2011. NZAA SRF R11/846: Site of a Recent ‘Accidental Discovery’. (SHC Ltd for Auckland Council, AIAL, NZHPT, Makaurau Marae, Te Akitai Waiohua Pukaki and Te Kawerau a Maki). (http://www.academia.edu/4153730/2011_08_09_-_Ian_Lawlor_Renton_Road_R11_846_SRF_Update_Presentation_, see also https://www.academia.edu/4153729/2011_08_09_-_Ian_Lawlor_Renton_Road_-_Record_Update_Report_for_R11_846_DRAFT_) Marra, M. J, B. V. Alloway, and R.M. Newnham. 2006. Paleoenvironmental reconstruction of a well- preserved Stage 7 forest sequence catastrophically buried by basaltic eruptive deposits, northern New Zealand. Quaternary Science Reviews 25: 2143–2161. McKinlay, J. R. 1974. Elletts Mountain excavation, 1973–74. Heritage NZ Newsletter, 4: 4–6. McKinlay, J. R. 1975. Elletts Mountain 1974–75. Heritage NZ Newsletter, 5: 6 Murdoch, G. 2011. ENV-2010-304-000004 – Manukau City Council (proponent) – Proposed Plan Change 13 to the ARPS (Extension to the Metropolitan Urban Limits at the Mangere Gateway Heritage Area). Evidence to the Environment Court. Plowman, M. 2008. NZAA R11/1759 Midden, Oruarangi Creek, Otuataua Stonefields Reserve, Manukau. Archaeological Damage Assessment Report. Opus International Consultants Ltd report. Ricketts, B.D. 1977. The Coastal Geology of the Ihumatao Area, Auckland. Tane 23:119-124. Searle, E. J. 1959. The Volcanoes of Ihumatao and Mangere, Auckland. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 2(5):870-888. Sullivan, A. 1973. Site Survey of Lower Pukaki Creek. Working Papers in Anthropology, Archaeology, Linguistics, Maori Studies, 27. Department of Anthropology, Auckland University. Veart, D. 1986. Stone Structure and Land Use at Three South Auckland Volcanic Sites. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Auckland. Veart, D. 1991. Oruarangi Archaeological Survey. Department of Conservation, Auckland.

Databases Auckland Council Cultural Heritage Inventory, accessed at http://maps.aucklandcouncil.govt.nz and https://chi.org.nz. New Zealand Archaeological Association ArchSite Database, accessed at http://www.archsite.org.nz. New Zealand Heritage List, accessed at http://www.heritage.org.nz.

Auckland Council Plans (accessed at www.aucklandcouncil.govt.nz) Auckland Plan, 2012. District Plan: Operative Manukau Section, 2002. Draft Auckland Council Unitary Plan, 2013.

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ADDENDUM TO ‘P ROPOSED NORTHERN RUNWAY AND SOUTHERN RUNWAY OPTIONS , AUCKLAND INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT , MANGERE : ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS ASSESSMENT ’

Report prepared for Auckland International Airport Limited

By

Rod Clough (PhD)

July 2016

Clough & Associates Ltd. [email protected] 321 Forest Hill Rd, Waiatarua AUCKLAND 0612 Telephone: (09) 8141946 Mobile 0274 850 059 www.clough.co.nz

INTRODUCTION

Purpose Auckland International Airport Limited (AIAL), as a Requiring Authority, is seeking to alter its existing Designations (231/232/1100/1102), via a Notice of Requirement (NoR) served on Auckland Council for the construction and operation of a second runway. A report assessing the archaeological constraints within the ‘areas of influence’ of possible Northern and Southern Runway options was prepared in 2015, known as the Archaeological Baseline Report (Bickler and Clough 2016). The report broadly identified the archaeological constraints of both options and provided sufficient historical and archaeological context to assess the potential effects of each option. This addendum to the Baseline Report provides more detailed historical and archaeological contextual information and should be read in conjunction with the Baseline Report.

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HISTORICAL & ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND

Historical Ihum ātao Background 1 The Ihum ātao area, lying on Manukau harbour and bordering Mangere, has been a focal point of Maori settlement and activity over many hundreds of years and is part of a wider geographic and spiritual landscape. Ihum ātao is one of the few Maori sites continuously inhabited by people since their first arrival in the region. The area was important and desirable due to its fresh water supply, fertile volcanic soils, and access to kaimoana (seafood) which made it a centre of prolific food production, settlement and trade, represented by the extensive archaeological remains in the area. Of specific relevance are Murdoch’s plan (Figure 2) and Environment Court evidence (Murdoch 2011), which describes the establishment of Te Tiki pa north of Renton Road, with gardens along both sides of the current road: ‘Because they feared further conflict Ng āti Te Ahiwaru constructed a “ring ditch” p ā known as Te Tiki (Site R11/846) above the sea cliffs just west of the end of Renton Road…. Inland of the p ā, and in the lee of Maungataketake, Ng āti Te Ahiwaru established a village that was also known as Te Tiki. It extended along either side of the wetland that then lay to the south of Maungataketake, and along the western base of the mountain extending toward Ihumatao. When the threat of hostilities had died down, Epiha Putini and his people established a larger village on the northern side of Maungataketake at Ihum ātao’ (Murdoch 2011: Section 4.6.2). Volcanic Origin The most ancient Maori traditions relating to Auckland (T āmaki Makaurau) recount the origins of the land through volcanic cataclysms. In Maori tradition the deity Mataaoho was responsible for volcanic activity and many of the features of the wider landscape are attributed to ‘Te Riri ā Mataaoho’ (the wrath of Mataaoho). 2 (Figure 1)

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1 The historical account based on reliable documentary and sources and recorded traditional histories. However, the information should not be viewed as complete or without other context. There are a large number of iwi historically associated with the Auckland region and many other histories are known to tangata whenua. Much of the historical background provided here is drawn from research carried out for Clough & Associates by Eleanor Harris (Harris 2014). 2 Bruce G. Hayward, Graeme Murdoch and Gordon Maitland, Volcanoes of Auckland: The Essential Guide, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 2011, p.43.

