When the Wild Can No Longer Provide

ITTO

MINISTRY OF FORESTRY OF INDONESIA IN COOPERATION WITH INTERNATIONAL TROPICAL TIMBER ORGANIZATION

ITTO PD425/06 Rev. 1 (I) Production and Utilization Technology for Sustainable Development of Eaglewood (Gaharu) in Indonesia

FRAGRANT WOOD GAHARU: WHEN THE FRAGRANT WOOD GAHARU: WHEN THE W I L D C A N W I L D C A N NO LONGER NO LONGER PROVIDE PROVIDE

R & D CENTRE FOR FOREST CONSERVATION AND REHABILITATION FORESTRY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT AGENCY (FORDA) MINISTRY OF FORESTRY INDONESIA 2011 by : Irnayuli R. Sitepu, Erdy Santoso, Sulistyo A. Siran, and Maman Turjaman

ISBN 978-979-3145-88-4

9 789793 145884

ITTO

MINISTRY OF FORESTRY OF INDONESIA IN COOPERATION WITH INTERNATIONAL TROPICAL TIMBER ORGANIZATION

ITTO PD425/06 Rev. 1 (I) Production and Utilization Technology for Sustainable Development of Eaglewood (Gaharu) in Indonesia

FRAGRANT WOOD GAHARU: WHEN THE W I L D C A N NO LONGER PROVIDE

by : Irnayuli R. Sitepu, Erdy Santoso, Sulistyo A. Siran, and Maman Turjaman Authors : Irnayuli R. Sitepu, Erdy Santoso, Sulistyo A. Siran, and Maman Turjaman Institution’s full name, address : R&D Centre for Forest Conservation and Rehabilitation; Jalan Gunung Batu No. 5 Bogor, Indonesia; e-mail : [email protected] The place and date the report : Bogor, July 1, 2011. was issued Disclaimer : Copyright @ 2011 This Proceeding is a part of Program ITTO PD425/06 Rev. 1 (I) : Production and Utilization Technology for Sustainable Development of Gaharu (Gaharu) in Indonesia Published by : Indonesia’s Work Programme for 2011 ITTO PD425/06 Rev.1 (I) R&D Centre for Forest Conservation and Rehabilitation Jalan Gunung Batu No. 5 Bogor, Indonesia Phone :62-251-8633234 Fax :62-251-8638111 E-mail : [email protected] ISBN : 978-979-3145-88-4 Cover by : Bintoro

Project number : PD425/06 Rev. 1 (I) Host Government : Indonesia Name of the Executing : Forestry Research and Development Agency (FORDA) Agency Project Coordinator Dr. Ir. Maman Turjaman, DEA Starting date of the project : May 1, 2008 Duration of the project : 36 months

ii PREFACE

The importance of gaharu (eaglewood or aloewood or jingkoh or oudh) for many users has long been recognized. Gaharu is also considered the world’s most valuable incence with even higher price for high quality gaharu. Due to its multiuses, demand for gaharu products continues to increase significantly and may cause rapid depletion of gaharu trees in the wilds. Natural habitat of gaharu suffers from uncontrolled exploitation, and as the consequences, some important gaharu-producing trees under a serious degradation. People who live surrounding the forests are the ones who are affected directly from the rapid depletion of gaharu because their livelihood depends on the forest.

On the other hand, forests are now receiving more and more attention from international society because profound appreciation on the function of forest has increased over the years. Forests are no longer seen as a place for timber production only, but also for many non-timber forest products. More importantly, forest is seen a lot as as environmental service provider nowadays. Indonesia is the world’s third largest area of tropical forest, being endowed with nearly 90 million hectares under forest cover. With today’s international focus on climate change, the forests have become the assets that contribute significantly to the country’s income.

It is thus timely to promote sustainable production of gaharu as an important strategy for conserving natural gaharu tree species, thus the forest habitats, and concurrently fulfilling the demand for gaharu products from cultivation. This project of ITTO PD425/06 Rev.1 (I): “ Production and Utilization Technology for Sustainable Development of Eaglewood (Gaharu) in Indonesia” is targeting to achieve the goals. Technology for accelerating gaharu production is intensively studied and several gaharu cultivation plots have been established in several locations in Indonesia. It is our aim to alleviate poverty of particularly forest community by providing simple technology for gaharu production as source of income and to stimulate cultivation of gaharu plants as their valuable backbone commodity.

The objective of this book is to give thorough information concerned with gaharu, and summarize the findings of the state-of-the-art research on gaharu. A key message of this book is to stimulate an understanding that the future of gaharu relies solely on sustainable production of gaharu and habitat conservation, and that technology intervention plays a major role in the process.

Adi Susmianto Head, R & D Centre for Forest Conservation and Rehabilitation FORDA, the Ministry of Forestry, Indonesia

iii

LIST OF CONTENTS

PREFACE...... iii LIST OF CONTENTS...... v LIST OF TABLE...... vii LIST OF FIGURE...... ix

1. INTRODUCTION...... 1

2. KNOWING SPECIES THAT PRODUCE GAHARU...... 3

3. SILVICULTURE OF GAHARU PLANT...... 15

3.1 Propagation using seeds, cuttings and tissue culture...... 15 3.2 Inoculation of beneficial microbial to promoted plant growth...... 16 3.3 Pest and Disease ...... 16 3.4 Soil characteristics...... 19 4. GAHARU BIOINDUCTION TECHNOLOGY...... 23

4.1 Deliberate tree wounding using mechanical tools...... 23 4.2 Deliberate tree drilling and chemical injection...... 23 4.3 Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungal inoculum...... 24 5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GAHARU...... 31

6. GAHARU PRODUCTS AND TRADING...... 39 7. CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF GAHARU...... 49

8. EXIT STRATEGY...... 51

8.1 The Role of Institution...... 51 8.2 Master Plans...... 53 9. CONCLUDING REMARKS...... 57 REFERENCES...... 59 ANNEX...... 63

LIST OF TABLE

Table 1. Scientific names, synonyms, common names ofAquilaria and Gyrinops and distribution...... 3

Table 2. Pests and Diseases of gaharu plants in several locations in Indonesia...... 16

Table 3. Soil physical characteristics of three gaharu plantation sites in Java Island, Indonesia...... 20

Table 4. Soil chemical characteristics of three gaharu plantation sites in Java Island, Indonesia...... 20

Table 5. Fungi isolated from infected tree identified based on their morphological characteristics and experiments related with the fungal inoculation ...... 24

Table 6. Experimental plot of gaharu trees induction by deliberate tree drilling and Fusarium spp. injection in several locations across Indonesia...... 26

Table 7. Molecular identification of 36 strains of gaharu-inducing fungi collected from 17 provinces in Indonesia...... 29

Table 8. Phenol compounds present in the induced gaharu products ...... 34

Table 9. Classification of gaharu quality in Samarinda (East Kalimantan)...... 41

Table 10. Criteria and classification of gaharu quality...... 42

Table 11. Selling price of gaharu in markets of Samarinda, in East Kalimantan...... 42

Table 12. Classification of gaharu quality according to Indonesian National Standard (SNI)...... 43

Table 13. Development of quota and realization related to the eagle wood export from Indonesia...... 45

Table 14. Several institutions/stakeholder who will carry out the exit strategy following the ITTO’s PD 425/06 Rev. 1 (I) project...... 52

Table 15. Exit strategy based on activities of gaharu development at the ITTO’s PD 425/06 Rev.1 (I)...... 52

vii

LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 1. Seeds of gaharu. (1-2): Aquilaria malaccensis; (3-4): Gyrinops versteegii...... 5

Figure 2. Gaharu trees...... 6

Figure 3. Flowering phenology of Aquilaria spp. in natural forest, plantation and Botanical Garden (a) A. malaccensis and A. microcarpa in West Kalimantan; (b) A. microcarpa in East Kalimantan; (c) A. malaccensis, A. microcarpa, and A. beccariana in Botanical Garden; (d) A. crassna, A. malaccensis and A. microcarpa in plantation, Bogor; (e) A. filarial in plantation, Bogor; (f) A. hirta in plantation, Bogor (Source: Suhartono and Newton, 2001)...... 7

Figure 4. (1): Aquilaria malaccensis La,. 1. twig, 2 flower, 3. longitudinal section of flower, 4. fruit, 5. longitudinal section of fruit. (Source: Plant Resources of South East Asia 19) and (2): Gyrinops ladermannii. a- branchlet habit; b- flower bud (left), opened flower (right); c- seed dorsal view (left), ventral view (right); d- dehisced fruit emerging from lateral slit of floral tube with one seed hanging out on funicle; Herbarium specimen Zich 315, CANB Accession Number 531408. Botanical illustration : Sharyn Wragg. (Zich and Compton 2001 in Dunn et al., 2003)...... 12

Figure 5. Silviculture of gaharu. (1-2): Propagation by cuttings with KOFFCO system; (3): Effect of inoculation with beneficial microbes for promoting growth; (4): Gaharu plantation...... 18

Figure 6. Pests and disease of gaharu trees. (1): Leaf eater Heortia vitessoides; (2): Stem Borer; (3): Colony of ants, the predator of H. vitessoides: (4): Hearth-rot fungi...... 19

Figure 7. An illustration of induction procedure for stimulation of gaharu formation. (1): Tree drilling to make about 5 mm diameter hole with 25 cm space in between holes; (2-3): one ml of liquid inoculum is injected with a syringe; (4): one month after inoculation, the efficiency of induction is observed by peeling a tree bark to observe the disease symptom (Source: http://www. trubus-online.co.id/mod/publisher/media/465.jpg...... 27

Figure 8. Technology of fungal induction to stimulate gaharu production. (1): Bamboo stagger for climbing tree for inoculation; (2): Drilling the tree and making holes for inoculation; (3): Fusarium sp., gaharu-inducing fungi grown on agar plate; (4): Wood coloration on stem tissue, an indication of resin production...... 28

Figure 9. Harvesting procedure of gaharu product from deliberate tree injection with fungal inoculant. (1): Initial symptom of gaharu formation on stem; (2): Felling of tree; (3-7): Cutting away tissue to obtain the resinous parts; (8): Residue of trees that is used for distillation of oil...... 29

ix Figure 10. Chemical structures of 6 2-(2-phenylethyl) chromones and an unkown 2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone (1), flidersiachromone. Compound (1): 2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone, flidersiachromone; (2-7): 2-(2-phenylethyl)

chromones, (2): C19H18O5, (3): C1H14O4, (4): 6-hydroxy-2-[2-(4- hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]chromone, (5): dihydroxyl derivative of 2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone, (6): C1H14O3, and (7): C18H16O4 (Source: Konishi et al., 2002)...... 32

Figure 11. Chromatogram revealing constituents in 6-month old induced gaharu...... 33

Figure 12. (4) Figure 1. Chemical content of gaharu originated from natural process and artificial induction. (1): Natural gaharu of West Kalimantan origin; (2): Gaharu from deliberate inoculation with isolate from West Kalimantan; (3): Natural gaharu of Gorontalo origin; (4): Gaharu from deliberate inoculation with isolate from Gorontalo (Source: Santoso et al., unpublished data)...... 36

Figure 13. Structures of compound from gaharu oil...... 37

Figure 14. Major constituent genkwanin 5-O-b-primeveroside compound that caused mild laxative effect in mice (Source: Hara et al., 2008)...... 38

Figure 15. Gaharu products...... 46

Figure 16. Other gaharu products...... 47

Figure 17. Gaharu classes of quality: (a) Tanggung; (b) Kacangan ; (c) Teri and (d) Kemedangan...... 47

Figure 18. Several pieces of gaharu still in logs which are ready for export...... 48

Figure 19. Flow-scheme regarding the exit strategy of gaharu development that will be conducted by the Research Team of FORDA...... 54

x 1 INTRODUCTION

Gaharu (agarwood, eaglewood, aloeswood, jinkoh, or oudh) has long been appreciated for its multipurpose uses, range from incense for religious and traditional ceremonies, perfume, medicine and ornamental functions in many countries. The occurrence of this- so-called the wood of the gods has been strongly surrounded by myths and history. Gaharu use is mentioned in the Old Testament as ‘aloe’ or ‘ahaloth’ in Psalm 45:8. Gaharu is the only tree in the Eastern myth that has been descended to Man from Eden garden (Duke, 2008). In Egypt and Japan, gaharu was used to embalm dead bodies. In India and Cambodia, it is used for traditional and religious ceremony.

The resin compound of gaharu is highly commercial. Resin impregnated in the heartwood a number of gaharu-producing species is due to fungal infection. Two mostly known genera are Aquilaria and Gyrinops that are native to Southeast Asia with Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Papua New Guinea being the main producing countries, and Singapore being the central trade country (Persoon, 2007).

Natural forests have been the main resource for gaharu collection for many years. However, gaharu hunters usually cut down the whole trees to find the resin and this practice has diminished gaharu population in the wilds and consequently has led gaharu- producing tree species under a threat of extinction. Major harvesting of gaharu was recorded between the 1980s and early 1990s in East Kalimantan caused by high demand for gaharu and was due to diminishing supply from countries like Vietnam and Cambodia (Barden et al.,2001 in Gunn et al., 2003). This excessive hunting activity has caused significant reduction of wild gaharu stocks within a short period of time. Similar activity also occurred in Papua after gaharu hunters landed in 1996 that has led to an ending of gaharu harvesting from its natural habitat (Persoon, 2007). 1998 was the first officially recorded year for gaharu discovery and harvesting in Yapsiei, May River and Ama villages in West Sepik, Papua New Guinea (Gunn et al., 2003). Harvesting of gaharu in these countries involve professional and traditional collectors. Professional collectors sponsored by Chinese and bogus trades were sometimes dropped by helicopters to hunt for gaharu (World Wide Fund for Nature, 1999).

In November 1994, Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk. was initially listed in CITES (the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna), Appendix II to prevent this species from extinction. However, continual excessive gaharu exploitations have then put two genera Aquilaria and Gyrinops in CITES, Appendix II, only ten years later. CoP13 Prop.49 (TRAFFIC, 2004) listed 24 species of the genus Aquilaria and seven species of the genus of Gyrinops. CITES regulates the permitted quota for gaharu export in order to sustain gaharu existence, and yet, Indonesia, in particular, has not been able to meet the quota because it has become more difficult to collect gaharu from its natural habitat because they are dissapearing.

Due to a significant increase in gaharu demand and high prices of gaharu, efforts have taken places to implement technology for stimulating gaharu production artificially, for a much faster process. Traditional wisdom combined with scientific knowledge have

1 been implemented with numerous approaches to find the most efficient gaharu induction technology that will be able to fulfill the demand and at the same time conserve the remnants in the wilds.

This book provides a general overview of gaharu with specific reference to Indonesia as one of the most important country for gaharu production. Because the future of gaharu is dependent upon conservation and sustainable production management strategies, emphasis is given to research and development of induction technology for sustainable production of gaharu which is the main target of ITTO PD 425/06 REV.1 (I): Production and Utilization Technology for Sustainable Development of Eaglewood (Gaharu) in Indonesia.

