Teachers of Disadvantaged Children. Its First Section Discusses The

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DOCUMBHT RISSUP1111 ED 028 445 24 By-Davis, AL.; And Others Language Resource Information forTeachers of the Culturally Disadvantaged.Final Report. Illinois Inst. of Technology, Chicago. Centerfor American En 9lish. Spons Agency-Office of Education (DHEW),Washington, D.C. Bureau of Research. Bureau No-BR-6-1340 Pub Date Apr 69 Contract 0 EC -3-7 -061340 Note- 269p. EDRS Price MF-S1.25 HC-S13.55 Descriptors-Annotated Bibliographies,ContrastiveLinguistics,*Cultural Disadvantagement,Descriptive Linguistics, *English (Second L ), Grammar, Haptic Perception, LowerClass Students, Morphology (Langoages), Negro Dialects,stionstandardDialects,Paralinguistic:,Phonemics,Phonetics, Phonetic Transcription, Phonology, Pronunciation, SocialDialects, Spanish Speaking, Suprasegmentals,*Teacher Education, *Ten; This document attempts to make necessaryinformation on linguistics availaole to teachers of disadvantaged children.Its first section discusses the threedimensions of language differences--historical,regional, and social--that accountfor usages frequently condemned without beingunderstood. The second aims atproviding a deeper understanding of the nature.of the social classes. Sections onphonetics. phonemics, and suprasegmentals progressfrom the most simple phoneticdata to organization of more complexdata into a phonological system.A study of the most troublesome areas of grammar precedes alist of phonologic andmorphologic features found to be nearly universally associatedwith lower-class or non-standard English. Non-verbal aspects of communication aredescribed and a notational system for haptics given. A detailed analysisand comparison is made of thephonology of Spanish and English, but grammatical systems arenot treated in such detail.In the section on language learning andteaching, methods proven by threedecades of use in TESOL programs aredescribed, including a sample lesson.Transcriptions of the speech of children from threedisadvantaged groups illustrate the pronunciationand some grammaticalfeatures of these speakers. A book-listbibliography is followed by a selectedbibliography with lengthy annotations. (DO) 13e.4-I3v6 4- U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION co Mb DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCEDEXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE pc.Ba POINTS Of VIEW OR OPINIONS CD PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATINGIT. EDUCATION STATED DO NOT NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF Lt.J POSITION OR POLICY.

FINAL REPORT

USOE Project Number 6-1340

USOE Contract Number 0E-3-7-061340

LANGUAGE RESOURCE INFORMATION FOR TEACHERS OF THE CULTURALLY DISADVANTAGED

A. L. Davis et al.

CENTER FOR AMERICAN ENGLISH ILLINOIS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 60616

April 1969

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE

Office of Education Bureau of Research

AL0-01847 Ar

FINAL REPORT

USOE ProjectNumber 6-1340 USOE ContractNumber0E-3-7-061340

LANGUAGE RESOURCEINFORMATION FOR TEACHERSOF SHE CULTURALLYDISADVANTAGED

CENTER FORAMERICAN ENGLISH ILLINOIS INSTITUTEOF TECHNOLOGY CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 6o616

William M. Austin,William Card, A. L. Davis, McDavid Raven I.McDavid, Jr.,Virginia Glenn

II April 1969

performed pursuantto a The researchreported herein was of the Officeof Education,U.S.. Department contract with Contractorsundertaking such Health, Education,and Welfare. sponsorship areencouraged to II projects undergovernment of professional judgmentin the conduct expressfreely their Points of view oropinions stateddo not, the projects. official Officeof Education therefore,necessarily represent position or policy.

II U.S. DEPARTMENTOF HEALTH, EDUCATION,AND WELFARE El Office ofEducation Bureau ofResearch

Om TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Introduction Historical, Regional andSocial Variation Raven I. McDavid,Jr. (University ofChicago)

III. Culture, Class andtheDisadvantaged A. L. Davis(Illinois Institute ofTechnology)

IV. Phonetics and Phonemics A. L. Davis

V. The SuprasegmentalPhonemes of English William M. Austin(Illinois Institute ofTechnology)

VI. Problem Areas inGrammar William Card andVirginia Glenn McDavid(Chicago State College) Discriminating VII. A Checklist ofSignificant Features for Social Dialects Raven I. McDavid,Jr.

VIII. Non-Verbal Communication William M. Austin

IX. English Problems ofSpanish 3peakers A. L. Davis

X. Some Notes onAcadian English Raven I. McDavid,Jr.

XI. Language Learning andTeaching A. L. Davis

XII. Transcriptions Furbee Dagna Simpson,Emily PettigrewMorris, N. Louanna

XIII. Summary

XIV. Bibliography INTRODUCTION

At this time in thehistory of our country thereis more expressed concern aboutdisadvantaged children thanthere has of ever been. At the same time, ourschools face the crises social turmoil, ofovercrowding and of inadequatefinancial support. All areas of educationhave been affected from preschool through college,in all school activities: curricular, extra-curricular, and organizational aseducation is becoming more and morerecognized as a social forceand as an instru- ment of socialpolicy.

An adequate controlof the English language as amajor factor in socially-upwardmobility has, notsurprisingly, become regarded as asocial right, a part of thefabric of the civil rights of adequatehousing, health care, employment opportunity and income, andthe right to self respect.

It is the hope ofthose who have preparedthese materials that they will aidteachers and administratorsin understanding better the languageproblems of disadvantagedstudents, and to aid them indeveloping language programssuited to their ownraocal situations. We also hope that wehave succeeded inpresenting the various aspects of the verycomplex subject,without, on the one hand,oversimplifying to the detrimentof real understanding, or on the otherto obfuscate thesubject with extremecompli- cAtions or abstruseterminology. It is our further hope,then, that the readerwithout previous linguistic training,will be able to benefitby studying the materials. They may be used forindividuals reading, for informal groupdiscussion or for specialclasses. Beside the authors of thechapters: Prof. William M. Austin, Prof. William Card,Prof. Raven I.McDavid, Jr., Prof. Virginia Glenn McDavid, andthe projectdirector, many colleagues and graduatestudents have helpedin preparation of the text: Prof. Daniel Cgrdenas ofthe University of Chicago, Prof. Lee A. Pedersonof Emory University,Prof. Lawrence M. Davis, Miss LouannaFurbee, Miss DagnaSimpson and Mrs. Emily Morris ofthe IllinoisInstitute of Technology.

A. L. Davis Project Director Historical, Regionaland SocialVariation' by Raven I.McDavid, Jr.

Sledd has calledthe"agonizingdeappraisal" What James H. Dictionary, sinceits of Webster'sThird NewInternational shown that manyAmericans, inkeeping appearancein 1961, has would national trend tosimplisticinterpretations, with the "good language"and "bad make a sharpdichotomy between is "incorrect." what is"correct" and what language," or between villains of thepiece are In this samedichotomizing, the advocating "say as linguists, who areaccused of often the practice and of"letting down yougo" attitudesin language perhaps areconcerned. Though it is the bars"where standards has beenclawed to a linguistorlexicographer who no help literary critic,the fact isthat by an angryjournalist or standards, linguist hasdenied theexistence of noresponsible in any speechcommunity some orrefused torecognize that better--that is, acknowledged asusing the language people are emulation--than others. in a fashion moreworthy of in any otherform of human There is notin language--or but a opposition betweengood and bad, behavior--a simple variations; itis necessary complicated setof interrelated dimensions in themselves tosort out the many for linguists these variationsarerelated which usage may varyand show how done in thepast byseveral to each other. This has been topic it iswell scholars; but as away ofintroducing this to repeattheirfindings.2 given detail ofusage maybe Among the scaleson which a others may of measured, thefollowing havebeen suggested; couse bedevised ordiscovered. writing as of themedium--ersentially 1. The dimension little chance to useantidisestablish- speech. There is opposed to alone thesesquipedalian terms mentarianism inconversation, let Only in homelyfiction (and the of organicchemistry. William Faulkner authorship of such adistinguished writer as homeliness) is there aplace forsuch a does notrefute the worthless dogof term as fice,"a small, noisy,generally uncertainancestry." responsibility, asJoos putsit-- 2. The dimensionof the the normalsocialexpectations of anunderstanding of at large. A audience inparticular or ofthe community audience may be politician whotalks over theheads of his cleverness or evenbrilliance, butwill admired for his Some people-- usually bedenied the voteshe is seeking. read HenryJames: he is tooconsciously like myself--connot set ofmannerisms superior in hisstyle, whichbegins to seem a And it has beenattested in avariety after half adozen pages. meticulous in his that a personwho is too of situations shibboleths and inavoiding the observation ofgrammatical of hisfellows.3 speech ofhis-locality may rousethe distrust hand, a completedisregard of theseexpectations On the other the "Beat"writers, may beequally disastrous. The novelty of with a minimum ofrevision, soon ranits free association cultists: the course,except for themost caserhardened reading publicbecameimpatient.4 notion that 3. The dimensionof maturity--the speak as well asact one'schronological age. one should is no moredistressing The sight ot aplump Hausfrauin a bikini parent tryingto keep upwith than the soundof a middle-aged distinctions are the latestadolescent slang. Even finer scorn thekind of languagethat apparent: college students had delightedthem in highschool. On one hand,this is foundin 4. The scale of vogue. jargon the year; onanother, incertain kinds of the slang of of voguelanguage are and counter-words. Both varieties to pin down;most of thetime the vogue exceedingly difficult settled down to has passedbefore thelexicographers have recording andclassifying. association--the argot ortechnical 5. The scale of with which onehas becomeidentified. language of a group teen-age gangsand Every associationgroup hasthis--not just parasitic subculturesof theunderworld. the more formally model railroadfan on The language of astamp-collector or a clergy or Chicagocritics on the one hand,of Anglo-Catholic outsiders not of be just asunintelligible to the other, may sate-crackers ornarcotic the true bond asis the lingo of addicts. relationship betweenthe speaker or 6. The scale of Martin Joos. writer and hisaudience--the"Five Clocks" of it, is theconsultative style, In the center, asJoos reckons than committee or socialgathering--not more of the small background free interchangeis possible but six people--where side are theformal information must besupplied. On the one address, and thefrozen style,that style, typifiedin public but notexclusively of greatliterature(encompassing principally "sublime" oftraditionalcriticism)-- the "highstyle" or the repeated intact. where thepublic insists onthe text being On the other are the casualstyle, where familiarity of speaker and audience with each othereliminates the need for background information, and theintimate, where close association makes possible many syntactic shortcuts. It is noticeable that the frozen and theintimate styles, as opposite poles, share the feature of highallusiveness, created in one by the genius of the authorat compressing much into a small space and in the other by thecloseness of association.

7. The dimension of history, paralleling, to someextent, the scale of maturity in theindividual. Dictionaries have long recognized this dimension: words or senses that have not been observed for some centuries arelabeled obsolete; those that have appeared only rarelyin some centuries, and not at all for a few generations, are markedarchaic. A more troublesome class is made up of those wordsand meanings which are still encountered, butonly in the usage of the older and less sophisticated--those thatI would call old-fashioned; so far, thereis no traditional label in lexicography,though everybody recognizes the items. Even more troublesome are innovations, which are seldom if ever marked,since by the time they are noticed they have generallybecome well established. A notorious example is the verbto finalize, which did not arouse the ire of thebelles-lettri-s-Te7(Te-cause of its vogue inadvertising) unitl a generation after it had been recorded, and much longer afterit first appeared.

8. The regional scale. At one end we have pronunciations, words or meanings that arelimited to a small part of theEnglish- speaking world; at the other, things that aretruly international in that they are shared by severallanguage communities. Chay!, a call to summon cattle, is foundin the United States (it may still be heard in NorthernIreland) only in a small section of eastern South Carolina; most ofthe new terms of science and technology,including such everyday words as telephone, are foubd not only in allplaces where English is spoken but in other languages as well. Within the English- speaking world, there are words, meanings,pronunciations and even grammatical formscharacteristic of England proper, Ireland, Scotland, the United States,Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and theWest Indies--to say nothing of more local subdivisions in eachof these. To take a few examples, a station in Australiais the same as a ranch in Western North America; a tickle inNewfoundland is an inlet; and the telly in Britain is thetelevision.

9. The social scale. This means, simply, that some varieties of the language are more esteemedthan others.

rox.amv, Et may be an alien varietyof the community language,like British English in parts of theCommonwealth; it may even be an alien language,like French in parts ofAfrica. In most European countries itis a variety of the languageused by the richer and betterborn and better educatedin a focus of national life--economic,cultural, or political--whichoften turns out to be the areaaround the capital: Roman-Florentine in Italy, Castilian inSpain, Parisian in France,Muscovite in Russia, London in England(it should be noted that the lower-class speech of the same areashas no prestige; in fact, as we documentwith traditional London lowerclass speech, Cockney, it may be the leastfavored of all lower-class regional varieties). The favored dialect of onecentury, even onegeneration, may not be that of thenext. In extreme cases, another city mayreplace the older center of prestige, as Londonreplaced Winchester afterthe Norman Conquest; in all cases thefavored dialect will change as new classes rise in the scaleand set new fashions oflanguage behavior. The American situation,however, is different--both in the UnitedStates and in Canada. Partly through geography, partly through theindependence of each of the earlysettle- ments from each other,partly through a stubborntradition of individualism and local loyalty, nocity has unqualified preeminence of the kind thatParis, London and Vienna have in their countries. Each of the older culturalcenters-- Boston, New York,Philadelphia, Richmond, Charleston--had its own glite and boastedits own kind of excellence; asthe nation expeanded westward,such new cities asChicago, San Francisco, Atlanta, St.Louis and Salt Lake City developed their own prestige intheir own areas. There is a good deal of ridicule exchangedbetween cities, most ofit good natured, as to whichlocal pronunciation(for grammar and vocabulary are strikinglyuniform among urban educatedspeakers) is the most outlandish or themost pleasant; but forpractical purposes the educated speech of one areais as good as another--and all varieties of uneducatedspeech are at adisadvantage, especially when the speakers moveout of their own areas. For six of the nine scalesof variation, thespeaker has some freedom ofchoice. But for the lastthree-history, region and society--he is more orless caught up in forces beyond his control. No man can change thegeneration or place of his birth; his attemptsto change the socialvariety of his speech will be determinedby the kind of educationhe receives and the kind of personshe associates with,and opportunities to make a drastic change arenot as common as wewould like. '444' 44 4

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Along all of these scales,for practical purposes, we can expectvariation in a number of aspectsof human communication. Outside language we have(1) proxemics, the phenomena of spatial variation,including the distances atwhich communication is effective;(2) haptics, the phenomena ofbody contact; (3) kinesics, bodilymovements in communication,of which gestures are only a small part;(4) paralanguage, the non-linguistic but communicativelysignificant orchestration of the stream of speech,involving such phenomena as abnormally high or low pitch, abnormally fast orslow tempo, abnormally loudness or softness, drawl,clipping, rasp, openness, andthe like. These are all in the earlieststages of discussion; linguists and anthropologistsrecognize their importance but have just begun to developsystems of notation and means ofcomparison.5 Within the domain of language proper,but having a special position, are the suprasegmentals,the phenomena that in English include stress,intonation, transitions, and terminals of clauses and utterances. It should be noted that suprasegmentals, like theaspects of communication outside the language system, have sofar had no systematic comparative discussion regionally orsocially. And all these phenomena are attested onlyin a limited way historically, and in writing have nodirect reflection. Within language proper thereis a system of segmental phonemes, of vowels and consonants,capable of variation in the structure of the system,in the articulation of the individual phonemes, and in theirincidence in particular environments.6 The system of morphologylikewise varies in its structu:7e, in the shape ofparticular morphemes (especially of inflections), and intheir incidence in particular environments. There is a system of syntaxl involving the selection andarrangement of morphemes.( And finally there is the bodyof meaningful forms--the lexicon--with various wordspossible for the same meaning, and various meaningspossible for the same word. If we look at thehistory of English, we can seethat all kinds of changes havetaken place as the resultof various forces, borrowing (both fromother languages and from one dialect 9f English intoanother), phonetic change, and analogy.° In the pronunciation system, wehave kept four of the short vowels of Old English: /I, e,le, UI; Old English /Y/, however, has unrounded to/I/, so that fill and will now rhyme. Many of the words which had/U/ in Old English now -6-

have b4/, and for mostAmerican dialects the low-backrounded vowel ///, as in God,has unrounded to/a/. In contrast to these slight changes,all the long vowels anddiphthongs of Old English have changedtheir phonetic shape, and someof them have fallen together;for example, MiddleEnglish /sAf.:/, 'body of water,' and/se:/ 'to perceive with theeyes' have fallen together as/si/.

The morphologicalstructure of the languagehas likewise altered. The noun retains only thegeneral plural and the genitive; the adjectiveretains comparison(though for many adjectives it is a periphrasticcomparison with more and most instead of the historicalinflected comparison with-er,-72-31), but has lost all markers ofnumber, gender and case. The pronoun system hasbeen drasticallysimplified: only the neuter it retains the old accusative,here undifferentiatedfrom the nominative; in all other pronounsthe old dative hasassumed all object functions. In the second person thehistorical dative plural has not onlyusurped the functions ofthe accusative but those of thenominative as well, and(with rare exceptions) has become the standardfor the singularin object and subject positions. In the third person,she, they, their and them--borrowingsfrom Northern Englishdialects--have supplanted the older forms. Throughout the pronominalsystem there has been adifferentiation between theattributive genitive, as my. book, and theabsolute, as a book ofmine. The article anddemonstrative are now distinctfrom each other; the demonstrative haslost all gender and casedistinctions, with the historical neuternominative-accuaatives this andthat in the singular anddeveloping new plurals. The most spectacularmorphological changes havetaken place in the verb. It is still a two-tenseverb, like all Germanic verbs, but manyof the older strong orirregular verbs have become weak orregular, and thesurvivors have tended to level theirprincipal parts: only was/wereremains of the historicaldistinction between preteritesingular and preterite plural, and for manyverbs preterite andpast participle have fallen together. Distinctions of person and number have been lostexcept for the verb tobe and for the third singular presentindicative. The subjunctive mode has been lost except forthe hypotheticalif I (he) were you, the very formal ifthis be treason, a seriesof petrified formulas, such as resolved,that this house standad ourned, and that-clausesfollowing such verbs as urgeand insist. Syntactic changes art also numerous.Word order, once flexible and capable ofvariation, as in classicalLatin or contemporary Ojibwa, has nowbeen fixed. New patterns of interrogative and negativestructures have developed,with the verb do as anauxiliary. And there has been aprolifera- tion of very complicatedverb phrases, capable ofrendering far more subtle nuancesof meaning than couldhave been rendered in Latin;if some of them rarely occur, as tomorrow our housewill have been beingredecorated for two months, they arecomprehensible and acceptablewhen they occur. Changes in the vocabularyand in meanings are sonumerous and familiar that it is almostuseless to mention them; afew examples will suffice. Starve, originallymeaning 'to perish' like its German cognatesterben, came to signify'to perish of hunger'; as ageneral verb it has beenreplaced by die. Flesh has lost The overworkednice originally meantfoolish. its meaning of'edible muscular tissue,'and has been replaced in this meaning by meat,which originally signifiedanything edible (sweetmeats preservesthe old meaning); foodhas assumed the generalmeaning. To this stage of thepresentation we have assumed a more or lesslinear development,recognizing but disregarding differences within the speechcommunity. Yet we know by experience that no speechcommunity of any size--andthe size may be only a fewhundred speakers--iswithout regional and social distinctions. Different communities usethe language differently; some speakers arerecognized as using it better than others do. The larger the speechcommunity, the more complicated are therelationships between regionaland social varieties. Regional differences mayarise in a variety of ways. The classicalexplanation--which has been usedto explain the differences inModern German, before the newWOlkerwgnderung after World WarII--is that of theoriginal settlement by a The group speaking aparticular dialect of the samelanguage. population mixture in all ofthe early Americansettlements makes this explanationless cogent here, butsuch groups have left their traces. We can think of theUlster Scots in Western Pennsylvania,and less significantlyin the Southern uplands and the SouthMidland derivatives tothe west; of the Irish fishermen on BeaverIsland in LakeMichigan and in various coves along theNewfoundland coast; ofthe East Anglian influence, throughthe early_Puritans, onthe speech especially east of theConnecticut River; of New England, preservation of New and in the AmericanMiddle West, of the England speechways in- theWestern Reserve aroundCleveland and in the Mariettaspeech-island where theMuskingum flows -8,-

Settlements of speakers of a foreign language also leave their impact on a local dialect. The Palatinate Germans who settled in Eastern Pennsylvania about 1700have influenced to some degree the English of their area, not only in vocabulary but also in pronunciation, in syntax andin intonation. In similar fashion the Scandinavians inMinneapolis have markedly influenced English intonation; even complete monolinguals cannot escape acquiring the speech-tune of the Swedish-Americans they played with as children. So have the Cajans of southwestern Louisiana influenced the intonation of Louisiana English, and--on all but the most educatedlevel-- caused a loss of final consonant clusters and mostinflectional endings. Regional dialects also reflect historical patterns of migration and communication. In Germany the Rhine has disseminated the South German speech forms northward, and vice versa;in the United States the Mississippi has donelikewise. In the Middle West, settlers from New England followed the shores of Lake Erie westward and did not cross the swamplandsof the Maumee and Kankakee, while settlers from the Upland South moved north along the tributaries of the Ohio,taking up holdings in the bottom-lands; today, despite subsequent industrialization, the speech of Ohio, Indiana andIllinois is split between Yankee and Southern highland. Conversely, even what now seems atrivial geographical barrier could inhibit the spread of settlement and speech: Chesapeake Bay isolated the Delmarva Peninsula from the focal area of theVirginia Tidewater and Piedmont; the Virginia Blue Ridgelimited the westward spread of plantation culture, so that theShenandoah Valley was settled by migration from westernPennsylvania, and in Vermont the crest of the Green Mountainsmarks the division between Eastern and Western New England speechways. If a cultural focus exists, its speech formsspread into the surrounding countryside or even leap rural areasto become established in what one could call satellite cities. The prestige of Boston has led to the establishment of its speech as the model for Eastern New England, and as atype to imitate in much of the northern United States; Philadelphiadominates Eastern Pennsylvania and Pittsburgh the western half ofthe state; the cultivated speech of Richmond and otherVirginia Piedmont cities has been emulated not merely in the Shenandoah Valley but in cities of eastern North Carolina and as far west as Charleston, West Virginia. New York seems to be an exception, its vocabulary has spread but not itspronunciation, possibly because the city has for so long boasted very large foreign-language concentrations.9Where communities have been geographically or culturally isolated, of course, theopposite _9

the SouthernAppalachians, is true: the speech ofthe Maine coast, North Carolinadoes not spread,and in fact or northeastern remote areas become gives way to outsidemodels as these accessible. reflected in Europe Political boundaries,old and new, are words; they are sorecent in the as limitsof pronunciations or movement of people United States, and soineffective on the they seldom causelinguistic differences-- and goods, that the Ontario reeve, though with purelypolitical terms, such as linguistic andpolitical limits maycoincide. 'township officer,' school system, But in an indirectway, as inthe quality of a be significant. Folk pronunciations state boundaries may strongly in and folkgrammatical formssurvived much more West Virginia thanin Pennsylvania, Western Maryland and people and though the early settlers werethe same kinds of of communications crossthe stateboundaries; the easy routes to but Pennsylvaniahad an earlier anddeeper commitment public education thanthe states furthersouth. possible to summarizein some detail the By now it is English. kinds of regionaldifferences that appearin American usual features of grammar,pronunciation In addition to the in and vocabulary,there are probablyregional variations kinesics, paralanguageand suprasegmentals, proxemics, haptics, The entomologist though nosystematic statementis possible. has noted that somehand gestures seemto Henry K. Townes Southern speech occur onlyin the SouthCarolina Piedmont; wider range of stressand pitch than the seems to have a the Middle speech of otherregions, especiallythe dialects of "Southern drawl" does notreflect a slower West; the so-called rapidly than Middle tempo--for Southernersnormally speak more this heavier stress,combined with Westerners--but rather shortening prolongation of theheavily stressedsyllables and of the weakstressed ones. pronunciation ofAmerican English,there is Within the most only one majordifference in the systemof phonemes: unrounded /a/ androunded b/, as cotand dialects contrast does not exist, caught, but some donot. Where the contrast Pennsylvania, somedialects--Eastern NewEngland, Western area--have a low-backrounded vowel,while the St. Louis northern Minnesota, others--the UpperPeninsula of Michigan, western Canada--have alow-central orlow-back unrounded one. dialects in the areaof New England Until recently, some words as settlement had a fallingdiphthong /iu/ in such where most speakersof AmericanEnglish blue, suit, Erew, where have /u/, and insuch words as due,tube, new, student, have /u/ and othershave /ju/; however,the /iu/ some regions is rapidly dis- is generallyconsidered oldfashioned, and it appearing. 2114a14442=2325=3", , ,

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Although general structuraldifferences in thepronunciation systems of dialects are rare,conditioned structural differences are more common. As we have indicated,the consonant sequences/tj-, dj-, nj-,stj-/--in such words as tube, due, new,student--simply do not occurin some regions, though all of theseconsonants are found inall American dialects. Dialects that contrast/a/ and /s/, as in cot and caught, may not have thecontrast before/-r/, as in barn and born; this is especiallytrue in the St.Louis area, in parts of the Southwest, andin the Rocky Mountains. All varieties of American Englishcontrast /.0/ and/0/, as in law and low, but before /-r/, asin horse and hoarse, thecontrast is retained only in parts of theSouth. Again, only in partsof the South and someAtlantic seaboard Yankeeareas--and probably not so common there asit used to be--does onefind the contrast between met, mat, and matemaintained beforeintervocalic /-r-/, in merry, marry andMary; from Cleveland westthese three words are generallyhomonyms. And in the Charleston area there seemsto be only one frontvowel before postvocalic /-r/ or itsderivative /2/, so that fearand fair, ear and air arehomonyms. The phonemes may differin phonetic shape,/e/ in date is an up-gliding diphthongwith a high beginningDr] in the South Midland, andup-gliding diphthong with alow beginning in the Delaware Valley andthe Pittsburgh area, amonophthong c-1. in the PennsylvaniaGerman area and aningliding diphthong p*j The /S/ of law, te.aj in the South CarolinaLow-Country. dog has a highbeginning and an in-glidein much of theMiddle Atlantic Seaboard, inludingold-fashioned New YorkCity speech; in much of theSouth and SouthMidland, it has a low beginning with an up-glideand increasingrounding.