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HISTORICAL & ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND , CONTINUED

Historical In the Ihum ātao area the names of numerous geographic features recall these Background, volcanic origins including Te Pane ā Mataaoho (the head of Mataaoho), known continued as M āngere Mountain; and Te Ihu ā Mataaoho (the nose of Mataaoho), an early name for the westernmost point of Ihum ātao including Maungataketake (Ellett’s Mountain), a volcanic cone on the edge of the Manukau lowlands which has now been quarried. Together the volcanic craters that dot this landscape – including M āngere Lagoon, Waitomokia (Mt Gabriel), Kohuora (Kohuora Park), Ng ā Kapua Kohuora (Crater Hill), Te Tapuwae ā Mataaoho (Mt Robertson/Sturges Park) and Te P ūkakitapu o Pout ūkeka (Pūkaki Crater) – are known collectively as Ng ā Tapuwae ā Mataaoho (the footprints of Mataaoho). 3 The Ihum ātao area itself also carries the name of this volcanic deity. Significant geological markers of early volcanic activity in Ihum ātao include the remains of a fossilised forest, preserved by volcanic ash from an eruption 29,000 years ago. 4

Figure 1. Close-up of Dr Ferdinand von Hochstetter’s geological map of the Auckland Isthmus, dated 1859, showing the Ihum ātao peninsula with volcanic cones and settlements identified (source: Sir George Grey Special Collections, Auckland Libraries, NZ Map 5694b)

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3 Graeme John Murdoch, ‘Statement of Evidence of Graeme John Murdoch (First Draft)’, p.8; Simmons David, Maori Auckland: Including the Maori Place Names of Auckland, (collected by George Graham), The Bush Press, Auckland, 1987, p.68. 4 Bruce W. Hayward and Jessica J. Hayward, ‘Fossil Forests Preserved in Volcanic Ash and Lava at Ihumatao and Takapuna Auckland’, Tane , 35:1995, pp.127-142.

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HISTORICAL & ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND , CONTINUED

Figure 2. Map of part of the Ihum ātao peninsula with traditional place names indicated (source: Murdoch 2011)

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Historical Waves of Migration Background, The Manukau harbour was a zone through which many tribes travelled, and continued stopped at, sometimes making expeditions into the harbour to fish, or birding on-shore, using local resources as a part of a wider regional resource landscape. The area provided portages (land based connections) between the Manukau Harbour, Waitemata Harbour and Hauraki Gulf. The earliest occupants of Tāmaki (the Auckland region) were said to be the Turehu (the people from the earth) who fought against the Tini o Maruiwi that migrated into the region. Later, Ng ā Oho came to dominate T āmaki. Ng ā Oho is a tribe spread widely, from the Kaipara in the north, to the Waikato in the south. 5 Another of the first ancestors associated with the area was the explorer Toi Te Huatahi (also known as Toi Kair ākau) whose descendants occupied Tāmaki Makaurau.6 In the 14th century the Tainui waka arrived on the shores of the Manukau. One of the crew members, Taikehu went ashore and named this landing place ‘Ng ā Hau M āngere’, after the ‘gentle breezes’, from which the Mangere area takes its name. When the Tainui waka continued its journey south (eventually stopping at K āwhia in the Waikato) several members of the group remained in the Mangere area, inter-marrying with the people there and eventually becoming part of the iwi known as Ng ā Oho. They included Pout ūkeka; a rangatira and son of Hoturoa, captain of the Tainui waka.7 The descendants of Pout ūkeka eventually came to be known as Ng āti Pout ūkeka (or the tribe of Pout ūkeka). However, in the 1600s Ng āti Pout ūkeka adopted the name Waiohua to commemorate the death of Huakaiwaka, the paramount chief who dominated the Auckland region at the time. Huakaiwaka was the grandson of Pout ūkeka II, the chief of Ng āti Pout ūkeka, not to be confused with Pout ūkeka I of the Tainui waka who arrived in T āmaki Makaurau several generations earlier.8 Huakaiwaka's father, the chief Whatuturoto, also resided in Ihum ātao including at Maungataketake. Te Wai ōhua dominated much of Auckland from 1690-1750. 9 However, from the mid through late 1700s conflict with Ng āti Wh ātua had a severe impact upon the tribe.

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5 Matthew Campbell and Beatrice Hudson, ‘The NRD Site Community Report’, CFG Heritage, Auckland, 2011, p.5 6 Paul Moon, The Struggle for Tamaki Makaurau: The Maori Occupation of Auckland to 1820, David Ling Publishing, Birkenhead, 2007, pp.56-57. 7 Graeme John Murdoch, ‘Statement of Evidence of Graeme John Murdoch (First Draft)’, pp.11-12. 8 Ibid., p.13 9 Paul Goldsmith and Michael Bassett, Puketutu and its People, David Ling Publishing, Birkenhead, 2008, p.16

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Historical Te Wai ōhua fled the Tamaki region. but Ng āti Wh ātua (Te Taou) were not Background, numerous enough to pose a threat to the outlying Ihum ātao; and the settlement continued not only survived but became stronger due to an influx of refugees searching for shelter. 10 Eventually the Ng āti Wh ātua (Te Taou) who remained in the area and Te Wai ōhua agreed upon a truce cementing this through strategic intermarriage and peace agreements.11 By the early 1800s, Te Wai ōhua had recovered their position and reoccupied their k āinga (ancestral home). Descendants of Ng āti Poutukeka and Te Wai ōhua including Te Ākitai Waiohua and Ng āti Tamaoho are still closely connected to the Ihum ātao papak āinga (or ancestral home) today. Settlement and Cultivation The Maori settlement at Ihum ātao was large, relatively permanent and successful. Geographically it was close to main trade and travel routes but was out of the way enough not to be a target and enjoyed long periods of peace unlike much of the Auckland region. The Manukau coast provided abundant seafood and shellfish stocks and the fertile volcanic soil rewarded cultivation. 12 The Maori impact on the landscape at Ihum ātao is evident at the nationally significant Otuataua Stonefields Historic Reserve. This site preserves an archaeological record of the intensive and sophisticated cultivation of the Auckland landscape by Maori. Originally the Auckland isthmus was dominated by stonefield gardens (covering 8,000 hectares of land). However now the 100 hectares at Otuataua is one of the last examples of the landscape created by this type of cultivation. Maori gardeners at Otuataua cleared stones from soil and used them to build structures including low boundary walls and mounds of stone and earth. These mounds were used to incubate crops like kumara. The mounds included modified soil (with shell and organic matter) to provide added heat to crops which had come from warmer tropical Polynesian climates and required care to survive in New Zealand’s cooler climate. 13 The wider inhabited and cultivated landscape included volcanic cone pa on Mangere Mountain, associated stonefields at Ambury Farm Park, Puketutu Island, stonefield complexes at Puhinui around Matukutureia (McLaughlins Mountain) and occupation of Maungataketake (Ellets Mountain).14