2 2 KNOWING SPECIES THAT PRODUCE GAHARU

Aquilaria and Gyrinops are the two most important gaharu-producing genera, within the family of Thymelaeaceae (Order: Myrtales and Class: Magnoliopsida). There are slight differences in reports on the number of species within each genus. TRAFFIC- CITES-CoP13 Prop.49 (2004) recorded 24 species belong to the genus Aquilaria and 7 species belong to the genus of Gyrinops (Table 1). On the other hand Ding Hou (1960 in Gunn et al., 2004), reported there are 12 species belonging to the genus Aquilaria and 8 species belonging to the genus Gyrinops.

These trees naturally occur in at least 12 countries: Bangladesh, Butan, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PRD, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam and Papua New Guinea (Barden et al. in Gunn et al., 2004).

Compton (2002) reported three gaharu-producing species originated from Papua Island. Two species, A. filaria and Gyrinops versteegii are found in Papua (formerly Irian Jaya) and the only species, G. ledermannii is from Papua New Guinea (PNG, TRAFFIC PC12 Doc.8.3, 2002). This PNG gaharu species was firstly found and harvested in approximately 1998 for its resinous wood in the Yapsiei, May River, and Ama Villages in West Sepik (Gunn et al., 2004). The first reported taxonomic work determined the species as Gyrinops ledermannii. Later report by Gunn et al. (2004) however suggested five of the eight species Gyrinops, have been found in New Guinea island: G. ledermannii, G. caudate, G. podocarpus, G. salicifolia and G. verstegii. Except G. walla found in Sri Langka, the other seven are distributed east of the Wallace Line which is a transitional biogeographical zone that marks Asia zone to the west and Australian zone to the east.

Table 1. Scientific names, synonyms, common names of Aquilaria and Gyrinops and distribution

No. Scientific Name Synonims Common Names Distribution Area Ecosystem

1 Aquilaria beccariana van Aquilaria cumingiana (Decne) Ridley Gaharu; garu tanduk Extend from Found Primary forest Tiegh. var. parviflora Airy Shaw; Aquilaria (Kalimantan); mengkaras peninsular Malaysia from the low land up grandifolia Domke; Gyrinopsis putih (Sumatra); Gaharu, to Sumatra Common to 825 m, rarely in grandifolia Quis. gumbil, njabak (Malaysia) in Borneo swampy forest 2 Aquilaria hirta Ridl. Aquilaria moszkowskii Gilg. Chamdan, audate, ,kayu Malay Peninsula Grow on hill slopes, chamdan, sahare (Madura) (Trengganu, Pahang, from the lowland up Johore), Singapore, to 300 m East Sumatra (Senamaninik), Riau, Lingga islands. 3 Aquilaria microcarpa Aquilariella microcara van Tiegh; Tengkaras (Madura); Malay Peninsula, Grows on lowland Baill. Aquilariella borneensis van Tiegh; hepang (Bangka); engkaras Sumatra (Sijunjung, forest up to 200 m. Aquilariella borneensis Boerl (Dayak); karas or sigi-sigi Palembang and (Bugis); kumbil, garu, Lampung), Belitung, tulang (Madura) Bangka and throughout Borneo.

3 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

No. Scientific Name Synonims Common Names Distribution Area Ecosystem

4 Aquilaria cumingiana Gyrinopsis cumingiana Decne; Alahan, magaan, palisan South Borneo in primary forest at (Decne) Ridl. Decaisnella cumingiana O.K.; (Tagalog); bago (Mbo), (Sampit region), low and medium Gyrinopsis cumingiana var. binukat (Ak. Bis.); butlo Philippines altitudes. Pubescens Elm.; Gyrinopsis (Neg.); dalakit (S.L.Bis.); (common), and decemcostata Hall.f.; Gyrinopsis magwalen (Sub.); Moluccas (Morotai pubifolia Quis. pamaluian (Bag.); giba kalo and Halmahera) (Halmahera) 5 Aquilaria audate (Oken) Aquilaria filaria (Oken) Merr., Agé (Sorong), bòkuin Philippines, in lowland forest, up Merr. Gyrinopsis brachyantha Merr., (Morotai), lason (Ceram), Mollucas, West New to 130 m. Cortex filarius Rumph., Pittosporum kasjik (Tehid), malowassi Guinea ferrugineum var. filarium DC., (Uliansers) Pittosporum filarium Oken, Aquilaria tomentosa Gilg, Gyrinopsis bracyantha Merr.. Gyrinopsis acuminate Merr. A. _audate_e Quis.J. 6 Aquilaria brachyantha Gyrinopsis brachyantha Merr. - Luzon: Cagayan in primary forest at (Merr.) Hall.f. Province low and medium altitudes. 7 Aquilaria urdanetensis Gyrinopsis urdanetensis Elmer Mangod, makolan (Mbo) Mindanao: Mt. in the mossy forest (Elmer) Hall Ur daneta on exposed ridges, about 1700 m. 8 Aquilaria citrinaecarpa Gyrinopsis citrinaecarpa Elmer Agododan (Mbo) Mindanao on moist compact (Elmer) Hall.f soil of forested ridges, about 1300 m. 9 Aquilaria apiculata Elmer - - Mindanao: Bukidnon in dry and mossy province forest at 1100-1800 m. 10 Aquilaria parvifolia (Quis.) - - Luzon on forested slopes at Ding Hou 1000 m. 11 Aquilaria rostrata Ridl. - - Malay Peninsula (Pahang, Gunung Tahan). 12 Aquilaria crassna Pierre - - Cochinchina and ex Lecomte Cambodia 13 Aquilaria banaense - - Viet Nam Phamhoang Ho 14 Aquilaria khasiana H. Hall. - - India (Khasia). 15 Aquilaria subintegra Ding - - Thailand Hou 16 Aquilaria grandiflora Bth. - - China. 17 Aquilaria secundana D.C. - - Moluccas 18 Aquilaria moszkowskii - - Sumatra Gilg 19 Aquilaria tomentosa Gilg - - New Guinea 20 Aqularia bailonii Pierre ex - - Cambodia Lecomte 21 Aquilaria sinensis Merr. - - China. 22 Aquilaria apiculata Merr. - - Philippines (Mindanao) 23 Aquilaria acuminate - - Philippines (?). (Merr.) Quis. 24 Aquilaria yunnanensis - - China S.C. Huang

4 KNOWING SPECIES THAT PRODUCE GAHARU

No. Scientific Name Synonims Common Names Distribution Area Ecosystem

25 Gyrinops versteegii (Gilg) Gyrinops wala (non Gaertn.) Koord.; Ketemun (Lombok); ruhu Lesser Sunda This species Domke Branchythalamus versteegii Gilg; wama (Sumba); seke Islands (Lombok, scattered from the Aquilaria versteegii Hall. (Flores) Sumbawa, Flores, lowland up to 900 m. Sumba); North Celebes (Minahasa) and West New Guinea. This species closely related to Gyrinops podocarpus which also found in West New Guinea. 26 Gyrinops moluccana Lachnolepis moluccana Miq.; Buru and Halmahera in rain-forest (Miq.) Baill Aquilaria moluccana Hall.f. 27 Gyrinops decipiens Ding - - Central Celebes in rainforest, 100 m. Hou (Wavatoli, Palarahi), 28 Gyrinops ledermanii - - New Guinea (Sepik at slope in dense Domke R., Mt. Pfingst) virgin forest, foot of the mountain, at 0-200 m. 29 Gyrinops salicifolia Ridl. - - Western New in fringing rain- Guinea (Utakwa, forest, 300 m Nabire) 30 Gyrinops _audate (Gilg) Brachythalamus versteegii Gilg; Niwawur New Guinea (Sidai, at primary forest Domke Aquilaria versteegii Hall.f. Mt. Arfak) 5-20 m 31 Gyrinops podocarpus Brachythalamus podocarpus Gilg; Kokkoree (Asmat) West New Guinea in primary forest, (Gilg.) Domke Aquilaria podicarpus Hall.f.; Gyrinops (Ramoi, Sorong, from lowland up to ladermanii (non Donke) Merr & Perry Monep, Idenburg) 750m.

(Source: TRAFFIC-CoP13 Prop.49, 2004)

Figure 1. Seeds of gaharu. (1-2): Aquilaria malaccensis; (3-4): Gyrinops versteegii.

5 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

Figure 2. Gaharu trees.

Gaharu-producing species is characterized by small flower similar to that of jasmine and the fruit is bitter (Figure 1). The fruit does not fall when it is ripe, but it tossed the seeds to the surrounding ground (Prosea, 1999). Gaharu tree was firstly introduced by Arabic in Aceh, Sumatra. From here, the tree spread to the southern part of Sumatra, Kalimantan and Papua. In 1991, gaharu tree was found in Kayan Mentarang National Park, East Kalimantan.

Gaharu is commonly found in primary and secondary forest at 850m above sea level (asl) with 1,500 – 6,500 mm/year with 14-28ºC (Prosea, 1999). Gunn et al. (2004) reported the range of gaharu occurrence is about latitude 27°N to 10°N30’S and longitude 75°E to 149°E.

The most important genus, Aquilaria is typical of understorey species (Figure 2). Aquilaria malaccensis, A. beccariana, A. crasna, A. filarial, A. hirta, A. microcarpa are of six Aquilaria species native to Indonesia (Ding Hou, 1960 in Suhartono and Newton, 2001). These six species are primarily found in lowland and upland Sumatra, Kalimantan, Maluku and Papua (Suhartono and Newton, 2001).

Generally, flowers grew on terminal branches among the foliage, but a few flowers of A. crassna occur along the trunk (cauliflory) (Suhartono and Newton, 2001). Flowers are 50 to 10 mm long. Suhartono and Newton (2001) who observed reproductive ecology of Aquilaria spp. in 1997-1998 reported that flowering and fruiting of Aquilaria spp. were around June-July in West Kalimantan, September-October in East Kalimantan, September and December in Bogor Botanical Garden, and April to December in plantation area about 2 km north of Bogor (Figure 3) (Suhartono and Newton, 2001). Generally, the onset

6 KNOWING SPECIES THAT PRODUCE GAHARU

of flowering to produce seed takes about three months in plantation area (Suhartono and Newton, 2001). Further Suhartono and Newton (2001) noted that smaller trees of A. malaccensis and A. microcarpa produced more seeds than larger and older ones. Seeds of Aquilaria had no dormancy (recalcitrant) and will germinate soon after seed maturation.

Upon ripening, fruits of Aquilaria spp. split loculicidally in half from the apex, and the seeds are hanging on thin threads for about one hour before the threads break and the seeds are scattered (CIFOR, 1996 and Ding Hou, 1960 in Suhartono and Newton, 2001).

Below is specific description of species belonging to mostly the generaAquilaria and Gyrinops as well as other less important gaharu-producing species.

1. Aquilaria malaccensis Lam

Aquilaria malaccensis is one of the most important gaharu-producing tree. Flowers are green to dirty yellow. Flowering season in Botanical Garden occurs between September and December. Flowering season in plantation area, 2 km north of Bogor occurs April to December (Suhartono and Newton, 2001). In natural forest, seed production of A. malaccensis > 40 cm dbh (diameter breast height) declines, while in Botanical Garden trees of 10-30 cm dbh showed to produce more seeds than those of comparable size grown in natural forest. It was estimated that this species of 20-60 cm dbh produced less seeds than A. microcarpa, between 3,900 and 13,270 seeds/tree. Seeds start to germinate 15 day after sowing (Suhartono and Newton, 2001).

7 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

a. Distribution and Habitat Aquilaria malaccensis has been found in India, Burma, Malaysia, Phillipines and Indonesia. In Indonesia, it is found mainly in Sumatra (Sibolangit, Bangka, Jambi, Riau and South Sumatra), Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Moluccas and Papua.

Aquilaria malaccensis has been found in primary and secondary forests, mainly in lowland and on hillsides at altitude of 200-750m asl. It grows well in sandy soils and areas having Koeppen climate type A-B with temperatures of 14-32ºC and annual rainfall of 2,000-4,000 mm. b. Botanical description Aquilaria malaccensis reaches up to 20 – 40 m tall and 60 cm in diameter. Young bark is light brown with fine hairs, older bark is smooth and whitish in color. Without resin, wood is white, light and soft, however resinous wood is hard, dark and heavy. Leaves are characterized by alternate, elliptic or lanceolate, 3-3.5 cm wide and 6-8 cm long with 12-16 pairs of veins. Inflorescens a terminal or axillary umber. Flowers hermaphroditic, up to 5 mm long, fragrant and yellowish green or white (Figure 4).

Fruit is green in color, egg-shaped capsule, leathery exocarp with fine hairs, 4 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. There are two seeds per fruit. Seed is blackish brown incolor, ovoid, and densely covered with red-brown hair. There are approximately 1,500 seeds per kg. At the age of 5-6 years, the tree starts flowering and fruiting, and medium size tree is reported to produce about 1.5 kg of seed during good seed years. Seasons for flowering and fruiting are dry season. In Sumatra, flowering and fruiting season is twice a year. The seasons are July-August and March-April for flowering which have mature fruits in November-December and July-August, respectively. Mature fruits have blackish brown colour and they should be collected directly from the tree (Suhartono and Newton, 2001).

2. Aquilaria crassna

This species is the most widely known gaharu species from Indochina (Adelina, 2004). The Vietnamese government has enlisted A. crassna as endangered (Burfield, 2003).

Aquilaria crassna is found widely in Thailand (Nobuchi and Siripatanadilok, 1991). Flowering season in plantation area, 2 km north of Bogor occurs April to December (Suhartono and Newton, 2001). In general, seeds germinate 9 – 15 days after sowing and this species had the highest germination success (92%) compared with the other 5 species (Suhartono and Newton, 2001).

3. Aquilaria microcarpa

Flowers are white to yellow in color. Season in Botanical Garden occurs between September and December. Flowering season in plantation area, 2 km north of Bogor occurs April to December. In natural forest, seed production > 50 cm dbh declines, while in Botanical Garden trees of 10-<40 cm dbh showed to produce more seeds than those of comparable size grown in natural forest. It was estimated that this species of 20-60 cm dbh produced between 13,260 and 19,280 seeds/ tree (Suhartono and Newton, 2001). In general, seeds germinate 9 – 15 days after sowing (Suhartono and Newton, 2001).

8 KNOWING SPECIES THAT PRODUCE GAHARU

4. Aquilaria beccariana

Flowers are green to yellowish in color. Flowering season in Botanical Garden occurs between September and December. In general, seeds germinate 9 – 15 days after (Suhartono and Newton, 2001).

5. Aquilaria filaria

Flowers are white to yellowish green in color. Flowering season in plantation area, 2 km north of Bogor occurs all year around. In general, seeds germinate 9 – 15 days after sowing and this species had the lowest germination rate (53%) compared with the other 5 species (Suhartono and Newton, 2001).

6. Aquilaria hirta

Flowers are white in color. Flowering season in plantation area, 2 km north of Bogor occurs during rainy season in January. Seeds start to germinate 9 day after sowing (Suhartono and Newton, 2001).

7. Gyrinops versteegii (Gilg.) Domke a. Distribution and Habitat Gyrinops versteegii (Gilg.) is found in eastern part of Indonesia: Sumbawa, called Seke, in East Alor, Lombok, Flores, Sumba, and Papua (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007).