More familiar aredifferences in incidence ofphonemes. Up-state New York has/a/ in Loa, hog. and on;Pennsylvania syllable has /0/. The fish crappie has/a/ in the stressed in Mi_higan, Me/ inSouth Carolina. The North and NorthMid- creek; the land prevailingly have/-s-/ in greasy and /I/ in South and SouthMidland have /-z-/ and/i/. Differences in inflection areless frequent thanin a few pronunciation. Systematic differences are veryrare: British dialects retain theold second personsingular thou, thy, thine, thee; someAmerican dialects havedeveloped a new second personplural, you-all, you-uns,youse, mongste-ye, oona, though noneof these hasstanding in formalwriting and only you-all hasachieved the dignity ofstandard informal status; possibly somedialects have lost thedistinctiveness of the third singularpresent indicative -sand consistently -

have either -s or zerothroughout thepresent.10 In the shape of the morpheme there are moredifferences: standard drank as a preterit, versusdrunk and dr4kt; standardclimbed versus clim, clum,clome, cloom and thelike; and on the standard level, suchvariations as between kneeledand knelt or between dove/dov/ and dived. It is notorious thatthe description ofEnglish syntax is less adequate than thatof its pronunciation orinflections. But even at this point we canrecognize some regional patterns. In the South and SouthMidland such compoundedauxiliaries as might could and used to could arecommon in educatedinformal speech; the New Englandsettlement area forms thenegative of ought by theperiphrastic hadn't ought; ineastern Kentucky used to has become asentence-initial adverb, as in usedto everybody around here bakedtheir own bread.

Regional differencesin vocabulary still abound,despite the homogenizing effectof Twentieth Centuryurban civilization. Perhaps few of our studentstoday would recognize theNorthern whippletree or Midland singletreeby any name, and urban living has probably prospereddragon fa and earthwormat the expense of suchregional designations asNorthern darning needle, SouthMidland-Southern snake doctor andSouthern coastal mosquito hawk, orMerrimac Valley mudworm,Pennsylvania German rainworm, Southernmountain redworm. But a dry cleaning establishment in Boston is acleanser; the New Orleanspoorboy, a sandwich on asmall loaf of bread,is a submarine inBoston, a grinder inupstate New York, a heroin New York city, a hoagy in Philadelphia; the grassstrip between sidewalk and and street, still unnamedin some regions, is aboulevard in Minneapolis, a tree beltin Springfield, Massachussetts, a tree lawnin Cleveland and adevil strip in Akron. And similarly differences inmeanings persist. It may be only academic that in theCarolina mountains a corn dodgeris a small loaf, in the coastalplain a dumpling, inSavannah a pancake and in Brunswick,Georgia, a hush puppy; but onewho customarily uses brat todescribe a noisy child may runinto difficulties in parts ofIndiana where it denotes abastard, and the Middle Westernerused to ice creamin a milk shake will be disappointed inBoston, where itcontains only milk and syrup. If the basis ofregional dialects is thefact that communities or regions differin their history, thebasis of social dialectsis that people ofdifferent social standing in a given sommunitywill use differentforms, and that the status of thelinguistic forms will bedetermined by the standing of their usersin the community. -12-

recognized for Although thisgeneral principlehas been procedures fordiscussing thecorrelation generations, the differences in sta`ushave between speechdifferences and worked out onlyin recent years,and been systematically difference being refined. For a longtime the are still bad was more amatter of between what wasgood and what was prejudices than ofhis observations. However, the observer's American En lishGrammar(1940) and the with Fries's American first publication Linguistic Atlasproject 1933-, with the to identifythe social in 1939), it hasbecome customary and then informants first, bynon-linguistic means, status of A furtherrefinement to describe,simply, the formsthey use. introduced byWilliam Labov,in his disser- has been recently English in NewYork City tation The SocialStratification of (Washington:7W), by limitinghimself to a smallernumber examples in avariety of contexts-- of variables,by obtaining minimal pairs tothe ranging from thereading of potentially incident in whichthe informantthought he account of an identifications of killed--andinformants' was goingto be Labov hasrevealed the socialstatus ofparticular variants. Yorkers have aconsiderable gap that inpronunciation New whether or not target andtheir actual usage; between their it is less exists in otherregions--I suspect sulh a gap Northeast--can be important in theSouth than inthe urban investigation. But whateverthe determined only byfurther invaluable has alreadyrendered theprofession an answer, Labov answering service byproviding a kind ofinstrument for questions that havelong been felt. situation in anygiven communityis far Although the dialects starts more complex, aworking evaluationof social with a threefoldclassification: 1. Uneducated, orfolk speech. the more generalsense of 2. Common speech--in citizen, not in everyday usageof the average the Southernpejorative sense. speech. 3. Educated,cultivated, or standard last group thatspeech withnational prestige It is from the have pointed In the Europeansituation, as we has developed. prestigious varietyof thelanguage-- out, there isoften a single capital or the upper-classspeech of the in origin, normally important center. In the surroundingarea, orof some other the other hand,there are anumber of the New World, on from regionalcultural prestigious regionalvarieties, deriving of thedifferences inthe traditions; one hasonly to think Calvin five college-educatedPresidents: speech of the last (northern Middle Coolidge (westernNew England),Herbert Hoover travel), FranklinRoosevelt(Hudson Valley), Western, modified by (southern Texas). John F. Kennedy(Boston), Lyndon Johnson -13-

When we have discoveredthe principal dialect levels in our society, and theirregional variants, we must still observe a few cautions. First, the social distance between levels is not the same in allcommunities. In, say, the older plantation communities, thedistance between common and cultivated--the distance betweenplain, everyday people and the glite--was greater thanthat between folk and common. On the other hand, in such urbancenters as Detroit,Cleveland and Chicago, the distancebetween uneducated speech and common speech is greater than thatbetween common and cultivated. In New York City the spacingbetween the various levels may be fairly wide; in a smallMidwestern town without heavy industry it may be narrow. Second, who is or is notcultivated depends on local standards, and is more or lessrelative. It is only a slight exaggeration to cite theexperience of a graduate student from Georgia who wentwith his Harvard classmates to a performanceof Tobacco Road. In their discussion afterwards, one of the NewEnglanders asked if JeeterLester and his family were really typical ofrural Georgia. "Hell, no!" exclaimed the Georgian. "Back home we'd call people like that the country clubset." It is very likely thatin terms of absolute education andcultural exposure a storekeeperin a collegecommunity like Ann Arbor or ChapelHill would rank above the local doctor orsuperintendent of schools in a county seat in southern WestVirginia.

Third, local mores differstrikingly in the tolerated differences between formal andinformal educated speech. Where social differences arebased on tradition and onfamily status, as among the"county" families of England andtheir analogues in the older parts ofthe American South,informal cultivated speech addressed to equals orother intimates may differ remarkably from the normsof formal expository prose. For Middle Western suburbs, one mayagree with themelancholy observation of James H. Sledd that"any red-blooded American would prefer incest toain't"; but in a community like Charleston one may encounterain't a hundred times a dayin conversation among the proudestfamilies. So the educated Midwesterner often considers theinformal speech of the educated Southerner as verycareless; the educatedSoutherner, in turn, missing the familiarconversational cues toinformality, often considers theconversation of educatedMiddle Westerners as strained andanxious. In short, each suspectsthe other's cultural credentials. Perhaps it is inevitablein an ostensibly open society that covertclass markers become moresignificant as the overt onesdisappear. -114-

Regardless of the degreeof difference in alocality, there seem to be twobasic situations inwhich social dialects arise. The most familiar oneis that in which different groups within the samecommunity acquire differentstatus, thanks to differencesin education and wealthand power, so that the speech of one groupis deemed worthemulating and that of other groupsis not. This is the situationthat has developed over the yearsin the small towns of muchof New England, Upstate New York,and the SouthernUplands; it is probably the same kind ofsituation out of whichthe manners and speech of the gentryacquired status in ruralEngland.

The other situation,perhaps more commonin our industri- alized and urbanizedsociety, is that in which groups of original settlers differin their social status or alarge group of newimmigrants may acquire apeculiar status in the is that of community. Most of the timethis peculiar status social inferiority, though we canall think of theexception, the outsiders whobring social prestigewith them--the English civil servant in thecolonies; the Swedish pastorin Minnesota; the proper Bostonianin Rochester, New York;the Richmond family in Charleston,West Virginia. But these areatypical. The social dialectproblems created byimmigration are of three basic kinds: is something 1) The speech of thosewhose native language different from that of thecommunity, whether Yiddish,Cajan French, Puerto RicanSpanish, or Hungarian. dialect 2) The speech of groupswho use a non-standard from the same region; aclassical example is thespeech of cities the rural SouthernNegroes or poorwhites who come to like Savannah or Birminghamin search of better jobs. into one 3) The third situationinvolves the migration region of speakers ofsubstandard dialects ofanother region. Here we have not onlythe problem of clearlyrecognizable social differences, but thatof regionalethnocentrism: of the tendency to look uponwhat is regionallydifferent as to eradicate ipso facto inferior. Detroiters often overtly try West Virginia vowels(or what they think are WestVirginia vowels); South Carolinians oftenremark--not so publicly as Detroiters, because theyhave a tradition ofgreater politeness, or at least of a wrydiffidence in such matters--thatto their ears educatedMiddle Westerners soundlike uneducated Southerners, since thestrong post-vocalic1-r/ in barn and beard is in the Southtraditionally associatedwith poor problems white speech. To this categorybelong the language of Appalachianwhites and Southern Negroesin such Northern and Western cities asNew York, Cleveland,Chicago and Los Angeles. -15-

It is in this lastsituation that historical andregional and social differencesintersect. For example, in much of Southern England theuninflected third singularpresent indicative, as he do, is foundin old-fashioned ruralspeech. This feature must have beenbrought to all of theAmerican colonies. However, it is unevenlydistributed today, because of differences in thecultural situation. The Southern colonies were more rural thanthe rest, more dependent on agriculture for a longer time,and on money-cropagriculture that required a great dealof low-grade handlabor--cotton and tobacco. The average income inthe South is still lower than that in otherregions; Southerners travelless; they have, on the average,fewer years of schoolingand that of an inferior quality to what isavailable in other regions. It is therefore not surprisingthat such forms as he do are today more widelydistributed in the South andSouth Midland than in other dialectregions, simply because theconditions there were more favorableto their survival.

But this not all. Within the South itself, asimilar cultural differentialoperated to thedisadvantage of the Negro--long enslaved, anddiscriminated against even after Emancipation. For a long time theSouthern Negro population was more ruralthan the Southernwhite, more confined to agriculture and to the moremenial kinds of agriculturalwork. The Southern Negro wasless given to travel;his income was-- and is--lower than thatof his white neighbor;schooling is for fewer years and of poorerquality. For this reason, in the South, such forms as he dowill be heard from a greater proportion of Negroes than ofwhites. And since, in recent years, themigrants from the South toNorthern and Western urban areas are morelikely to be Negroes thanwhites, and Negroes are more likelyto be identified asrecent migrants, in such areas forms likehe do are likely tobe considered as simply Negrospeech forms, thoughhistorically they are regional forms widelydisseminated in southernEngland, and regionally in the United Statesthey are characteristically United Southern. Though the origins ofNegro dIalects in the States are undoubtedly morecomplicated than Nineteenth Century observerssuggested--Lorenzo Turner'sAfricanisms in the Gullah Dialect(Chicago, 1949) has beenparticularly helpful in providing a newperspective--it is clearthat, for the most part, Negro usagesthat differ frommiddle-class white practice are largelythe result ofthis kind of selective culturaldifferentiation.11 Our knowledge of none ofthese threedimensions-- historical, regional andsocial--is so completethat we can close our eyes to theneed of adding furtherdata. Yet even

41, -16-

understanding to all now we knowenough toprovide a richer concerned withdimensions ofusage--whether those who are school programs, they areinterested indictionary labeling, of culturalhistory andsocial or simplythe phenomena complicated than some If our statementsare more structure. fault is notin our science of our friendswould wish, the but in thetangled web ofhumanrelationships.

r-N NOTES

1 Statements atout Americanregional dialects are drawn principally from the archives of theLinguistic Atlas of the United States and Canada, bypermission of the American Council of Learned Societies. Many details have appeared in previous derivative studies,notably Hans Kurath, A Word Geography of the Eastern United States(Ann Arbor, 19170, E. Bagby Atwood, A Survey ofVerb Forms in the Eastern United States (Ann Arbor,1953)7and Kurath and R. I. McDavid, Jr. The Pronunciation of Englishin the Atlantic States(Ann Arbor, 1961).

2 Notably in John S. Kenyon,"Cultural Levels and Functional Varieties ofEnglish," College English10.31-36 (October, 1948); Martin Joos, The FiveCloal(IToomington, Indiana, 1962), Harold B. Allen,Readings in Applied English Linguistics, 2d ed., (New York,1964), pp. 272-6.

3 Examples have been cited by thelate J. R. Firth, from British officers inIndia, by Kenneth L. Pike, from a variety of situations, and from my ownexperiences in the American South.

4 The expectations extend toother behavior as well. The political backlash of1966, among white middle-class and working-class voters was intensified bythe way these expectations were disregarded by theirresponsible dress and behavior of certain well advertisedliberal groups, such as the Berkeley Left and theChicago Students Against theRank-- beards, stringy hair, sloppyclothing, noise and general boorishness. The invasion of lowermiddle-class Chicago suburbs by such groups didnothing to further desegregation of private housing; nordid similar invasions of theSouth in 1964 and 1965 further thecivil liberties cause in that region. It will be noted thatparticipants in the original sit-in movements in the South won agreat deal of local respect for their essential causeby carefully observing local conventions in suchnon-essentials as dress and personal grooming, and thusproviding a striking contrast with the local poor whites who opposedthem. Notes

-2

5 Edward T. Hall, The Silent Language (New York, 1967), and The Hidden Dimension7New Yor, 1966); Ray Birdwhistell, Kenea-Es7Tiotsville, 195i); Henry Lee Smith, Jr., and Robert E. Pittenger, "A Basis for Some Contributions of Linguistics to Psychiatry," Psychiatry 20.61-78 (1957); George L. Trager, "Paralanguage: a First Approximation," Studies in Linguistics 13.1-12 (1958); Robert E. Pittenger, Charles F. Hockett and John J. Danehy, The First Five Minutes (Ithaca, N.Y., 1960); William M. Austin:-IrSome Social Aspects of Paralanguage," Canadian Journal of Linguistics, 11.31-39 (1965). The last also appears in Communication Barriers for the Culturally Deprived, Cooperative Research Project 2107, U.S. Office of Education, 1966.

6 A phoneme is a minimal distinctive unit in the sound system; as any reader knows, there are various competing analyses of the phonemes of English. In this paper the phonemic transcriptions, in slashed, follow the analysis of Kurath and McDavid, The Pronunciation of English in the Atlantic States; phonetic transcriptions are in square brackets.

7 A morpheme is a minimum meaningful form; it may be derivational, as for the making of abstract nouns from adjectives, or inflectional, as for the forming of the plural.

8 For detailed discussions see, for example, Leonard Bloomfield, Language, (New York, 1933); Charles F. Hockett, A Course in Modern Linguistics (New York, 1958); Thomas Pyles, The Growth and Development of the English Language (New York,

9 Dialect mixture has been so common in American English from the beginning that consistent leveling in the present is probably rare. 10 Illasume_40.473, (1964). 11 Of course the same forces would also help to preserve features of ancestral languages. As Turner points out, the relative isolation--geographical and social--of the Gullah Negroes of South Carolina and Georgia has preserved many relics of West African languages, and some of these could reinforce forms derived from non-standard English dialects. The complex backgrounds of American Negro dialects require intense investi- gations. CULTURE, CLASSAND THEDISADVANTAGED

This sectionbrings to thereader's attention some the societyin which helives. There observations about elements ofculture, are threeparts: adescription of the at the classstructure, andsemi-fictionalized a look middle-class whiteboy, a hill- accounts of arepresentative living in a boy, a PuertoRican boy, and aNegro boy, all Northernmetropolis. this section I wasaided In developingbackground for formerly Dean ofLiberal Arts at by Prof. Hans.0. Mauksch, faculty of theUniversity ofMissouri, and IIT, now on the Liberal Arts. I have Richard Chamberlin,Assistant Dean of the work ofEdward T. Halland other leaned heavily on responsible for theshort- colleagues. None of them are comings of thesection. A. L. Davis Culture

examining one's ownculture The greatestdifficulty in is that so muchof what goes onis outside-of-awareness. doing thingsin certain waysand to making We are used to well-oiled grooves ofhabit. value judgmentsaccording to the mannerisms illustratethis (see sec- Our idiosyncratic We are generallyquite tion on non-verbalcommunication). body-stance, of how weuse ourhands and unaware of our Even our feet, or of ourfacial expressionsand twitches. strange. The commonexperience, "That's ownvoices sound voice on tape, orthe not me," when wefirst hear our own recognition when we aremimicked vocally orin shock of that patients pantomime areevidence. Dentists testify their teeth. seldom realizethat they grit this behavioris learned byunconscious Nearly all because it becomesso imitation or fadesfrom consciousness longer do itthinkingly. We learn our space habitual we no "Don't relationships byobserving othersand by precept. shoulder," "Quitbreathing crowd me,""Quit looking over my which cause achild to keep a on me" areall commands feel It proper" distance, one thatother membersof his culture Similarly "Quit yourwhining," "Don't comfortable with. straight," and to me,""Speak up," "Sit up raise your voice observations hundreds of suchadmonishmentsreinforce the expected of him. of the childabout what is considered Adults in ourculture whotalk too loud are those who crowd usare pushy,those who brash or vulgar, culture disrespectful orshiftless. In another slouch are positive, the may bethought assertive or the loud talker insouciant. crowder to beinterested, thelounger to be more We can describeother aspectsof our behavior communications, butit doesn't easily than ournon-verbal it is to do so. We assume, forexample, that occur to us Our childrenmust natural for mealsto end withdesserts. their dinnersbefore they canhave them. finish the rest of search for Dieters give updesserts withreluctance and A Chinese formaldinner ends not non-fatteningsubstitutes.

-2- with dessert but with a light soup. Sweets are eaten during the dinner or between mealsand the concept of dessert is lacking.1 In a similar way we establishroutines for work chores which make our tasks seem easier, doing themin a fixed order and having everything we needhandy. Conflicts arise when people have differentnotions about order, scheduling and handiness. The bride and mother-in-law livingtogether have adjustment crises, and theymust learn to compromise. Recruits in the military service reactscornfully to doing tasks "by the numbers." The wisdom of experience has taught the service that this is theonly sure way to get work done efficiently. These routines, these patterns,form a cultural glue uniting the members of a society. When individuals of one culture are intimately exposed to aradically different one they may experience cultural shock,incapacitating them so severely that they cannot function. Even those intellectu- ally prepared for new situationsfacing them, experience cultural rub, a nagging irritationwhich brings on cultural fatigue. Our Foreign Service knows thisproblem. Personnel are given home leave,reassigned periodically and supported with modest Stateside comforts. When we think about members ofother cultures or sub- groups of our own culture, weusually have recourse to stereotypes. Latins are vivacious and gay, Scots aredour, Germans are authoritarian, Japanese areclever. For some Europeans, Americans are loud,over-familiar and money-mad. Stereotype-thinking seriously handicapsunderstanding.

Another source of over-simplificationis the cozy idea that all people are the sameif we only get down underneath the surface. What we really mean is that they areall like us! Carl Sandburg's eloquent prologue toSteichen's The Family of Man says men everywhere areborn and die, work, sleep, have fun, pray andhope.2 This is true, but the patterns these activities take areoften so different from our own that they maypuzzle, amuse, or irritate us.

1Buwei Yang Chao, How to Cook andEat in Chinese (New York: 1945) Chaps. 1 and 21. 2Edward Steichen, The Family ofMan, (New York:1955). 14

Culture is the learned behavior of man. It permits him to cope with his environment, to live in productive association with his fellows, and to hand down his achievements to generations following him. During the eons that have passed since the first appearance(s) of the tool-maker and speaker (homo faber and homoloquens), culture patterns have developed in striking different ways; the extraordinary ingenuity of the Eskimo in solving the challenge of a harsh climate, the navigational feats of the Polynesians, the victualling of a great city, all make possible life patterns of markedly diverse shapes. If the culture pattern of one group is quite distinct from those of other groups we speak of it as a culture, if the differences are judged minor we call it a sub-culture. Of necessity these are relative terms. European culture in its broadest outlines is a continuation of an ancient Mediterranean cultural blend. It has spread to all except the most remote tribes of the world, mixed with the cultures of Asia, and has been transplanted to newly settled colonies. Contacts between cultures result in cultural borrowing. We have seen the spread of the great religions--of Christi- anity, Buddhism, Judaism and Islam--, of inventions--, coinage now nearly universal, literacy, the wheel, and the machine, of codified law and governmental systems.