10 Paul Moon, The Struggle for Tamaki Makaurau: The Maori Occupation of Auckland to 1820, David Ling Publishing, Birkenhead, 2007, pp.58-59. 11 Lucy Mackintosh, ‘Te Pūkaki Tapu O Pout ūkeka: A History of Occupation and Land Use and Historic Heritage Places’, Manukau City Council, 2009. 12 Ibid., p.7 13 ‘The Otuataua Stonefields Historic Reserve: Official Opening Commemorative Brochure’, Manukau City Council, Auckland City Library, Auckland Research Centre. 14 Rod Clough and Glen Farley, ‘The Landing Development (Precinct C), Auckland Airport, Mangere: Archaeological Assessment’, Clough and Associates, Auckland, 2014, p.14; Matthew Campbell and Beatrice Hudson, ‘The NRD Site Community Report’, CFG Heritage, Auckland, 2011, p.11

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Historical At Matukutureia Pa, a site occupied in the 1500s and 1600s which has since Background, been destroyed by quarrying, there was evidence of stonefield gardens, continued terraces, walls, mounds, houses, cooking and storage sites. 15 The Otuataua Stonefields were in continuous cultivation and settled from the time of Maori arrival through to the 19th century when European settlers arrived in the Ihum ātao area. Extensive evidence of Maori settlement has been found at these and other sites in the area (discussed further in the next section of the report). Ihumatao Mission Station The earliest European history in this area dates to 1820, when a group of Anglican missionaries explored the Manukau coast-line. They included the Reverends John Butler, Samuel Marsden, William Puckey and James Shepherd. 16 However, the Auckland region was still volatile and raiding expeditions by Nga Puhi in the 1820s led to the local Maori temporarily abandoning the area. By the mid-1830s, Te Ākitai Wai ōhua had returned to their k āinga in Māngere and Ihum ātao. 17 To escape tribal conflict, the people of the Ng āti Rori hap ū moved from Pehi ākura and Awhitu near Waiuku and changed their name to Ng āti Te Ahiwaru. In 1846 the Ng āti Te Ahiwaru tribe established itself in Ihumatao on land gifted (tuku whenua) by Te Ākitai Waiohua. Between 1847 and 1849 the Wesleyan Ihum ātao Mission Station was established on the shores of the Manukau Harbour (Figure 3). 18 The land was provided by Ng āti Te Ahiwaru and they also helped construct the Mission House. Reverend Henry Hassall Lawry (b.1821-d.1906) and Reverend Thomas Buddle (b.1812 d.1883) were in charge. 19 The Mission settlement at Ihum ātao focussed on and was supported by local Maori who had a large settlement (of around 100 people) to the north of the Mission, on the coastal flat. Farming was well developed at this nearby settlement and included pasture for grazing horses and cows; fields of wheat and oats, and a threshing mill to process them.

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15 Barry Baquié, Simon Bickler, Rod Clough and Ben Pick, ‘McLaughlins Quarry, Wiri: Final Report on Archaeological Investigations (Site R11/47)’, Clough and Associates, Auckland, 2013, p.10, p.66. 16 Matthew Campbell and Louise Furey, ‘Archaeological Investigations at the Westney Farmstead, Mangere: Report to the New Zealand Historic Places Trust’, CFG Heritage, 2007, p.14. 17 Graeme John Murdoch, ‘Statement of Evidence of Graeme John Murdoch (First Draft)’, p.14; Lucy Mackintosh, ‘Te P ūkaki Tapu O Pout ūkeka A History of Occupation and Land Use and Historic Heritage Places’, Manukau City Council, 2009, p.9. 18 Christopher Paxton, ‘Mangere Revisited’, in Memories of Mangere, Onehunga, Mangere Historical Society, 2001, pp. 7-8 19 ‘Rev. Henry H. Lawry’, Cyclopedia of New Zealand (Auckland Provincial District), Cyclopedia Company Limited, Christchurch, 1902, pp.231-232.

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Figure 3. Painting of the Ihumatao Mission Station, dated 1855, by Elizabeth Forsaith (sister-in-law to Reverend Henry Hassall Lawry), showing a three-roomed weather board cottage and surrounding garden, walled-in paddocks and the school (source: Sir George Grey Special Collections, Auckland Libraries, 4-1252)

Historical During the period of the Mission, Maori were economically dominant in the Background, region, growing large quantities of food for sale to the rapidly expanding continued Auckland market. 20 The Mission itself covered eight acres and consisted of a school/chapel building, a store house and several outbuildings. 21 Mission Station records show that 17 Maori children were baptised there (between 1848 and 1855) and that at least 27 family groups were resident in Ihum ātao. 22 The Ihum ātao Mission was successful, in part, due to its use of ‘Native Mission Assistants’ – Maori teachers and missionaries who taught in their own language. All church services were held in Maori. 23 Buddle had studied the Maori language and from 1844 headed the Wesleyan Native Institution in Auckland, a college devoted to training Maori teachers, where Lawry also worked. 24 It was also relatively unique and successful because of the way in which it was integrated into a Maori settlement.

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20 Louise Furey, ‘Excavations at Scott Farmstead, Ihumatao: Report to the New Zealand Historic Places Trust and Auckland International Airport’, CFG Heritage, 2011, p.7 21 Graeme John Murdoch, ‘Statement of Evidence of Graeme John Murdoch (First Draft)’, Pp.24-25; Lucy Mackintosh, ‘Te P ūkaki Tapu O Pout ūkeka: A History of Occupation and Land Use and Historic Heritage Places’, Manukau City Council, 2009. 22 Graeme John Murdoch, ‘Statement of Evidence of Graeme John Murdoch (First Draft)’, pp.23-24 23 ‘Old Mangere Church; Founded 79 Years Ago’, New Zealand Herald , 4 April 1935, p.8 24 Glen Frank, ‘Buddle, Thomas’, Dictionary of New Zealand Biography . Te Ara: The Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, updated 5-Jun-2013; URL: http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/mi/biographies/1b45/buddle-thomas; ‘The Rev. Thomas Buddle’, The Cyclopedia of New Zealand (Auckland Provincial District), The Cyclopedia Company, Limited, Christchurch, 1902, p.233; ‘Obituary: Rev. H. H. Lawry’, New Zealand Herald , 9 May 1906, p.6