In Sumbawa, G. versteegii grows on the hillside (400-800m above sea level) ranging from Tartar village (Doro Tambiung Mountain) in West Sumbawa to Lambu village (Doro Saboke Mountain) in East Sumbawa. These plants grow in secondary and primary forests with high humidity, with Ficus sp., Eugenia spp., Garcinia sp., Calophyllum spp., Maranthes corymbosa Bl., Sterculia foetida L., Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken., etc. (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007).

In Sumba, this plant grows on brown, thin humus soil found in primary forest in Riwuta and on the foot of Meja Mountain, West Sumba. In Alor, this plant was planted in field withErytrina sp., and the soil around the seedlings was mulched with rice straw and sprinkled well with water. b. Botanical description In Sumbawa and Alor Island, this species grows as shrub, 1-4m height, 1-10 cm diameter, while in Flores Island, it grows as trees.

In Sumbawa the description of the shrub was 1-4m height, 1-10 cm diameter, the plant still young, it was not in flowering yet.Young branchlets pubescent, bark gryish. Leaves chartaceous to subcoriaceous, pubescent, on the nerves and veins beneath, glabrescent or glabrous, dull and light green in beneath, shinning and dark green above, elliptic-oblong, lanceolate, 8.7-15 by 2.2-5.2 cm; base cuneate, apex up to 0.5-1 cm narrow-acuminate; nerves and veins similar, numerous, slightly oblique and parallel, 24-46 pairs; petiole, short, 3-6 mm, pubescent.

9 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

In Flores the the tree is found to have 10-17½ m height, 25-30 cm diameter. Young branchlets pubescent, bark gray. Leaves chartaceous to subcoriaceous, pubescent, on the nerves and veins beneath, glabrescent or glabrous, dull and light green in beneath, shinning and dark green above, elliptic-oblong, ovate- oblong, or obovate-oblong, 8-15 by 1½-5 cm; base cuneate, apex up to 2 cm narrow- 366 acuminate; nerves and veins similar, numerous, slightly oblique and parallel; petiole short, 3-5 mm, pubescent. Fruits yellow or orange, slightly obovoid or ellipsoid, 2-2¾ by 1-1½ cm, shortly acuminate to the apex, attenuate to the base. Seed ovoid, Plano convex, 9 by 6 mm, with a caruncle-like appendage at the base, ± 2 mm thick.

In West Sumba, shrub or tree of this species is found, 2 m up to 25 m height, diameter 3 cm up to 40 cm. Young branchlets pubescent, bark gray. Leaves chartaceous to subcoriaceous, pubescent, on the nerves and veins beneath, glabrescent or glabrous, dull and light green in beneath, shinning and dark green above, elliptic-oblong, ovate-oblong, or obovate-oblong, 8-15 by 1½-5 cm; base cuneate, apex up to 2 cm narrow-acuminate; nerves and veins similar, numerous, slightly oblique and parallel; petiole short, 3-5 mm, pubescent.

8. Gyrinops decipiens Ding Hou a. Distribution and habitat This plant was found in primary forest with thin humus on the side and the top of the Ganda Dewatan mountain in Buttu Ada and Salusampe, Salubaka and Tampakura villages, Mamuju, the Tapusaang mountain in Karama village, Mamasa, and the Kapusaan mountain and the Tunggumanu mountain in Karosa in West Celebes. Gyrinops decipiens was also found in Kulawi, Tuwulu village, the Ulu Karosa river, Tembok Jerman and Lengke mountains around the Towuti Lake in Central Celebes; and in mountains in North Luwu in South Celebes (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007). b. Botanical description Shrub to tree, 2 m up to 17 m height, diameter 3 cm up to 30cm. Branchlet fissure shallow to deep, light to dark gray, glabrous to pubescent. Leaves chartaceous to subcoriaceus, above glabrous, below pubescent scattered on the vena, shining on both surfaces, elliptic-oblong, lanceolate 7.5-23.5x 2.6-6.8 cm; base acute- acuminate, base caudate (0.52.0 cm long). Vena parallel, 23-39 pairs, elevation visible on below and obscure on above. Inflorescent axilar or terminal on the short branchlet in the axilar, umbel, consisting of 1-6 flowers, pedicle 2-5 mm, pubescent, brachtea opposite on the base of pedicelus, a crescent, rounded and thick on the apex of pedicle; pedicelus 1-3 mm. Flower like club, calyx tube pubescent outside, 4-6x2 mm long, calyx lobe 1,5x1 m. Fruit ovoid-oblong, 1-1.5x0.8-1.3 cm, color orange when fruit mature, two locus, 1-2 seeds each fruit. Stipes 7 mm, emerges on the base to mid of calyx lobe. Seed planocovex, 6x(5-7)mm, caruncle 5 mm. Flowering and Fruiting season on July-August.

Mulyaningsih and Yamada (2007) divided this plant into two varieties, i.e., gaharu beringin and gaharu cabut. Gaharu beringin or Gyrinops decipiens var. microphylla Mulyaningsih & Yamada var. nov. Character: tree, fissured bark deep.Leaves subcoriaceous relative small, lanceolate, 7.5-17.5x2.6-4.5 cm, vena 23-30 pairs, petiole 3-5 mm, pubescent. Gaharu beringin is produced during the decay process

10 KNOWING SPECIES THAT PRODUCE GAHARU

in specific wood. Since 2003, in some villages such as Dara, Maepi and Lere, North Luwu (South Celebes) and Tampalopo and Tampakura villages, Mamasa (West Celebes) cultivated this species. Gaharu cabut or Gyrinops decipiens var. macrophylla Mulyaningsih & Yamada var. nov. Character: Shrub, fissured bark shallow.Leaves chartaceous, more weigh, elliptic-oblong, 14.5-23.5x6.0-6.8 cm, vena 36-39 pairs, gaharu forming in whole wood tissue of plant.

9. Gyrinops salicifolia Ridl. a. Habitat and distribution Gyrinops salicifolia grew in Dosay village, Sentani, Papua. This plant was cultivated by a person as decoration plant, because of its good canopy and leaves. Gaharu from Sentani and Jayapura was taken from this hill (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007). b. Botanical description Slender shrub, up to 2 m. Branchlet light brown, pubescent. Leaves sparsely pubescent on the midrib and sometimes on the nerves and veins beneath, 1 lanceolate to linear-lanceolate, 1½-10 by / -1 cm; base cuneate apex acuminate and pointed; nerves and veins similar and equally5 strong, slightly visible beneath, obscure above; petiole ⅓-½ mm.

10. Gyrinops ladermannii Domke a. Habitat and distribution Gyrinops ladermannii resembles G. salicifolia, but it grows as shrub of small trees with 7-10 m high and 13-15 cm in diameter. The leave is broader, the angle of leave and ranchlet is larger (Figure 4). Branchlet has darker color, and the wood is harder. This plant grows in secondary forest with Callophylum sp. on lime soil with thin humus. It was found on a hill in Maribau village, 50-200 m above sea level, Sentani, Jayapura, Papua (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007). b. Botanical description Leave subcoriaceous, obovate-oblong to lanceolate, 6½-12 kali (1½) 2½-5 cm; pubescent scattered on vein and midrib beneath and glabrous above. Base acute-cuneate, apex acuminate to caudate, nerves spread, visible, dense, curve, ascending face to tip. Inflorescentiapseudo lateral or terminal, sessile, consisted of 2-3 flowers, pedicellus thin, 3-5 mm. Calyx tube cylinders, 13 mm long, diameter 1½ mm. Calyx lobe ovate, 1½-2 kali ½ mm, outside acute, pubescent, inside 3 obtuse, tomentose. Petaloid square, /5 x ½ mm, obtuse, villous. Stamen sessile, 1 oblong, 1-1¼ x / mm. Fruit pyriform 1¾ x ⅓ cm (included stipe 3 mm and apex up to 4 mm acuminate5 or caudate), pannose, irregular, wrinkled to transversal. Seed 2 or 1, one abortion, 9 mm long (included caruncle 3 mm), villous.

11 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

11. Gyrinops caudate (Gilg.) Domke a. Habitat and distribution Gyrinops caudate was found in Agat, Mappi and Boven Digul and Merauke, West Papua. It grows in primary forest in the swamp, 5-20 m above the sea, among the sago plant, the most common soil type is sandy clay over clay. Cultivation was found in Aboge and Ecy village, District Assue, Mappi (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007). b. Botanical description Shrub or tree up to 17 m by 36 cm. Branchlets grayish, whitish pubescent and glabrescent. Leaves chartaceous, glabrous, dull beneath and shining above, elliptic-oblong, ovate-oblong, rarely lanceolate, 6-13 by 1½-4 cm; base cuneate; apex up to 1½ cm, acuminate; nerves and veins scarcely distinguishable, numerous, parallel, visible beneath, obscure above; petiole ± 3 mm. Inflorescencesaxillary or on the terminal of short branches, 12-18 flowers, peduncle 2-8 mm.Flowers c. 5 mm pedicelled 5-7 mm, floral tube copular, 3-4 mm long, calyx lobes oblong, 1 mm long, petaloid appendages transverse oblong, c. ½ mm long; stamen subsessile, slightly longer than the appendages. Ovary ovoid, densely pillose; style very short; stigma capitate. Fruit protunding from the flower, rhombicus-oblong, 1 contricted from the base to apex, pubescent, 2 / cm included 5 mm stipes, apex acuminate, two locus with 2 seeds. Seeds ovoid,5 apex acuminate c. 5 mm included caruncle 1 mm. Flowering and fruiting season on August-September.

12 KNOWING SPECIES THAT PRODUCE GAHARU

12. Less important gaharu species a. Excoecaria agallocha L. (Euphorbiaceae) Exocoecaria agallocha is called gaharu buaya (crocodile gaharu) because its gaharu production smells like fired wood and less fragrance. The smoke can irritate eyes (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007). The price is usually low and the product is used for mixing material of joystick (hio) or incense. This plant can be found along beach and composes mangroves in Somau Island. b. Wikstroemia androsaemifolia Decne i. Distribution and habitat This species is found in primary forest in Meja Mountain. Gaharu from Wikstroemia androsaemifolia, known as male gaharu or red gaharu is less preferable because of its spicy smell and the smoke irritates eyes (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007). ii. Botanical description Shrub, young branchlets slightly flattened at the nodes, densely appressed pubescent, glabrescent. Branches terete, reddish brown, glabrous; axillary buds densely covered with golden-coloured hairs. Leaves papery, glabrous, rarely sparsely hairy on the lower surface and especially on the nerves and veins of young leaves, in dry state light-greenish, light brown or greenish-brown to brownish and shining on the upper surface, pale greenish, light-yellowish- green or light-brown and dull on the under surface, elliptic or ovate-oblong, 1¾-5½(8-) by ¾-2½(-4) cm; base acute, apex acute to narrow-acute, very rarely obtuse; nerves 8-11 pairs, elevated below and slightly depressed above, obliquely spreading towards the margin and the curved upward; veins almost as distinct as the nerves, loosely reticulate beneath, obscure above; petiole ± 2mm. c. Phaleria capitata Jack Phaleria capitata grows in Kapusaan Puncak and Tiga Puluh Puncak Mountains, Mamasa, West Celebes and in some villages around the Towuti Lake in Central Celebes.

This species is also called gaharu buaya and less preferable because the fragrance is not good. The gaharu is used as a mixture in the making of joystick and for craft (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007). d. Phaleria microcarpa Phaleria microcarpa was found in Papua with local name ‘gaharu puk-puk’. It produced smoky, bitter and unpleasant fragrant when burnt. It does not have commercial value. The bark was used to create bilums (traditional woven carrying bags) in the upper Sepik, Papua (Mulyaningsih and Yamada, 2007). e. Phaleria nisdai Kanehira i. Habitat and distribution This plant distributes in Papua New Guinea and was cultivated in Yomdory village Biak Papua.

13 ii. Botanical description Shrub c. 2 m, branchlets reddish-brown. Leaves lanceolate, ovate-oblong, 8½-14 by 2½-4 cm, base cuneate, apex acuminate and narrow c. 1½ cm, glabercent on the both surfaces, dull beneath, nerves 5-9 pairs, elevation, decendent, veins reticulate, beneath distinct, obscure above. Inflorescences terminal and or at a long axils of branchlets, umbelliform, 10-12 flowers, one peduncle each nodes, peduncles 6-8 mm, small bracts at the base, involucral bracts 2, 2½ by ½ mm opposite, oblong, persistent or caudocous when anthesis. Floral tube c. 1½ cm, Floral tube gradually enlarged towards the top, glabrous outside. In side, calyx lobes oblong or ovale 4 by 2 mm glabercent on the both surfaces, papillate, appendages petaloid, stamens, styles exerted up to 6 mm, ovary. Fruit obovate slightly compressed and constricted from the base to apex, usually 2 fruits opposite each peduncle, yellow when ripe, 3-4½ by 5-6½ cm, two locus usually with 2 seeds. Seeds subglobous c. 2 by 1½ cm slightly compressed.

14 3 SILVICULTURE OF GAHARU PLANT

Although gaharu has been known since ancient times, intensified research on a broader aspects of gaharu has just begun in the last ten years. One of these aspects is silviculture of gaharu. Research conducted by R & D Centre for Forest Conservation and Rehabilitation, FORDA of the Ministry of Forestry found that propagation of gaharu plants is not difficult. Gaharu can be propagated from seeds and cuttings. However, cultivation of gaharu plantation in a large scale has a high risk of pest and disease attack. This chapter provides silvicultural practice for gaharu plant.

3.1 Propagation using seeds, cuttings and tissue culture Seeds of gaharu are collected while they are still hanging on their mother trees because gaharu fruits crack and throw their seeds before they fall to the ground. Seedlings, on the other hand can be collected from underneath their mother trees. To date, propagation from seeds is still much cheaper than cuttings because seeds stocks are still abundant in the field and can be harvested every year from mother trees in the field. Gaharu seeds, however, is recalcitrant and its germination is affected by storage periods and conditions. A study by Subiakto et al. (2009) revealed that germination percentage of non-stored seeds (direct seeding) was 82% and down to 42% after being stored for 8 weeks at room temperature. Germination was further declining to 24% if the seeds were stored in refrigerator at 4°C for 8 weeks.

Study on vegetative propagation by using cuttings was done by adopting by KOFFCO (Komatsu-Forda Fog Cooling) System (Figure 5). Using this system, Subiakto et al. (2009) found that the best growth media and watering interval for gaharu shoots cuttings were mixtures of coconut dust and paddy husk of 1 : 1 ratio, and twice a week of watering, respectively. These treatments showed the highest rooting percentage, i.e. 69%.

Tissue culture of A. crassna and A. malaccensis was studied by Tientum in 1995. Shoots of A. crassna grown on Woody Plant Medium with and without auxin, produced roots. But addition of 0.5 mg/l IBA stimulated the highest rooting percentage. The author found that survival rate of A. crassna plantlets was 90% after transplantation to the field. In vitro propagation of Aquilaria agalocha by He et al. (2005) on MS medium supplemented with 1.3 micromol/L BA (6-benzylaminopurine) generated many shoot buds in the first 7 weeks, and 1.3 micromol/L BA+0.5 micromol/L NAA (naphthaleneacetic acid) elongated the buds in another 7 weeks, 2.3 shoots 2 cm in length per explant were obtained within 14 weeks. Plantlets were rooted on 1/2 MS medium after being immersed in 5 micromol/L NAA for 48 h, 96.7% of the roots grew up two weeks later. All plantlets that survived acclimatization grew well in the pots.