Contacts also result in cultural extinction. The modern Eskimo uses a .30 caliberrifle, a snowmobile, an outboard motor, has disputes handled by the RoyalCanadian Mounted Police and the courts, trades at Hudson's Bay posts, attends church and drinks whiskey. He has become dependent upon European culture for hiswell-being. The entire culture seems headed toward complete assimilation, a fate which has overtaken many, perhaps hundreds of others, since prehistoric times. Culture is so complex that we need some way ofgetting at it. In The Silent Language Edward T. Hall includes a Map of Culture. The result of years of collaboration with George L. Trager, it sets forth ten categories, all shared to some extent with the higher animals. Although it is not possible here to give a thorough analysis ofthe ideas Hall presents, we can indicate many of theimplications of 5

the classification.3 The ten categories areCommunication, Society, Work, The Sexes, Space, Time, Learning,Recreation, Protection and Use of Materials. Animals communicate in calls, growls, barks, and in theirphysical attitudes; they form social and family groups, find food and shelter, stake out areas and trails, scheduletheir visits to waterholes, teach their young to hunt, engagein mock fights, organize for their defense, end build nests. That cultures have different patternsfor the categories is evident. They also attach different values to them. We rank materials and technology veryhigh, for another culture protection may be primary, or having enough food. Or groups within the "same" culture rank some of themhigher than others--punctuality and planning, for example. Furthermore, parts of a category may be ascendant: religion (as a form of protection) over health. In this country endowments to theological institutions have shriveled whilemedical research foundations have thrived. Subdivisions, because a culture mayparticularly value them, may dominate several categories. The dance may be at the same timerecreational, a special form ofcommunication and a primary form of religious expression and experience. Every category is related to everyother one. To generalize from our own culture, now abit anachronistic, the Sexes share the same language, but womendon't swear so much and havefeminine mannerisms. The family is organized with the father as head, his class statusdetermines that of the family and he isexPected to dominate the out- of-the-house social relationships. The father supports the family, the mother rears thefamily and does the house- work.The male treats sex more casually; thefemale is carefully protected from other males. The kitchen is woman's territory, the man has his favorite spot, workshop orstudy, or reclining chair with agood view of the TV. We celebrate Mother's Day and Father's Day; the man's workdayis compart- Mentalized, but "women's work is neverdone." The mother teaches the daughters to cook, sew,keep house and act like ladies; the father teaches the sonshandyman chores,

3Edward T. Hall, The Silent Language,(New York: 1959). 6

often introduces them to sports, andto act like men. Educational institutions prepare the sexesfor different occupations. Men and boys have a much greaterinterest in sports; women, in the arts. Men must protect the family from outside threats, women protectthe family's health. The men control the real property,"own" the family car, and are the experts-in-residencefor repair of all the mysterious gadgetry found in the home.

A category or activityis handled informally, formally or technically. Informal activity is random orunstylized, formal activity governed by rules,conventions and rituals, technical activity, closely analyzed and thought out. Children playing with a ball may start outjust fooling around, but arguments soon break out"You don't play fair!", "It's my turn!," and rules are agreed on. In this age of televised baseball, the little boypitcher adjusts his cap, pulls up his pants and winds up,almost an exact mimic of a big leaguer'sritual. The grown-up game is anintricate pattern of rules and rituals. It is the combination of the expected forms with theunexpected--the big inning, the home run, the no-hitter thatfascinates the spectators. The game is also highlytechnical. Every movement is studied carefully to better performance, records arekept in minute detail: Abernathy hits high inside curves to right field. The Japanese have been able to wedthe formal and the technical. Possibly this accounts for the high popularity of baseball there.

All highly industrializednations have had to become technical about materials anddevices. The genius of the production line is that the highly complex hasbeen broken down into its simplest components sothat the unskilled workers can perform nearly alloperations. Their muscles are extensions of thework designs of the engineers. This sketch is not offered for anexhaustive cultural analysis, but as a framework by which thereader may become aware of culturaldifferences. The following suggestive questions may be expanded by the readerto make a more comprehensive check-list: Communication - What are the patterns ofcommunication within the group, betweengroups? What use is made ofwriting? What are conversational topics and how are they handled? Is there a ritualized kind of communication between the sexes, between agegroups? Are certain topics avoided? How do language shifts in style indicate group membership? Society - Of what importance is social status? How is it shown? To what extent does family background affect status? How is status changed or how is social power acquired? To what extent is physical of intellectual abilityrespected? Economic power? Moral virtue? How are they expressed? Are relations between kin especially close; are kin given rights aboveall others? What is the family structure? Are there particular group memberships?

Work - What are the favoredoccupations? What is the relationship between boss--employee? Of what importance is independence as comparedto being part of a larger organization? What is work success? To what extent are employment aspirations and possibilities compatible? What value does work have in itself;keeping busy? What kinds of rewards are sought throughwork? The Sexes - What are consideredactivities proper to a man, to a woman? How is sex treated? What are attitudes towardsex? How accurate is sexual information? Space - What is value given toprivacy? Are there particular areas for certainactivities? Are public areas available,utilized? How is territoriality established?

Time - How is the daily routine organized? Of what importance is being"on time"? Of finishing work tasks "on time"? What does "on time" mean? Is future planning important,possible? Is time organized into chunks?Are some activities restricted to certain times of the year? Are rites-of-passage observed?

Learning - What is proper upbringing? Who teaches it? Of what importance is institutional education? Is learning valued for its own sake? Is book-learning assigned aminor role as opposed to experienceand practical learning? Are the learned treated withdeference? -

Recreation - How dopeople have a goodtime? What are What are patternsof informal play? joking relationships? Are games andathletics part of the usualactivity? Are the Arts part of therecreational activities? Protection - Whatis physical,social, economic orspiritual security? How do law and govern- and health measures,employment, ment, medical the churches providethis? What efforts does individual make toinsure his security?

Materials - Arespecial goods used orproduced? How is materialcomfort defined? How are technical innovationsproduced? Received? discussion of classand of livesof In the following questions will the fouradolescent boys manyof the above but notnecessarily in theorder given. be touched upon, categories. The reader maywish to refer backto the The Classes

A class structure is a cultural universal. In "primi- tive" societies some one has the task of leader, others have priestly duties, warriors and hunters are accorded varying degrees of prestige depending upon their skills and their valor. Such roles tend to be perpetuated in families, relatives and descendents of chiefs elevated above others, the sons of priests carrying on as manipulators of the unknown and as channels for the transmission of religious lore. The powerful warrior and hunter can make advantageous marriages for himself and his offspring. At the other extreme there are those who become dependent because of misfortune, and in many societies there may be slaves and their families, often captives from other tribes. Skilled specialists develop: witch-doctors, experts on tribal law, story-tellers, artists, dancers and musicians, mg.,kers of weapons and traders. When power, prestige and specializations become inherit- able family property, an exclusive caste system is born. The extreme example is that of India with its hierarchy from Brahmin to Untouchable and a bewildering variety of sub-castes, enforced by religious sanctions. Socializing between the castes is highly formalized and inter-caste social mobility impossible. People marry within their caste, eat only with their caste, and follow traditional occupations. Those who violate their caste status are subject to severepunishments.4 Chaucer, in his Prologue to the Canterbury Tales, gives us a vivid description of the caste-class system ofEngland in the later Middle Ages, representing ranks and vocations from the aristocratic knight to the lowly plowman, In the Medieval romance the kitchen boy who turns out to be morally and physically superior, also turns out to be a prince abducted in infancy.

4Thomas Welby, The Asians, Their Heritage and Their Destiny (New York: 1963), Chapter 11. The entire book is of interest because of its treatment of highly literate cultures contrasting with that of the West.

tedam'iv.galumigArdw tat

Although it has notitled aristocrats, theUnited States has both casteand class. Inherited wealth and position with easy accessto excellenteducation including level the social graceskeep thosefamilies who occupy the of greatestprestige at the top,while general education, scholarship programs, andeconomic opportunitiesfor those Racial and of business acumenkeep the sociallines fluid. religious prejudice, onthe other hand,severely limit upward mobility. The most widelyknown studies ofAmerilan social classes are those ofW. Lloyd Warner,who finds six: upper- lower-upper, upper-middle,lower-middle, upper-lower upper, the nomenclature and loweri-lower. Besides being clumsy, is unfortunate inthat most Americanslike to characterize themselves as belongingto themiddle-classes. "Middle- class" continues to beused as a catch-allby the press for When the all but those atthe extreme endsof the scale. terms are changedto "upper, middle,working-class and lower," slightly more thanhalf of Americanscall themselves working-class.5 There have been manyattempts to findreliable class material indicators. In the 1930's F.Stuart Chapin used possessions as exemplifiedin the family's best room,since criteria they were believedto correlatehighly with other participation in communityaffairs, and like income, Scale" was the essence culturalleve1.6 This "Living-Room The investigatorcounted the windowswith of simplicity. points draperies, thearmchairs, and thebookcases, with added or subtractedfor condition, orderand harmony, the newspapers andmagazines subscribed to;fireplaces and yielded extra points,while sewingmachines hardwood flooring Although far too much or alarmclocks were minusfeatures. reliance must be givento the investigator'sopinions, such in making gross a scalewould, no doubt,still Le of utility

Society. (New York: 5Leonard Reissman,Class in American 1959), p. 138. 6Ibid, p. 118. 11

But mass mediahave done much touniversalize judgments. necessitate tastes andubiquitous use ofcredit plans would including an inquiryabout the financecompany's share in the furniture. The classificationof Warner andhis followers is of income, kind based uponoccupation, amount and source residence, education,organizational and and place of in the community civic relationships, aswell as what others individual's status. None of thesecriteria think of an education may is completelyindependent from theothers: prepare for ahigh prestigeoccupation bringingeconomic rewards permittingexpensive housing and so on. be found for It is doubtful thatexact measurements can and the class. Many factors arenecessarily subjective, classes, elastic. The classificationof lines between the Listing in the great numbers ofpeople would beunclear. Blue Book or theSocial Register changeswith subsequent editions; the unemployedworker on publicrelief may find job putting himfirmly in the respectableworking a steady the color class. The situation inthis country resembles spectrum havingidentifiable areas but nosharp borders. The number of classesto be set up for acommunity as An well as the classassignment of individualsdiffer. impoverished village mayhave no inhabitantwho could be assigned to any classabove lower-middle; ametropolis may recognized classeswith numerous sub-groups. have six easily family, A small city M.D.from an"old" and powerful local considered well-to-do and at the topof the town's upper- class, might beassigned to the middleclass of a larger city.

The Uppers: 5% Of the This group,consing of perhapsless than population has politicaleconomic, cultural,and social influence far in excessof its numbers. Power is its When upper-classmembers enterpolitics characteristic. The road they are likely todo so at a ratherhigh level. advancement fromprecinct worker to apublic of political Through office compatible withtheir status is toolong. felt behind their social contactsthey make their power Their wealth takesthem intocorporation board the scenes. of symphony rooms. They contributeheavily to the support orchestras, art museums,the operaticsocieties, private trustees, they approve schools anduniversities where, as basic policy. activities arecarefully reported inthe news- Their social balls, openings the coming-outparties, the charity papers: for display of the music season,or anyother opportunities of furs, jewels,and fine clothes. of the class Requisite formembership at the very top is belonging to anold importantfamily, which usually It follows thatoutsiders means alsoinherited wealth. gradual rise of can beadmitted only bymarriage, or by the spanning generations. Those who areincluded in a family, of the the classwithout familybackground share most activities and theway-of-life.

Education may becompletely in privateinstitutions with boarding from nursery schoolthrough university, school for theadolescents. Uppers belong toprivate city clubs,yacht clubs and athletic clubs, allof which are openonly to applicants qualifications agreed uponby the members. meeting the attend They belong tofashionable churches,but may not regularly. an The most wealthy maymaintain multipleresidence: country, expensive town apartment,a statelyhouse in the They travelwidely. a winterresidence in a warmclimate. They are arbitersof good taste. of theprofessions, As to occupation,they may follow any elective orappointive office, be hold high government their executives in financial orbusiness concerns, manage dilletante. holdings or evenhave no occupationbeyond that of

The Middles: of our societyis made up ofachievers The middle group continued in the from theworking class orthose who have position as theirparents. Income is either same status possibly supple- from businessownership or from salary, mented by modestinheritances andinvestments. Educational levels rangefrom advancedacademic and professional degrees tohigh school withthe median at concerned about the firstcollege degree. They are deeply children, see thatthey do about theeducation of their take part inPTA, and their home-work,visit the schools, send them tocollege. 13

At the top of this group are the besteducated profes- sionals, owners of important localbusinesses, and managers of important businessenterprises. At the lower end of the group are the technicallytrained--nurses, and opticians, for example--grocery store managers, shopforemen, proprietors of neighborhood stores,gasoline stations, restaurants, and independent farmers. The range is great and there is nocut-off point at either end of the scale. It is impossible to specify how much gas the station owner must pump orhow much land the farmer must own to qualify forinclusion. Educational levels have changed so much in thepast forty years that age must also be considered a factor. That is, the 60 year old with a high schooleducation would ordinarily have a higher status than arecent high-school graduate. High wages, job security, andfringe benefits have made it possible for skilled workers to livein the same manner as all except the top group ofmiddles, taking regular vacations, with travel especially inthis country, spending a great deal of money on leisuretime activities, living in comfortable houses, driving newautomobiles, and planning college educations for theirchildren. Placing them in the middle group or at the top of theworking class is of little consequence. It is important, however, thatmillions of citizens have joined the middleclass way-of-life. Only a guess can be madeof the national percentage ofthe populace to be called middleclass--possibly 30%.

Where there is opportunity themiddle class attend plays and concerts, visit artgalleries and art fairs; they are the consumers of culture. They read books and the quality magazines. They engage in fund drives, volunteer work and service clubactivities. They dine out at better restaurants. Church membership is usual. The city middle-class livein well kept apartments or houses in what the residents wouldcall good neighborhoods. Suburbia with barbecue pit, station wagon,and expensively fed grass is their specialhabitat. Vacation cottages within easy driving distance maybe alternate residencesfor part of the family during the summer.

The jet-age has made travel toEurope, Mexico, and the Caribbean or even more remote placeseconomically feasible for short vacations. The well-heeled middles gofrequently, and even the less-affluent cansometimes include such trips in their plans. Unifying elements of the middles'activities are getting on with their work andliving "decently." 114

The Workers: is made up of The largest segmentof our population in factories,mines, stores, farms and those who work prestige, and service jobs. At the top thehighest income, security go to theskilled who have hadspecialized bosses training includingapprenticeship and to the crew Below them comethe productionworkers (but see above). the workers who do performing simplerepetitive tasks and hard manual labor. Owners of smallfamily the dirty and top of the agri- farms and prosperoustenants are at the cultural groupfollowed by farm handsand the seasonal and sugar-beetworker. Some white fruit-vegetable picker less collar workerslike file-clerks,store clerks and belong to thiscategory, as do also successful salesmen waitresses, nearly all inservice occupations: the cooks and drivers, mailcarriers,building cleaners maintenance man, would and servants. An exhaustivelist of occupations number in thethousands. monthly, Income is from wages,salaries, usually weekly or piece-work. Those on salary mayfare commissions, tips and Those out- worse than others,but have steadieremployment. structure have greatlyfluctuating side the salary-wage followed by a bad one. incomes: a good week oreven a season The small farmer, nowpassing from thenational scene, scrambles to make aliving for hisfamily depending upon groceries and a cash cropto egg andmilk checks for store good at the bank. The farm handregularly keep his credit more does chores for room,board, andpocket-money, but earns harvest-time. The migrant mayactually at planting and that he worksbut have a rather goodincome for the season large part of the year. he's faced withunemployment for a income overlapswith that of themiddle The upper level of school teacher, a class: a janitorearning as much as a much as an accountant. Small construction worker as help business ownerssometimes find thattheir highest paid do, tempting themto give up the make more than they the power of headaches ofownership. They, however, have hope that profitswill improve. At the being boss and the under-employed and the bottom of theworking-class are the unemployed availablefor jobs. could be includedwith the The poverty-stricken society. workers, or separatedinto a group dependentupon subsisting upon meager The indigent agedand the afflicted forced to associatewith skid-row types pensions are often Families because they canafford only thecheapest housing. Li 7,, KW' :77,77r0,7,M1WW.,,,nrart.4. "gn

chronically on relief or Aid to Dependent Children are sorted out by their working-class acquaintances according to moral reputations, and those who do not measure up are the no-accounts--families marked by alcoholism, feetle- mindedness, prostitution, crime, and plain shiftlessness.

The educational extremes range from college to illiteracy. Grade school, that is eighth grade for older workers, high school and/or trade school for theyounger ones are median levels. College graduates choosing the life of the working man have opted out of the middle class. Nearly unanimously the working class want good education for their children and they leave it pretty much to the schools to carry out the process.

Organized activities are unions, church affairs, or bowling leagues. Most recently community organizations have become effective in creating pressure on City Hall, using as weapons, confrontations, picketing and strikes. But organized activities do not loom large. Resting after a day's work, with the family in front of the TV, beer at the neighborhood tavern, visiting bev.:k and forth with relatives and friends, account for mcst of their spare time. Housing is as varied as the size of their pay checks, from comfortable suburb to miserable slum. Where choice exists the worker lives in a neighborhood where fellow workmen are close by. The best housing is indistinguishable from that of the lower-middles, spacious, pleasant and meticulously taken care of. The worst housing, overcrowded, wretched both inside and out,is so slowly being replaced by public housing that it may never catch up with the need.

The Parasites:

Outside the regular class structure are the ones who prey upon society, the professional criminals. Indeed, they have a class structure of their own, paralelling that of legitimate society. David P. Maurer's in The Big Con, points out that the confidence man has the highest status. He must be able not only to mingle inconspicuously with the wealthy in plying his trade, but also must have the mental equipment to fleece his victim. At the lowest end of the scale are the punks: pimps, petty thieves and narcotic 16

pushers.7 Another way of looking at thestructure of American society is interrelated with thestratificational view of the classes, but based rather onwhat the individual does in society instead of such factors aswealth, family, residence and formal education. It is the contribution of the individual that isimportant. For instance, the well- to-do matron living a trivialexistence but assured of her upper class statusis countea as less than anexperimental artist seriously trying tofind meaningful expression but living in a semi-slum. This view is briefly sketched here, hopefully enough to indicateits validity.

7Of the "grifters" depending uponoutwitting their victims or upon their physicaldexterity as opposed to "heavy rackets" which involve violenceMaurer says: "It (the class structure) isstratified much like the upper world, each sociallevel being bounded by rather rigid linesdetermined largely by three factors: professional standing, income and professionalintegrity.' "If we arrange the major criminalprofessions (each comprising a great number of separate rackets) within the grift into theirrespective categories, we would have somethinglike this:

I. Confidence men 1. Big - con men 2. Short - con men II. Pickpockets and professionalthieves. III. Professional gamblers IV. Circus grifters V. Railroad grifters(surely, an extinct breed now) and other minorprofessionals."

David P. Maurer, The Big Con,(New York: 1962), p. 142. 17

Innovators are often called creative. They work at the frontiers of knowledge, theyfind new solutions, they set our course in new directions. They are artists in the broadest sense and thinkers. Decision-makers or Evaluators have the gift of choosing among alternatives. As critics they interpret the creative artist to his public, in government they set the course of action. Their judgment in the courts channels society's actions in new ways or counteracts the tendencies of a citizenry to establish its own interpretations of the law.

Organizers are able to work with complex groups either as initiators of group action or asadministrators of complex operations. They must be endowed with the gift of making disparate elements work together smoothly. While recognizing their intellectual superiority our society has no honorary titles (other than honorarydegrees) or exclusiveacademies for them. Sometimes they achieve great wealth, receive prizes and find themselveslionized. The contemporary society may not value themhighly--a common fate for the composer, artist, philosopher or writer. Their delayed impact does not diminish their importance; we must only be prepared toadmit that their contributions have not been evaluated. Popularizers take up the innovations when evaluated, thus acting as agents for change. Keepers or Guardians preserve the values of society and revere evenits outmoded institutions. Consumers accept that which is provided for them, without making their own value judgments. An individual will of necessity play several of these roles; an innovative scientist be a consumer orkeeper in art; a writer also an evaluator in his own field but a keeper in religion, a consumer in science or technology.

Celebrities are a special group, at times persons of genuine talent or manufactured by shrewd public relations men. The entertainment and political scene contain both. Athletes of unusual prowess are better known thanhigh government officials. The celebrity's opinions and endorse- ments are eagerly sought after, even when heis no better informed than the man-in-the-street. Except for the very great, the celebrity's fame fades quickly and wewonder "what ever happened to so-and-so?" 18

Further elaboration of thescheme may bring forthnew categories and, doubtless,better labels. Its merit is that it is dynamic while thestratificational view is essentially static despite the upwardand downward mobility that takes place.

The patterns of associationoccurring withina class, which are, ofcourse, one of the primary class markers, also form class attitudes andcharacteristic styles. We think, talk and act likethose we are with moston a footing of equality. "Right thinking" mirrorsthe self-interest of the class. Only a rare individualescapes from this insidious pressure. Our class is reflected in thesubjects we talk about and whatwe say about them. We have the manners of our class and we do the "right things." But the moulds are many. The professional, for example, isgenerally middle class and part of hisprofessional sub-class with its special shop-talkas a lawyer, a minister, a doctor,a teacher, as an engineer. His professional trainingand the layman's deference to hislearning make him authoritative even on subjects where he hasno competence. The man in business is more likely to beconciliatory because he has learned to subordinate his opinions indeference to those he depends upon for hissuccess. Among the working class, the store-clerk, the cab driver, thefactory hand, and the bulldozer operator have differingattitudes and manners. The clerk and driver deal withthe public, the clerk closely supervised, the cabbie glorying inhis independence. A drill press operator, likethe clerk, has a confining job. The clerk's is lessmonotonous; the drill press operator is slightlymore independent since he hasno public, and strict supervision isnow tempered by union rules. The bulldozer operator has theindependence of his trade and the pride of doinga real man's job.

Among the virtues often called middle-classare hard work, honesty, promptness, respectfor property, law and elders, thrift and planning ahead,truthfulness, and restraint (nothing in excess). Altogether they include the best features of the Ten Commandmentsand the Scout Oath. The middle class hasno exclusive claim to any of these, though at times they assume different guises.