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Historical The Maori Militia at Mangere Background, During the colonial period the relationship between many Maori groups and the continued Government was often contested. In the late 1840s, facing an increasing possibility of conflict and resistance to ongoing expansion of settlement, Governor George Grey established the Royal New Zealand Fencibles, a group of veteran-soldier settlers, to defend early European settlements around Auckland. In 1845 Grey negotiated with Potatau Te Wherowhero, leader of Ng āti Mahuta (from the Waikato) to settle at and defend Mangere in the event of conflict. 25 In 1849 Potatau Te Wherowhero and 121 members of Ng āti Mahuta signed a contract with Grey and were given 486 acres of land at Mangere in return. 26 This ‘Maori Militia’ at Mangere was considered important as an added protection for the nearby townships of Onehunga and Otahuhu, key markers on the approach to Auckland. 27 War and Exodus In the 1850s a movement arose which sought to prevent loss of Maori land and to promote unity among tribal groups. In 1858, Potatau Te Wherowhero reluctantly accepted the mantle of Kingship and relocated to Ngaruawahia (in the Waikato). Though Potatau Te Wherowhero did not regard his Kingship as an opposition to the sovereignty of Queen Victoria, he was increasingly forced into opposing the Government. 28 The settlement at Mangere lasted another five years. Tensions continued to escalate and in 1863 Grey demanded that all resident Maori between Auckland and Waikato pledge their allegiance to Queen Victoria or face expulsion south of the Mangatawhiri stream (the recognised boundary of European settlement, at the foot of the Bombay Hills). A local Ihum ātao farmer-settler, Stephen Westney reported the event: ‘All our Maories [sic.] except about fifteen at Mangere, . . . took the road to the Waikato. Their going was very pathetic, as they had with few exceptions, good relations with their Pakeha neighbours. Nearly all their belongings had to be left – canoes, fishing gear, hundreds of pigs and poultry, and worst of all their land was later confiscated. It was a case of blood being thicker than water.’ 29

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25 Alan La Roche, ‘The Maori Militia Settlement at Mangere; Monograph No.6’. Manukau City Library, Howick Historical Village, n.d. p.3; Oliver Steven, ‘Te Wherowhero, Potatau’, Dictionary of New Zealand Biography , Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 21-Aug-2013; URL: http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/biographies/1t88/te- wherowhero-potatau 26 Alan La Roche, ‘The Maori Militia Settlement at Mangere; Monograph No.6’. Manukau City Library, Howick Historical Village, n.d. p.3 27 Ibid., p.3 28 Oliver Steven, ‘Te Wherowhero, Potatau’, Dictionary of New Zealand Biography , Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 21-Aug-2013; URL: http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/biographies/1t88/te-wherowhero-potatau 29 Quoted in: Albert. E. Tonson, Old Manukau, Tonson Publishing House, Auckland, 1966, p.104

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Historical Few Maori remained at Ihum ātao and soon afterwards war between the Background, Kingites (supporters of the Maori King) and Government forces began as they continued invaded the Waikato in 1863. 30 While the work at the Ihum ātao Mission was primarily concerned with local Māori communities, Buddle and Lawry also tended to a growing number of European settlers. European settlement in the Manukau began from the 1850s when the government began dividing the land into farm blocks for sale. While in the 1850s the Maori population significantly outnumbered settlers, the mass migration of Maori from the area with the advent of war in 1863 changed this dynamic, resulting in the closure of the Ihum ātao Mission Station. The history of the area after this time is one dominated by growing European settlement and the development of farming. Early European Settlement The history of early European settlement in Ihum ātao is a history of the transformation of the landscape; from an area dominated by fern and scrub into a land of small farms and mixed cropping, followed by the transformation of the land into dairy farms. It is also a history of social landscapes, which map the interconnections of a small farming community. The first European settlers at Ihum ātao were moving into an isolated outpost; reaching the nearest town centre, Otahuhu, meant travelling over muddy dirt (or, later, roughly metalled) roads. The small farms they established ( Error! Reference source not found. ) were often self-sufficient (through necessity) producing their own produce and supplies and selling any surplus. Landowners, their families and often cooperative neighbours did the majority of labour. Farming families in the area became interconnected and linked by marriage and religious affinity. Until recently, many families in the area had occupied the land for three or four generations. These early small farms were also historically important, supplying the growing population of Auckland with food. Colonel Marmaduke Nixon and Abbeville Homestead One of the first settlers in the area was Colonel Marmaduke Nixon, a soldier and farmer, who purchased a large (469 acre) property in 1852, on the eastern side of Westney Road (now George Bolt Drive). Nixon’s diary recounts living in a raupo hut (constructed for him by local Maori) and clearing scrub, sowing grass, fencing off paddocks, ploughing and purchasing stock, 31 activities undertaken by almost all early settlers.

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30 James Belich, The New Zealand Wars and the Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict, Penguin Books, Auckland, 1986, 1998 reprint, pp.133-134. 31 Graeme John Murdoch, ‘Statement of Evidence of Graeme John Murdoch (First Draft)’, p.28; Jaden Harris, ‘Abbeville, Nixon Road, Mangere: Archaeological Management: Report to New Zealand Historic Places Trust’, CFG Heritage, Auckland, 2012, pp.2-3.

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Historical By 1854 Nixon had built a home on the land. The large homestead and barn on Background, the property called ‘Abbeville’ (now a listed Historic Place), were probably continued built later during the site’s history. 32 Nixon was actively involved in the Auckland Militia, responsible for guarding South Auckland outposts from attack, and in 1863 recruited a number of young, local farmers. He died in 1864 from wounds sustained in a battle with Kingite forces in the Waikato. 33 Nixon’s land was subdivided and portions went to another notable family within the area, the Westney family. 34 The Westney Family Farmstead The Westney family farm and homestead was occupied by the Westney family for three generations (or for 140 years) until 1936. The first occupants and builders were William and Sarah Westney, who arrived in New Zealand in 1844 from Sheffield in Yorkshire. The homestead was originally one and a half storeys, built of wood and constructed in 1855, and was one of the earliest farmhouses in the Mangere area. 35 The Westney homestead has since been relocated and will form part of a heritage zone. The relocation of the homestead allowed for an archaeological examination of the site. Archaeological investigation at the Westney farmstead and similar sites in this area has provided a valuable record of the development of an early agricultural settlement; revealing both the development of farming practices and the intersection of rural domestic and working lives. The Westney farm was initially the site of both animal husbandry and mixed crops, producing oats; wheat; barley; eggs and butter for the local Auckland market. 36 William Westney would deliver his produce to Auckland in a journey that took two days. 37 As Auckland grew and technology and transport links (including roads) improved, the Westney farm shifted to dairying. Archaeological remains uncovered at the Westney farmstead reveal some of the texture of daily life in early rural settlements in New Zealand (see next section).