15 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

3.2 Inoculation of beneficial microbial to promoted plant growth In 2002, Tamuli and Boruah observed the association of arbuscular mycrorrhizal fungi (AMF) with gaharu tree in Jorhat district of the Brahmaputra Valley. They isolated different AMF but found that Glomus is the dominant genus. Among the Glomus spp., Glomus fasciculatum is the most dominant followed by Glomus aggregatum. Further studies revealed that AMF and plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPR) promoted early growth of gaharu seedlings. Inoculation of AMF, Glomus clarum and Gigaspora decipiens, increased growth of 180 days old A. filaria, under greenhouse conditions (Figure 5). Growth acceleration was indicated by percentage of AM colonization up to 93%, plant growth (height, diameter and biomass dry weight), survival rate, and nitrogen (70-153%) and phosphorus (135-360%) concentrations (Turjaman et al., 2006). Two PGPR, Burkholderia sp. CK28 (IAA-producing bacteria), and Chromobacterium sp. CK8 (mycorrhization helper bacteria) accelerated height growth of Aquilaria sp. in in the nursery. Percentage of height increase over non-inoculated control seedlings ranges from 12.2 to 38.7%, five months after inoculation. Effect of inoculation was no longer observed after seedlings were transplanted to the fields, probably due to interaction with soil microflora (Sitepuet al., 2009).

3.3 Pest and Disease Gaharu plants cultivated in a large scale is prone to pest and disease attack. Some important pests and diseases have been found attacking several locations of gaharu plantations in Indonesia with various level of attack (Table 2; Figure 6).

Table 2. Pests and Diseases of gaharu plants in several locations in Indonesia

Damage No. Pests Host Location intensity Pest 1. Heortia vitessoides A. microcarpa, A. malaccensis, Bogor, West Java + A. crassna, Gyrinops sp. 2. Heortia vitessoides A. malaccensis Sukabumi, West Java + 3. Heortia vitessoides A. microcarpa Carita, Banten + + + 4. Heortia vitessoides A. microcarpa, Central Bangka + + 5. Heortia vitessoides A. malaccensis, Bodok, West Kalimantan + + 6. Heortia vitessoides A. beccariana West Kalimantan + + 7. Heortia vitessoides A. malaccensis, A. microcarpa Kandangan and Barabai, + South Kalimantan 8. Stem borer Gyrinops sp. North Sulawesi + 9. Heortia vitessoides Gyrinops sp. Bali + 10. Heortia vitessoides Gyrinops sp. Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara + 11. Stem borer Gyrinops sp. Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara + Disease 12. Mildew A. microcarpa Carita, Banten + 13. Mildew A. microcarpa Pulau Laut, South Kalimantan + 14. Heart rot Gyrinops sp. West Nusa Tenggara + Notes: Damage intensity: +: weak, ++: medium, +++: severe (Source: Santoso et al., unpublished data)

16 SILVICULTURE OF GAHARU PLANT Pest and Disease

The most important pest found to date is identified asHeortia vitessoides Moore (Odontiinae, Crambidae) (Irianto et al., 2010). The pest (previously Tyspana vitessoides), has caused severe damage to many gaharu plantations in Indonesia in the past three years, i.e. in Forest Area with Specific Purposes (Kawasan Hutan dengan Tujuan Khusus, KHDTK) Carita, Banten Province; Bodok, Sanggau, West Kalimantan Province; Kandangan, Barabai, South Kalimantan Province; Malino, East Kalimantan Province; Bali Province; and Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara Province; and South Sumatra (Erdy Santoso, Pers. Comm.). In 2008, the percentage of pest attack in gaharu plantation in KHDTK, Carita, reached 100%, many of the trees defoliated, and about 20 trees died because of recurring attack on newly emerging leaves. This pest has also been reported to have distributed in Fiji, Hongkong, Thailand, and North Queensland (Austtralia) (Herbison-Evams and Crossley, WWW page).

The caterpillars of this species are pale green with a broad knobbly black line along each side. Their head is brown. The caterpillars live in a group in a shelter made by joining a number of leaves together with silk. The caterpillars drop on silk threads if disturbed. When mature, the caterpillars descend and pupate in the soil. The adults have a striking pattern on the forewings of black on pale yellow. The hindwings are white with a broad black margin. The moths have a yellow and black banded abdomen. The wingspan is about 3 cms. The eggs are yellowish-green, and are flattened. They are laid in an overlapping cluster, like tiles on a roof (Herbison-Evams and Crossley, WWW page).

A study by Irianto et al. (2010) investigated pest management strategy to control the population of H. vitessoides. This study found that application of a mixture of systemic and contact insecticides with addition of leaf fertilizer and plant sticker effectively controlled high population of the pest. A biological control approach was also studied by using ants, predator of the pest, that build a nest on gaharu trees and keep the plant protected from the pest. This experiment is still underway but seems encouraging.

Cultivators of gaharu plants need to be aware and familiarized themselves with pest and disease of gaharu plants, and take appropriate control action to prevent from severe loss. Socialization of pest and disease management has been done by PD 425/06 REV.1 (I) project in collaboration with R&D Centre for Forest Conservation and Rehabilitation, FORDA of the Ministry of Forestry, to local forestry offices at the provincial level, gaharu plant growers and general stakeholders.

17 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

Figure 5. Silviculture of gaharu. (1-2): Propagation by cuttings with KOFFCO system; (3): Effect of inoculation with beneficial microbes for promoting growth; (4): Gaharu plantation.

Figure 4. Silviculture of gaharu. (1-2): Propagation by cuttings with KOFFCO system; (3): Effect of inoculation with beneficial microbes for promoting growth; (4): Gaharu plantation.

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18 SILVICULTURE OF GAHARU PLANT Soil characteristics

Figure 6. Pests and disease of gaharu trees. (1): Leaf eater Heortia vitessoides; (2): Stem Borer; (3): Colony of ants, the predator of H. vitessoides: (4): Hearth-rot fungi.

3.4 Soil characteristics Soil is important ecosystem element that influences the growth of gaharu plant. Soil is originated from the process of rock decay and the process is influenced by climate, topography, soil organisms, and time. The characteristic of soil is specific and has an effect on vegetation composition above the soil. It is important to know the characteristics of soil that is suitable for gaharu plant. A study by Paoli et al. (2001) found that gaharu tree of Aquilaria malaccensis has a wide distribution suggesting it could be cultivated on many soil types, especially upland marginal soil. Pratiwi et al. (2009) analyzed physical and chemical characteristics of soil in three gaharu plantation sites. The study indicated that gaharu grew quite favorably in flat to undulating landscape, low to high temperature (20-32oC), and high rainfall (> 1500 mm/year), hard soil texture (clay), fast drainage, pH of about 4.5-5.1, very low to high base saturation (1.2%-78.8%) and low toxic element (Table 3 and 4).

19 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

Table 3. Soil physical characteristics of three gaharu plantation sites in Java Island, Indonesia

Kampung Tugu, Carita, Banten Dramaga, Bogor Depth Physical Sukabumi (cm) characteristics Value Category Value Category Value Category Texture ( %) 0-30 Sand 8.33 8.33 12.78 Silt 25.1 Clay 12.59 Clay 18.73 Clay Clay 66.57 79.08 68.49 30-60 Sand 8.55 6.33 9.95 Silt 22.1 Clay 11.98 Clay 5.9 Clay Clay 69.35 81.69 84.15 > 60 Sand 6.01 5.13 11.54 Silt 36.51 Clay 9.09 Clay 26.37 Clay Clay 57.48 85.78 62.09 Bulk density 0 0.9 0.93 0.97 30 0.87 0.84 0.86 60 0.96 0.9 0.83 Porosity (%) 0 65.86 64.99 63.43 30 66.99 68.45 67.59 60 63.85 66.21 68.75 (Source: Pratiwi et al., 2009)

Table 4. Soil chemical characteristics of three gaharu plantation sites in Java Island, Indonesia

Dramaga, Bogor Carita, Banten Kampung Tugu, Sukabumi Chemical characteristics Horizon 1 Horizon 2 Horizon 3 Horizon 1 Horizon 2 Horizon 3 Horizon 1 Horizon 2 Horizon 3 (0-30 cm) (30-60 cm) (> 60 cm) (0-30 cm) (30-60 cm) (> 60 cm) (0-30 cm) (30-60 cm) (> 60 cm)

pH H2O 1:1 4.70 (L) 4.60 (L) 4.50 (L) 4.60 (L) 4.50 (L) 4.60 (L) 5.10 (L) 5.10 (L) 4.60 (L)

Corg (%) 1.43 (L) 1.03 (L) 1.03 (L) 2.31 (Md.) 1.51 (L) 0.71 (VL) 1.60 (L) 2.07 (Md.) 1.01 (L)

Ntotal (%) 0.15 (L) 0.12(L) 0.11 (L) 0.17 (L) 0.14 (L) 0.08 (VL) 0.15(L) 0.18 (L) 0.11(L)

PBray (ppm) 1.70 (VL) 1.30 (VL) 1.7 (VL) 1.70 (VL) 1.20 (VL) 1.20 (VL) 3.90(VL) 3.70 (VL) 3.40(VL)

NH4OAc pH 7 (me/100 gr) Ca 5.29 (Md.) 4.17 (L) 5.32 (Md.) 1.49 (VL) 1.01 (VL) 1.00 (VL) 16.98 (H) 16.99 (H) 14.64 (H) Mg 1.19 (Md.) 1.09 (Md.) 1.70 (Md.) 0.75 (L) 0.53 (L) 0.52 (L) 10.52 (VH) 10.94 (VH) 10.05 (VH) K 0.44 (Md.) 0.44 (Md.) 0.58 (H) 0.16 (L) 0.14 (L) 0.13 (L) 0.71 (H) 0.40 (Md.) 0.22 (L) Na 0.30 (L) 0.26 (L) 0.26 (L) 0.20 (L) 0.22 (L) 0.21 (L) 0.36 (Md.) 0.43 (Md.) 0.22 (L) KTK 17.75 (VL) 16.61 (Md.) 16.99 (Md.) 15.77(L) 13.11 (L) 13.03 (L) 41.07 (VH) 36.48 (H) 39.35 (H) KB (%) 40.68 (Md.) 35.88 (Md.) 46.26 (Md.) 16.49 (VL) 14.49 (VL) 14.27 (VL) 69.56 (H) 78.84 (VH) 63.86 (H)

20 SILVICULTURE OF GAHARU PLANT Soil characteristics

KCl (me/100 gr) Al 3.72 (VL) 4.16 (VL) 4.90 (VL) 5.84 (L) 7.36 (L) 6.40 (L) 2.76 (VL) 2.76 (VL) 6.40 (L) H 0.33 0.36 0.41 0.49 0.53 0.45 0.3 0.3 0.42 0,05 N HCl (ppm) Fe 2.04 1.8 1.48 1.72 1 1.04 0.52 0.36 0.32 Cu 3.44 2.64 2.4 1.64 1.68 1.52 1.2 1.12 1.44 Zn 5.24 4.88 5.28 3 2.6 2.8 1.4 1.56 1.56 Mn 85.6 88.01 79.2 28.48 17.08 16.4 17 22.12 26.36 Notes: VL: very low; H: high; L: low; VH: very high; Md: Medium (Source: Pratiwi et al., 2009)

4 GAHARU BIOINDUCTION TECHNOLOGY

There are many beliefs on how gaharu is formed and these views have strongly been wrapped in myth and history. Only in the last few decades that more scientific approaches have been conducted. Scientists with assistance from the locals have tried to understand the mechanism involved in the formation of gaharu and conduct research based on their understanding. Experiments involve laboratory works and setting-up demonstration plots have been established in some countries, including China, Thailand, Indonesia, and Cambodia. Approach in these studies is generally done by wounding trees deliberately with different treatments to induce gaharu formation.

Some extensive researches and their findings are detailed in this chapter.

4.1 Deliberate tree wounding using mechanical tools Wounding gaharu tree using blade or hammering of nails into the trunks has been used widely in the past, however gaharu yielded from this treatment is generally of inferior quality and cannot meet the desired market demand (Persoon, 2007). It will take many years before high quality gaharu is formed. However, gaharu hunters in Papua New Guinea, for example Imnai village people (Yapsiei) that deliberately wounded gaharu trees in an attempt to stimulate gaharu production reported that they were able to harvest gaharu of B and C grades, three years after this treatment (Gunn et al., 2003). They believe that following this wounding, muddy water enters the tree through the wound is responsible for gaharu production. Pojanagaroon and Kaewrak investigated various mechanical methods in stimulating gaharu formation including making a holes with screws, wounding using chisels, and bark removal with hatchets. The study found that methods of injury had influence in gaharu formation and was determined by seasonal changes, rainy season accelerated gaharu formation faster than dry season. However, the gaharu produced by this method was reported to only yielded pale fragrant and small percentage of essential oil.

4.2 Deliberate tree drilling and chemical injection This effort involves drilling of trees and keeping the wound open by placing a small piece of plastic pipe in those holes followed by a chemical injection to stimulate tree defense mechanism that produces resin. The first project of this effort was initiated in Vietnam under a supervision from Prof. Robert Blanchette, a wood pathologist from the University of Minnesota who together with local farmers and Buddhist monks. They developed experimental plots to stimulate the production of gaharu and after years of trials, this treatment yielded gaharu. Dr. Blanchette stated that this artificial induction could yield gaharu ten times faster than natural formation (WWW page: http://forestpathology. coafes.umn.edu). This finding has gained appreciation and has been considered as one of the most successful finding (Persoon, 2007). This treatment causes tree to respond in two defense mechanisms, physical and chemical. The first is phloem cells form callus and the second, should callus formation is prevented, the tree produces resin.

23 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

Another country, Thailand being a large producers and consumers of gaharu traditionally, conducted similar experiment and establish gaharu plantation. The development of gaharu in this country has been intensive because of the rapid decrease in gaharu supply from the nature. Krissana Panasin company in Chantaburi, Southeast Thailand has established gaharu plantation of several hundred hectares. Similar project has been established in Merauke, Papua, Indonesia by a Catholic Church and in Papua New Guinea, which involves trials of numerous methods to treat the trees.

4.3 Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungal inoculum The formation of gaharu is a result of plant defense mechanism towards fungal attacks by producing resinous compounds as secondary metabolite. In their natural habitat, the process of resin accumulation as the result of tree-pathogen battle may take many years and the longer the process takes place the more expensive and highly valuable the resin is. Many scientists have been passionately trying to understand the cascade process of this tree-fungi interaction in producing gaharu. Isolation of various fungi from infected trees have been widely reported (Table 5).

The finding of novel technology to accelerate gaharu formation based on this mechanism continues to sprout and research has become more intensive. In this section, some experiments conducted in Indonesia for gaharu induction are presented. An emphasis is given for induction technology developed by Forestry Research and Development Agency and a thorough information is presented at the later part of this section.