Hard work, in the puritan ethic,is a virtue in itself and equals success. Logically then the non-workerand the non-successful are not virtuous. Hard physical work is not universally regardedas desirable. The middle and upper classes, to be sure, do little of it. In many occupations there is pride in doinga job that is tough or hazardous. John Henry, that steel-driving man, is a folk- hero, who killed himself in the dangerous C&O Big Bend tunnel trying to keep up with a steam drill. More modern folk-heroes are professional athletes, hard-boiled TV detectives, and six-shooting cowboys. It should come as no surprise that many boys are little attracted to pencil- pushing occupations which they consider effeminate. Respect for property depends upon whose property is involved. The poor may be destructive of public property: we are dismayed and puzzled when stores are looted. We must constantly remind ourselves that people must feel that they have a stake in the property, a feeling that they own a share of it. The stores are part of an alien, outside establishment. The man who reaches through a broken window to steal a fifth of rye from a liquor store might not think of taking a neighbor's jug. If respect for law means trouble then respect for it is only the respect of fear. Absolute punctuality as required by factories means little if one has never had a job regulated by a time- clock or has never even owned a clock at home. Thrift in the sense of putting something aside for a rainy day is sheer luxury for a family living in a steady downpour. Planning ahead when there seems nothing to plan for doesn't make good sense. Telling the truth can be an out- rageous betrayal or bring painful retaliation. Good manners include the tipping of hats or organizing a formal wedding. Fortunately we have guides like Emily Post and Amy Vanderbilt to lead ns through all the upper- class intracies. It is possible to conceive of such a guidebook for manners among the lower orders. Use of last names would be thought unfriendly; in some groups it isn't good form to ask a stranger for his last name or to inquire about what he does. Entertainment in the home between families not related may seldom be for a regular meal, but be a dropping-in after supper or a snack after bowling.

Informal education is class-related. The working class mother with a houseful of children has no time for foolish- ness and can't spend herprecious time and energy on reasoning with the youngster who is out-of-line. The mores of the class make talk about sex, at leastbetween adults and children "dirty." Frank discussion of this problem is simply unthinkable, even when the parent knowsfull well that the child is aware of the biologicalmechanics. 20

The middle class mother can discuss sex with frankness. Indeed, the line between formal education, the many after school activities, e,nd parent engagement in the middle class child's learnIng may blur them all into one extended curriculum. The classes don't really live in separate compartments. Even those we see daily we seldom understand. Do we know how people of another class live, what theybelieve in, what motivates them? For those of our own group we fill in by putting ourselves in their place thus we have akind of road map. When the pattern differs we are on a chartless sea. It is ironic that at times we have no more understanding of minority groups whose life styles are not ours than we do of an Amazonian tribe. There is much popular interest in status symbols. They are of three kinds: the intrinsic or essential life-style, the honorary, granted by others, and the purchasable. The honorary are tangible like the key to the executivewash- room, a carpet on the floorof an office of a proper size, an honorary degree, andintangible like the deference with which the individual is treated. The purchasable include world cruises, residences, powerlJoats, wine cellars,luxury automobiles, all of that which is expensive. The intrinsic markers are the remainder. Advertisers tell us we signal our competence and social importance by our consumer habits, which are,of course, closely tied toability to pay. Unfortunately, purchased symbols are easily acquired even thoughthe purchaser runs the risk of crushing debt. They can serve to signal our desire for higher status ratherthan the status itself, for the truly secure canignore them. How much mischief the advertiser's worldbrings about is hard to estimate; but it does havesocial consequences. The non-affluent excluded from the glamour world aretrained to equate the good life with thismaterialism. In the United States there have been fourprincipal avenues for upwardmobility in social status: the frontier, business enterprise, politics, and education. The frontier is not yet gone as the increase in thepopulation of Alaska since 1950 shows, but it is no longerimportant. Far more common is moving from state to state tothe West, to the East, to the North, to the Southin search of better opportunity. The growth of a small shop to a huge corporation, though now less common than formerlywhen the .411

industrial tycoons were building their fortunes, still goes on. Today advancement within an established enterprise where the exceptionally talented rise to managerial power is more common. A very large proportion of those in public service have risen from humble origins; childhood hardship helps the average voter to identify with them and is made much of. Only limited numbers can be accomodated on our shrinking frontiers, can rise above theircompetition in business or enter politics. Education is then the main highway.8 Until very recently the financial burden of a long educational program and of delayed earning power made it extremely difficult for children of the working class to change their status to upper-middle class. New programs of scholarships and expanding facilities have changed the picture somewhat, but it is still a struggle. Most common is the upward movement which takes two or three generations from working class to upper middle: the unskilled worker's children take up the trades or become small business men, who then are able to encourage their children to enter the professions or seek careers in business and government of equal importance. Status jumps are seldom spectacular. Parents transfer their aspirations to their children. The school's responsibility for status changes is now more serious than it has ever been. It must prepare a larger percentage of children for responsible positions and find ways of decreasing the size of the unskilled and semi-skilled groups, so that all can be brought into the regular working force equipped with the skills necessary for steady employment in a technical society. Somehow we

8"Mass education, later mass suffrage and mass production, is a leading trait of our code. During the last generation, education has supplemented the frontier as a favorite means of socialmobility, for we have continued to define success in terms of mobility rather thanin terms of stability." Clyde Kluckhohn, Mirror for Man,(New York: 1944), p. 188. 22

must find ways of making all school work purposeful and related to the needs of the society. This all sounds like an argument for trade school training rather than education in the fullest sense. This not intended. Intellectual growth, growth of the imagination, may be of greater importance lest we develop a society of trained seals. The status changes must be possible but are not in themselves goals. The goals are rather in the development of the significant function of the individual: as the individual's worth is enhanced, society itself is enhanced. frY",

The Disadvantaged

The changing socialconscience of the 60's hasforced us to takecognizance of the plightof those millions of our citizenswho have not been ableto share in the opportunities that the resteujoy. The high rates of unemploy- ment for thosehandicapped by near-illiteracyand lack of technical skills makeit imperative that we meetthis serious conscience, challenge. It is not only a matterof our social it is a matter ofpractical realism. Adequate housing, health services,legal aid, employmenttraining and high quality education areall urgent. "Disadvantaged" and"underprivileged" are near syno- myms for"poor." Havighurst gives thisdefinition, "Dis- advantaged is a relativeterm. When we speak of achild as beingsocially disadvantaged we meanthat he has a disadvantage relative to someother child it means disadvantaged for livingcompetently in an urban,industrial and democraticsociety."9 Estimates of the number who are poorrange from 30 - Other 50 millions. The largest isHarrington's in his The Office America.10 Adelaide Jablonsky, whoquotes from an of EconomicOpportunity report, placesthe figure at between 30 - 35 millions,based upon income offrom $1,990 for a non-farm family of twoto $6,135 for afamily of ten, with farm families$300-$200 less per persondepending upon the number of children. Because of the risein cost-of-living the figure nowgenerally used is$3,300 for an urban family Some families whohave larger incomes are poor of four. city-wise, in spite of managers. Some families, who are very lowincomes, are able to takeadvantage of all sorts of free services such aslibraries, museums andclinics to

9RichardJ. Havighurst,"Where are the Socially Disadvantaged?" in TheDisadvantaged Learner,Staten W. Webster, ed.(San Francisco:1966), p. 22. 1°Michael Harrington, The Other America,(New York: 1963).

-23- the extent thatthey are poormiddle-class. poor are veryunevenly distributed The disadvantaged chronically geographically andethnically. They include the pockets of poverty asthe unemployed coalminers in such share-croppers,migrant farm-workers, Southern mountains, Ethnically and theever-increasing massesof urban poor. Puerto Rican,Spanish-speaking"Mexican- they are Negro, they areimmigrants Americans," wetbacks,American Indians; stock. From 1/3 to1/2 are non-white. and old American minority groupsidenti- Most of thedisadvantaged belong to fied by theirphysical or culturaltraits. middle class hasbecome identifiedwith Just as the identified with the the pleasantsuburbs, the poor are "Slums" and "ghetto" arenot synonomous, Slums slums. they can be rural are run-down ormake-shift housing; work-camps, skid rowswith their winosand chicken-wire city neighbor- cubicled flop-houses,orover-crowded and old Ghettos are placeswhere minorities areforced hoods. legal to live becauseof socialeconomic and, often, restrictions. Greek, Ethnic neighborhoods(Swedes, Polish, Italian, example) still existin most largecities. Hungarian for alive. Here Older people andrecent immigrantskeep them the foods they areused to, attendchurch they can buy their friends. with an old countryservice, and talk to and LittleItalies aretransplanted little The Greek-towns still observed. cities where oldcountry customs are Americanized The schools,public andparochial, have Few schoolshave assumed anyresponsibility the children. foreign languages or for keeping anappreciation of the the generalpublic's cultures alive. This has reinforced conformity. The second andthird generations pressure for Intermarriage have lost muschof their ethnicidentity. become usual, andthe ethnic betweennationalities have meaning for them. working classneighborhoods havelost their Although Racial prejudicehas kept theghetto alive. enacted to endthis discrimination,it may laws have been They willcontinue be decadesbefore ghettosdisappear. to preservetheir specialcultural identities. 25

section fourgroups areconsidered: In thefollowing Appalachian Negro, thePuerto Rican,the thedisadvantaged middle class contrast, thewellestablished White and for An extendedexample isgiven white in amidwestern city. boy fromeach group. of atypical adolescent population of overtwo million. It The Cityhas a about 150 yearsago byNew Englanders. wasfirst settled it animportant tradecenter of therailroads made and The coming from allthemidwestern states which broughtin people Irish andScandinavians ofimmigrants--Germans, Since before large numbers easternEuropeans. followed bysouthern and community inthe City, War therehas been aNegro the Civil jobs asmaids,janitors, whom workedin service most of in factories. A verylarge hands, sweepers I, has livery stable beginning afterWorld War in-migration ofNegroes the so thatnearlyone-fourth of continued tothe present have come Over 30,000Puerto Ricans population isNegro. and a largernumber ofPoor City in thelast decade, to the mountains havecomesince World Whites fromthe southern War II. the earlyfamilies are Almost allof thedescendants of families which class, thoughthere arestill middle and upper A commonpattern is continued in theworking class. socially have not beenable toadvance that partof thefamily has andeconomically. fairly clear- patterns ofthe city are Theresidential along Ridge wealthy live onlarge estates cut. The very where they aresaid to look Drive in the"Hill" section, live in The notquite wealthy down oneverybody else. some of of severalparts ofthe city, well-defined areas At least asmany ofthe affluent them rathernewdevelopments. almost The ethnicneighborhoods are live in thesuburbs. "foreigners" live onthe north although agreat many in Polish, gone find storesspecializing side where onecan few restaurants. These Italian foods aswell as a Greek and duplexes, andfour andsix mostly wood churches and a neighborhoods are large Catholic buildings. There are live to the flat school system. The Negroes verylargeparochial edge ofthe downtownstarting at the South andeast of Housing thereis overcrowded businessdistrict. attrac- congested high-rise, and ona fewstreets, slum, urbanrenewal Ricans livein an area houses. The Puerto tive well-kept district, andtheAppalachian to theeast of thebusiness of it. Nearly taken over anarea tothe west Whites have A fewNegrofamilies have all thishousing isrun-down.

11 26

apartment projectsand some moved intoexpensive integrated neighborhoods. An have boughthouses inmiddle class ranch stylehouses in the$25,000 and integrated suburb of It faced theproblem price range openedeight years ago. up there is suchgreat demand of remainingintegrated because suburb. At the southedge of town by Negroes tobuy in the wooden there is asprawling slum ofweather-beaten cheap houses. Originally, workers tenements andgrimy single to tannery livedthere and ithas continued at a nearby although the house workersfor nearly ahundred years gone. During Prohibitionit acquired tannery is long gambling andprostitution. notoriety forbootlegging, wide-open is still areform movementto do At everyelection there is mixed something to cleanit up. Ethnically Tannerytown Mexican. South European,Negro, PuertoRican and and has been The City has adiversified industry able to absorbmost of its newcomers prosperous. It has been find better force. And it isstruggling hard to into its work employment problems, answers toits housing,educational and which seem attimes to defysolution. Highlands stretchesfrom the Hillfolk: The Southern hills to the Blue Ridge tothe Ozarks andfrom the Georgia mainly the descendantsof pre- Ohio River. Its people are Pennsylvania UlsterScots(Scotch-Irish, Revolutionary Whites from Vir- Scotch plusIrish) and of Poor rather than land is poor,and Carolines. The available ginia and the hollows difficult. transportation throughthe hills and settlements developedasubsistence economy, The small woods and growing most oftheir food onsmall farms, the folk remedies,fuel and game. streamsfurnishing herbs and prolific, the excesspopulation continuing The families were eventually all the wayto California the migrationwestward, fugitives from theDustbowl inSteinbeck's The like the cities. Grapes of Wrath, orto thegrowing industrial did little tointerfere withtheir Outside government Their remoteness lives except toharassmoonshiners. kinship ties,independence,mistrust of encouraged strong classless society. authority and ofstrangers. It was a nearly in workers fromthe British Rich coaldeposits brought later, the turn ofthe centuryand, somewhat Isles before New companytowns were from easternand southernEurope. pit-heads, with rowsof identicalhouses and built at the goods; the storeshandling over-priced company general of rent andstore charges. check-off systeminsured payment Unionizing put an endto some abusesbut there wereperiods "captive" mines, owned by orsolidly of strike. Except in contracted to, steelmills, railroads or powerplants, work local roots moved on was irregular. Miners without strong there was a chanceof steadier employment. to places where by the Depression The relatively prosperous20's were followed and then a warperiod of regularwork. Strip mining and mechanization of thepits have nowdrastically reduced the endemic need for miners. The hills havebecome an area of poverty and a culturalbackwater.

The institutionsof church, schooland government are hell-fire fundamentalism. all underdeveloped. Ministers preach a the teachers poorlyprepared and poorly Education is sketchy, by paid, the facilitiescrude. Government is represented officers: the judge andsheriff, the the county and town justice of the peace. township trustee, theconstable and the government is Fxcept for aid programs,state and national of minorimportance. It could be arguedthat theseinstitutions were adequate culture. They move into the sameneigh- for the simple rural into the borhood, the sameblock, the samebuilding or even Some remaintransients going fromcity to same apartment. in city or from theCity back down home. They maintain associations and theirsub- so far aspossible their former culture. 60's nearly 50,000hill people have In the 50's and move on and some come to theCity. More keep coming, some return to thehills. Many who havelived here for several moved out of the"hillbilly" neighborhood, years have ties losing their identitybut for theirdialect and the kept with kinfolkand old friends. has a smalladmixture of PuertoRicans The neighborhood The and a few Negroeswho predominatein adjacent areas. brick six and eightflat low-rises apartment buildings are the trimmed in stonegiving the appearanceof solidity; neighborhood used to bemiddle-class and somewhatfashionable. notice that The casualsightseer, drivingthrough might not any changehas taken place. is to The best way toget the feel ofthe neighborhood streets, walk around on afine day. Hillbillies cruwd the fronts, the womentaking the men loungingagainst the store their babies, andtow-headed childrenplaying the air with from the windows in the empty lots. Country music blares and from the taverns. Business is represented by thebig chains: Woolworth's, Penny's, WesternAuto,Kroger and by the small independentservices--the dry-cleaners, laundromats, TV repair shops, gas-stationsand quick-meal restaurants. Stores are mostly cash-and-carry,lay-away buying is pushed, and "easy" credit is widelyadvertized for larger items. The restaurants do a big hamburgerbusiness and the taverns thrive on pay-nights. Employment agencies have largesigns in their windows: 70 Men Needed Tomorrow 7 a.m.shift, hourly rates$1.60- $2.15. PAY IN FULL AT END OF SHIFT. TRANSPORTATION PROVIDED. 20 Women. Interesting Work.Bring a Friend and Receive EXTRA BONUS. Store front churches of thepentecostal persuasion are scattered here and there in thebusiness blocks. There is a huge Catholicchurch and a synagogue. The Catholics come from the Puerto Ricancommunity and the Jews from the much more eleganthigh-rises on Lagden Drive. Everywhere there is shabbinessand litter. Old model cars take up all theparking spaces on the streets. The solid rows of flats are dingy, the screensrusted and torn, the paint peeling. And overall there is thefeeling of impermanence, of the nostalgia of an uprootedrural population.

C. J. Miller: John and Helen Miller live in afive- room flat withtheir five children. They decided three years ago that they had toleave eastern Kentucky when acousin wrote that he might be able toget John in with him atthe factory. They sold off whatever theycould, packed the kids in their old Chevrolet and came tothe City. At first they cousins, sleeping on pallets all '4) all doubled up with the over the house. It was fun. They talked way into thenights. "Remember the time old Bill's stillexploded? Man, that corn he used to makewould go down likesoda-pop." "Mary, you heard 'boutMeg Pellett's daughter? You know, the one that was so nasty-nice? Imogene, her name was. Why, she run off with thatpreacher!" Then John got on the afternoon shift at Becker Electric and theyfound a flat down the street in the next block. John is a fork-lift operatorand makes $2.60 an hour and takeshome $90 to$120 a week depending on whether he gets anyovertime. The Millers now feel that they arewell-off. Work has been steady except for twomonths when the plant shutdown a couple of years ago. They have been able tofurnish the flat including a big TVset, and replace the old Chevrolet 29

with a Ford stationwagon which is in good shape. John had to have the transportation to get to work and besides he says he just feels lost without a car. They have to be careful; the car and furniture payments and rent come due every month, and it costs a lot in thecity to keep food on the table and the children in clothes fit for school. They often talk about.going back but know that they can't.

C. J. is 17 and the eldest of the children. There are three girls ages14, 11 and 9 and his brother, Tommy who is 10. He has finally made the adjustment to the City. It was very difficult for him in the beginning. There was nothing to do around the house; he got putback at school and everything seemed so big. The only thing he wanted was to go back to the hills; maybe he could live with Grandmaw and help her take care of the farm. Now it's changed. The school and city have lost their terrors. He is a sophmore, one of the many, but well-liked forhis good nature. He's taking English, in which he makes consistently poor grades, Sci.ence for Modern Living, World History, General Shop and Gym. C. J. likes to tinker with cars and would like to be a long-distance truck-driver. C. J. has always kept out of trouble. A couple of the boys he runs with have been arrested and Johnny Smith has to report to the probation officer. He sees plenty of cops in the neighborhood. They come to the building to quiet family rows and they break up fights in the taverns. C. J. stays out of their way. When they first came to town Helen and the children regularly attended the Baptist church. She doesn't go so often now but the younger children still go to Sunday school. One of the children says the blessing at supper. Helen reads the Bible when she feels blue. wor recreation the family visits back-and-forth with the cousins, or they just stay at home and watch TV. On Sundays they go for a drive when the weather is decent. C. J. bums around with his friends, after school and after supper, and on week-ends. They go downtown, go to the park to see if there are any girls around, catch amovie, hang around the gas-station, play catch. None of their activity is "structured." As the oldest, C. J. has one special responsibility. He sees to it that no one picks on the otherchildren. He has never had to do anything about it except to letit be 30

do known that hewon't stand forit. He has no chores to at home. On the whole, one cansay that theMiller family is a family in transition. They have made a goodadjustment college, to their newlife; some of thechildren may attend and their prospectslook bright. C. J. could not be considered a problem. He is simplymarking time until he moti- can get a joband be on his own. His seeming lack of vation for Middle classgoals may be a puzzleto his teachers. of it just The curriculum orpossibly the presentation leaves him cold.

Middle Class -Brian Compton An estate of The Comptonslive in the Hilldistrict. forty acres, ownedby a retiredmillionaire industialist the woods going tothe city for a parkand the was divided, advantage of remainder sold forhouses. The developer took winding drives, andbuilt houses ofhighest the trees, made by the neighbor- quality. Plans for new housesmust be approved The residents areall professionaland business hood council. Congregationalist, men. They are predominatelyEpiscopalian and there are a fewCatholic and Jewishfamilies, and a couple of families with noobservable religiousaffiliations. The families do someneighboring--drinks on thepatio living in each in summer, forinstance--but there is no other's houses. Conversation is on allsubjects--politics, children, religion,books. Yet the conversa- the pill, the seldom tion is usuallyhandled lightly sothat tempers are lost; voices areraised only when someonehas too many martinis. and a maidls The Compton houseis large--four bedrooms study where room,architecturally modern. It has a large lawyer, keeps aconsiderable law libraryand Mr. Compton, a dozens of a generalreference collection. The family buys current books each yearand subscribes to new popular Time, several magazines: The SaturdayReview, Harper's, and otherssimilar. The basement of New YorkersAtlantic Mr. Compton the house has awell equippedworkshop in which restores furniturehe finds atauctions. other family, theComptons have a Like nearly every with the regular maid who doesnot live in. She has been his sister werebabies and sometimes family since Brian and They think of stays overnightwhen the Comptonsentertain. 31

her a Elsie as a memberof the family,and have helped great dealfinancially overthe years. his sisterfourteen. His mother is Brian is sixteen, couple of years graduate, whotaught school for a a college with her volunteerwork at before marrying. She keeps busy Hospital and herclub work. Mr. Compton's Wilson Memorial He manages totake practice is confinedto corporationlaw. but has to putin long hoursoccasionally. regular holidays considered The familyincome is seldomdisr.:ussed, being Mr. Compton'sparents livein a big Victorian adequate. in an older part place built byBrian's great-grandfather, considered a good,respectable of town. The Comptons are family. in high school,taking German, Brian is a junior He is excused chemistry, second-yearalgebra andEnglish. he is on thetrack team--aquarter-miler. from gym because lessons and he nowplays Until two years agohe took piano pick out folk tunes onhis reasonably wellbut prefers to school is notenthusiastic but guitar. His attitude toward in order to get he is anxiousabout gettinggood grades English is a problem2or him; he into a good college. is not in manages to getB's most of thetime but his heart finds him completelyuninspired. German it; theme writing tenses, andvocabulary. is a bear; heis baffled by cases, it out with a Cat least hisA in Chemistry If he can sweat plans are for will keep his B average. His long range medical school. track Sports of allkinds interesthim. He practices competent gameof tennis andskis. faithfully, plays a in the Canadian Often the familyspend theChristmas holidays like to go toDartmouth wherehe could Laurentians, and he'd sails and water ski all winter. In the summerhe swims, skis at theircottage on LakeCrystal. and such he findsboring. He likes plays The arts as The Comptonshave has seen severalBroadwayproductions. symphony and heattends to keep peace seasontickets to the He never goesto the art museum. Science in the family. to reading fiction takes upmost of thetime he devotes along withSports Illustratedand Playboy. father's profession,his attitude Perhaps becauseof his he the law isrespectful. Only once has toward police and police might bepersonally been in aposition to feelthat the with a friendwho got aspeeding intimidating when he was uneasy about ticket and adressing down. He is a little 32

what he he hasn't beenable to reconcile religion because with the doctrinehe learned is learning inscience classes in theCongregational SundaySchool. social graces, Brian has a reasonablygood mind, some The collegepreparatory and determinationto become adoctor. adequate and thereis no worry aboutfunds for course is life in advanced study. As yet he hasled a restricted richness of hisactivities. His closefriends spite of the His future seems are entirelyfrom his ownneighborhood. assured.

.A1* 33

Puerto Rican: Nearly a million PuertoRicans have immigrated to the continental United State,in recent years because the economy of theisland has not been able tosupport its population. About two and a halfmillion live in an area approximately thirty-five by100 miles, much of itmountainous. Two-thirds of the immigrantshave come to New York andthe remainder to other largecities.

They differ from theEuropean immigrants who have preceded them. They are alreadycitizens, air transportation is relatively cheap and manyhope to return to theisland. They are alreadybicultural to a large extentwith the combination of Americaninfluence and Spanish tradition. Some speak English,which is required in theschools. But like most of theEuropeans before them theystart at the very bottom of theeconomicladder.11 Few of them have technical skills and theyusually find work inservice jobs.