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32 ‘Abbeville’, http://www.heritage.org.nz/the-list/details/2654 33 Laurie Barber, ‘Nixon, Marmaduke George’, Dictionary of New Zealand Biography , Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 30-Oct-2012: URL: http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/mi/biographies/1n15/nixon-marmaduke- george 34 Jaden Harris, ‘Abbeville, Nixon Road, Mangere: Archaeological Management: Report to New Zealand Historic Places Trust’, CFG Heritage, Auckland, 2012, pp.2-6. 35 Matthew Campbell and Louise Furey, ‘Archaeological Investigations at the Westney Farmstead, Mangere: Report to the New Zealand Historic Places Trust’, CFG Heritage, 2007, p.1. 36 Ibid., p.5. 37 Ibid., p.12.

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Historical The Kirkbride Family and the Scott Homestead and Farm Background, Linked to the Westney farmstead and family was the Kirkbride family, who continued were also amongst the earliest settlers in the region. Matthew Kirkbride bought land for a farm at Ihum ātao. 38 This was the Scott Farmstead, a small colonial cottage, named after its original inhabitants, John Scott Junior and Anne Scott, which was built in the 1860s. From 1906 onwards the Kirkbride family resided in the house for three generations. 39 When the Farmstead was demolished, archaeological investigations revealed the cottage was originally a one-room structure which was adapted to meet the growth of first the Scott and later the Kirkbride families. 40 The Scott Farmstead was located less than 1 kilometre from the Westney Farmstead. The Kirkbride and Westney families were linked through marriage. The Westney family were also linked to the Scott’s.41 Unlike the Westney farm, the Kirkbride family focussed on sheep farming until 1950 when they switched to dairying, establishing a herd of 50-60 cows and diversifying by also planting tomatoes. 42 The Rennie Family The Rennie family were also important early settlers in the Ihum ātao area. Andrew Rennie came from Northern Ireland in 1867, initially working on the Thames Goldfields, before buying land at Ihum ātao in 1868. His fiancée Agnes Morton emigrated from Scotland in 1869. The Rennies had 11 children, and were dairy farmers. They built a large Homestead on south Renton Road. One of their sons, Thomas Morton Rennie purchased land on the coast, which was farmed by generations of the Rennie family until 1998 when it became part of the Otuataua Stonefields Historic Reserve. 43

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38 Gordon Kirkbride, ‘The Kirkbride Family’, in Memories of Mangere , Onehunga, Mangere Historical Society, 2001, p.18 39 Louise Furey, ‘Excavations at Scott Farmstead, Ihumatao: Report to the New Zealand Historic Places Trust and Auckland International Airport’, CFG Heritage, 2011, p.2. 40 Ibid., p.127. 41 Matthew Campbell and Louise Furey, ‘Archaeological Investigations at the Westney Farmstead, Mangere: Report to the New Zealand Historic Places Trust’, CFG Heritage, 2007, p.15. 42 Louise Furey, ‘Excavations at Scott Farmstead, Ihumatao: Report to the New Zealand Historic Places Trust and Auckland International Airport’, CFG Heritage, 2011, p.14. 43 Stewart Rennie, ‘The Rennie Family’, in Memories of Mangere, Onehunga, Mangere Historical Society, 2001, pp.39-40; Graeme John Murdoch, ‘Statement of Evidence of Graeme John Murdoch (First Draft)’, p.37.

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Historical The Dominance and Development of Dairy Background, The shift to dairy farming in this area followed a nationwide trend, as dairying continued not only transformed large areas of land, but also the economy. Like the Westney farm, the main focus of most farms around Mangere between the 1850s and 1880s was oats, wheat and various produce. 44 Many farms had switched to dairying by the late 19th century and supplied Auckland with milk. By 1906 more than 60% of dairy factories in New Zealand were cooperatively owned (collectively by local farmers). 45 In 1882 Ambury English & Co. set up a creamery on Wallace Road, supplied by local farmers (a creamery required a supply from 300-400 cows, at minimum). 46 In opposition to this company, a group of Ihum ātao farmers (including the Elletts, Rennies, the Henwoods and others) formed the Auckland Milk Company in 1913.The small factory was originally sited in Manukau, but later moved to Newmarket. 47 In interviews, descendants of early settlers in the Ihum ātao area recalled aspects of dairy farming including haymaking, which involved all their neighbours and employed local Maori labourers. 48 They also recalled the continued use of the landscape by Maori for growing and selling kumara, gathering watercress and bracken and basket-making.49 Socially, some of the rural community participated in activities like the Pakuranga Hunt; hunting on horseback, with hounds. The Pakuranga Hunt was established in 1872 and continued sporadically throughout the 20th century. 50 A 1938 report of the meeting of the Hunt at Ihum ātao noted that ‘the slopes of Ihum ātao Mountain were crowded with onlookers all afternoon’. 51

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44 Christopher Paxton, ‘Mangere Revisited’, in Memories of Mangere , Onehunga, Mangere Historical Society, 2001, pp. 7-8 45 Malcolm McKinnon ed., New Zealand Historical Atlas , David Bateman, Auckland, 1997, p.60 46 Louise Furey, ‘Excavations at Scott Farmstead, Ihumatao: Report to the New Zealand Historic Places Trust and Auckland International Airport’, CFG Heritage, 2011, p.4; Malcolm McKinnon ed., New Zealand Historical Atlas, David Bateman, Auckland, 1997, p.60. 47 Clyde Ellett and Rosemary Hargrave, ‘The Ellett Family’, in Memories of Mangere , Onehunga, Mangere Historical Society, 2001, p.22 48 Kim Tatton, ‘Otuataua Stonefields Historic Reserve: Oral History Interviews with Prior European Landowners’, Auckland Regional Council, 2005, p.66. 49 Ibid., p.67, p.106. 50 New Zealand Hunt’s Association Inc., ‘The History of Hunting in New Zealand’: http://www.huntingwithhounds.co.nz/history.php 51 Auckland Star , 26 September 1938, p.5