Table 5. Fungi isolated from infected tree identified based on their morphological characteristics and experiments related with the fungal inoculation

No. Fungi Host isolated Activity Author

1. Torula sp. A. agallocha Formation of gaharu Bose (1934 in Burfield, 2005a) Stopped in 1931 due to inoculum contamination Sagopal (1959 in Burfield, 2005a) 2. Cladosporium sp. Obtained result but, trees were destroyed. Burfield (2005a). Work stopped and no later work yielded positive results 3. Epicoccum Further investigation of gaharu formation by fungus Battcaharrya (1952 in Burfield, granulatum 2005a) Prospecting the deliberate tree infection by fungus Sadopal (1960 in Burfield, 2005a) Showed conflicting results Varma (1977 in Burfield, 2005a) 4. Pencillium citrinum A. agallocha Ascribed spiral cavitation of the tracheid walls of the Hawksworth et al. (1976 in wood of A. agallocha to P. parasitica Burfield, 2005a) Aspergillus tamari Phialophora parasitica was frequently associated with Gibson (1977 in Burfield, 2005a) better quality portions of gaharu Aspergillus spp. Gaharu formation rarely occurred in trees under 25 Rahman (1980 in Burfield, 2005a) years old, and formation followed injury to the tree, for example following wind or storm damage Fusarium solani Botryodiplodia Theobromae Philophora parasitica 5. Cytosphaera The causative infective agent for standing trees Jaluddin (1977 in Burfield, mangiferae Died. 2005a)

24 GAHARU BIOINDUCTION TECHNOLOGY Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungal inoculum

No. Fungi Host isolated Activity Author

6. Aspergillus sp. A. agallocha seeds Tamuli et al. (1999 in Burfield, 2005a) Fusarium sp. A. agallocha Tamuli et al. (2000a in Burfield, rhizosphere 2005a) Penicillium sp. Epicoccum sp. 7. Fusarium oxysporum A. agallocha Succeeded in inoculating healthy wooden blocks so Tamuli et al. (2000 in Burfield, Schlect. that colony growth occurred 2005a) Chaetum globosum Colonies were deposited in cultures with the MTCC, Kunze Institute of Microbial Technology (CSIR), Chandigarh 8. Fusarium xylaroides Aquilaria spp. from Fusarium spp. Have successfully infected gaharu- Agustini et al. (2006) Java, Kalimantan, producing trees in the field and yielded gaharu Mollucas, Sumatra products Fusarium tricinctum Colonies were deposited in cultures with the FORDA CC, Laboratory of Forest and Nature Conservation R&D Center, Ministry of Forestry, Indonesia Fusarium solani Cylindrocarpon 9. Botryodiplodia Aquilaria spp. in Isolation of fungi from tropical rain forest in Rayong, Subansenee et al. (1985) theobromae Thailand Chanthaburi, Trad, Nakhon Ratchasima, Krabi, Trang and Pattarung, Thailand. Curvularia lunata Four species: B. theobromae, C. lunata, F. oxysporum, and Pestalotia sp. were parasitic and others were saprophytic. Fusarium oxysporum Pestalotia sp. Cercosporella sp. Chaetomium spirale Cladosporium sp. Phialogeniculata sp. Pithomyces sp. Rhizopus sp. Spiculostibella sp. Trichoderma sp.

A study by a group of researcher in Laboratory of Biotechnology, Agriculture Faculty, Mataram University, Indonesia conducted inoculation of fungi for stimulation of gaharu production. The group found that F. lateritum could be isolated and cultured in potato dextrose agar (PDA) media and that the fungi could form gaharu after 2-month injection to 4-year-old trees. Biology Tropical (BIOTROP) reported the use of stressing agent on a tree prior to fungal injection accelerated the formation of gaharu.

Artificial induction of five-seven year oldGyrinops versteegii trees in Mataram on Lombok Island and twelve Aquilaria spp. in Pekanbaru, Sumatra by drilling eight 10 cm deep by 1cm wide holes and inoculating with fiveFusarium spp. including Fusarium trifosfrium has been described by Tabata et al. (2003). The results showed that gaharu was observed around the drilled sites but uninoculated trees also formed gaharu. A combination of 2% sugar solution, Acremonium sp. and methyl jasmonate was reported to produce gaharu of kemedangan quality class IV and that wood discoloration, fragrance level, and terpenoids contents were independent criteria in determining gaharu quality (Yunita, 2009).

25 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

Research and development of artificial induction technology of gaharu in Forestry Research and Development Agency, Ministry of Forestry has started since 1984, but only in the last ten years that the activities have become more intensive (Table 6). The first trial for artificial induction was located in Sebadu Village, West Kalimantan, Indonesia by injecting five fungal-producing gaharu: Botryodiplodia sp., Fusarium oxysporum, F. bulbigenium, F. laseritium, and Phytium sp. on a total of 300 trees of 8-year-old A. microcarpa. Before injection, palm sugar and lubricant were added and mixed with the fungi. This preliminary study showed that the formation of gaharu was improved by the addition of palm sugar and lubricant. The three Fusarium species formed larger area of gaharu on the infected trees (Santoso, pers. comm.). The institution also collaborated with Provincial Forestry Institute in Kalimantan by injecting Fusarium sp. into 9-year-old A. malaccensis grown in Sempaja arboretum. After three months, gaharu formation was indicated by stem cracking and the skin was easily torn. The infected part of stem is fragrant when it was burnt confirming that gaharu was formed.

Table 6. Experimental plot of gaharu trees induction by deliberate tree drilling and Fusarium spp. injection in several locations across Indonesia

Number No. Location Gaharu tree species of trees induced

1. Bangka A. microcarpa 160 2. Bahorok, North Sumatra A. malaccensis 50 3. West Sumatra A. malaccensis 200 4. Carita, Banten A. microcarpa 300 5. Bodok, West Kalimantan A. microcarpa, A. malaccensis, 200 A. beccariana 6. Kandangan and Barabai, South Kalimantan A. malaccensis, A. microcarpa 800 7. Muaro, Jambi A. microcarpa 50 8. Bali Gyrinops versteegii 50 9. West Nusa Tenggara Gyrinops versteegii 200 10. Flores, East Nusa Tenggara Gyrinops versteegii 100 11. Seram, Molluca Aquilaria cummingiana 150 (Source: Santoso et al., unpublished data)

Novel findings by Santoso et al. have revealed important aspects that determine the successful of gaharu formation by artificial induction, i.e. methods of injection, fungal strain type, and growing media for delivering the fungi. Intensive studies for several years have confirmed efficient gaharu inducing methods (Figure 6, 7, and 8), as follows: 1. Injection hole is of small size of about 3 mm in diameter. The holes will be closed naturally by the plant, not long after inoculants injection. This closing process of the injection hole is important in stimulating the formation of gaharu 2. Inoculant is delivered in the form of liquid by injection with a syringe of about 1 ml per hole

26 GAHARU BIOINDUCTION TECHNOLOGY Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungal inoculum

3. Type of fungal strain determines the gaharu formed, so screening of efficient strain using few samples in several locations to confirm its efficiency is essential prior to establishing large demonstration plots 4. Spaces in between holes should be wide enough (about 25 cm apart) to prevent from overlapping of vertical disease development from each other’s hole 5. The quality of gaharu formed becomes higher with longer incubation time. the Gaharu product harvested after three years of induction using this method was classified as tanggung a grade higher than kemedangan, while gaharu harvested from shorter incubationgrade A-B period. was considered as kemedangan grade A-B.

Figure 7. An illustration of induction procedure for stimulation of gaharu formation. (1): Tree drilling to make about 5 mm diameter hole with Figure 6. An illus25tration cm spaceof induction in between procedure holes; for (2-3): stimulation one ml of of g liquidaharu inoculumformation. is (1): Tree drilling injected with a syringe; (4): one month after inoculation, the efficiency to make about 5 mm diameter hole with 25 cm space in between holes; (2-3): one ml of liquid of induction is observed by peeling a tree bark to observe the disease inoculum is injectedsymptom with a (Source:syringe; http://www.trubus-online.co.id/mod/publisher/(4): one month after inoculation, the efficiency of induction is observed by media/465.jpg.peeling a tree bark to observe the disease symptom (Source: http://www.trubus-online.co.id/mod/publisher/media/465.jpg

50 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

28 GAHARU BIOINDUCTION TECHNOLOGY Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungal inoculum

In search for gaharu-inducing fungi, thirty six fungi from infected gaharu trees from 17 provinces in Indonesia have been isolated and subsequently identified by means of 28S rRNA partial gene sequencing (Sitepu et al., in preparation for publication). Identification was conducted in the Laboratory of Forest Microbiology, FORDA using FUS1 and FUS2 primers that enabled amplification of up to 460-bp fragment. Most isolates identified were members ofFusarium solani species complex, only one isolate, FORDACC-02375, originated from East Kalimantan showed high similarity to Fusarium oxysporum (Table 5). This study highlighted a rapid molecular identification protocol for gaharu-inducing fungi over the conventional measure.

Table 7. Molecular identification of 36 strains of gaharu-inducing fungi collected from 17 provinces in Indonesia

No. Isolate Number Origin (Province) Molecular identification

1 FORDACC506 North Sumatra Fusarium solani 2 FORDACC509 Gorontalo Fusarium solani 3 FORDACC503 West Sumatra Fusarium solani 4 FORDACC512 Papua Fusarium solani

29 No. Isolate Number Origin (Province) Molecular identification

5 FORDACC500 Jambi Fusarium solani 6 FORDACC501 West Sumatra Fusarium solani 7 FORDACC510 Molucca Fusarium solani 8 FORDACC497 Central Kalimantan Fusarium solani 9 FORDACC499 West Kalimantan Fusarium solani 10 FORDACC2372 East Nusa Tenggara Fusarium solani 11 FORDACC504 Riau Fusarium solani 12 FORDACC514 Papua Fusarium solani 13 FORDACC502 West Sumatra Fusarium ambrosium 14 FORDACC515 East Nusa Tenggara Fusarium sp. 15 FORDACC2379 Molucca Fusarium solani 16 FORDACC511 West Nusa Tenggara Fusarium solani 17 FORDACC2370 Bangka Belitung Fusarium solani 18 FORDACC517 Bangka Belitung Fusarium solani 19 FORDACC513 Papua Fusarium solani 20 FORDACC519 West Java Fusarium falciforme 21 FORDACC2375 East Kalimantan Fusarium oxysporum 22 FORDACC520 West Java Fusarium solani f. batatas 23 FORDACC518 Babel Fusarium solani f. batatas 24 FORDACC2371 Babel Fusarium solani 25 FORDACC2377 West Java Fusarium solani 26 FORDACC507 Lampung Fusarium solani f. batatas 27 FORDACC498 Central Kalimantan Fusarium solani 28 FORDACC2369 West Sumatra Fusarium ambrosium 29 FORDACC495 South Kalimantan Fusarium solani 30 FORDACC2373 West Nusa Tenggara Fusarium solani f. batatas 31 FORDACC2374 East Kalimantan Fusarium solani 32 FORDACC508 Bengkulu Fusarium sp. 33 FORDACC505 North Sumatra Fusarium solani 34 FORDACC496 South Kalimantan Fusarium solani f. batatas 35 FORDACC516 Babel Fusarium solani 36 FORDACC2378 West Java Fusarium solani Note: FORDA CC: Forestry Research and Development Agency Culture Collection (Source: Sitepu et al., in preparation for publication).

30 5 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GAHARU

Gaharu is a resinous wood and it is the resin that determines the quality of gaharu. Many studies have revealed two major constituents of gaharu, i.e. sesquiterpenes and chromones, as the main source of the fragrant.

About 50 years ago, the chemical content of fragrant gaharu was isolated by Indian chemists from Aquilaria agallocha ROXB and they characterized several sesquiterpenes (Konishi et al., 2002). Twenty years later, Japanese scientists isolated and characterized many sesquiterpenes from two gaharu types, the first, presumably originated fromA. malaccensis and the second, “kanankoh” (in Japanese) (Konishi et al., 2002). Another constituent of gaharu was also revealed, i.e. an oxygenated chromone derivative, followed by isolations of two new chromone derivatives in 1989 and 1990 by Chinese scientists.

Sapwood gaharu exemplifies as merely unexuded resin, but rather it is deposited in the wood tissues of trees. This resin deposit renders the wood with loose fibers and white color becoming solidly compact, white in color, and fragrant in smell. This resin belongs to sesquiterpene group, which is easily volatile (Ishihara et al., 1991). Most of the compounds in gaharu are identified as sesquiterpenoid group. One of the fragrant- smelling compounds in gaharu was first identified by Bhattacharyya dan Jain asagarol, categorized as mono-hydroxy compunds (Prema and Bhattacharyya, 1962).

Research conducted by Nakanishi succeeded in characterizing jinkohol (2β-hydroxy- (+)-prezizane) in gaharu originated from Indonesia, through benzene extraction. This team also found two new sesquiterpene compounds in Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk. from Indonesia, comprising jincoheremol dan jincohol II, called as type B to differentiate it from the type A of A. agallocha Roxb., and isolated alpha-agarofuran and (-)-10-epi- gamma-eudesmol, oxo-agarospirol as the main constituent at gaharu type B (Burfield 2005b). In Burfield (2005b), it was stated that Yoneda managed to identify the main sesquiterpene that existed in gaharu type A (in A. agallocha) and type B (in A. malaccensis). Gaharu type A contained β-agarofuran 0,6%, nor-ketoagarofuran 0,6%, agarospirol 4,7%, jinkoh-eremol 4,0%, kusunol 2,9%, dihydrokaranone 2,4%, and oxo-agarospirol 5,8%. Meanwhile, in gaharu type B were identified compounds comprisingα -agarofuran(-)- 10-epi-γ-eudesmol 6,2%, agarospirol 7,2%, jinkohol 5,2%, jinko-eremol 3,7%, kusunol 3,4%, jinkohol II 5,6% dan oxo-agarospirol 3,1%.

Elucidation of structures of many kinds of 2-(2-phenylethyl) chromone and their derivative compounds have been thoroughly investigated by Japanese scientist and his group (Figure 9.) (Konishi et al., 2002).

31 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

Figure 10. Chemical structures of 6 2-(2-phenylethyl) chromones and an unkown 2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone (1), flidersiachromone. Compound (1): 2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone, flidersiachromone;

(2-7): 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromones, (2): C19H18O5, (3): C1H14O4, (4): 6-hydroxy-2-[2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]chromone, (5): dihydroxyl derivative of 2-(2-phenylethyl)-chromone, (6): C1H14O3, and (7): C18H16O4 (Source: Konishi et al., 2002).

Yagura et al. (2005) isolated novel chromone derivatives from gaharu, produced by intentionally wounding A. crassna and A. sinensis. The three compounds were characterized as diepoxy tetrahydrochromones have not been reported from natural gaharu product, i.e. Oxidoagarochromone with molecular formula of A (1) (C17H14O4);

B(2): (C18H16O5); C(3): C18H16O6 . Results regarding the analysis of GCMS (gas chromatography – mass spectrometry) on 6-month old induced-gaharu brought out 9 chemical constituents, of which only 4 constituents were identifiable that comprised 4-hydroxy-4-3thyl-2-pentanone (5.3%), Oxirane, 2,3-epoxy butane (0.6%), 2-butoxy ethanol (70.5%) dan 1,2 benzene dicarboxylix acid (9%) (Figure 10) (Wiyono, 2008).

32 constituents were identifiable that comprised 4-hydroxy-4-3thyl-2-pentanoneCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GAHARU (5.3%), Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungal inoculum Oxirane, 2,3-epoxy butane (0.6%), 2-butoxy ethanol (70.5%) dan 1,2 benzene dicarboxylix acid (9%) (Figure 10) (Wiyono, 2008).