In the City they occupy atwenty block area they call the barrio. Here are the stores whereSpanish is spoken, the restaurants andbars, the churches anddance halls, all with a clientele nearly100% from the island. The streets are an extensionof their houses wherethey visit, amuse themselves, argueand occasionally fight. The barrio is noisy with loud Latinvoices and loud Latin rhythms. Although the police try notto bother them unlessthere is real trouble,misunderstandings are frequent. Hardly any uniformedpolicemen have even asmattering of Spanish. The City is attempting toremedy this by putting moreSpanish speakers on the force(the height requirement has been lowered) and by starting Spanishclasses for patrolmen.

On the whole thebarrio is self-containedlike a transplanted part of San Juan. Other city residentsseldom come to the barrio except onbusiness. The curious visitor is treated politely butignored "Mister, you smelllike a cop." The older PuertoRicans leave the neighborhood

11For a complete reviewof the literature seethe IRCD Bulletin, YeshivaUniversity, Volume IV, No.1, by Gertrude S. Goldberg. 314

only to go to work.

So far the schoolshave not made aconcerted effort to teach English tothe children. Special classes have been tried in the elementarygrades but too littletime has been allocated, and the teachershaven't been prepared toteach best they can. them. As a result thechildren get along as The drop-out rate ishigher than for any other groupin the school system.

Juan Fernández: The Ferngndez family cameto the City a year ago fromNew York, where theyhad lived in Spanish Harlem for two yearselter leaving San Juan. Juan's stepfather, ManoloPerron, is a bartenderin a downtown cocktail lounge. He works the five to oneshift six days a week withSundays off. Maria, his mother, works irregularly as a maid at thePick-Fairmont, a luxury hotel. high as Their income fluctuateswidely, sometimes going as $200 a week when big spendingconventioneers are in town. The average isconsiderably lower. Manolo is a steadyworker, a moderatedrinker, and a confirmed gambler. He plays the horses,the football and baseball pools, pokerand blackjack. It has never occurred to him to keep books onhis wins and losses. He remembers the day he hit thebig daily double, thenight his two jacks showing scaredPancho out of a$600 pot. Maria thinks it would be betterif he wouldn't spend somuch but she doesn't say anything. It's just part ofbeing a man. Elena, Juan's sister,is 19. She packs chocolatesin a candyfactory, gives half her payto her mother, and spends the rest onclothes. Elena is far tooindependent boy-friend and to suit Papa.(She stays out late with her never tells anyonewhere she isgoing) Papa bawls her out, she says she's grown upand besides thisisn't San Juan.

Juan has twohalf-sisters ages ten andeight, and Papa's niece, Carmen,who is 14, has cometo live with them too. She is an orphan. The flat is four largerooms over afurniture store. All the girls sleepin two double bedsin one bedroom, the parents in the other. Juan sleeps in theliving room- When Mama dining room. Usually they eatin the kitchen. works, Carmen looksafter the two youngergirls, gets the evening meal andPapa's lunch before hehas to leave for pollo work. On specialoccasions, Mama makes arroz con (chicken with rice). Then they move thetable into the living room-dining room,and it's a big day. 35

At home only Spanish is spoken. None of them feel comfortable with English. When Juan and Elena talk English, Papa says "You speak Spanishin my house!" Papa's Turf Tips and Elena's movie magazines arethe only English literature beside school books. Carmen is poorest in English and all the children help her with herlessons. Some of the information she gets is inaccurate. The TV is on nearly all the time with the sound turned down. They like to listen to the Puerto Rican FM station. Papa's hours keep him away from the family except on week-ends. He sleeps late (he seldom gets homebefore two), has coffee, and then goes outuntil he has to get ready for work. On Sundays old Mr. Diaz comes tovisit Papa. They sit for hours in the kitchenplaying dominoes and drinking sweet black coffee.

Mama likes to sew. She is a real expert at embroidery. She'd prefer sewing to working at the hotel,but there isn't any chance ofgetting an income doing it. She also goes to church a.lot, and has never missedSunday mass. The children go to mass, too. Papa goes only at Christmas and Easter. They are all good Catholics. Juan is 16, a sophomore in the generalhigh school course which doesn't leadanywhere. He has some ability in art and spends much of his timedrawing when he should be studying. He has Art, Typing, English and WorldHistory. His English teacher has given up. All students pass if they attend with any regularity. His home-room teacher advised him to take typing, which is boring, tohelp hia English. World History is mostly true-and-falsetests. The art teacher thinks Juan has talent, maybenot as a creative artist but enough to make a livingdoing commercial work. Juan is proud of his sketcheswhich were entered in the city-wide school art exhibit, and hedreams about going to art school. Not much of Juan's spare timeis spent at home. He goes to Ernesto'shouse where they dance withErnesto's sisters, or sing Spanish songs. Sometimes the boys gamble a little at pennyante or pitching dimes. Once in awhile he goes with Gustavo to theNeighborhood House to play chess. -He can't beat Gustavo. Like Elena he doesn't get alongwith Papa. It began long ago when Mamadecided to marry Manolo. Nobody could be like his real father, hardly remembered. The big blow up came just after they moved tothe City. Dios, it was terrible. Like all the other guys,Juan had become a member of the Latin Lords. The primary function ofthe Lords is to stake out their ter-itory towhich the members belong. The Lords activities are not approved bythe men at the precinct station. They don't like the pettyshake-down rackets, the petty thievery, the pot. And anything that goes onthey blame on the Lords. The station had got windof a rumble between the Lords and the WatusiWarriors. Juan was frisked, his switchblade found, and he was takento the station. Papa had to come down to gethim out. "You goddam punk, I work my assoff so you can go to school,I ought to beat your goddlmhead off." Then Papa hit him. Juan went out and walkedthe streets until he wasafraid the cops would run him in again. He came home, told Papa hewould quit the Lords. But, of course, hedidn't. Nobody ever does until he is too oid. But, of course, thatson-of-a-bitch Papa will never understand. The family wants to go backto San Juan. That is, Papa and Mama do. Elena would nevergo--"All those old aunts watching you all the time!" For the two little girlsit's a tropicalparadise where you playoutside all day long. Carmen imagines herself grown uplike Elena. Juan day-dreams of art school, but hispassionate desire is to get awayfrom home. It isn't likely that hewill finish high school, and it is most probable that hewill enter military service as soon as he is oldenough, and can convince Papathat he should sign his enlistment papers. 37

The Negro: in our societyhas beendisadvantaged No ethnic group the in so many ways ashas the Negro. In a society where acquisition of goodsand gelAing-ahead areprominent driving forces, the Negrohas been blockedfrom nearly every avenue Racial which would allowhis completeparticipation. attitudes have formed acaste separateness, anapartheid, time, the which is only nowbeing loosened. At the same not realized howdifficult it is to dominant Whites have becoming middle accept middleclass goals whenthe hope of class is slim, orhow pervasive theeffects of second-class citizenship have beenin shaping the Negrocharacter.

Business and farmownership, educationand the skilled highways to themiddle class for theWhite trades have been these youth whodesired to take them. For the Negro youth highways but narrowpaths. Lack of therequisite have been not of capital and skillshave severelyrestricted the growth legal or de facto, Negro businesses. Segregated education, limiting advancementthrough business has beeninferior, thus which has managership or theprofessions. Trade unionism, accomplished so muchin creating amiddle class skilled higher education areality for workers' elite and in making Negroes into children, has been mostreluctant to accept training programs. has not yet been Economically andpolitically, the Negro his numbers, as able to achieve powercommensurate with Jews or theIrish, for example. The Jew compared with the cohesiveness has had strongfamily traditions,and community religious obligation. in his synagogue,with education a ward politics,have becomepoliticaly The Irish, through The Negro powerful, aided bythe votes offellow Catholics. has lacked suchsupport. has been stronglymatriarchial, the male The Negro family of the household, marginal. This is the result role in the marriage, conditions of slaveryand informalattitudes towards of economic success. The Negro as well asthe male's lack often has been regularly workedoutside the home and woman has expressed his the dependablebread-winner. The man has being the familyhead, but byindependence masculinity, not by stability of from familyresponsibility. Strengthening the problem for oursociety as the Negrofamily is a critical a whole. with otherminority groups, theNegro_has had As compared separated fromhis a furtherdisadvantage in thathe has been 38

ethnic and cultural heritage. The other groups have, at least, been able to dream of days of pastglory. The interest of the Negro in the progress of the newAfrican states, in demanding courses in Negro history, inwearing Afro styles, is an attempt to find this identificationwith his past. Marcus Garvey's slogan, "Black isbeautiful," is an expression of the Negro's need for pride inhimself. Twenty-two million Americans are classed asNegro, a classification based almost entirely upon physicaltraits. Not all Negroes share such obviouscharacteristics as dark skin and eyes, kinky hair, broad nose orthick lips. The individual who shares none of these is Negro onlybecause of legal discrimination dependent upon parentage and culturalidentifi- cation with the Negro commuaity.12 No serious student will now suggest that mentaldifferences exist apart from cultural differences. Comparisons of intelligence as shown by IQ tests demonstrate the results of culturaldisadvantages.13 Most Negroes share a sub-culturederived from elements of African survivals, slavery,segregation and prejudice. Traces of African survivals are to be foundin magic, as examplified by the conjur-man, in the folk taleand inmusic.14 In language there are among theJamaicans, and the Gullah, who live on the off-shore islands ofSouth Carolina and Georgia, real English creoles or blend languages(a pidgin, is a second language combining features of two or morelanguages; a creole is a native language derivedfrom a pidgin). It has been argued that lower-class NegroAmerican English has many

12Thisis not to suggest any notion of "purerace." For an extended discussion see William C. Boyd,Genetics and the Races of Man (Boston,1950). 13See Nathaniel Hickerson, Education forAlienation (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1966). 14Melville J. Herskovitz has a chart ofintensity of New World Africanisms in Man andHis Works (New York, 1960 p. 615. See also Richard M. Dorson, AmericanNegro Folk Tales (New York, 1967). 39

creole structural features: in the verb no copula in the present, "He sick" contrastingwith "He be sick" a more permanent condition; omissionof the possessive suffix, "John book'. for example.15 Possibly there are survivals in non-verbal communication. Much careful research is needed before reliable statements canbe made.16 Negroes have lived in theCity since before the Civil War, a small isolated communityof mostly menial workers, who developed their ownsocial life and their own social structure closely paralleling thatof the White society. At the top of the social structure arethe doctors, lawyers, dentists, druggists, teachers and otherprofessionals and successful businessmen. Ranking below them are the steady- working respectable middle-class, manyof them in various government occupations such asmail carriers, policemen, and firemen, as well as those who have hadlong time employment at factory jobs. Making up the lowest group arethose on public aid, and those who workirregularly, changing jobs and residence often;proportionately, this is a far larger group than that ofthe Whites. The influx of Negroes from theSouth has increased the Negro population four-foldin the past thirty years. The older residents have tendedto keep themselves aloof from the newcomers.

Clarence Monroe: Clarence, 16, is the oldest sonof Jenny Monroe an ADC mother. There are three otherchildren-- two girls, Annie andKatherine, who are 14 and 13, and aboy, Stephen, who is eight. Clarence doesn't know his father very well, becausehis last visit was three years agoand he doesn't even know if he lives in theCity. At the time of his last visit, he brought presentsfor all the children and for Jenny. His father had given five dollarsto get steaks, Cokes, and a store cake. It was like a party. But after dinner, his parents had gotinto an argument. Jenny had said "You ought to be herekeeping your family instead of

15See Beryl Loftman Bailey,"Toward a New Perspective in Negro EnglishDialectology," American Speech, XL(1965), 171-177; and William A.Stewart, "SociolinguisticFactors in the History of AmericanNegro Dialects," Florida FLReporter (Spring, 1967). 16The belief that minordifferences in the shape of the vocal organs make itdifficult for any normal person to master any language is nonsense. 14 0

floozies." His father hadtold Stevie spending everything on around here,"and left. to get hishat. "Momma don't want me day's work a week checks. Jenny gets a Besides the ADC doing so Staffords' house. She has been as amaid at the there might 1,e some different days ofthe week, in case on office checking upon her. The precaution one fromthe welfare against the ry but partof her defense is not really necesE "If any one hei checkmight be reduced. possibility that I'm overvisiting AuntMillie. comes tothe door, youtell them I'm at MizStafford's." Clarence Don't you daretell them Saturdays at the working afterschool and on has also been groceries at thecheck-out counter. supermarket, wherehe bags the of hisearnings forpocket-money, and He keeps some sufficient food andclothing for the Monroes do manageto have children. The girls they live inhas three rooms. The apartment in the sleep in thebedroom, and thetwo boys and Momma evenings are spentat homewatching living room. Usually their their homework. On SundaysMomma TV, thechildren doing doesn't go children go tochurch. Clarence and the other Bible and a verylarge anymore. There is adictionary, a Momma bringshome from theStaffords. supply ofmagazines which dismal, building is inbad shape, andthe halls Although the "Just becausewe're poor, the apartmentis clean. Momma says we don'thave to betrashy." school. Annie wants The twogirls are bothinterested in is going totake acommercial course to be asecretary and Katherine wantsto be when she goesto high schoolnext year. school is fun. Clarence, asophomore, a nurse. Steve thinks in his school general course,has ratherlittle interest on a history andmathematics. However subjects: science, English, The well oversix feet, and a"natural athlete." he is tall% him and during gymclasses basketball coachhas noticed The coachis Clarence practicesbasketballfundamentals. for Clarence sothat he can come trying to findanother job subjects practice afterschool. The school to basketball Clarence becausemost of themhave have littleinterest for repetitious of thematerial little new content,being instead in assigned to generalcoursesdid not master which those doing passingwork but notwell previous years. Clarence is to thechallenging coursestaught eLough topermit a transfer Nevertheless, hestill preparatorystudents. to the college play basketball,and go has the hopethat he willbe able to on tocollege. brief as they are,contain These sketchesof four boys, is ordinarilyavailable to the teacher. moreinformation than about other students The teacherneeds to knownot only more but also aboutStavros, Kim, andSean who from these groups four boys isin may befrom other cultures. None of these outstanding eith,Jr as aproblem or as a possessor any way in that the of great talent. Yet they aretruly problems schools have beenable to do solittle for them. PHONETICS ANDPHONEMICS

by A. L. Davis

English spelling,and Because of theinconsistency of respellings usedby our popular the cumbersomenessof the special linguists findit necessary to usea dictionaries, Beginning studentshave often alphabet forEnglish sounds. not because mastery of suchanalphabet difficult, found the to immediateunderstanding, it presents anygreat obstacles ingrained by years their ownspelling habits but because Anyone who wishesto change of practiceget in the way. habits of Others,or tounderstand the the pronunciation writing English decoding-encoding processesin reading and the mechanismsof speech should beknowledgeable about production and ofthe phonemicprinciple. from the lungsis modified For speechproduction air the cords, thesoft muscle atthe back of by the vocal velum), the tongue,teeth mouth-roof(the soft palate or andlips.' move from oneposition toanother, As the muscles sounds. what isgoing on anddescribe the phoneticians note are akind of Phoneticsymbols, asmodified alphabets, symbol [p] forexamplestanding shorthandnotation; the without anoticeable for abilabial voicelessstop uttered puff of breath. of Englishwords which If we takecontrasting sets "sound," we canarrive at aninventory differ in only one Such "sounds" of Englishfor eachnative-speaker. of the the same for everyspeaker, contrasting setswill not be all speak inthe sameway.2 of course,since we do not

1 considered part ofthe regularEnglish Some soundsnot in as with made with theair being sucked sound-system are sharp takingin tongue-clicks,andsuch audible lip-smacks, step into acold shower. of breath as wemake when we 2 States, There are manydialect areasin the United yet beenstudied. One mayconsider some ofwhich have not and three major areas: Northern, Midland that there are includes all ofNew England,New York Southern. Northern of countiesin Pennsylvania, State, thenorthern tier Midland is muchof Northern Ohio,Indiana andIllinois. -1- -

-2-

If we use sets likepit, bit, kit, fit, sit, mitt,nit, lit, wit, hit, we see that all thesewords differ in theirinitial consonantsCp,b,k,f,s,m,n,l,w,ii). Since not all consonants occur before-it, we change to other sets tocomplete our inventory as pet, bet, get, yet; 21.11,ban, tan, Dan, fan, van, ran addingEt,d,g,v,r4). Than, although spelledwith two letters, has only onecontrasting sound made with the tongue held lightlybehind the teeth, so thatit may be included in the "pan" set. This sound occurs in a short series of words in initialposition: this, the, there, then, they, their, there,them, this, these, those. All these words are"pointers." Because the ordinary alphabet uses two lettersfor this single sound, wewrite it with a special symbolCf) called sometimes "crossed d." The words thistle, Thursdaybegin with a sound whichis very similai773[ct], but if we cup our hands tightly overour ears wenotice that the crossed d'sin the series buzz while the th of thistle,Thursday do not. We recognize this difference in thy, thigh;either, ether. Accordingly we use anotherspecialsymbol-1177theta." The difference between V) and [e] is that for the former thevocal cords are brought into the air stream asit is expelled from thelungs causing vibration orvoicing, while the latteris made with the vocal cords drawnapart. Part of their phonetic description is that they arevoiced and voiceless.

New Jersey, Maryland, therest of Pennsylvania,Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and the"r pronouncing" South. The plantation South is Southern. Each of these major areas has sub-areas: eastern New England asopposed to the rest of the north, New YorkCity as a separate sub-area,the Midland divided into South andNorth Midland--SouthMidland being the southern middlewestto the Mississippi,and the mountains. Charleston,S.C., and NewOrleans have distinctive speech patterns. Also west of theMississippi, there are varyingmixtures of Northern andMidland (except for the South). In general the settlementmoved horizontally across the country,and the northern areas arelikely to be more Northern. Dialect areas are discoveredby analyzing speech samples from many speakersspread geographicallythroughout are all a region. Pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary used to determine theextent of the dialect areasand sub- studied areas. Social class differencesmust be carefully as well,since the speech of theeducated may be more uniform than that of theuneducated. _3_

pit, tip, zip, Rip, shik yield the additional contrasts kJ and sh. sh like th is a single sound made with the tongue held slightly farther back in the mouth thanforLa Its symbol is LW3. A sound very similar totgl which does not occur at the beginning of wordsin English except in French--like pronunciations of gendarme and genre occurs in words like measure as contrasted with mesher. At the end of words some speakers use this sound in rouge, barrage, garage, while others use thesound found initially in John, jet. The symbol for the measure sound is[ij. chain, Jane, sane give the sounds ch an4 j. ch is made by pronouncing [t] followed immediately byPk]. This has the special symbol W. j is made by pronouncingEd] followed immediately by 3; we use the symbol for this. These combinations of fused sounds are calle& affricates.

RE never appears at thebeginning of words in English, but tam, tan, tang show that it is also asingle different sound. It is quite similar to n but with the tongue placed in position for k and g. The symbol used is [n] sometimes called "eng" or "agma." The above sets illustrate all American English consonants. We may sum them up by a table which groups them together on the basis of articulation p,b; f,v; e,t; t,d; s,z; s,z; c,j;vI k,g; m n n; lrhy w.

Eipst,ig andEb,d,g)are formed by closing off thevocal tract completely at some point: Da and co have lip closure, Et] and cd.) have closure with the tongueagainst the gum-ridge and molars; for Ckj and co the back part of the tongue against the hard palate or so?t palate justbehind it. This will depend upon adjacent sounds; notice the difference in tongue placement between king and caught. All of these sounds are called stops: labial for [1)9133, alveolar for ct,a), and velar forCic,i,);Cip,t,i3 are voiceless and Cb,d,g) voiced. Cm,n) and [71) are made in the same positions as the stops:043 with Doi); Cri3 with I:t,47; CID withcit,o. They are different in that the air escapesthrough the nose, the soft palate or velum not closing off thenasal passage. They are, then, bilabial, alveolar and velarnasals. They are all voiced. -4-

lf,v,e4,s,z,g,0 are characterizedby the The sounds that a friction articulators being soclose together These arefricatives. Ef,v7 are made sound is formed. touching the teeth;they differ with the lowerlip lightly voiced. DJ and CU as dothe otherpairsvoiceless, tip slightlyforward of the0,9 are madewith the tongue teeth, position, in factit may touchthe lower alveolar lightly betweenthe teeth. the upperteeth,or evenbe held The tongueforms a wideslit-like opening. made in the sameplace asEt,d00 Is3 and Izi are narrow the gumridge. The opening is a with the tongue at the tonguetip farther igi andLil are made with groove. and withwider opening;the are back behindthe gum-ridge (ef,e,s,11 are voiceless; often accompaniedby lip-rounding. and S] as mentionedabove are Ev,a,z,Z/.1 are voiced. Lel] WIcalled affricates. combinations ofLt] andtg], CdT and made dithout fr), [Y], andtw) are ordinarily Ll]9 tongue is heldwith the tipat the friction. For [0 the air coming out overthe sides ofthe gum-ridge with the of the tongue are Because thecenter and back tongue. neighboring soundsthe relatively free toaccommodate to "fronted"Ithat is madewith the tonguetoward the [l] may be [1] of limbsor"backed" front of themouth as inthe initial These tongue israised toward thevelum. as inpool where the "clear" and"dark." varieties ofC11 are sometimescalled variation in the wayCr] is made. There isconsiderable the tongue maybe pulledbackward In wordslike red, row against the with the sidesof the tongueheld tightly tip of thetongue may beslightly curled. molars, and the tip scrapesthe gum- In wordslike try anddry the tongue backward movement. In somepronunciations, ridge in a burr, bird,etc., especially in theMiddlewest, of were, center of thesyllable, thatis a vowel thetylbecomes the during theproduction, having littleperceptible movement with the the tonguebeing tensed andat times the front of InitialLr]is oftenrounded. tip bentslightly backward. vowels and aremade with [y] and [wj occuronly before DI and a moving from ahigh frontposition for the tongue rounded forEw7, ry] position forElf). The lips are high back movement from oneposition and [WI becausethey indicate a to another arecalled glides. air friction in thevocal tractbut the [h] has audible It is in any way bythe vocal organs. is not hindered the glottiswith since thefriction starts at voiceless and from the airstream,it is the vocalcords pulled away usually called aglottalfricative. -5

inventory of vowelsin the same way We can make an which differ by that we didfor consonants,using series nuclei. Eel, 01., pate(as in "bald-pate") only the vowel putt, Rut; beat,bit, bait, kat, LEA, Eat(in some dialects), dialects), boat,bootsgive us bet, bat, bought(in some paet,pu.t, series: [pit, pIt, pet, pet, a nearlycomplete vowel buij; we know bit, bIt, bet,bet, baet,b3t, bot, pnt, put; such pairs aspull, that iv]differs from[u] because of pool,(pvi) and [pug. boy, bough addthediphthons%iaI), The sets hia, or[Ar. purr addspi], sometimeswrittenii6 and EaUg. vowel-consonant sequence This last is oftenconbidered a rather than asimple vowel ordiphthong. Classification of thevowels is based uponthe position of the lips. They are all of the tongueand the shape that the front Starting withlEil as in peat, we see voiced. is high, thelips not rounded. (not the tip) ofthe tongue quite so high, LI) is made with thetongue not In pit the forif]; in in pate for the[e3 the tongueis lower than lower than forCe]sand in Elt pet for[kJ the tongue is with the tonguequite low. These five form Ca123 is made opening normally a frontseries[i,I,e,e,Sej, the mouth increasingly largeand the jawprogressively becoming for any ofthese. opening. The lips arenot rounded tongue Similarly in bootthe ru] ismade with the toward the softpalate(velum), high in the backof the mouth, rounded, in bookCO is made withthe tongue with the lips tongue is lowerfor [o], and slightly lower,in boat the quite low. All these are for [...7,) inbought the tongue lip-rounding. This back series made withnoticeable progressively Lu,11,,o,2] as with thefront seriesshows a larger mouthopening. front and backvowels are thecentral Between the highest The [A] ofbutt is madewith the tongue vowels. still not high. The(ajof at its centralportion, but in its with the tongue veryslightly raised cot is made sounds is rounded. central portion. Neither of these there is a For thediphthongs inbite, bout, Hoyt of the tongueduring their clearlyperceptible movement bite the tongue When we pronouncethe [813 of production. [e3 toward high, moves fromthe low centralposition of tongue movesfrom the lowcentral La] front. In b9mt the with high back. The DI] ofHoyt starts position toward toward highfront. the tongue atthe low backposition, moving The vowels are usually arranged into a quadrilateral for easein refer- ring to them. The figure does not, of course, accuratelyrepresent the true position of the oral cavity.