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Historical The Westney Road Methodist Church Background, These closely connected rural communities were also often united by continued commonality of faith; Ihum ātao was initially settled by many families associated with Wesleyan Methodism. The Ihum ātao Mission, strongly associated with the local Maori community, was a Wesleyan Methodist venture and this led to a number of European settlers closely associated with this faith settling in the surrounding area. 52 The Westney family donated land at the corner of Ihum ātao and Westney Road (now known as George Bolt Memorial Drive), for the establishment of a Methodist Church. The Westney Methodist Church was built on this site in 1855-1856, and included a graveyard where many early settlers associated with the Westneys and other local farming families were laid to rest. 53 The church was a focal point for the small rural community and had a large number of parishioners, particularly in the 1950s, when it held Sunday School classes in three rooms and enlarged its premises, building a Centennial Sunday School Hall, which was opened in 1956. Many functions, concerts and dances were held in the Westney Road Hall; in the 1930s Gordon Kirkbride recalls forming a dance club with his friend Archie Montgomerie called ‘The Phoenicians’, and hiring a band. 54 However, church numbers declined in the 1960s and the Hall was relocated in 1967. 55 In 2006-2007 the Church and Cemetery were relocated to make way for development; though the Church building has been saved and relocated with the Westney Homestead – to form part of a historic precinct (Abbeville, The Common). 56

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52 Graeme John Murdoch, ‘Statement of Evidence of Graeme John Murdoch (First Draft)’, p.27. 53 Matthew Campbell and Louise Furey, ‘Archaeological Investigations at the Westney Farmstead, Mangere: Report to the New Zealand Historic Places Trust’, CFG Heritage, 2007, p.2; Simon Best and Louise Furey, ‘Westney Road Denominational Graveyard: Report to the New Zealand Historic Places Trust’, CFG Heritage, Auckland, 2006, pp.18- 19. 54 Gordon Kirkbride, ‘The Kirkbride Family’, in Memories of Mangere, Onehunga, Mangere Historical Society, 2001, pp.18-19. 55 Simon Best and Louise Furey, ‘Westney Road Denominational Graveyard: Report to the New Zealand Historic Places Trust’, CFG Heritage, Auckland, 2006, p.19. 56 Christopher Paxton, ‘Obituary for Westney Road Church’, in Members and Friends of the Mangere Historical Society, The Changing Face of Mangere: A Rainbow of Memories, Auckland, Mangere Historical Society, 2008, pp. 63-64; Simon Best and Louise Furey, ‘Westney Road Denominational Graveyard: Report to the New Zealand Historic Places Trust’, CFG Heritage, Auckland, 2006, p.1.

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Historical Recent History Background, In 1950, noted New Zealand historian and poet, Keith Sinclair wrote a poem continued entitled ‘Ihumatao’; about the area’s rural landscape and the way in which it merged farms, beaches, rock-pools and mud-flats and its ancient, volcanic past. Sinclair wrote that at Ihum ātao the: ‘… fields are kitchen farms Where men have made themselves at home so long, Drawing the city’s milk from the green teats Of the nursing grass, that even the bulls seem tame The windmills, neat and tinier than toys, Bring a foreign peace to islands where the hills Speak louder than mankind, finding it deep In the world’s inside, where they drink beneath the sea’. 57

Though the Ihum ātao area remained a predominantly rural area until the second half of the 20th century, its modern history includes development, bicycles, motorcycles and planes. During the mid-20th century, holiday makers from Auckland would camp along the Manukau harbour at Ihum ātao, bringing tents, marquees and even staying in converted railway carriages – used as baches. Local residents recall plentiful fishing, gathering shellfish, especially abundant scallops and swimming and picnicking as usual forms of leisure. 58 Other forms of leisure included racing. During the 1920s the Manukau Amateur Cycling Club regularly held road races around Ihum ātao. A 1928 report of the race noted the roads ‘undulating nature and loose road surface’ meant ‘riders finishing the distance will necessarily display stamina and determination’. 59 During World War Two, a large section of land at Ihum ātao was used by the government as a ‘State Farm’, or ‘Government Garden’, to increase vegetable production and to supply American troops in New Zealand. Land at Ihum ātao was some of the first requisitioned for the project, and an initial 165 acres was increased to 500 acres of land tended by the government. Much of this land was worked by ‘Land Girls’, women labourers who took on agricultural work due to the depletion of the male labour force by war. Accommodation on-site was ‘army-hut style’. The scheme ended in 1945. 60

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57 Keith Sinclair, ‘Ihumatao’, Landfall, 13:March 1950, p.57. 58 Kim Tatton, ‘Otuataua Stonefields Historic Reserve: Oral History Interviews with Prior European Landowners’, Auckland Regional Council, 2005, pp.38-40; p.61. 59 ‘Cycling; Manukau Amateur Club’, Auckland Star, 17 August 1928, p.12 60 Sharon Smith, ‘Government Gardens in South Auckland’, South Auckland Research Centre, Auckland Libraries Heritage Blog, Heritage et Al; http://heritageetal.blogspot.co.nz/2013/11/government-gardens-in-south-auckland.html ; ‘Good Progress: Vegetables for Forces’, Auckland Star, 4 November 1942, p.4; ‘Picking Peas: Appeal for Labour’, Auckland Star , 8 December 1942, p.4; ‘Area Trebled: Mangere State Farm, Vegetable Production’, Auckland Star, 15 July 1943, p.6

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Historical From 1946 the Auckland Motorcycle Club held the annual Tourist Trophy Background, races on a 6 mile circuit around Ascot, Oruarangi, Ihum ātao, Kirkbride and continued Westney Roads. Paddy Haywood, a local resident, recalled that ‘power poles at corners were protected with bales of hay and dare devil competitors such as Rod Coleman gave onlookers great excitement’. 61 Other notable racers included John Hempleman and Len Perry, who ‘hurtled around the roads of Mangere, both sealed and metalled, at over 160k.p.h’. 62 The races were stopped when local roads were repurposed for use by the Auckland Airport. During the 1950s industrial and commercial development intensified in South Auckland, leading to increasing urbanisation and suburbanisation. Of particular importance were the developments of the Southern Motorway in the 1950s; the construction of the Mangere Sewerage Treatment Plant in the 1960s; and the opening of Auckland International Airport in 1966. 63 The Airport has had a long association with the area, dating from 1928, when the Auckland Aero Club established the Mangere Aerodrome, attracted by the level lands at this site which made for good runways. 64 The ongoing development of Auckland International Airport has shaped and continues to shape the future of the area.