(x100,000) TIC 4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 32.5 Figure 10. Chromatogram revealing constituents in 6-month old induced gaharu Figure 11. Chromatogram revealing constituents in 6-month old induced gaharu Further, results of GCMS analysis on the induced gaharu products Further, results of GCMS analysis on the induced gaharu products originated from originatedDramaga fromand Carita Dramaga each comprisingand Carita 2 each sample comprising trees revealed 2 sample that there trees were revealed 16 phenol that therecompounds were 16 that phenol belong compounds to high group, that and bel 8 phenolsong to highas low group, group (Tableand 8 6). phenols Scrutinizing as low that Table 6, it seems that there has occurred a sequence (series) of secondary metabolite groupprocess, (Table such 6). as the Scrutinizing evolving/release that ofTable iseugenol 6, it and seems veratrol that compounds there has that occurred function a as perfumes and medicine, whereby those two compounds are not encountered in regular sequencewood. The (series) veratrol of itself secondary is evolved metabolite from phenol process, compounds such that as undergo the evolving/release hydrolysis into of iseugenolcatechol, and which veratrol further compoun through ads sequence that function of complex as perfu mechanisms,mes and medicine, i.e. Kreb cycle, whereby is transformed to veratrol. Likewise, eugenol compounds are evolved from guaiacol (main thoseconstituent two compounds of lignin) through are not ferulic enc ounteredacid intermediate in regular (Waluyo wood. et al The., 2011). veratrol itself is evolvedResults from phenolof identification compounds on thatgaharu undergo resin indicated hydrolysis the into presence catechol, of whichcaryophene further throughcompounds a sequence that typify of the complex main constituents mechanisms, for eugenol i.e. Kreb which cycle, usually is existstransformed in clove to leaves. In gaharu resin were also identified cembren compounds (diterpenoid) that veratrol.comprised Likewise, a feromon eugenol compound compounds effective for are termites, evolved a palustrol from guaiacol compound (main as antitusive, constituent and copaene compounds that can function as essential oil and are rather toxic to be of lignin) through ferulic acid intermediate (Waluyo et al., 2011). taken orally if the LD is 5000 mg/kg Results of identification on gaharu resin indicated the presence of caryophene Recent study revealed distinct chemical compositions and its relative concentration compoundsof four gaharu that woods typify thefrom main A. microcarpa constituents that forwas eugenol artificially which induced usually by fourexistsFusarium in clove spp. from four different localities in Indonesia (Novriyanti et al., in press). Analysis using leaves.GCMS pyrolysis In gaharu revealed resin were that Fusariumalso identif sp.ied from cembren Tamiang compounds Layang, Central (diterpenoid) Kalimantan that comprisedhad the highest a feromon confirmed com poundconstituent effective (12.89%), for termites,but gaharu a induced palustrol by Fusarium compound sp. as from Molluca had the highest total concentration of odorant compounds (12.47%). antitusive, and copaene compounds that can function as essential oil and are rather Further study done by the same group of scientists at FORDA of the Ministry of toxicForestry, to be Indonesiataken orally compared if the LD the is chemical 5000 mg/kg contents of gaharu formed by natural process andRecent by artificial study induction revealed (Santoso distinct et al., unpublished chemical data).compositions The GCMS analysisand its showed relative differences in chemical contents of gaharu harvested from these two processes (Figure concentration11). of four gaharu woods from A. microcarpa that was artificially induced by fourGaharu Fusarium (Aquilaria spp. crassna from four, Aquilaria different sinensis localities) is well inknown Indonesia as an incense (Novriyanti in the orientalet al., in region such as Thailand, Taiwan, and Cambodia, and is used as digestive in tradisional press). Analysis using GCMS pyrolysis revealed that Fusarium sp. from Tamiang medicine. Gaharu leaves are drunk as a health tea in Thailand and Taiwan. Charateristic 57

33 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

sesquiterpenes and chromone derivates have been isolated from agarwood and some of these have sedative analgesic effects. Phytochemical research has been carried out on the trunk and resin of agarwood, but little is known about the pharmacological effects of agarwood leaves (Kakino et al., 2010).

Table 8. Phenol compounds present in the induced gaharu products

High total of Low total of No. Compound name phenolic phenolic H0C18 H0D7 H0C14 H0D10 1 benzene, 1,2-dimethoxy- (CAS) veratrol 0.38 0.19 2 1,2-benzenediol, 3-methyl- (CAS) 3- methylpyrocathecol 0.99 0.47 0.94 3 1,2-benzenediol (CAS) pyrocathecol 2.20 3.53 4.07 4 1,4-benzenediol, 2-methoxy- (CAS) hydroquinone, 0.14 0.36 2-methoxy 5 1,4-benzenediol/hydroquinone 8.91 10.93 6.41 6 phenol, 4-methoxy- (CAS) Hqmme 6.97 0.87 7 Caffeine 0.19 8 phenol, 2-ethoxy- (CAS) guethol 4.66 9 phenol, 4-ethyl-2-methoxy (CAS) pethylguaiacol 1.10 0.86 0.88 3.11 10 phenol, 2-methoxy-4-propyl- (CAS) 5-propylguaiacol 0.39 0.18 11 phenol, 2-methoxy- (CAS) guaiacol 4.43 2.64 1.56 12 phenol, 2-methoxy-4-(1-propenyl)- (E) (CAS) (E)- 0.95 0.85 1.12 1.38 isoeugenol 13 phenol, 2-methoxy-4-(2-propenyl)- (CAS) eugenol 0.19 14 Phenol, 4-(3-hydroxy-1-propenyl)-2-methoxy-(CAS) 4.23 3.92 3.56 1.44 coniferil alkohol 15 phenol, 3,4,5-trimethoxy (CAS) antiarol 0.88 1.69 2.01 16 quinic acid 5.96 1.19 0.69 17 4H-1-benzopyran-4-one, 2-methyl- (CAS) 1.23 2-methylchromone 18 4H-1-benzopyran-4-one, 6-hydroxy-2-methyl- (CAS) 0.10 6-hydroxy-2-methylchromone 19 benzaldehyde, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy- (CAS) vanilin 0.70 20 benzeneacetic acid, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-(CAS) 0.56 homovanillic acid 21 Capcaisin 0.09 22 Jasmolin II (CAS) cyclopropane carboxylic acid, 0.22 3-(3-methoxy- 23 octanoic acid (CAS) caprylic acid 0.16 24 1,3-benzenediol, 4-ethyl- (CAS) 4-ethylresorcinol 1.40 Total 40.45 39.89 19.78 22.57

Remarks: Relative concentration in percentage (%); trees with high total of phenolic compounds are presumed as the resistant trees; trees with low lotal of phenolic compounds are presumed as the vulnerable trees; H0C18 = sample tree with code-number 18, growing in Carita; H0C14 = sample tree with code-number 14, growing in Carita; H0D7 = sample tree with code-numbered 7, growing in Dramaga; H0D10 = sample tree with code-numbered 10, growing in Dramaga. Source : Novriyanti (2008)

34 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GAHARU Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungal inoculum (1) (2)

35 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide (3) (4) Figure 1. Chemical content of gaharu originated from natural process and artificial induction. (1): Natural natural process 1. Chemical content of gaharu originated from Figure gaharu of West Kalimantan origin; (2): Gaharu from deliberate inoculation with isolate from West Kalimantan; West deliberate inoculation with isolate from Kalimantan origin; (2): Gaharu from gaharu of West Gorontalo deliberate inoculation with isolate from origin; (4): Gaharu from (3): Natural gaharu of Gorontalo Santoso et al., unpublished data). (Source: (4)

Figure 12.

36 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GAHARU Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungal inoculum

Gaharu oil for use in aromatherapy has attracted more and more attention nowadays, especially for psychosomatic disease caused by stress. In the United Stated, aromatherapy is allowed for clinical use in syndromes, such as Attention Deficit Disorder and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (Takemoto et al., 2008). During the aromatherapy, volatile compound is inhaled and it is important to know its pharmacological activity. The composition of volatile compounds in gaharu oil varies. Takemoto et al. (2008) examined two types of gaharu oil, i.e. from a Hong Kong market and originated in Vietnam, by SPME-GCMS to characterize their volatile compounds. SPME-GC analysis revealed the composition in the gas phase, as follows: sample originated from Hong Kong market contained 47.1% benzylacetone, and sample of Vietnam made contained 61.5% a-gurjunene and 24.7% (+)-calarene as the main volatile components. GC analyses revealed volatile mass in a liquid extract, as follows: benzylacetone was accounted for only 0.96%, a-gurjunene for 15.1% and (+)-calarene for 17.3% of the whole oil (Figure 12). Spontaneous vapor administration system applied using 400µl of gaharu oil showed that these two oil types gave similar sedative activity although the main component of each oil was different (Takemoto et al., 2008).

Figure 13. Structures of compound from gaharu oil

When used as sedative, gaharu may affect central nervous system. A sesquiterpene characterized as spirovetivane-type sesquiterpene, (4R,5R,7R)-1(10)-spirovetiven -11-ol- 2-one at a concentration of 100µg/ml, caused an induction effect on brain-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA expression in vitro neuronal cells of rat (Ueda et al., 2006).

Other part of gaharu tree, leaves have been reported to have laxative effect. Oral administration of acetone leaf extracts of Aquilaria sinenses gave a mild laxative effect in mice, but it did not cause diarrhea as a severe side effect and the main constituent that contributed to this effect was characterized as genkwanin 5-O-b-primeveroside (Figure 13) (Hara et al., 2008).

37 Figure 14. Major constituent genkwanin 5-O-b-primeveroside compound that caused mild laxative effect in mice (Source: Hara et al., 2008).

38 6 GAHARU PRODUCTS AND TRADING

Today, the range of gaharu products seems endless from raw materials to various by-products. Varieties of gaharu products continue to blossom in particular, in countries where gaharu has been appreciated for many years traditionally and historically. In Japan, Korea and Taiwan, countries with long tradition of gaharu, for instance, solid heartwood of gaharu is crafted to form beautiful sculptures, appreciated as ‘natural art’. In these countries also, gaharu is used make beads and bracelets (Persoon, 2007). The unscented wood of gaharu has been used in Assam for papermaking, while the wood fiber is used for ropemaking. In Taiwan, gaharu is used as wine ingredient in Chu-yeh Ching and Vo ka Py. Japan and Arab, however demand high quality gaharu to be further processed. Most of the resinous woods is processed and formed into chips, oil and powder (Figure 14 and 15).

Gaharu incense and perfumes are used as a skin daub for embalming, and to give fragrant to soap and shampoo. Oil is used in the production of perfume as fixative and other cosmetics. The oil is also used in the production of traditional Chinese and Korean medicine, medicinal wine and various other products. In Arab, the essential oil of gaharu is the most expensive oil which can be ten times more expensive than sandalwood oil. Soap and hand body lotion from gaharu oil have also emerged for beautifying skins. The oil is extracted from the gaharu through distillation. This delicate process determines both the amount and quality of oil produced. With the exception of large solid pieces of gaharu which are traded as individual pieces, most of the wood is ground into very small pieces or powder, which is immersed in water and left to ferment over time. Then the material is transferred to distillation kettles and steamed. After heating, the condensed water and oil are captured in a container where the oil floats on top of the water. The water is removed and the oil is tapped. The price of high quality oil can be as much as US$50,000 to US$80,000 per litre. This process can be repeated once or twice depending on the quality of the water and the costs of the distillation process. The powder which remains after distillation can be used for low grade incense making. It is estimated that for the production of one litre of oil 100 to 150 kilos of gaharu is necessary.

A range of capacity in oil production per tree was reported in Cropwatch (2005). An 80 year old tree could yield 6-9 kg of gaharu oil, although another report in India suggested yield of 2-7 – 3.6 kg oil/tree. A much lower yield of 1 kg oil/tree was also reported.

Most gaharu traders estimate the quality of gaharu organoleptically. Grading quality based on botanical description and its origin is not in place. A practical analysis of its chemical content is also highly difficult for practical implementation at the trading sites. CITES also regulates all parts and derivatives of Aquilaria spp., Gyrinops spp. and Gonystylus spp. and it also includes: (a) seeds, spores and pollen (including pollinia); (b) seedling or tissue cultures obtained in vitro, in solid or liquid media, transported in sterile containers, and (c) cut flowers of artificially propagated plants. Although CITES has regulated species protected to prevent from extinction, the source of large amount of gaharu stocks for trading are still illegal and a practical technique to identify its origin

39 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

is urgently needed. It is suggested that DNA sequence markers and DNA fragment markers are the solution to prevent illegal trades (Cropwatch, 2005).

Therefore, gaharu has social, cultural and economic value which is considerably high. Traditionally, gaharu is utilized among other things in the form of incense for religious and ritual purposes, fragrant producing substance for rooms and bodies, cosmetic materials and simple medicine. At present, utilization of gaharu has developed extensively for among other things perfumery, aroma therapy, soap, body lotion, and medicinal materials which possess properties as anti asthma, anti microbes, and stimulator of nerve works and digestion. Increase in gaharu trade since the last three decades creates scarcity in the production of gubal gaharu from nature. According to some information, gaharu price with super quality in local markets of Samarinda, Tarakan, and Nunukan (East Kalimantan) reached between Rp 40.000.000,- and Rp 50.000.000,- per kilogram, followed in terms of rank with that of Tanggung quality with average price per kilogram of Rp 20.000.000,-, and that of Kemedangan quality (Rp 1.000.000,- to Rp 4.000.000,-), and Suloan quality (Rp75.000,-).

There are several important substances contained in gubal gaharu, namely (-agarofuran, (-agarofuran, nor-ketoaaga-rofuran, (-)-10-epi-y-eudesmol, agarospirol, jinkohol, jinkohon-eremol, kusunol, dihydrokaranone, jinkohol II and oxo-aga-rospirol. Susilo (2003) explained further that there are 17 kinds of substance occurring in gaharu, such as: noroxoagarofuran, agarospirol, 3,4 –dihydroxy-dihydro-agarufuran, p-methoxy- benzylaceton, and aquillochin. Oiler (without year) in Suhartono and Mardiastuti (2003) stated that there are 31 chemical elements contained in gaharu and the main chemical constitutents are 2-(2-(4 methoxyphenyl)ethil)chromone (27%) and 2-(2-phenylethyl) chromone (15%).

Gaharu with its specific aroma is used by people in the middle-east as materials for fragrance products. In China, gaharu is utilized as medicine for stomach ache, kidney disturbances, hepatitis, asthma, cancer, tumor and stress. Besides that, gaharu has been used as raw materials for industry of perfumery, cosmetics and preservatives for various kinds of accessory.

Because of its fragrant aroma, gubal gaharu is traded as elite commodity for industry of perfumery, bead rosary, cosmetics, incense, chinese joss stick, and medicines. Besides that, with the development of science and technology of industry, at present, various countries utilize gaharu as fragrance producing materials (perfumery) and cosmetics. There is also development of industry of gaharu utilization as raw materials for herbal medicine (to cure stress, asthma, rheumatism, gastric and kidney inflammation, malaria, diseases which should be treated with antibiotics, TBC, liver, cancer, and tumors) which are still in the process of clinical tests.