Front Central Back

C u. High I V

e Mid o A E ,

Low 22 a .9

At this point the reader might wish to try some transcription of one-syllable words containing the above sounds. The following list illustrates them: seat, sit, fit, read, note, vine, rod, sought, cur, catch, judge, sing, singe, ridge, please, rouge, tack, bend, Tom, joke, yacht, bush, gag, lip, leech, hide, out, oil, zeal, this, these, thin, shake. Transcriptions (based upon the northern Middlewestern dialect) are sit, sIt, fIt, rid, not, vaIn, red, sat, kor, kaec, sIn, sInY, rIS, pliz, rui (or run, taak, bend, tam, Sok, yat,strgs, gag, lIp, haId, avt, zil, SIs, diz, am, sek. The reader may also wish to make contrasting sets orseries like those above which helped us find our inventory of sounds. GIB7

Modifications of pert wesaid that themost In discussingthe nucleus pr.], the rsound oftenmade usual symbolfor it was r with the vowel. Theloalsound without any simultaneously the ends ofsuch words asCuba coloring alsois found at made with thetongueslightly Theja]sound is in Lkyuba.l. position forrA) ,and it is verycommon forward of the paired depending unstressedsyllables. SinceplandlAlare possible to stress of thesyllable, itwould be upon the provided we markthe stress. use asingle symbolfor them, commonly chosenisrplcalled schwa The vowelsymbol most tbStorj, those whodo not and butterwould bewritten EbStal. pronouncethe finalrjsaying have a vowelbetween the Some EasternAmerican speakers It occursin pronunciations [Jej of hat and therajof hot. regarded and a fewother words,and is of path,dance, glass far, barn,park, It is commonbefore r in asquite refined. in someSouthern NorthernMiddlewest, and yard in the from blandand blond. pronunciations ofblind, differing this sound. The symbol[1'7 is used for high centralvowelC13 called Nearly allspeakers have a gust when usedas anadverb. 'barred i'(eye) in the word stressed vowelin Southernand Midland It occurs as a (not like thestressed pronunciations ofribbon, sister in wish, not cistern), scissors. It is also common vowel of and childrenwith a voweldiffering rhyming withdish or bush, will'eCwIli3, The serieswill hepronounced from chilly. contrasting setCwIli, wooly mayalso form a the chart. Willy and is necessaryto add ; to w4li, wirl9. Therefore it then be added: These threevowels should cl__JL l9 I V kA 0

be increased number of vowelsymbols could The total phoneticians such asfield workers professional enormously and United Statesand Canada use Linguistic, Atlasof the it for the that we haveincluded. At times about twicethe number the that wel is notquite like is necessaryto indicate Chicago {I TheLat of has a ideal vowelof the chart. Arrowheads areused which soundscloser to( . pronunciation thetranscription f theseintermediatt may to indicate might be EV orale4 The arrowheads of the vowelof jazz be used in combination:014jr- -1 being a possiblepronunciation for fur with speakers who do not prononnce thefinal r. AddiT7nal modifications are length: Nfor very short, unmarked for 'normal' length, a single raiseddot,N, for long, a colon for very long,U4and a doublecolon011for extremely long,which may occur in calls. Nasalized vowels may be indicated by the use olio.' overthe vowel or a , under it. Degree of rounding may be indicated by using%., under the symbol for rounding, and a straightline for unroundir. A possible, if extreme, transcription for on would be1;3,an extremely long,slightly rounded low central vowel, not quite at low centralposition but made somewhat farther back in the mouth and somewhatraised-- toward mid back position--and nasalized. The diphthongsLaI, aw, *I]differ from dialect todialect in the position of both elements. FortaI]the first element may be.fronted to(alraised to[a], or the final element may bel.a]as in somepronunciations of white: hwaIt, hweIt, hwaoat]. The iauplof cow isofteicTir.j:The [Al may be[0I] in some pronunciations of buoy, differing from 1b3II, some speakers pronounce hurt and Hoyt in the same way bia4Q, and a few very old-fashioned speakers will have Cal) in words like joint. The phonetician may wish to make quite finediscriminations in the pronunciation of diphthongs to indicate asclosely as he can the beginning point and end point, andalso unless it seems self-evident from the transcription he maywish to indicate which component is the loudest. In the word cow he might use atranscription like this for the diphthong: LyarAl; this would indicate that the first element begins sligh ly farther back of the E.] position, isquite long, and that the end point is atcoh thediacritic or mark under the o shows that it is not the loudest element. The end points of these diphthongs is related to theposition of their first elements,[aIjandt,Ijoften ending attheLOposition Laki, L7t1 and[avl at the Eol position. The word new may be pronounced in atleast three ways: tnIg, niu, nAl; the seconddniaLis often writtentnyulor(njuj and called a "risingdiphthong;" the other diphthongs are sometimes called "falling." Reexamination of the AmericanEnglish vowels shows that i,e,u, and o alsohave perceptible movement orglides during their production) istarting at a position alittle lower thanfiland ending veryhigh: see CsiviA3) seat(iiiv14J. e starting at a position little lowerthan (e)and ending slightly lower as well: say.['sell mate Linevi4g, u like i starting a little lowerthan[u]position and ending very high:zoo rzW1X13 boot[beet.), ando slightly lower in ao These diphthongs are sometimes lgoni%1-1 boat loovimvtl. called "narrow," the others "wide," Diphthong pronunciations will vary from speaker to speaker, from dialect to dialect. The consonants may also be added to, at least as extensively as the vowels, and appropriate modifying symbols for length etc., used. The glottal stop [9], the symbol like a question mark with the dot omitted, is formed in the larynx, the vocal cords being pressed tightly together. It occurs often at the beginning of an utterance whose initial sound is a vowel:DattdataIg etc.;10Jmay substitute for Cara, i:99depOD in some dialects. It may be used instead oft] in 010 mountain (the mark under the n indicates that the n is syllabic) of k ini:bA9f) buckle. Some dialects of the Southern mountains seem pepperedwith glottal stops. In a word like mountain both the t andr] may be heard 1millt90, the tbeing heard as the place of closure, but Ehe release being made from the larynx tothe nasal passage. [1]as in buckle(above) and the nasals are frequently syllabic, no 'vowel' being formed. Something Camp910, button CbAtrsij, smoking Csmok90,rmj for I'm andrn7for an, and are common inquick speech: Many speakers have a sound in words like ladder, latter, letter etc. which is a quick flap [e] sometimesindicated as 'voiced t'[0 they being the symbol for voicing. Final fricatives often are quite voiceless at the end of their production buzz seeming to end with zs[bAzsj, if one wished to indicate this as a voiceless z at the end one could write [bAzi). We may also wish to avail ourselves of special symbols

for the I sounds: tOror a very 'clear'I ,Olfor an inter-

mediate I andpolfor a'dark' I. At times we need to indicate that a stop isaccompanied by an audible and quick breath release. If we cup our hand over the mouth and saykitwe can feel this puff of air. In pill we also feel it, but not in spill. This puff of air is indicated by raised h or -10-

Ep(a13, [phIi), [irI17. English raised comma: Lphai], speakers automaticallyaspirate initialvoiceless stops, Spanish speakers donot. There are manyvarieties of rjall ofwhich could be in indicated by specialsymbols. The trilled alveolar r Spanish roio etc" isindicated by the symbolEF+,3 and is useful when one isanalyzing the speech ofSpanish speaking The Spanish b and vsound which causes somuch children. stop in initial trouble for childrenlearning English, is a sell'but a bilabial fricative _position("bender-17 vender(to (plbetween vowelsetpanal Havana. pronunciations ofpimathe -ph is In some English position made with thelips releasing fromthe De] or to i.e. bilabial andthe lower lipdoes not touch the upper A special symbolcould be used forthis:pj, front teeth. For many speakers so that onecould writefiampcOor EnImtP]. does not have anytouching of the tongue the word, milk, being humped lip at the alveolarridge for h the tongue at the positionfor Eol. If the lips are in the back nearly phonetician may rounded as they usuallyarefor_this sound, the wish to use a specialsymbolDri for it. Such additional whenever he needs symbols are employedby the phonetician them. Let us nowsummarize the precedingsymbols: ptk, bdg; 9,t --thevoiceless and voicedstops; the glottal stop and thealveolar flap; ;5"voiced t." 4,f,e,s,g; p,v,t1,z,g--the voicelessand voicedfricatives. 'C and j the voiceless andvoiced affricates. 101,e, --the lateral I"clea r, ft normal; and "dark." r,r+--r as in red;r+ trilled with thetongue tip. position, y--a consonantalglide starting athigh front or sometimes alittle lower; compareyet with yacht,. w--a consonantalglide starting athigh back position, and watch. or sometimes alittle lower; compare won in the vocal tract. h--a fricativewithout narrow opening i,I,e,t,c10 front vowelsunrounded. ;9a9A.80.central vowelsunrounded. uor,o,2back vowelsrounded. the vowel of pertwith simultaneous rformation;ar 30 formation. the unstressedvowel of butterwith simultaneous r Ahigher, moreback, < morefront, Diacritics: > length; vvoiced(used :2 ::degrees of sound, lower; v, .2 ordinarilyvoiceless with mainsymbolindicating an tenser); 22 nota. zbecausesomewhat as 6, ansvoiced but ordinarily main symbolindicating an voiceless(used with weaker elementof a the )in playrp1=1; voiced sound as triph1hong e.g9in somepronunciations (could be also nasalization; diphthong symbol(or underneath) of new[nAusf)); ^0over used withinitialvoiceless aspiration, often sound, , s degreesof indicate the h phIi] etc; 2 amark to stops: Ei.1 rptIt, syllable asin buttonril'Atra ft normally" aconsonantsforms a possibly sound normallyunrounded, or N./under asymbol for a lipprotrusion, noticeable liprounding, like toindicate very a, veryrounded sound: coslightly rounded rounded, or for a rounded symlol for asound normally under a veryunrounded, u , and somewhatunrounded, se possibly veryspread: u lips widelyspread. the speech tries to recordeverything in Thephonetician that heattempts to hear. To some,it may seem must do so, that he can is evidentthat he precise. Yet, it pertinent be overly any datawhich may prove in order notto overlook By studyingthe analysis of alanguage ordialect. of a to the relationship tothe utterances phonetic datain its language theinvestigator of speakersof a speaker, or group single speaker,anidiolect, discovers thephonemes--of a language. of adialect, orof a we of AmericanEnglish sounds, started oursurvey labelled When we Middlewestern(sometimes used examples fromnorthern Pete, pit;Pete, Thecontrasting sets acquainted InlandNorthern). great deal,provided we are beat etc.tell us a very working with anunfamiliar dialect; howeverif we are sets very with the find the taskof finding dialect orlanguage we may of words,i.e., languagesminimal pairs difficult; in some Pete andbeat,are.hard to differing by one"sound" as do because to usthey contrastingsounds with find; we mayoverlook contrastaspirated sound so muchalike--somelanguages don't"hear" which we donot, sothat we unaspiratedstops, "alike" tothe speaker think soundswhich are them; or we may belong tothe same different--f andh inJapanese sounds in are In additionwere-interpret Japanesephoneme. different way: French system in asomewhat distinct terms of our English ualthough itis quite u isreinterpreted as vowel, anddifferent being a frontrounded phonetically, for example. from Frenchou: Sue and sou, -12-

All theseconsiderations are pertinentfor the study of dialects as well asfor that ofdifferent languages.

The broad orsimplified transcriptionis both inexact We must use a fulleralphabet. We may start and biased. slightly as beforeusing contrastingseries but now using a Cpcivi1t7, Eit ['pelt) moresophisticated alphabet. Pete beat Lpiwi4i] bit[pIt3, Elt [pctt3 betIntl, Esi FP(seU We learn from theseries that initial p batlipaeiT etc. series to is aspirated while bis not. When we extend the words like kit spit, wediscover that initial pis regularly aspirated, but after s the pis not. The other voiceless stops, t and k, showthe same patterning. The voiceless stops, then, areaspirated in initialposition, not after final position as inlik, sit, sick, the stop s; and in quite like may not evenbe released. These varieties are each other i.e.phonetically similar, andfor initial position and after s theaspiration or lack ofit is automatic. In final positioneither is possible aswell as unreleased. of English voicelessstops shows no Further examination Narieties of each other importantvarieties. We call the The varieties of p arepf, p, and p' (the of these,allophones. distri- diacritic meaningunreleased) and we cansymbolize the Together they make bution: [pc-, (s) p-, -p; . /p/ (phonemes beingindicated by slantlines up the phoneme between and the allophonesby square brackets. The variation p' and p after s isautomatic or in complementarydistribution; do not knowwhich will occur; we in the final position we the free call this "freevariation." It is possible that variation has limits--thatformal and informalstyles and emphasis determine thechoice of allophones. The other voicelessstops, t and k, maybe symbolized: /t/ (s)t-, -tg-t7,-t] /k/ [kg-,Wk-, in words like letter,butter also The /t/ as we have seen be has the allophoneEn. In some dialectsalso there may simultaneous glottalstopping, or for/t/ and /k/ a glottal stop may be anallophone..5

3In a dialect wherethe glottal stopwould be an allophone problem arises of both /t/ and/k/ in certain positions, a whether the 9 shouldbe assigned to/t/ or /k/, or both, would be or neither. If one hasEipAtri and bA90 the 9 assigned to /t/ as avariant. The stoppage withthe release position would alsoconfirm this decision. at the alveolar n with However it might bepossible that a speakerhas button

4. -13-

The consonant phonemes arelisted below with comments on some of theallophones:

Stops: /p/ p'- -1379-139-V /t/ tf- /k/ kf- -k7,-k,-ki

Speakers of some dialects orforeign languages will substitute a dental t, madewith the tongue tip touching the upper teethsfor thealveolar t. Others may have a very lax pronunciation,potatoesfor example having lax p and t making it sound likeCbadedal.). Before /in words like clean, Cleveland the k mayactually be closer to t or at least with a simultaneousclosure at k and t postions. k as well as gwill vary from closure at thehard palate to the velum depending uponadjacent sounds. This can be felt in a series like lum, can,caught, or ghee, gat, got.

/b/ b- -b7,-b /d/ d- -d7,-d /g/ g- -g7,-g Aspiration of these voiceless stops occursin emphatic speech. Fricatives: /0/ tongue behind teeth, touchingteeth or interdental. May be pronounced t in veryfast speech, in somedialects or in foreignizedspeech.4 Other speakers may have a with [b/097 and bucking the presentparticiple with[DA?Ti7 also. If the transcription isaccurate--that is, glottalized t tti] and kEkg are not what is said--then wehave a case of overlapand must state that thisis a fact in our description, however we choose torepresent thephoneme(s). If on the other hand we haveDA907 and [WOO then we may assignthe former to /t/ and the latterto /k/ on the basis of the following nasal position. It may also be possiblethat the preceding vowel may be slightlydifferent in the two words: emc?q, bA903 which would help us make ourchoice. A similar problem arises with the flap[..t] or voiced t CO in words like latter, ladder. For some speakers they maybe true homophones; for others theWin latteris shorter than it is inladder. Since the vowels are longerbefore voiced stops thanbefore voiceless ones, the seeming contrastbetween long and short could be considered aspart of the consonantfeature giving Elaetr3iel9etOrd/ ahd Clavtar]Ase.datv. '4 It is possible that somespeakers have two stops, a dental for /8/ and an alveolarfor /t/, thus preservingthe an /Lit substitutionfor /0/. [foil is substituted for/e/ in some dialects: ffIgi) for Illg. Many speakers have a pronunciationof seventh asPseb01, also in eleventh. If/ usually labio-dental. Can be bilabial [0] in words like nymph. The bilabial occursquite often in rapid speech. /s/ usually alveolar. May be dental inforeignized speech. /g/ usually lip rounded. /4/ similar to the voiceless/0/, with /d/ substitution in some dialects andin foreignized speech. A bilabial [p] or /y/ substituted in some dialects. /v/ usually labio-dental like/f/butalso bilabial037 or /b/ in some dialects in wordslike seven EsEpd, sebng. /z/ same comment as for/s/. /i/ same comment as for/d/. All fricatives are heldlonger at the end of words, especially before pause. Released voiced stops andvoiced fricatives are also somewhatunvoiced in final position.

Affricates: /X/ t andg fused. Some foreignized speechsubstitutes s. The t is phoneticallyslightly farther back than the t of tin: ro. 73/ d and I fused. Some foreignized speechsubstitutes d farther back than the dof din ro.

Nasals: /m/ usually bilabial. May be labio-dental in some pronunciations before f nymph&WI, the special[4]indicating the articulation. May be somewhat unvoicedin woras like something pronouncedCOmiii]. The final n, is unusual in that it also forms asyllable.5 /n/ usually alveolar. May be dentalized in some dialects and in foreignizedspeech, or palatalized(made farther back) in words likemillion when pronouncedrmI47. The special Isymbol andiplindicatethis palatal pronunciation. fishing-pole CfIrgnato4 Like m it may be somewhatunvoiced: o

contrast. A similar situation mayexist for /di, /d/ with dental d forV] and alveolar for /d/. The matter needs investigation. Many speakers will have[63, [t] in more formal speech butEt], [d] informally. 5 The syllabic symbol is not repeated,rampqn. The voiceless nasal would be nearlyinaudible, being merely release of air from the nose. a.

-15-

/n/ varies from palatal to velar depending uponadjacent sounds; compare the position of the tonguein sing, song. Maybe unvoiced in a pronunciation oflooking-glass CIAnk0 glal.sj for example. The nasals, like the fricatives, are held longer whenin final position. Some speakers have 9 only before kand g sing beingDI9g7.3. Some foreignized speech has CsIlk3 like sink. Nasal closure may be omitted with nasalization of a preceding vowel as inrmaeig.

/1/ closure usually at alveolar position butrest of tongue accommodates to adjacent sounds. Closure incomplete in some pronunciations of milk. May be voiceless in words like play (after voicelesssound). Often more advanced to dental position in foreignized speech. Some speakers of Southern and South Midland dialects have"clear/ " in nearly all positions; some Northern speakers have"dark I" in nearly all positions. Most commonly darkI Eri#7occurs in post-vocalic position. Palatal /1") :1.n some pronunciations of million. / is held longer in final position.

/r/ The general characteristic of r is thatthe tongue moves backwards with pressureagainst the molars. The tongue tip may be bent slightly backward. After t as in ILI the r is a"scrape," behind the alveolar ridge. It is also voiceless. After d as in drx the r is similar, butfully voiced. A symbol for these can be used[J] and [tij (upside down and reverse4). In three there may be a verybrief alveolar flap. Old- time telephone operators used to trillthis r. Simultaneous pronunciation of r with the vowe4AlorWmay beonly tongue pressure against the molarswithout noticeable movement as in int) pert. The nasals,I, and r may, then, be syllabic. /h/ The glottal friction is characteristic. With a following vowel the sound may begin in thecentralWposition, or at the vowel position. It has sometimes been called a voiceless vowel. If we pronounce he, hat, hot wenotice this tongue accommodation.

/y/ The position for this variesdepending upon the following sound. Compare Le and yawl. It is characterized by being higher and more front than thefollowing sound.