Archaeological Development over the past decades has resulted in an increased awareness and Background knowledge of the archaeological landscape on the Ihumatao peninsula. Of particular interest are the agricultural stonefield settlement systems now protected in the Otuataua Historic Stonefield Reserve (OSHR) to the north of the Proposed Second Runway. Maori gardening systems and landscapes in the Auckland region are recognisable by their archaeological footprint, which in the area around Otuataua includes the ‘stonefields’ – a large agricultural settlement system on a lava flow visibly expressed by a range of stone features including stone mounds, walls, house enclosures and shelters. Gardening was carried out over a wider area than the stonefields, with use of other productive soils in the Ihumatao region, but due to the lack of stone tends to leave less of a recoverable footprint.

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61 Paddy Haywood, ‘In the Footsteps of Colonel Nixon’, (pp.51-52) and John Rennie, ‘The Roads that Ruled Our Lives’, (p.87) both in: Members and Friends of the Mangere Historical Society, The Changing Face of Mangere: A Rainbow of Memories , Auckland, Mangere Historical Society, 2008. Also Gordon Kirkbride, ‘The Kirkbride Family’, in Memories of Mangere , Onehunga, Mangere Historical Society, 2001, p.20. 62 Mangere Historical Society, Mangere Chronicles , n.p, n.p., Auckland City Library, Auckland Research Centre. 63 Paul Moon, ‘Mangere Gateway Heritage Report’, 2009. 64 Henrietta Alford, ‘Memories’, in Members and Friends of the Mangere Historical Society, The Changing Face of Mangere: A Rainbow of Memories, Auckland, Mangere Historical Society, 2008, p.4.

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Archaeological A large number of surveys and assessments, many associated with the Otuataua Background, Stonefields, have been carried out in the general area near the Airport (see, e.g., continued Veart 1986, 1991; Clough 2003, 2007, 2011; Clough and Bickler 2015; Farley and Clough 2012, 2013b; Lawlor 1988, 2002, 2009; Clough and Plowman 1996; Gibb 2010). The main surveys relating to the northern runway area are by Foster (2003, 2004) and Furey (2007a), with additional survey to the north of Renton Road by Furey (2007b). There have also been a number of studies of nearby Puketutu Island, which was closely linked historically and geographically with the Ihumatao/Otuataua area (Veart 1994; Phillips and Geometria 2006; Clough et al. 2008; Gallagher et al. 2009). A number of archaeological investigations have also been carried out: Maungataketake In 1973 excavations were carried out on Maungataketake/Ellett’s Mountain, by Jim McKinlay of the then New Zealand Historic Places Trust (HNZPT), with graduates from Auckland University and members of the Ellett family; and a second season was carried out in 1982, again with members of the NZHPT and the University of Auckland. Maungataketake was a significant pa, before it was quarried away. Stone-faced terraces, pits and living platforms were excavated (McKinlay 1974, 1975), but a detailed investigation report has never been written. The archaeology indicated at least two phases of occupation, one of which was of potentially early date with remains of moa bone (Robert Brassey, pers. comm. to M. Campbell, cited in Campbell 2011). Early adze forms were also recovered from the site and the general area. ‘Archaic-style’ artefacts found in the Ihumatao area are suggestive of settlement sometime between 1200 and 1400AD, although the actual radiocarbon dates come from later contexts (e.g., Horrocks and Lawlor 2006). Papahinu During development of the eastern approach to the airport, excavations were carried out at Papahinu (R11/229 and R11/1800) on the Pukaki Creek (Foster and Sewell 1995). The sites represent early Maori settlement, the period of European-Maori contact, and the ongoing Maori settlement of the Ihumatao area in the 19th century. The earliest activity at the site has been dated to 1450- 1690 in the time of Ngati Poutukeka and Te Waiohua (see previous section).

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Archaeological Several large kumara storage pits, cooking features, fences and traces of 14 Background, houses were found at the sites. All the houses were one-roomed and roughly continued of the same size and plan; some new houses overlay older ones. In the later period the post-holes for the houses are square-cut, showing the use of iron tools (obtained through trade with Europeans), however the house shape remained the same. The artefacts found at the site reflect the wide time-span of its occupation. Many pre-European Maori artefacts were identified including bone fish-hook points (similar to those found at the NRD site – see below), adzes and flakes of stone from other areas including basalt, argillite and obsidian (from Tuhua, Mayor Island in the Bay of Plenty) and local chert and sandstones. During the late 19th century occupation, European artefacts, begin to appear such as bottles, buttons, ceramics, cooking-pots, and clay pipes. Paphinau is an important site in the Ihumatao area as it represents many phases of Maori settlement including the period of first contact with Europeans, through to the historic period in the mid-19th century, when contact intensified, a fact represented by the changing archaeological record of the region. The settlement was abandoned in the 1820s in response to attacks from Ngapuhi, and reoccupied from the mid-1830s until 1863, when Te Akitai departed to the Waikato (Sullivan 1973; Foster and Sewell 1995: 15, 56; Campbell 2011). Northern Runway Development (NRD) Site Extensive investigations were undertaken in 2008-2009 at the western end of the Designated Northern Runway development for AIAL (Campbell 2011). The investigation revealed archaeological remains of an intensively occupied pre-European Maori settlement, of regional and national significance. This site lies on the edge of the Manukau harbour, and spans an area from the bluff to the sandy beach flat; located at the intersection of many ecosystems. After the original forest cover was removed it was replaced by shrub, and bracken; the soil was fertile and stone free, unlike the nearby Maungataketake and Otuataua Stonefields (which are 2.5km away) (Campbell 2011: 15). The area provided a range of resources including those sourced from the swamp, forest, woods, and sea.