Because not all gaharu producing plants contain gaharu, the knowledge and technique of estimating gaharu contents in gaharu producing plants which are infected with gaharu forming fungi, need to be mastered, particularly by novice harvesters, so there will be no mistake of cutting trees which do not contain gaharu. The characteristics of gaharu producing plants which contain gaharu are among other things: leaves have yellow color and are shed, tree crown is small and thin, tree branches are many and broken, there are many protuberances and curved parts along the stem and branches of the tree, and the bark is dry and brittle and if pulled is easily broken. After those characteristics are found, wounding test is performed on the tree stem by using axe or

40 GAHARU PRODUCTS AND TRADING Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungal inoculum machette. To get more assurance, the wood chips are burnt to learn whether there is discharge of aromatic fragrance which is typical of gaharu.

Gaharu producing tree which has been confirmed to contain gaharu is felled and subsequently cut into several segments and split to have its gaharu taken out. In Sumatra and Kalimantan, this kind of technique to harvest gaharu is called servis, puncut or pahat. Other technique which is practiced in communities of Dayak Kenyah and Dayak Punan in East Kalimantan is by slicing and cutting the woody parts of gaharu producing plants which are infected by disease, up to the middle of the stem. This technique is called tubuk. Wood segments which contain gaharu are afterwards collected and the wood parts are gradually separated from gaharu by using small knife or concave chisel.

Up to now, gaharu products which are originated from nature are marketed in the form of lumps. But there are also products in the form distilled oil products. The technique of gaharu oil distillation could be conducted with two systems, namely hot steaming and vapor pressure. Price of gaharu oil in Jakarta market is Rp 750.000/tolak (1 tolak = 12 cc).

Classification of gaharu quality in East Kalimantan, specifically in Samarinda town and the surrounding areas has not been uniform (Table 8) and the determination of the quality is conducted visually. Variability and unclear determination of the quality create differing selling prices for the same class of quality. With the fact that national standard for gaharu quality (SNI 01-5009.1-1999) has been determined, it is hoped that this quality standard could serve as reference for gaharu business people, collecting traders, and gaharu harvesters in determining gaharu quality classes. Table 7 and Table 8 present criteria and classification of gaharu quality.

In general, gaharu quality could be categorized into six classes of quality, namely super, tanggung, kacangan, teri, kemedangan, and cincangan and each quality class is classified further into several sub-classes of quality.

Table 9. Classification of gaharu quality in Samarinda (East Kalimantan)

Quality Classification No. Location Super Tanggung Kacangan Teri Kemedangan Cincangan 1. Samarinda Super king Kacangan A Teri A Kemedangan A Super A Kacangan B Teri B Kemedangan B Super AB Kacangan C Teri C Kemedangan Teri kulit A community Teri kulit B 2. Muara Kaman Kacangan isi Teri isi Sudokan Kacangan Teri kulit Serbuk kosong 3. Kota Bangun Super A Kacangan A Teri A Serbuk Super B Kacangan B Teri B 4. Muara Wahau Super A Tanggung Kacangan isi Teri Super Super B isi Kacangan Teri Laying Tanggung kosong kosong Source : Forestry Research Institute, Samarinda, East Kalimantan (Siran and Turjaman, 2010)

41 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

Table 10. Criteria and classification of gaharu quality

No Classification Criteria

1 Super Gaharu has intense black color; is dense, hard, glossy and very smelly. There is no mixture with wood fiber. Gaharu is in the form of chunks or grains with large size, whose inner part is not hollow. 2 Tanggung Gaharu has brown and black color; is dense and hard; the inner part is hollow, sometimes is mixed with wood fiber and has intermediate size. 3 Kacangan Gaharu has black color and sometimes is mixed with brown color; is mixed with wood; is in the form of grains as large as peanut or with diameter of around 2 mm. 4. Teri Gaharu has black color which is sometimes mixed with brown color; is mixed with wood; is in the form of grains smaller and thinner than peanut seed, or with diameter of around 1 mm. 5 Kemedangan Wood which contains sap of gaharu 6 Cincangan Small segments of wood from gaharu separation Source: Forestry Research and Development Agency of Kalimantan (Siran and Turjaman, 2010)

Based on market information in Samarinda (Table 9) gaharu price with super quality could reach Rp 30 000 000 per kg, followed in terms of rank, with tanggung quality with average price of Rp 10 000 000,- per kg. Gaharu with lowest quality has the price of around Rp 25 000 per kg, and generally is used as raw materials of distillation to produce gaharu oil. Visual appearance of several samples of gaharu could be seen in Figure 16.

Table 11. Selling price of gaharu in markets of Samarinda, in East Kalimantan

No Quality classes Price (Rp / kg) 1. Super King 30 000 000 Super 20 000 000 Super AB 15 000 000 2. Tanggung 10 000 000 3. Kacangan A 7 500 000 Kacangan B 5 000 000 Kacangan C 2 500 000 4. Teri A 1 000 000 Teri B 750 000 Teri C 500 000 Teri Kulit A 300 000 Teri Kulit B 250 000 5. Kemedangan A 100 000 Kemedangan B 75 000 Kemedangan C 50 000 6. Suloan 25 000 Source: Forestry Research and Development Agency of Kalimantan, 2006

42 GAHARU PRODUCTS AND TRADING Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungal inoculum

On the basis of Decree of Chief of National Standardization Agency (BSN) No. 1386/ BSN-I/HK.71/ 09/99, there has been decision on National Standard of gaharu quality with the following title and number: Gaharu SNI 01-5009.1-1999. In this standard, there are descriptions on definition of gaharu, symbols and abbreviations being used, terminology, specification, classification, harvesting technique, quality requirements, sample collection, testing technique, requirements for passing the test and requirements for marking / labeling. Classification of gaharu quality categorizes the quality into gubal gaharu, kemedangan, and abu gaharu. Each quality class is further categorized into several sub-classes on the basis of size, color, content of damar wangi, fiber, weight and the appearing aroma when being burnt.

According to SNI 01-5009.1-1999, what it means with gubal gaharu is wood which is originated from trees or part of gaharu producing trees, with strong aroma, marked with its black color or blackish interspersed with brown color. On the other hand, what it means with kemedangan is wood which is originated from trees or part of gaharu producing trees, which posses content of damar wangi with weak aroma, marked by its color which ranges from grayish white to brownish, coarse fiber and soft wood. Abu gaharu is wood powder which constitute the remnants from separation of gaharu from wood. Classification of gaharu quality according to Indonesian National Standard could be seen in Table 10.

Table 12. Classification of gaharu quality according to Indonesian National Standard (SNI)

Equivalence with Smell / odor / Classification of Content of No quality standard Color aroma (being quality damar wangi in the markets burnt) A Gubal 1 Primary quality Super Homogeneous black high Strong 2 Quality I Super AB Brownish black sufficient Strong 3 Quality II Sabah Super Brownish black moderate Rather strong B Kemedangan 1 Quality I Tanggung A Blackish brown high Rather strong 2 Quality II Sabah I Brown with black stripes sufficient Rather strong 3 Quality III Tanggung AB Brown with thin white moderate Rather strong stripes 4 Quality IV Tanggung C Brownish with thin white moderate Rather strong stripes 5 Quality V Kemedangan I Brownish with broad white moderate Rather strong strips 6 Quality VI Kemedangan II Grayish white with thin insufficient Not strong black stripes enough 7 Quality VII Kemedangan III Grayish white insuffficient Not strong enough C Abu gaharu 1 Primary quality cincangan Black high Strong 2 Quality I moderate Moderate 3 Quality II insufficient Insufficient

43 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

Process of gaharu marketing in various places in Indonesia starts from the activity of gaharu harvesters who sell the gaharu they collected in the field to collecting traders in the village or in the subdsitrict. Afterwards, the collecting traders sell the commodity to larger trader (exporter) in the provincial capital.

In the world of gaharu trade, either in Indonesia or abroad, gaharu becomes prime commodity and affords high-commercial value, thereby being hunted a lot by consumers. Gaharu as traded in Indonesia consists of 3 kinds, i.e. gaharu originated from Sumatera and Kalimntan with the species of Aquilaria malccensis and A. microcrapa; gaharu from Papua, Sulawesi, and Maluku with the species of Aquilaria filaria; and gaharu with species of Gyrinops sp. as produced a lot in Nusa Tenggara. When thoroughly scrutinized, the trade of gaharu as produced naturally in Indonesia since a long time ago has placed a foothold more on the ecology distribution of those gaharu species.

The marketing of gaharu which signifies as one of the ways of flora and fauna uses is regulated in accordance with the Government Decree No. 8 in 1999 and the Convention on International Trade on Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES). Therefore, the uses of gaharu in general should follows its stages and regulations, i.e. quota determination, its procurement from the nature or cultivation (breeding), transportation for the domestic distribution as well as for distribution abroad/overseas.

The domestic marketing of gaharu begins from the procurement activities, transportation, and domestic distribution, until ultimately the consumers. Due to the technology development, the gaharu as traded inside Indonesia (domestic) currently is not only limited to chip shapes or pieces with variety of classes, but also already oriented to its derivative products, such as oil, soap, polishing agent, whitening-cream, lotion, hio, mosquito repellents, face cleaner, and drugs for therapy aroma. Even, until this occasion, there have been developed the leaves from the species Aquilaria sp. and Gyrinops sp. as the ingredients for tea beverages, due to high anti-oxidant content in those leaves.

Viewed from the business/enterpriser actors, there are a lot of parties involved in gaharu trade, either individually, in group, or in institution. Since the number of enterprise actors, such as gaharu seekers and collecting traders in the upstream (forest or village around the forests) are greater to those of middle-scale or large-scale traders who stay in the regency or province capitols, then there is a trend among them to press or bring down the gaharu price. Therefore, the feature of gaharu marketing Indonesia is more suitable regarded as monopoly market, which implies the market controlled by the buyers, since they determine the price as well as qualities of gaharu.

The marketing of gaharu domestically occurs due to the relation between the gaharu suppliers and the recipient towns/centers. Traditionally, the places serving as gaharu suppliers comprise Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Papua, Maluku, East Nusa Tenggara, and West Nusa Tenggara. These places, although situated on the western part of Indonesia, are easily accessible thereby assisting themselves a lot as gaharu suppliers to Jakarta. Moreover, added to this, western part of Indonesia, such as Sumatera (including) Riau also serves significantly as the gaharu suppliers. It is presumed that a lot of gaharu is traded illegally from Sumatera through Riau to Singapore and Malaysia.

Several problems as frequently encountered in the field are among others difficulty in determining species/kinds of gaharu, its standard and qualities, and in determining the

44 GAHARU PRODUCTS AND TRADING Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungal inoculum prices which are appropriate thereby bringing benefits to both parties, i.e. consumers and producers.

Physically, the gaharu products are difficult to differentiate based on its host-tree origins. Likewise, from the color and aroma, it is also difficult for the common people or the early traders to tell difference between various gaharu products. Due to these concerns, one of the gaharu-yielding tree species may become extinct rapidly, and therefore such species such as A. malaccensis, A. microcarpa, A. filaria, and Gyrinops sp. are regulated in their trades by the international trade convention, i.e. the CITES, through the quota system.

According to the ASGARIN (Association of Indonesia’s Gaharu Enterprises), the gaharu products as traded abroad follows the tastes of consumers. Gaharu with super qualities (i.e. superking, super A and AB) is commonly marketed to Middle East countries, used as materials for religious ceremony, fragrances, and therapy aroma. Meanwhile, gaharu with medium qualities and lower is exported more to South Asia countries, used as raw material for the manufacture of perfumes and for ritual ceremony in shapes such as hio, makmul, etc.

In the last several years, there have been trends that the consumers from Taiwan imported gaharu in log shape. Gaharu in logs inside which its content is only a little is used as ornaments placed on a room, provided a little with the carving technology, thereby giving impression as if luxurious and highly artistic. In Figure 17 can be seen several pieces of gaharu still in logs which are ready for export. The overall value of that gaharu prices not less than Rp. 600 million. During the last three years, amount of gaharu in quota and realization as exported is presented in the following (Table 11).

Table 13. Development of quota and realization related to the eagle wood export from Indonesia

Species of gaharu-yielding trees Years A. malaccensis A.filaria Gyrinops sp. 2007 30 000 (Q) 76 000 (Q) 24 000 (Q) 23 709 (R) 76 000 (R) 8 000 (R) 2008 30 000 (Q) 65 000 (Q) 25 000 (Q) 30 000 (R) 65 000 (R) 25 000 (R) 2009 173 250 (Q) 455 000 (Q) 74 890 (R) 326 882 (R) Note : Q = quota; R = Realization.

The above table shows that the quota of gaharu export in 2007 from those three species was only met by the species A. filaria, while the export realization for A. malaccensis could not satisfy its quota; and even for Gyrinops sp., its export realization could only meet 30% of its predetermined quota. On the other hand, in 2008 the export realization for those three species could satisfy 100% of their predetermined quota. Further, in 2009 there was a sharp increase in export quota for A. malaccensis as much as almost 6 folds, while even for A. filarial there was a 7-fold increase in its export quota. According to a particular source, that situation occurred because new potency was found, where previously its inventories were unnoticed; for examples, for the species of A. filarialin Papua, much of it was still buried far below the swamps there.

45 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

The ASGARIN stated that the centers of world gaharu trade regarded as very important are situated at Singapore and Riyadh (Saudi Arabia). Those two countries become the place or the main destination for gaharu export from Indonesia and also from South East Asia, such as Vietnam and Cambodia. In Singapore the gaharu that enters is sorted and packaged, and then re-exported to India, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Japan, and a part to Middle East. Meanwhile, the gaharu that enters Saudi Arabia is distributed again to other surrounding countries, and a part exported to England and France.

Figure 15. Gaharu products.

46 GAHARU PRODUCTS AND TRADING Deliberate tree drilling and inoculation of fungal inoculum

Figure 16. Other gaharu products

Figure 17. Gaharu classes of quality: (a) Tanggung; (b) Kacangan ; (c) Teri and (d) Kemedangan.

47 Figure 18. Several pieces of gaharu still in logs which are ready for export.

48 7 CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF GAHARU

In their natural habitat, gaharu is harvested by felling trees and cutting away uninfected tissue to obtain the resinous wood. Gaharu is hunted intensively by collectors due to high value of gaharu and significantly increased demand, while the supplies from the wilds have become scarce. Other concurrent activities: land clearing, forest exploitation, forest fire also contribute to the disappearance of gaharu-producing trees in a relatively short time (TRAFFIC, CoP13 Prop.49, 2004). In the past, only infected trees were cut down and harvested for gaharu, however when the trees have become rare, collectors would cut down also healthy plants regardless the low quality of gaharu (TRAFFIC, CoP13 Prop.49, 2004). When collectors are hunting for gaharu, they will harvest the whole tree without considering the species of the tree (TRAFFIC, CoP13 Prop.49, 2004). The unsustainable way of harvesting of gaharu by collectors and the diminishing trees in their natural habitat have placed two genera of gaharu, Aquilaria and Gyrinops in CITES, Appendix II as threatened genera according to the IUCN Red List in order to sustain gaharu producing species in their natural habitat. Collectors of gaharu reported that it has become more difficult to find gaharu compared to previous years (TRAFFIC, CoP13 Prop.49, 2004).