/w/ Also depends upon the followingsound for its position. Compare wool and wall. It is higher and farther back than the following sound andwith lip rounding. For the consonants there is littledisagreement among phonemicists. The combination of h and w inwhich, where -16-

with a small called aunit phonemeand written is sometimes in this argumentis that upside down w/4%/. A weakness /hy/ as in hue. as aunit phonemethe sequence nobody analyzes /X/ could bewritten without be written/j/. /j/ for /y/ in IPA* may /37 for those whodo not use the wedge/c/, as could this complication. the symbolsdo not need y, and /y/, because E; also tJ for and di for Some write5 fori, T for phonemes. asIsequences ratherthan as unit mayconsider them concerning vowelsamong There is notthis agreement the mostpart The disagreementis based for phonemicists. in meat, mate,boot, treatment of the"long" vowels as on the unit phonemesto be From onepoint of viewthey are boat. i,e,u,o. Othersfollowing represented bythe unitsymbols, Smith Bloomfield, Bloch,Trager and the lead ofthe linguists into twocomponents. The following prefer toanalyse them Henry LeeSmith, based onGeorge L.Trager and discussion is Norman, Okla: 1951. Jr., Outlineof EnglishStructure, off-glide towardhigh frontand The longvowels show an do the These glidesvary intheir position as high back. They are thento beanalysed position. As y and win prevocalic as i+y,e+y, u+wf)o+w. plus /y/,vowel plus/w/: as vowel vowels, Ittoto(found in NewEngland thecorresponding short speakers) can thenbe etc. amongold-fashioned /buwt/ stoneL coat, giving /biyt/beat,/bit/ bit, combined withthe y and w boot,/bowt/ boat. phonemes arei,e,ae /bit/bit, The threefront vowel 75-st/ The centralvowels arei,9,a /bet/ bet,/b9Qt/ bat. (with the unroundlow /nen/ nut,/nat/ not just asadverb, /buk/ book,/bot/ as in The backvowels areu,o,3 central). boat,/b2t/bought. All of these New Englandold-fashioned for every combined with -yand -w,although not vowels may be combinations arei+y, e+y, Most commonAmerican central, speaker. /2y1/ oil; a+w/kaw/ with low a+y/bayt/ bite, '347 /bowt/ boat, u+w/buwt/. Ae+w/k4ty/ with lowfront, o+w for more thisinterpretation,while allowing As can be seen the numberof vowel contrasts, atthe sametime reduces phonemes. the there is aphonemicdifference in In somedialects also words The writerdoes notrhyme the length of thevowel. 1), the formerbeing short Tommy, andbalmy(pronounced without also beaccompanied latter long;the lengthin balmy may and the position[t,mi, bmi, b with a glidetomid-central cp7 in- extensive useof thislength and Other dialectsmake more voiced, can beviewed Initial h,although not gliding feature. that is,the vowelposi- corresponding to afollowing Newell as organs atthe beginningbut voicing tion is takenby the vocal

*the InternationalPhonetic Alphabet -17-

example, as[pal hot asEleut];or initial begins later; his for inter- h starts atmid-central Position:fps] 410,9. The pretation, thentis thatthe post-vocalicrength and in-glide /bahmi/ is also h. Tommy, is /Una,/ or/tamiy/, balmy, is or/bahmiy/. TheTrager-Smith systemyields a total of36 vowel nuclei the nine shortvowels, eachcombining with y, possibilities: language. Each w and h, andforms an overallpattern for the dialect uses part ofit and no onedialect exhausts the possibilities. that for some Other phonemicistshave pointed out to indicate thatspecial relationship dialects it is necessary ai and ow between some of thenuclei. Some dialects have before voicelesssounds but ah,aewbefore voiced sounds: bahd; house haws,houses hakwz+z. For bite bayt, bide in speakers of suchdialects ey and ay, swand oew, are non-contrasting). complementarydistribution(allophonic and that it is necessaryto add a tenthvowel Some also insist bland, blind, between cl,and a to take careof such series as blond; had, hard(without r) hod. also The features ofstress and pitchin English are phonemic but may extend overseveral segmentalphonemes. suprasegmental. Four degrees ofstress or They are called secondary,tertia loudness are usuallyset up byphonemicists:primary, marked by the symbols the and weak, and they are rite left unmarked. The phrase"A big hickOrY weak stress mayle Adjective- would exemplify thesestresses for manyspeakers. 4 big man, I yoOnggirl, proper names: nouncombinations: combinations J8hn Smith, BillJ6nes, and adverb-adjective noun). It's very nice , show a (when not followed by a ', or ' pattern. Compounds like ice creammay be . tradename islamVn wax. . Lemon Wax as a indicated by Four levels ofpitch are set upalso, and with 4 being highestand 1 lowest superscript numerals making 1 highestand (Some linguists usethe opposite order confusion, as mightbe expected, 4 lowest; thisdoesn't cause numbering system caneasily beconverted). because the in The pitches make upcontours, the(2)-3-1 being common (2)-3-3 on questions,especiallythose in ordinary statements, to be statement form: He's galas? Pitch 4 seems mostly situtations or inemotional states. used in extra-polite (Refer It is possiblethat it belongsto the paralanguage. to thissection). Four kinds of lunctureare also tobe distinguished. slight Between words andin compounds thereis often a -18-

Diet-rite has the difference in thechoice of allophone. /t/ followed by theinitial allophone of final allophone of in ILL Repetition /r/, while diatribehas a tr cluster as phoneme as inkwaskamam also showsthis separation of the same is called allophoneC-k7kt-). This phonemenon by choice of between words orwithin plus juncture1+1 and often occurs it may occurwithin a simple wordPlato compounds, although the other hand /pley+tow/. A phrase likein a minute may on have no + junctures. between A second juncture,"single-bar" /1/, occurs ordinary writingsometimes marks itby a comma. phrases and phonemes Before this juncturethere is adrawling of preceding but the pitchlevel is notchanged. terminal; it has the The double barjuncture /n / is a first two, andterminal rise inpitch. It features of the is also terminal is common inquestions. Double AC juncture with fall inpitch, as is usedin statements. "tune" of the These suprasegmentalphonemes form the will be misunderstoodeven whenhis language. A foreigner They form, pronunciation of thesegmentals is accurate. difficult part of thepronunciation habits perhaps, the most various dialects to master. As yet thoroughresearch into the of the languagehas not beendone.for the suprasegmentals. a.dialect or languagedoes The inventory ofphonemes for analysis. We must alsoconsider the occurrences not end the not be exhaustedin of the phonemes. The possibilities may We have, sickand Schick/sik/, /fiik/ but not these occurences. recently Bic/bik/ /zik/; we have beak/biyk/ and only very monosyllabic,words(some of thecombinations a trade name,as preceding analysis will occur in longerwords). Although the post vocalicposition, the phoneme/91 does has /h,y,w/ in find it difficultto pronounce not occurinitially and students /fAwhich.occurs mediallyin pleasure, acombination like/pa/. finally for somespeakers in garage, measureldoes not occur Zsa-Zsa Gabor where they have/Y/. The actress rouge etc., have/Vin initial Position,at has caused manyspeakers to least in thepronunciation of her name. English, but itis very rich Vowel clusters donot,occur in in consonantcombinations.°

in 6There is adiscussion of theseconsonant clusters Introduction to Linuistic StructuresNew York: A. A. Hill's "Phonotactics." 1958 (Harcourt, Braceand Company), chapter 6 -19-

by inspecting aphonemic Consonant clustersmaybe listed the reader maywish to seehow chart of theconsonants and gl-/ in his speech. /pl-, pr-, gr-, manyclusters he has /tr-, dr-/ in tugAu occur inplay, prv, vay,gal. In finalposition we have/-1p, but not/t1-/ or /d1-/. Some speakerswill -rg/ aiR, burp, exiibut not/-1g/. -rp, the beer nameSchlitz for not havecertain clusters: do not have /N1-/ and for others/s1-/. Many speakers some shrimp, as/srimp/. aninitial sr-,while others pronounce should be madeof theconsonant cluster An inventory contrast with astandarddialect, possibilities fordialects for learning pitfalls aforeigner willfind in as well asfor the labelling clusters asnon- English. Care must betaken in sigths may be/siks8s/ in verydeliberate standard. The word /sik8s/ or even/siks/. speech but itis usuallysimplified to however,simplify clusters. Many sub-standarddialects do, cannot exhaustthe subject. Contrastive This brief survey basis of thephonemic dialects must bemade on the analysis of speaker who pronouncesjoint as organization. Does the difference in hisspeech betweenit and giant? /jaynt/ have a occurrencesof some dialects haverestrictions on the Do the have Mary, merry,marry allpronounced phonemes? Some speakers three. Some will others willdistinguish two, or the same; others do not. In somedialects rhyme pork andfork while Ap/ or is strong inothers it becomes post-vocalicinT7,7 intervocalic -r- maybe lost even lostwithout trace;and with doing andduring, rhyming. frequently, Ishould liketo end Because theterm is used in with a note onthe morpheme. The phonemes this section but showcontrast inmeaning: themselves do nothave meaning, meaning bit and the/p/ of kitsignal different the /b/ of morphemes. Morphemes may The meaningunits are called units. as ina(mari), or severalphonemes be of onephoneme length morpheme; cats in Mississippi. Cat is one in length as A word mayhave onemorpheme is two the -sindicating plural. sportsman,sportsmanship. or several: sport, sports,

English have different analysesof American Two somewhat are the same,except for been widelyused. The consonants They are but the vowelanalyses arenot. minor differences, widely used textsin college exemplified by twoof the most Introduction courses: Albert H.Marckwardt's English language 1942 and W. NelsonFrancis' to theEnglish Language,,New York: Not all the of AmericanEnglish, NewYork: 1958. The Structure The mostimportant are symbols can bereadily converted. listed here: -20-

Francis Marckwardt iy i (see) I (sit) ey e (say) t (set) ae (sat ) 4 (just asadverb) a

. 0 (Cuba) a A (Cut) a a. (father) uw u (loop) ow short o r (book) o(New England o (home) inold-fashionedcoat,stone) 9 :) (caught) ay aI (bite) 2Y 2T. (boy) aw av (cow) a r a. (butter) ar, ahr 2r (bird) (George L.Trager and Trager-Smithanalyses S. In the EnglishStructure, U. Smith, Jr.,Outline of i,e,gle,4,9, Henry Lee 1931) ;11 thesimple vowels: Department ofState: (high andfront) accompanied byglides y, asu,o, 0)may be totalpossible back) orhAcentering4 making a and ws(high and allowing for manydialectvariations, of 36nuclei, thus text, possiblecontrasts. Marckwardt's nearlyexhausting the wasbased onthe dialect planned for anintroductory course, of thenorthernMiddlewest. based onthe There are afew consonantaldifferences, givenfirst)f4,2$4, choices ofsymbol(Marckwardt's t5=g,dr3'1t1=hw. THE SUPRA-SEGMENTALPHONEMES OF ENGLISH by William M.Austin

phonemes we meanfunctional modifi- By supra-segmental (popularly called cations of segmentalphonemes by stress " accent"; variations in theloudness of vowelsand vowel of adjacentconsonants), by pitch clusters and parts as notes (variations in the frequencyof the sound waves, sections of thesentence)9 on the scale vary,stretching over silence). Some and by junctures(degrees and kinds of Chinese, Vietnamese orSwedish, have a languages, such as which of supra-segmentalscalled "tones" fourth variety only. variations affectingwords or morphemes are pitch Vowel lengthis Thus, Englishis fortunatelyspared. here, butagain, this doesnot affect sometimes included late one English; when onetalks about"the long a" in talking about aspelling device--asingle con- is really indicates the sound sonant followedby a"silent" e--which /ey/. consider a phenomenonthat is unmarked Let us first precisely, in our writingsystem, wordaccent or, more admit thatcfmvict is a nounand stress. We will all and meaning. convict is a verb; theydiffer in functions princgss or adult vs.aduft In words likeprincess vs. but of is not one offunction or meaning, the difference somehow or other"classier". style, the latterbeing considered freedom, aswith princess At any rate,while there is some the stress has afixed place andto misplace and adult above, effect or, attimes, it would create a"foreign" or humorous Actress and apartmust have themain incomprehensibility. davenport? stresses where they areand who wouldunderstand The above How many stressesare therein English? least two, astrong one/'/ and a material gives us at indicated, if there weak one P-1. The weak oneneed not be has a strongstress on grad are onlytwo. The graduate with and a weak stresseverywhere else,but to graduate, still on grad has anintermediate stress the strong stress might grfidriata. Here the argument on the lastsyllable, "weak" /it/ be raised thatthe sound endsin the relatively in the relatively"strong" /eyt/. while the verb ends automatic and If this werealways the case/'/ would be phoneme, but one canadduce suchexpressions as hence not a d6ll1, misspell vs. MiasPell, AfidYls vs.Afides, Dfill vs. Therefore, withinthe range ofthe word and so forth. functional, thatis, English has threestresses which are -2-

sufficient for (phonemes). Are three provide contrasts this we musttake upanother longerstretches? To answer topic. are name/ngym/, for example, The soundsin the word juncture. by whatis calledinternal close joined together hear a veryshort pauseafter the Tn an aim,however, we is indicated internal openJuncture and n. This is called an+eym/. sign /+/, so wehave/bLn+gym/ or by a plus generally occurbetween Internal open orplusjunctures is normally The phrasein the house words, but notalways. /Tn3W7Ts anyone said with inand the inclose juncture the tonguetouches the upper canaffirm bynoting that EA). The and the nis thusabnormally dental front teeth sometimes bepronounced"distinctly" words water oractor may which theaspirated/t/'s here, as/w6hTiT17/, /44k+tOrh silence has initially, showthat some normally occur is only abouthalf Although theplus juncture preceded. sounds, 7centiseconds versus the durationof segmental its importancein linguistic 15 css onthe average, By it wedistinguish differentiation isconsiderable. /sk6w1d/, as scoldand S'cold(It is cold), such utterances today andS'cool today, (Hill,193-6)7or School nice man /s+kOwld/ (Trager, Smith,1951), or a /skilw1/2/s+k4w1/, The teacher ice man, I screamversusice cream. versus an studentswill enjoyfinding canreadily thinkof more and them forthemselves. we can established theplus juncture Now that wehave in theEnglish number ofpossible stresses 1951) return to the example(Trager, Smith, sentence. A favorite has the phrase or each saidin isolation is elevatoroperator, where Together, with a primary stress onthe firstsyllable. with a between, wehaveglgviltber+8pgr4t6r plus juncture the secondstrong one. One secondary stress/^/ replacing which out withelglatKr+60raecir can reversethis and come operator', such messageas"I said'elevator would carry some well-known,almost not 'elevatorstarter'". Another triad of the of Tragerand Smithis the notorious, example the Whitehouse(the house white house,the WhiteHouse and Whites)7--Yhe firstisth4+wh1te+h6use, belonging to the third isthg+white+hoOse. the secondisthe+whfte+hoase, the mistakes of of Englishand occasional Non-native speakers results. A canproduce someludicrous native speakers "she has thesh8rthfind"(instead Frenchwoman Iknow said made it soundas thoughthe person ofshOrt+hhnd) which saidsleepir4+pills(signal: weredeformed. She also (pills sleeping) insteadofsleeping+pflls the pills are native speakerssay"the car forsleeping). I have heard -3_

hit) (message: a slimPolish person was hit a light+Ole" big+hoase instead oflight+Ole and helives in the prison) instead ofbig+hodse (a housewhich (message: a think of Again teacher andstudent alike can is large). not-too-boring way ofacquiring some many suchexamples, a insights into partsof Englishsyntax. can nowview the The alert teacherof English grammar between the fourphonemic stresses important connection speech". /... '/ and the grammatical categoriesof "parts of adjectives andadverbs must have onestress Nouns, verbs, of ' since" that is either' or ". is a replacement (cf. elevator operatorabove) and, conversely, cannot occur belong to oneof any wordthat has thesestresses must adverbs modifyingadjectives these categories. Pronouns and tertiary stress/'/ and conjunctions, (pretty good) have one such prepositions usuallyhave /..0/. A sequence articles and adjective, as w+"+"+ would indicatearticle, adjective, (thg+little+red+hen), '.04.4.+ would be article, noun '+' would noun(ii+pretty+pod.fidea), adverb, adjective, plus verb(his+rfin indicate pronounplus noun or pronoun Adverbs modifyingadjectives,prepositions, orhe+rfins). acquire one ofthe two articles, andconjunctions must when they assumethe syntactic or strongest stresses and adjective, morphological functionsof nouns, verbs (the only one),he+upped+thg+price, asthg+very+thing, the+men Stresses not 118+ands+ifs+Cir+bfits. th"e+ins+ind+Outs+6f+it, but play a rolein syn- only differentiatelexical meaning tactic meaning aswell. primary stresses We have notedabove that two, ormore, we saythg+h8use+Is+1141.7, cannot occurin certain sequences; If we reverse' and we aresaying different the+new+hofise. is old), things--the hbuse isnew (butsomething else hoesi(nt the old one). If only oneprimary stress the new boundaries of within a stretch,what are the is permitted indicated by theterminal a stretch? These boundaries are In English there arethree and alllanguages junctures. junctures are at must have atleast two. These pauses or long as a plusjuncture and maybe much least twice as by a comma, These are (1) a pause,often indicated longer. indicated by asingle bar where the voiceis held level, by a period, (or by .4), (2) a pause,sometimes indicated fall in thevoice, comma orquestion mark,preceded by a period, comma orquestion mark,preceded indicated by a double cross# (or by a fall inthe voice,indicated by a indicated by aquestion mark if byNI), and (3) a pause, question wordslike what, how,who, preceded there are no indicated here by adouble by a rise inthe voice level,

[I Some illustrationsof theseterminal bail (or by ;01). Of+thg+ junctures are: oa're+a+pod+mgniChtirlie+BrOwn#, people#122+thg+pfiople fOr+tht+a"-l-e17ETTs+One+t6+scRal# hb's+One7CO+scho611 (question), h8w+db+i_91.1. (statement), (polite, or interested fegl#(questi;E)7 h6w+1 i5+111 primary stress occursin each question). One and only one major juncture;if items are to beequally stretch before a (here stressed, as withpeople above,terminal junctures be interposed. If a stretch endsin I either Ior #) must he's Bone to it is not aphonlogical sentence. If we hear follows we feellike asking and then schools and nothing ending what? We have heard anincomplete sentence, one After the studenthas mastered thebasic in a "comma". in idea of the threeterminal junctures,their importance established by theludicrous English can be further with misplaced effects that sentenceslike the following, junctures, produce: What are youdoing#nowll Where've youbeen#latelyll What are wehaving forbreakfast#Johnll How doyou#doll What's thelatest#news0 These are quite easyto concoct. of English are The last of thesuprasegmental phonemes also calledsentenceintonations orintonation the pitches, voice gets higher orlower, contours. With pitches the softer, as withstresses. These are overall not louder or juncture, not of features of stringspreceding a terminal in Chinese. The writerbelieves words, the way they are 3), mid (marked that there areonly three,high (marked as Some scholars, e.g.Henry as2) and low (marked as1). Lee Smith, Jr.,believe that thereis an extra high or this gets us intotheextra-linguistic fourth pitch, but A system of paralanguage(see under"Paralanguage"). sentence withpitch contoursindicated simple declarative de` or, forsimple in the following: He went to theclean122# contour convenience, He wentto thecleaners#. The question (did I is. 4He wentto theclealars11. The echo question 3 q Or understand you to saythat)iewent to thecleanersli 4 clfantrsl (and then did someone could sayHe went to the 1 cleaners#,1 1 indicating thing else). Or even He wentto the is to mark hopelessness or totaldisinterest. The practice string, at the oneprimary the pitch atthe start of the _5_

and syllable ofcleaners inthis case) stress(the first Ideally, allsegmental before theterminal juncture. material relevantto the message andsuprasegmental should beindicated as, .- hly+wente+aa+kllynarzt

Li PROBLEM AREASIN GRAMMAR

analysis ofEnglish grammar. This sectionis not an under and McDavidhave assembled InsteadProfessors Card from Standard headingli the kindsof deviations its various importance. have beenfound ofgreatest English which which theteacher maywish It, then,also is areference preparation ofclassexercise. to consultin the Nouns

One major difference between standard English dialects and some nonstandard ones is in the presence or absence of a plural ending on nouns resulting in such nonstandard sentences as "The good teacher are interested in their pupils," "Their friend are not helping them," and "There are many thing that I like." It should be noted that many speakers who lack this ending omit it only when a preceding word indicates that the noun is plural and the ending is redundant, so to speak. Such speakers may say "many thing" and "five dollar," but "Good teachers are interested in their pupils." Other speakers may omit the ending in both environments. The general loss of the ending seems more common in some areas than in others; it is a major problem in Chicago inner-city schools, for example.

The teacher who chooses to develop materials for dealing with this problem should keep in mind the three pronunciations of the plural in English (not that students need such analysis) and also the fact that voiced sounds are somewhat easier to hear than voiceless at the end of words. A teaching progression in the order of the /z/ ending (days, birds, etc.), then the /s/ ending (cats, marks, etc.) and finally the /Iz/ ending (wishes, judges, etc.) is likely to work better than the reverse. Since students who have trouble with this ending are also likely to simplify final consonant clusters, so that field is pronounced /fil/ and desk /des/9 some care should be taken not to introduce complex clusters too early. Indeed, for many nonstandard speakers, -sps, sts, and sks all become -s, producing problems in the formation of plurals, posses- sives, and the third person singular of verbs. The nature of the initial sound of the word following the plural ending should also be considered. Again, vowels and voiced consonants make the plural ending stand out more clearly, so that the /z/ on girls in a phrase like "the girls and their mother" is likely to be heard more clearly than the one in a phrase like "The girls tricked their mother." These same suggestions for the development of teaching materials apply also to the third person singular ending ("he walks") and to the possessive ending ("John's cap") because all three endings have the same phonological variations: /Iz/ after the six homorganic sounds of /s/, /z/, /g/, /S/, /s/, and /17, /g/ after other voiceless sounds, and /z/ after other voiced ones.

-1- 2

occurring with nouns,this omissionof Of all problems is inflection is mostimportant. Worth noting the plural singular in aphrase like"six foot a use of anapparent like theseinvolve tall" or "tenmile away."Constructions of measure--wordslike pound, the pluralsof certain nouns if not the foot--and may appearin the speech mile, acre, otherwise standard. writing of thosewhose noun formsare "ten dollar","some goodboy" That is, a personwho says is not "six foottall," but the converse will probably say The apparent true, as manysports announcersevidence. like "six foottall" ishistorically singular in a phrase of an OldEnglish not a singularat all, ratherthe relic form, the samethat appearsin phrases genitive plural mile hike,"where stan- like a "six footfence" and "a ten English alikehave keptthehistorical dard andnonstandard though not asthe head of forms foot andmile before nouns The teacher before adjectivesoradverbs. aconstruction or it isquestion- work with suchconstructions--and who wants to spending--shouldconcentrate able whetherthis time isworth and mile,and developcontrast- on such commonwords as foot the words instandardEnglish are ing pairs inwhich these adjective or construction ormodify afollowing head of a Thus we findsuch adverb ormodify afollowing noun. pairs as: sack ofsugar" "five pounds" but "a five pound but "a six footfence" "six feet tall" "these ten milehikes" "ten miles away" but whose pluralsareformed by a Some irregular nouns trouble. Most change in thebase vowel mayalso cause pairs asfoot-feet, man-men, common amongthese are such as analogical'double' plurals and tooth-teeth,and such pattern bywhich not unheard. Since the feets or mens are formed is now adead form of theseplurals is the standard with the fewwords i.,vol- one, theforms can betaught only Bill jumped pairs as"Tom jumped onefoot but ved, in such tooth, butBill has three feet,""Tom has onlylost one lost threeteeth." in plurals--sheep,deer--are rare Nouns with zero of termsfor English outsideof a number modern spoken Should it befeltdesirable, such game,fish, and animals. handled insimilar analogical plurals assheeps can be contrastive drills. inflectional Besides theplural, theother regular boy's is thepossessive, asin "the ending forEnglish nouns is the book," etc. The methodof formation cap," "Mary's the third personsingular same asthat for nounplurals and 3

/s/, of verbs: /Iz/t,after the homorganicsounds /s/, /z/, ///, /e/, and /j/, /s/ after othervoiceless sounds, and /z/ after other voiced ones. Speakers who omit theending on oLe of these nounforms generally omitit on the other. The plural inflectionis much the commonerin spoken English, and the teacher wouldbe wise to concentratehere. The absolute form of nounpossessives never appears tolack the book" ending. That is, a person whowould say "That John would not say, "That bookis John," (Not allspeakers have such absolute constructionsfor nounpossessives.) Thus a teacher who wants to work onthe use of nounpossessives could consider contrastivepairs like "That bookis John's," and "That is John'sbook." Again, attention shouldbe given to the sounds withwhich the noun to beinflected ends and to the natureof the following noun. Such practice might well be combinedwith similar practicewith personal "Those pronouns: "That book is mine,""That is my book"; books are yours,""Those are your books,""These books are his," "These are his books," etc. Pronouns

Some further differences betweenstandard English dialects and various nonstandard ones occurin the forms of pronouns. Among these differences arevarying forms of the personal pronouns, representedbelow in a table with theconventional names: Subjec- Objec- Posses- tive tive sive Intensive - Reflexive 1st person I me my mine myself sg. 2d person you you your yours yourself, sg. + pl. yourselves 3d person he him his his himself masc, sing. 3d person she her her hers herself fem. sg. 3d person it it its its itself neuter sg. 1st person we us our ours ourselves pl. 3d person they them their theirs themselves pl. Considerable variety and inconsistencywill be noted in this table, the result of historicaldevelopments over thepast fifteen hundred years. Except for the second personmu and related forms--all these personsdistinguish singular and plural. The third person singualr alonedistinguishes gender--masculine, feminine, and neuter. The forms you and it are found in subjective andobjective positions alike; they are unchanged in sentenceslike "You likeJim," "Jim likes you," "It hurt Jim," and"Jim broke it." In the set her is unique in being unchangedin objective andpossessive. The absolute possessive forms,those found in sentenceslike "It is mine," "It is yours," etc. have avariety of patterns. Mine retains the /n/ it had in OldEnglish. His and its are the same as theregular possessive, and yours,hers, ours, and theirs add an/s/ (pronounced /z/ becauseof the nature of the precedingsound) by analogy with the method of forming the possessive of nouns. The intensive-reflexive forms are also inconsistent. All these varying formsseem arbitrary, and the words are amongthe most commonlyused in English. It is not surprising thatproblems arisewith their use. 2

One common problem with these words occurs when a pronoun with a distinctivesullject form--I, he, she, we, and they--is joined by a conjunction either to another pronoun or to a noun and the compoundphrase is used as subject of a sentence. Here speakers of nonstandard English often substitute the objective form, giving sentences like"Jim and me work together," and"Him and me are going out." This substitution is the source of so much censure that teachers should give it some attention. Curiously, the reverse substitution, the use of the distinctive subjective forms in objective position as direct objects or objects of prepositions, is rarely noted. A sentence like "It is very pleasant for myhusband and I to visit our relatives" is far lesslikely to attract attention than "Him and me have been workingtogether"; nor is the same person likely to utter both. The former is characterized by some attempts at elegance. The feeling that the subjective form is"inherently" superior is responsible for some of these occurrences. Such a feeling is probably the partial result of decades of drilling to say"It is I" rather than the natural colloquial"It's me"; but examples of this use of subjective forms in objectivepositions is too old for school drills to be entirelyresponsible. The teacher who notices a sentence like"It is pleasant for my friend and I to be with you" can probably find moreprofitable areas of improvement in hisstudents' language. "Between you and I" is a somewhat special example of the preceding problem. So much attention has been given to this one phrase that a teacher may want to considerteaching the correct "between you and me," perhaps as afixed form like antidisestablishmentarianism. The use of the objective forms--me, him, her, us,and them--after forms of be as in sentences like"It's me" and "That's him" is a matter where the teacher will have to establish some priorities, and the chances are great that other matters are more pressing. "It's me" has been standard informal English for a long time, and"It's us" is on its way to joining it. "It's they" is so stilted that many English teachers would notfeel comfortable with it and would instead relax with"It's them." Historically, of course, such expressions as"It's me, it's him' it's them" result simply from the pressure of word order: the objective forms are the ones most commonly found after theverb. 3

A somewhat special caseshould be made for the use of he and she whenanswering the telephone in phraseslike "This is he speaking" or"This is she." In this circumstance the subjective formsremain the preferred one. The use of these forms may wellbe taught apart from"grammar" and in the context of"manners." The possessive forms yourand their furnish a special set of problems: for some students who do not pronounce postvocalic /r/ in a word like car,these words may appear in writing as you and they. This may be a question of pronunciation of all postvocalic/r/ sounds. For other students who write you andthey for your and their, a grammatical change analogical to theloss of the possessive suffix on nouns ("Mr. Brownhat") may be involved. At any rate, whether due tophonological or grammatical change, the oral loss of postvocalic/r/ in unstressed positions is probably well ignored for morefruitful topics. As was mentioned earlier, the loss of theinflectional s, pronounced /s/, /z/, and /Iz/ depending on thepreceding sound, is a different matter, since the loss ofthis suffix does not fit in with phonological orgrammatical changes in standard English. Another set of problems ariseswith the absolute forms of the possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, and theirs. Owing to their different methods offor- mation between mine and the others,analogy has operated to give two types of forms. The older operation of analogy resulted in /n/ being addedto your, his, her, our, and their. All these forms are still heardand seen today, with hisn and theirn the more common. More recently in some nonstandard dialects, mine hasbeen subjected to theworkings of analogy and s, pronounced/z/, added to it so that it is consistent with the patternof the others.