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Archaeological These excavations recorded nine areas of archaeological interest (Figure 4) Background, near the western end of the Designated Northern Runway, with a diversity of continued features ranging from pits and postholes through to dense midden covering multiple pit and house features, and numerous artefacts. Midden analysis indicated that the diet of the settlers included abundant shellfish (cockle, cats- eye, whelk, scallop and oyster), birds from the swamp, forest and sea; quail, sharks, rays, and fish, which were a mainstay. Gardening also provided crops like taro, kumara and bracken-fern, evidence of which were found in analysis of soils from the area and on wear patterns of the teeth of occupants from the site (ibid.). A large number of burials (88) were also uncovered (Hudson 2011). The remains of 88 koiwi (human skeletal remains) were found at the site, the largest number of pre-European Maori individuals recorded at any single site in New Zealand. They included the remains of men, women and children of various ages and analysis of their remains revealed important insights. The wear patterns on the bones, joints and teeth of the koiwi reflect their lifestyle, diets and impact of the environment they lived in. The burial practices at the site varied (Campbell and Hudson 2011: 73-93). Some koiwi were buried in a shallow scoop, others in sizeable pits; some burials contained grave goods (items interred with bodies), including bone needles and pendants. One male burial included stone tools. There was also evidence of kokowai (ochre) staining in some burials (ibid.: 94). All koiwi found at the site were disinterred and reburied in a large grave at the Pukaki Marae urupa (burial ground) close to the original site (ibid.: 73). Other remains at the site revealed houses, earth- ovens, drying racks (for fish) and wind-breaks, small bin pits, and rua kopiha (storage pits with dome shaped roofs) – some of which also contained burials. A multitude of artefacts were found at the site. The unprecedented amount and range of materials included items for personal adornment like pounamu pendants, shell beads, bone, shell and tooth ornaments, toggles, and a tattoo chisel. Numerous items which reflected subsistence-based activity were found including fish-hooks, needles, bone-points, adzes, chisels and weaponry (ibid.: 42: Campbell 2011: 65). Analysis of items made from stone showed the raw material came from sites ranging from the Coromandel Peninsula (Tahanga basalt) to D’Urville Island (a Nelson-Marlborough argillite, from the top of the South Island), reflecting wider Maori trading networks around New Zealand (Campbell and Hudson 2011: 56; Campbell 2011: 82). The artefacts included a possibly unique taonga, a pounamu fish-hook point which was probably used for ritual or ceremonial purposes (pounamu being a material associated with high-status items).

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Figure 4. Excavation areas for R11/859, NRD investigations (Campbell 2011: Figure 3.2)

Previous Some of the artefacts are in the custody of Te Akitai Waiohua today as the Archaeological traditional owner of these taonga. 65 Research, continued Eleven radiocarbon age determinations were obtained, many of which were broadly similar and indicated occupation dates of the 1600s and early 1700s (Campbell 2011: 153). The archaeological excavations and remains at this site provide insight into pre-European Maori lifestyles, their subsistence activities, and their technologies and reveal a community which was intensively occupied with gardening, fishing, cooking, building and creating.

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65 As per the decision of the Maori Land Court, April 2013, Hearing application A20110007369 - Order determining ownership of 192 taonga tuturu found at Auckland Airport from September 2008 to March 2009 resides with Te Akitai Waiohua.

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Archaeological Other Investigations Background, Excavations carried out on AIAL land at Timberly Road north of the eastern continued end of the northern runway area of influence were monitored by Clough & Associates in 2014, and Maori settlement remains were exposed and investigated. In addition to the midden originally recorded as R11/2379, a number of structural remains including evidence of possible houses, pits and hearths were identified (Farley, Burnett and Low 2015). Other middens closer to the project area have also been identified. Significant early European heritage remains have also been investigated in the general area. In 2005 during Stage 1 of The Landing development on the western side of George Bolt Drive (accessed from Landing Drive), an investigation of the historic Westney Homestead was carried out (Campbell and Furey 2007; Campbell and Furey 2013). The homestead, dating from 1855, was modified a number of times over the years as finances and family changes allowed. The building was recorded in detail and a range of artefacts analysed including a large and varied collection of remnants of ceramic tableware; glassware for pharmaceuticals, ink, veterinary products, preserves and alcohol; clay tobacco pipes; buttons; cutlery; footwear; and parts of children’s toys including dolls and glass marbles. Surrounding the house, subsurface features and midden relating to earlier Maori occupation were also encountered. In 2007 a similar investigation of the 1860s Scott Homestead, south of Ihumatao Road, was carried out (Furey 2011). Remains from the site included ceramics, tableware, stoneware, glassware, clay tobacco pipes(reflecting family life) and included fragments of slate pencils, toys (such as parts of a toy cup and saucer), doll-parts and marbles. Immediately to the north of the NRD, Farley and Clough carried out investigation and recording of features in the Stage 2A Landing Development, identifying two hawthorn fence and ditch sites relating to historic occupation (Farley and Clough 2012, 2013a) and in Stage 2B works have also exposed Maori settlement features (Farley and Clough 2014). Recent investigations within Stage 3B of the Landing Development, and in particular site R11/2940, have recorded extensive archaeological remains. The site was originally recorded as a thin scatter of shell in the topsoil on top of a small knoll. Despite the lack of surface evidence and the heavy modification related to the market gardening, it was felt there was potential for a reasonable size archaeological site. This was confirmed during topsoil clearance (Figure 5).

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Figure 5. Overlay of features excavated at R11/2940 and drone photo (Stage 3B of The Landing development). Storage pits, house sites, fencelines, drains etc (courtesy of Airborne Surveying Ltd, Feb 2016)

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Archaeological Over 800 features were identified during the excavation of R11/2940 (Figure Background, 5) including: a large number of storage pits with evidence of postholes for the continued superstructure and drainage; evidence for a number of structures including small houses and raised storage; cooking areas; large postholes possibly associated with pou or posts marking the entrance to the sites; evidence of a palisade fence along the southern, eastern and parts of the northern sides of the knoll which probably enclosed most of the features; and a historic ditch and fence running along eastern boundary of the knoll. Horrocks and Lawlor (2006) carried out palynological sampling of a number of stonefields sites including in the OSHR and obtained starch grains and other residues for kumara and taro. Radiocarbon dates from two middens associated with houses dated to between 15th and 17th centuries. These are important dates, but a much greater number of dates would be required to fully grasp the complexity of the settlement in the OSHR (Lawlor 2010:96). Only limited archaeological excavation work has been carried out subsequently in the stonefields themselves for the OSHR Visitor Centre, but this has not yet been completed.

These and other surveys and investigations have demonstrated the multi- layered nature of historic heritage remains in the area, from the earliest settlement of New Zealand to the era of missionaries and early European settler farmers. Another detailed source of information on the history and historic sources for the broader area is presented in the AEE for the OSHR Visitor Centre by Ian Lawlor (2010).

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