Rapid depletion of A. malaccensis was recorded in Gunung Palung National Park, West Kalimantan, Indonesia and the surrounding area (Paoli et al., 2001). Gaharu was first harvested exclusively from near villages where trees were abundant. However, exploitation continued and extended to the protected national park area. In less than 5 years, the scientists reported that most A. malaccensis was removed from the park. This national park covers a total area of 100,000 ha of a diverse mosaic tropical rain forest type. At the time of survey, the density of A. malaccensis in was low but the species was widely distributed in six forest types: freshwater, swamp, alluvial bench, lowland sandstone, lowland granite, and lower montane. With only 20 cm in diameter at breast height (dbh) which was below the estimated 35 cm dbh, placed the species at high risk of extinction because the tree has not reached maturity. In this forest also, regeneration of Aquilaria was highly variable among forest types and appeared highest in lowland standstone and lowland granite forest (Paoli et al., 2001).

In order to sustain gaharu production as well as the existence of gaharu-producing trees, Suhartono and Newton (2001) suggested increasing cultivation of gaharu in plantations. The capacity of seeds to disperse is limited, therefore a high density of trees may be established as seed orchards. Since the production rates of seeds and germination rates are high, it is potential for producing planting stock for commercial scale.

Botanics Garden Conservation International listed recommendation of essential efforts to secure and conserve the remaining wild populations of gaharu-producing species that included, as follows (Gratzfeld and Tan, 2008, www page).

49 1. Strengthen institutional cooperation and coordination. Various stakeholders including local collectors, processors, traders, government and conservation agencies, botanic gardens and businesses need to take part in this action. 2. Improve capacity building and intensify training related with gaharu conservation and sustainable production that may include integrated ex- and in situ species recovery programs, silviculture and management practices 3. Establish practical conservation and sustainable production in demonstration projects, aiming to enhance 1): conservation of remaining wild populations of gaharu producing tree species (e.g. in community managed protected areas); 2): ex situ propagation of critically endangered species in village nurseries, local botanic gardens, etc.; and 3): subsequent reintroduction into the wild. Many local community livelihoods depend on the wilds for harvesting gaharu and serious implementation of conservation and sustainable production practices will help to provide a complementary approach to harvesting wild trees and to relieve pressure on the remaining highly threatened gaharu-producing species.

50 8 EXIT STRATEGY

8.1 The Role of Institution Several institutions and stakeholders who possibly will participate in activities of gaharu development following the ITTO PD 425/06 Rev.1 (1) project are presented in Table 12. The FORDA serves as a central institution that has put on the move the activities of gaharu development by initiating the formation of the so-called Indonesia’s Gaharu Forum (IGF), and communicating with Forestry Services at the levels of consecutively privince/regency, private sectors, and gaharu farmers.

The main key to the gaharu development is that intensity of cultivation and planting of gaharu-yielding tress should be socialized extensively in order that the availability of gaharu-yielding trees in the future becomes sustainable. Results of visits to several locations of natural-gaharu centers turned out that the knowledge of famers in gaharu- tree cultivation is still limited. Most of the farmers around the forests have not yet known the shape of fruits and seeds of gaharu trees. The distribution of gaharu trees as so far naturally scattered in Sumatera and Kalimantan is often encountered growing between the rubber trees owned by the community. Research results on the field revealed that the distribution of natural gaharu trees is assistad by mammalian creatures such as squirrels and forest mice, which assist the distribution (spreading) of gaharu-tree seeds. At the center of natural gaharu-yielding trees, there have been found such trees but it is uncertain whether or not they contain gaharu sapwood. In the initial sage, farmers are asked to make inventories on the nature shrubs that exist around their host trees which can be used as seed sources. The uprooting of gaharu-tree seeds still becomes the basis in the regeneration of gaharu-yielding trees. Results of survey conducted by the research team of the ITTO’s PD 425/06 Rev.1 (1) found out gaharu-planting pattern done by the farmers who intercrop gaharu tress between rubber trees or oil-palm trees. The planting (cultivation) of gaharu trees as intercropped with rubber trees provides the favorable combined benefits for the related farmers. At present, the farmers obtained benefits from rubber harvest worth in price more than Rp. 20,000 per kg (of rubber). This daily revenue is regarded as the fixed daily income of the famers, and the gaharu- yielding trees as planted serve as the long-termed investment.

The production of gaharu resulting from the cultivation that will be sustainable through the bio-inducement technology is determined by the availability of gaharu inoculum. The gaharu-inoculum availability which is practical, efficient, and cheap implies that the technology products must reach the user hand. In the near future, the Institute for Forestry Research has been asked to assist the inoculum production in the gaharu- yielding centers. The Exit Strategy that will be initiated incorporates the technology transfer and establishment of “gaharu center” at the Institute for Forestry Research (IFR) in Mataram (West Nusa Tenggara). This institute owns the core researches about Non- Timber Forest Products (NTFPs), among others gaharu research. They have prepared laboratory facilities and capable-human resources. In the future, the Mataram’s IFR will focus on endemic species of Gyrinops spp. and fungi for local-gaharu formation, which will be developed in Bali, West Nusa Tenggara, East Nusa Tenggara.

51 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

Table 14. Several institutions/stakeholder who will carry out the exit strategy following the ITTO’s PD 425/06 Rev. 1 (I) project

No Institution Exit strategy Activities

1. Forestry Research • Continuing strategy research on • Allocation of research funds and Development gaharu development • Empowerment of Forestry Agency (FORDA) • Arranging and organizing the Research Institute master plans • Encouraging PHKA/LIPI (Forest Protection and Nature Conservation/ Indonesia’s Scientific Authority) to formulate special policies on gaharu resulting from the cultivation 2. Indonesia’s Gaharu Coordination among stakeholders IGF will prepare data base of Forum and preparing action plans for gaharu gaharu tree plantation for each development regency in Indonesia 3. Forestry Services at Make action plans for gaharu plantation Preparing gaharu seeds and Province/Regency and inoculation program inoculum from the regional- levels government budget 4. Private sectors Cooperation regarding the investment Preparing capital for bio- in bio-inducement activities with farmer inducement activities and groups planting of gaharu seeds 5. Farmer groups Extending the planting activities with Preparing gaharu-yielding particular patterns trees

Scrutinizing the proposal of ITTO’s PD 425/06 Rev.1 (I), the exit strategy should deserve a thorough response or follow-up based on specific activities which have been done in three years, as follows (Table 13):

Table 15. Exit strategy based on activities of gaharu development at the ITTO’s PD 425/06 Rev.1 (I)

No. Activities Exit Strategy

1. Preparing the demonstra- a. Forest area for special purposes at Carita (Province of Banten) tion plot • Cooperation between farmer groups and FORDA , which has been endorsed to manage 24-hectare area of gaharu-yielding trees. The forest farmer-group will manage and take care of gaharu-yielding trees, and concurrently the FORDA will prepare the gaharu inoculum together with the training. • The FORDA owns 300 trees which have been induced by the fungi Fusarium spp. The observation is conducted each year to measure the qualities of gaharu as formed. b. Regency of Kandangan/Barabai (South Kalimantan) • Agreement on the cooperation between gaharu-enterprise group (called Nanda Agribiz) and 44 members of farmer group who own over 400 trees which have been induced by the fungi Fusarium spp. c. Sanggau (Kalbar) • The farmer group who has owned over 200 gaharu-yielding trees which have been induced. They have conducted cooperation with private sectors to induce 3,500 trees. In 2011, as many as 600 gaharu trees will be induced.

52 EXIT STRATEGY Master Plans

No. Activities Exit Strategy

d. Lombok island (West Nusa Tenggara) • The Forestry Research Institute in Mataram focuses on research dealing with non-wood forest products (NWFP). In the early stage, this institute has owned over 180 gaharu trees already induced with the fungi Fusarium spp. Number of gaharu trees to be induced will increase, in cooperation pattern with farmer groups. 2. Development on the gaha- The inoculation techniques have been adopted by several stake- ru-inoculation techniques holders in regencies and forest farmer groups. The FORDA re- which is effective and searchers have supervised these activities. The ASGARIN (Indone- efficient sia’s Gaharu Enterprisers) will recommend its members in adopting this technology. 3. Development on inoculum FORDA will conduct technology transfer to several Forestry Re- which affords prospect for search Institutes (FRI). As of this occasion, the FRI of Mataram will large-scale endeavor be ready to accept this input technology, since the have already prepared laboratory facilities and capable-human resources. 4. The realization of train- The FRI of Mataram is ready to continue the training for farmer ing in gaharu-inoculation groups in areas of West Nusa Tenggara. technology Divisions of investment and research services will continue social- izing the inoculation technology for several provinces. 5. Selection of effective The development on the selection of isolat Fusarium spp., which inoculum nowadays comprises 54 isolats, will be continued and trial-tested at the gaharu-yielding trees in several gaharu-production centers.

8.2 Master Plans Activities regarding the development on the ITTO’s PD 425/06 Rev.1 (I) has aroused some research ideas that deserves responses and follows-up, as addressed in organizing the Master Plan for Research and Development (R & D) on gaharu commodity. Several related R & D’s which have not yet been conducted and are urgently needed comprise among others analysis on genetic variability using DNA analysis; and ex-situ conservation using representative genetic matter obtained from several populations which are separately designed between populations as an attempt to save them from extinction, and concurrently to support the breeding programs. Tree breeding (improvement) that represents the test on the clone resulting from the combination of species and isolat should deserve a continuation using the so-called genetic-gain trial-test to look into the species as well as the isolat that afford the best qualities, and finally this ends up with finding the superior (exotic) clone.

The laboratory of forest microbiology (under the Center for Research and Development on Forest Conservation and Rehabiliation) has collected 54 isolats of fungi Fusarium spp. from the entire Indonesia, and so far only 8 isolats which have been trial-tested in the field. In activities of the ITTO’s PD 425/06 Rev. 1 (I), there has been initiated the potency of pests that attack the gaharu-yielding tree species, particularly the leaf-eating larvae; and also research has been conducted to deal with those larvae using predators of red-colored ants and microbes. In addition, it is needed to conduct research with different bio-physic environments. Aspects about the grading of gaharu with the standard based on gaharu aroma are different for particular species and isolat origin, which differ from one another. Therefore, it is essential to conduct research to answer the

53 Fragrant Wood Gaharu: When The Wild Can No Longer Provide

interaction between genetic factors and environments (breeding/improvement). Besides, the key active substance that brings about gaharu aroma needs thorough identification particularly when linked to the derivative products such as oil, soap, cosmetics, drugs, etc. Standardization of product qualities comprising gaharu chips deserves a thorough determination, thereby not causing the loss to farmers. The strategy of research and development on gaharu is presented in the schemes as follows (Figure 18).

Genetics matter 54 Isolats at sources (demonstration RDCFCR plot/community)

Plot DNA Analysis Ex-Situ Conservation Research: • Bio-physic environments clone test on the • Social, economy, and combination of species culture aspects of the and isolat community • Institution • Policies

genetic gain trial

Research : • SNI (Indonesia’s National Standard) • Instittution Superior clone • Yield (Recovery) • Active Substancesf • Marketing Penelitian: • Policies •SNI (Indonesia’s National Standard) Post-harvest gaharu •Insitution industry •Marketing •Policies

Figure 19. Flow-scheme regarding the exit strategy of gaharu development that will be conducted by the Research Team of FORDA.

Multidisciplinary research on gaharu products beginning from the upstream until downstream should start right away. This research intends to yield gaharu products with high qualities, in which the markets take very-great interest. The integrated research as such refers to finding superior (exotic) gaharu and the responsive fungi that trigger (induce) gaharu formation, by scrutinizing in depth the chemical compounds that are formed based on biochemical analysis. Judging from the visit by the research team to Singapore and Taiwan, it tuned out that the gaharu samples that resulted from the inducement as implemented by the farmers using the technology developed by the FORDA could be accepted by markets, under the condition that the induced-gaharu should be synthesized in mass amount and continual manner. They will accept the induced-gaharu for grocery-scale (in tons of weight) with competitive prices.

The FORDA has planned to realize the Organizing-Team for Master Plans regarding Research and Development on the sustainable Gaharu in Indonesia. The organizing

54 EXIT STRATEGY Master Plans team has the members from the multidiscipline sciences such as sylviculture, tree breeding (improvement), forest microbiology, forest-soil science, wood chemistry, and forest pests and diseases. The Master Plans should be elaborated in “action plan” that exemplifies the research proposals submitted to obtain finances which are adequate and with multi-years conduct. The arranging of the master plans is depicted in the plan roadmap for gaharu research and development in the period 2011- 2025. This roadmap is based on multi-years research and should be supported by technology, gaharu products that are yielded, and their marketing. The technologies as developed comprise the improvement (breeding) of gaharu-yielding trees, biotechnology (DNA analysis for genetic variability, married system), seeds (vegetative and generative), gaharu inoculum (optimum inoculum dosage), inducement technology which is selective and effective), and post-harvest processing. The products as developed include technology (patent rights), clone of exotic tree species and superior isolat, gaharu-sapwood products, gaharu oil, cosmetics, and drugs. The marketing aspects as turned out cover locals (trade traffic in the province, harvesting farmers, collector, processor, trader/merchants), regional (trade traffic between provinces, harvesting farmers, collectors, processors, and traders/merchant), and marketing that includes market intelligence and export (overseas-trade traffic).

9 CONCLUDING REMARKS

Gaharu never fail to position itself as extremely profitable products. Gaharu major market is international and it is valued per unit weight. However, many gaharu products are still illegally in the trading sites. DNA fingerprinting has become more advanced and may contribute to minimize illegal trade. Commission of CITES has regulated gaharu trade with central target to prevent extinction of wild gaharu stocks, and this needs participation from all gaharu stakeholders that conduct daily interaction. Although the stocks of natural gaharu are diminishing, the opportunity to promote sustainable gaharu production from cultivation is high because gaharu is a renewable product. Cultivation of gaharu is a promising alternative for planting higher density of plants that can be induced to produce gaharu.

Cultivation of a higher density of gaharu plants is an alternative for accelerating gaharu production and appears to be the key to sustain production and conserve remnants in the wilds. Scientific facts from recent advances in induction technology are promising in stimulating gaharu production and may contribute to the significantly high demand-supply gap. Nevertheless, practical knowledge in the management strategy of sustainable gaharu production shall be returned to its original place, the forests and the local community to support their livelihoods.

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62 ANNEX

Annex 1. Flowering and fruiting seasons of Aquilaria malaccensis

65 Annex 2. Flowering and fruting season of A. microcarpa

66 Annex 3. Flowering and fruiting season of Gyrinops versteegii

ITTO

MINISTRY OF FORESTRY OF INDONESIA IN COOPERATION WITH INTERNATIONAL TROPICAL TIMBER ORGANIZATION

ITTO PD425/06 Rev. 1 (I) Production and Utilization Technology for Sustainable Development of Eaglewood (Gaharu) in Indonesia

FRAGRANT WOOD GAHARU: WHEN THE FRAGRANT WOOD GAHARU: WHEN THE W I L D C A N W I L D C A N NO LONGER NO LONGER PROVIDE PROVIDE

ISBN 978-979-3145-88-4

9 789793 145884