The reflexive-intensiveforms--myself, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself,itself, ourselves, and themselves--provide yet another set ofproblems, the result of their being formedin different ways. Myself, yourself, herself, itself, yourselves,and ourselves are formedby adding the suffix to theobjective form, and by analogy with the competing patternhisself and theirselves appear. The interrogative pronouns whoand whom furnish examples of problems which probablyneed not concern a teacherwhose students language has matters of morepressing social importance. One of these is the alternationof who and whom in which parallelsthe alter- the standarduse of of thepersonal questions, subjective andobjective forms nationbetween rather formalspokenstandard In somevarieties of in sentences pronouns. for thesubjective form English, whois used objective formin sen- and whomfor the like "Whois it?" of wordorder, "Whom did yousee?" The pressure tenceslike whom inthe second is suchthat whohas replaced speakers. of course, speech ofotherwiseimpeccable sentencein theinformal me" comesfrom thefeeling in a sentencelike "It's end of a Just as me is somehowright at the that theobjective form like "Whodid yousee" comes sentence, sowho in asentence right forthe subjectiveform is from afeeling thatthe campaigning onthe"proper" sentence. Before first wordin a writtenquestionswith whom inoralquestions--and surethat this use of teachershould be very these wordsare rare--a is energywell spent. as in used asrelative pronouns, When whoand whom are "a man whom who livesnextdoor" and phraseslike "the man writingconformsinvariably thepractice inedited whom in I know," subjectivesfunctions and to the useof whoin teachers ofstudentsfrom But again,most problems. objective ones. will find moresignificant disadvantagedbackgrounds is usedwith non- which as arelative pronoun ones. All Today rather thanwith personal personalantecedents which livein St.Louis" editors wouldalter"my aunts, This useof whichwith live in St.Louis." to "myaunts, who speakers ofthe various is commonamong back- apersonalantecedent itshistorical English, and "Our Father, varieties ofnonstandard many of usstill say question: usagenote ground iswithout Few texts ormanuals of Which artinHeaven." notes it mayfind it and theteacher who problems may thisconstruction, clue thatother useful toconsider it a more directly. exist thanto attackit these,those-- pronouns--this,that, Thedemonstrative which theteachershould nonstandardvariations of thoseby them also have thereplacement One ofthese is A seconddevelopment consider. pencils, etc. of such yielding themboys, them attention isthe use teachershouldgive that there, to which a this here,these here, demonstratives as latter formsare compound there. All these those there,and them should be variousteachingdevices also onesfor which them withthe stan- view tosupplementing developedwith a "this heregirl" with (For example,contrast dardforms. is standardspokenEnglish.) "this girlhere," which Verbs

problems than No part ofspeechfurnishes more usage number ofirregular verbs the verb, bothbecause of the "structural" verbs asthe forms ofbe, (including such complexity of thestructures have, anddo) and becauseof the The natureof theseproblems will into which verbsenter. affect if we lookfirst atquestions which become clearer problems withauxiliaries, most if notall verbs,then at some and finallyat irregularverbs. important problemwith verbs isthe Perhaps the most ending, whichresults omission of thethird-person present-s "he like" and"it seem." This in suchconstructions as identical inits forms withthose ending isphonetically it ie sounded es/Iz/ plurals and nounpossessives: of noun /s/, /z/, /s/,/V, /c/, aftervthe sixhomorganic sounds voiceless sounds,and /z/ after and /j/, as/s/ after other Sometimes but notalways thisending other voiced ones. present variation with zeroin the third person is in free forms as well,giving not only singular and in'other present "they seems." "he like" but"I likes" and complicate thearticulation ofthis Phonetic factors and -sk thepronunci- ending: after -p2,-st, inflectional easy, and manyspeakers ofEnglish ation of afinal -s is not clusters to -s orsimply use st, and assimilate such the third plurals, nounpossessives, and -sk to end noun complicating factoris singular present. A further person in questions("Does he the use oftheuninflected form ("He doesn'tlike") and innegative like"), in negatives these a third like). While in all questions("Doesn't he present in theauxiliary, singular presentmarker is person that has themain lexicalmeaning it is missingin the verb Further, in allvarieties ofEnglish, in the clause. without the asked ininformal speech questions may be "You going auxiliary if theintonation isappropriate: weekend?" "She afriend ofyours?" up to thereunion this questions will In Englishboth positiveand negative main verb, asin "Jim stepsout be askedwith an unmarked know it?" and"Jim steps out abit? a bit. Does Mary elicit the response"Yes," Doesn't Mary knowit?" will both "she knows," or"she doesknow." followed by"she does," often heard that bothtypes ofquestions are so And the fact maycontribute to of theinitial auxiliary as with omission tensedeclaration patterns the omissionin such present "he like.""she do." -1- of standardpatterns for thisverb The establishment problems already form shouldtake into accountthe phonetic consonant clustersare moredifficult to mentioned; some others, and some aremore hear and toarticulate than is and articulatedwhen thefollowing sound clearly heard stem endswith a vowel orvoiced consonant. A verb whose etc.) will be abetter word to a vowel(pay, lie, toe, begin with thanthe word possess,for example. pattern of the Drills or questionsconstructed on the teachers: following mayfurnish somesuggestions for "Why does heride his bike toschool?" Q. because helikes to." A. "He rides hisbike to school "How does Tomhit atwo-bagger?" Q. the shortstopand A. "He hits them byaiming between thethird-baseman." bike?" Q. "Where does Tomride his in front ofhis apartment." A. "He rides it out What does Jimdo?" "I work everyday exceptSunday. Q. Sunday too." A. "Jim works everyday except into drill using Drill on theforms of do maybe worked similar patterns: bike to school?" A. "Yes, he does." Q. "Does he ride his A. "Yes, they do." Q. "Do they live nearhere?" forms of say,for which thepronunciation Drill on the sed/) said (pronouncednot /sez,sed/ but /sez, of says and in. are Also aproblem, maysimilarly be worked of thepreterit and pastparticiple The pronunciation problem for the samestudents of regularverbs is often a difficulty with theother inflectionalendings. who have The "He promised" appearsas"He promise." For them, formation of thisform is phonetic principleunderlying the that for the nounplural andpossessive and the same as the homorganic third personsingular present: the verb the extrasyllable,/14/, sounds, here/t/ and /d/, have ending, in voiceless soundstake a voiceless added; other vowels take this case/t/; other voicedsounds including And as with theprecedinginflectional the voiced one/d/. works consonant clustersas -22and -sk in endings, such difficult. like clasped andbasked areparticularly the followingmay be Pattern drillsof such types as useful: 3

What did John do? Q. Tom walked out of the room. A. John walked out of the roomtoo. Q. When did Tom walk outof the room? A. He walked out of the room afew minutes ago. Q. How did Tom like histrip? A. He liked his tripfine. Q. Where did Tom work lastsummer? A. He worked in thebookstore. Drills or exercises of these sametypes may be used for irregular verbs, where oneis trying to teach not aregular phonetic pattern butlimited though common patterns. Thus for irregular verbs one maydevelop such drills as: Q. Where did John teachlast year? A. He taught in the city. Q. Where did John go last summer. A. He went to his uncle's farm. He came to Q. When did John come tothe city? A. the city last May.

Of the irregularverbs, none cause moreproblems than be in its various usesboth as auxiliary andmain verb. As a main verb beitself replaces am, is,and are in many constructions and sometimeshas a final -s added,not only in the third personsingular present slot butin the others, thus giving such forms as"He be my best friend,""They bees here," and"She be in the kitchen." These uses of be are not atransfer of subjunctiveforms, such as occurin "If I require that he bepresent," but rather thecontinu- ance andextension of oldindicative forms. Here teachers mayconsider working with suchframes as: Q. Is John here? A. Yes, he is. Q. Are your friends here? A. Yes, they are. Yes, you are. Q. Am I supposed to worktoday? A. Along with theconsideration of the formsof be as negative and negativequestion (He isn't,"Aren't theyrr) should be linked considerationof forms of have anddo as auxiliaries in these constructions,because in somedialects forms of all three are placedby ain't. The result is that"I'm not tired," "Ihaven't eaten," and"I didn't eat" became "I ain't tired," "I ain'teaten," and "I ain'teat." Similarly, "Isn'the?" and "Hasn't he?"will both become "Ain't he?" Cautioning against the useof ain't has obviously done no good,though in some partsof the parts of the country the useof ain't is a realand negative :40 4

social marker. Anyone who wants to establish alternative patterns should first determine the constructions in which ain't is used. As a substitute for forms of be and have it is more common than as a negative and negative question form for do.

In developing drills for this kind of material, the teacher might first use the question and answer frames of the type just mentioned but with answers calling for negative forms: Q. Is John here? A. No, he isn't. Q. Are your books here? A. No, they aren't. Q. Are you ready? A. No, I'm not. Q. Have you eaten? A. No, I haven't. Q. Have I eaten? A. No, you haven't. Q. Has he eaten? A. No, you haven't. Q. Did you eat yet? A. No, I didn't. Q. Does he eat candy? A. No, he doesn't. Q. Do they like candy? A. No, they don't.

Later, standard forms can be worked into drills in which they are not the final word in a response to a question. For some speakers, a further problem with the forms of be is the omission of am, is, and are before predicate nominatives ("She a good girl"); before adjectives ("She happy"); before participles ("He listening to you"); and before past participles ("The dish broken"). For all these, omission is more common when the first word of the clause is a pronoun. In informal speech these verb forms are contracted with the preceding pronoun, or noun, thus giving: I'm /aIm/ you're /yur/ he's /hiz/ she's /;iz/ it's /Its/ the boy's /boiz/ we're /wir/ they're /6er/ the boyslre /boiz r/ etc. In practicing to avoid the omission of forms oflahe, the teacher should be careful to use these natural contracted forms, and not the full forms: I am /aI you are /yu ar/ he is /hi Iz/ we are /wi ar/ they are /6e ar/ The fact that you're, we're, and they're, not to mention your, and their, end with /r/ is a good instance of the 5

overlapping betweenphonolog&cal andgrammatical features. While many standardspeakers omit thefinal /r/ in a word like their, theysubstitute /a/ for it andin the contractions Nonstandard speakers as well, sothat they're becomes/See/. may not havethe /a/ eitherin their or in thecontractions. grammatical consequencesin some nonstandard While there are of speech--the omission ofthese forms of tobe and the use they for their and youfor you--should make oneconsider pronunciation whether someattention should not begiven to the of the final r. Since the contractedform of has becomes/s, z, Iz/ contracted forms ofis ("The cat's hadkittens," just like the fixed"), some speakers "The dog's beenfed," "The watch's been just as they wouldthe contractedforms of omit this ending than be ("Heeatea"), and further use aform of be rather ("Is the dog beenfed?" for "Has the dog have in questions might be those been fed"). Here again thefirst type of drill in which the formsof have are thelast in the answer to a question: Yes, he has. Q. Has he eaten? A. have in contractionsis more complicated. The reduction of "I been" and Here many speakersof standardEnglish use both "I've been," "youbeen" and "You'vebeen" in informal speech: articulated in aposition similar to thatof since /v/ is Those whose /b/, it is easilyassimilated when/b/ follows. this assimilationneed to learn thepractices writing reflects described for of writing. Others may needdrills of the type the omission ofthe forms of beand have. The forms of behave one problemshared by no other for I, he, in its past tensethere is one form, was, verb: another, were, for we, she, and it, andsingular nouns, and they, and plural nouns. No other verb thusdistinguishes The pressures between singularand pluralpreterit forms. have also tended tosimplify for preteritand past participle in the preteritbetween was and were,most the distinction singular often with theresult that wasis used both for was" and "we was." Here contrastivedrills and plural--"he in the may be useful: "He was in thelibrary, but they were office, but the studentswere gym." "The teacher was in her in the field." Adjectives andAdverbs

of Problems with the useof adjectivesand adverbs are formation of the two kinds: those having todo with the superlative degreesand thosehaving to do comparative and where adverbs con- with the use of anadjective in places ventionally appear. and adverbs inflectional endingsfor adjectives The only Old Englishendings. are -er and-est, bothderived from related speaking, adjectivesof two or fewersyl- Today, generally hottest; lables in the base usethese endings: hot, hotter, hungriest; But there areexceptions: hungry, hungrier, unlikely, with useful is comparedwith more andmost; and the suffixes. Some adjectives, its prefix, can use syllables, use onlymore generally thosewith three or more comparison, beautifuland natural forexample. and most for either way, likelikely. And someadjectives canbe compared of manner arecompared byusing more While most adverbs and quietly, mostquickly--some few use -er and most--more Owing to his- -est in standardEnglish, fast forexample. adverbial endingthese words oncehad torical changes the identical in formwith has disappeared,leaving an adverb Slow is anotherof this groupof adverbs, the adjective. In alternative formwith -Ly. hasdeveloped. but here an "Slowly positions in a sentenceslowly must beused: some constructions one has a he left theroom." In other choice: "Drive slow" and"Drive slowly." inflectional endings The principalproblem with these with the use of moreor most,giving the is combining them hungrier, most double comparative orsuperlative: more These were standardin an earliertime-- happiest. all" is an example-- Shakespeare's "mostunkindest cut of but today they areregarded asnonstandard. participles are In some parts ofthe countrypresent -est: "He is thelovingest child compared with -er and eatingest boys I eversaw." in the family" and"They are the such forms areused only fordeliberate More generally too are comparedwith stylistic effects. Past participles in thehouse." more andmost: "The most read book (Damnedest is anexception.) problem withadjectives andadverbs is The other general would choose the use of anadjective wherestandard English constructions as"The grass an adverb;resulting in such 2

bad." Three grew rapidafter therain" and "He dances pairs of words presentspecial grammatical andstylistic problems in makingthis choice betweenadjective and They are theintensives real/reallyand sure/surely adverb. As an and good/well,all very commonlyused words. exclamation, the form sureas in"Sure I want to ridewith as it isin most you" is entirelystandard informal usage, the use of surefor informal situations. In other words, surely is generally astylistic matter. The choice between when the syntaxcalls for an adverbis some- real and really of in standardEnglish. Again it is a matter what similar adverb style, though realis used somewhatless often as an In highlyinformal situationssuch sentences than sure is. real bang-up as "That wassure someparty" and "He did a appropriate. With these pairs the job" would be entirely is in difference betweenstandard andnonstandard English rather than inthe observance of agram- command of styles wherever the matical rule that the form must be used syntax calls for anadverb. is somewhat The pairgood/well, adverbs of manner, Well is of course anadjective in English,and different. happier sentences like"He looks well" and"A well person is one" are entirelystandard. The problemarises than a sick surely with the use of good asan adverb;"he did good" would between adjectiveand be judged adversely. When the choice problem, drillsmight be developedwith adverb form is a "he did special emphasis onthe choice afterthe verb do: well, he did itpoorly," etc. pair "feel bad/ It is questionablewhether work on the badly" is worthwhile. Both are nowunquestionably standard. smell,sound, taste,and look when used as The verbs feel, good linking verbs("Dinner smellsgood," "The grass looks followed byadjectives. But feel this year") usually are standard use as the badly has comeinto widespread and result of a feelingthat after a verb aform with.a may bepreferable. SYNTAX

It is easier tofind features of morphologyin which nonstandard speechdiffers from standard thanit is features differences may be summed up of syntax. Perhaps the syntactic by saying that nonstandardspeech often lacks therichness of constructionsavailable in the language. Sentences may be limited to arestricted number ofbasic patterns. They may be shortand have fewermodifying elements such as dependent clauses orappositives. The cause-effectrelation- ship may be expressedonly by because ratherthan by such alternatives as since, sothat, for, therefore, andthus (not all these arestylisticallycomp; Sentences of the typebeginning only when or notuntil are rare, and yourather than one isused almostexclusively as an indefinite pronoun. Some few syntacticproblems may bepointed out, however. One of these isagreement of subjectand verb when other elements intervenebetween them in asentence, as in"One of the manythings lacking are adequaterecreational facilities" and "The lines ofcommunication between teacherand student is verythin."

A related problemis agreement in numberbetween pronoun and its noun or pronounantecedent: "If one was given the opportunity to plan thesereforms, they would haveto know " "Under these circumstances astudent would not onlylearn the subject matter, but theywould also learn howto teach it."

The word person causes manyproblems of this kind: "A person cannot besuccessful if they donot have the right their qualities." "A person should begiven freedom to put effect." "A person may have theability to ideals into Many answerquestions but not be a successto themselves." of these uses of person ora similar nounin what purports to formal usage occurwhere a moreexperienced be more or less to speaker or writerwould use one. Indeed, the inability substitute pronouns for nounsin a flexible and clear manner is a characteristicof much poorwriting. direct and indirectquotations, especially The formation of raises a questions, and thetransform of oneinto the other number of syntacticquestions. To convert"John asked, 'Mary, question did you go to themovie last night?" into an indirect "John asked Mary whether(or if) she had gone will result in in word order-- to the movie lastnight." Involved are changes replacing question orderwith that of declarativesentences--

x2.e- 2

changes in tense--from did go to had gone--theintroduction or Whether orif--and in writing, changes in punctuation. Small wonder that some users of English never masterthis pattern and instead always compromise with what is called an incompletely converted indirect question: "John asked Mary did she go to the movies last night." Here the pronoun is changed from you to she, but the word order is that of questions. Similarly, "The plan of action would involve in what ways could the schools prove beneficial." For many such speakers the use of whether in a sentence like"He asked whether the book was available" just does not occur.

Yet it would be inaccurate to say that the use of these incompletely converted indirect quotations is confined to nonstandard English: They occur in the speech of those with impec- cable social and educational backgrounds. What is true is that these latter speakers have the ability to use the completely converted question and do so, whereas many nonstandard speakers are not able. It is difficult to determine how much stress should be put on this feature. A sentence like "The governor asked could he depend on his supporters" has no place in writing. And the successful transform in a test of"Mary said that she expected to finish my work promptly"(or vice verse) is an excellent indicator of a student's command ofEnglish. The teacher will need to weigh this against otherproblems. In developing teaching materials, itis simplest to start with quotations which are not questions. To change "Mary said, 'I'm hungry" into an indirect quotation resultsin "Mary said that she was hungry"--a less complex process than changing "Mary said, 'Fred, are youhungry?" into "Mary asked Fred whether he was hungry." It should be noted that While forms of say can be used tointroduce direct quotations containing questions, they cannot be used in indirect quotations, and forms of another verb like ask must be substituted. koun and adjective clauses present another set of problems. Some English nouns can be followed byeither type of clause: "His assertion that he was the Dauphin was notbelieved" and "The last assertion which he made was notbelieved." Here the first sentence contains the noun clause"that he was the Dauphin" with that acting as aconjunction and having no grammatical rolein the clause itself. In the second sentence "which he made" is an adjectiveclause with which (or that or zero, both of which could serve assubstitutes) acting as the direct object of made. Many of these nouns have to do with mental or verbalactivity. 3

Other English nouns, however, can befollowed only by adjective clauses, in which therelative word (or zero) has a grammaticalfunction within the clause. Man, hoE, and city are in thislatter class. Thus one can say "Chicago is a city inwhich one can see extremes of wealth andpoverty" but not "Chicago is a city that one can seeextremes of wealth and poverty in it" forin the second example that has no role within the clause. In a related type of problem the word that is omitted: "Chicago is the only large city you can walk from extremesof wealth to poverty in a few minutes." Sometimes this incorrect use of a nounclause introduced by that occurs where whose wouldbe expected; and one finds "He's the boy that his father made him get a paperroute" rather than "he's the boy whosefather made him get a paper route." Whose is virtually nonexistentin relative clauses for many users of English. The use of zero as therelative word in adjective clauses raises a further question. Its use is perfectly standard in speech in clauses like"A man I know" or "The man you spoke to." In writing the former would perhapsbe unchanged, and the latter would almostcertainly be rephrased so that the clause did not endwith a preposition. Generally the zero relative isdirect object or object of apreposition, and almost always the wordopening the adjective clause is a personal pronoun or propernoun. Nonstandard English has one use of thisrelative not shared by standardEnglish--its use as a subject, asin "My friend lives down the street has a new car." While such constructions are most common in speech, they are also foundin writing.

The repetition of theconjunction that when used to introduce noun clauses is also aproblem, as in "The story presents the idea that if a personis well educated that he will be able to associated withanyone." These repeated that's occur when an interveningelement, here the words "if a person is well educated," come at thebeginning of the noun clause. A further problem with thatis its replacement by until in so...that constructions. Thus "His arguments were so persuasive that he convinced even someof his enemies" becomes "His arguments were sopersuasive until he convinced even some ofhis enemies." Again, the construction with until is an old one. with there arefamiliar for the Sentences beginning with subject-verb agreementwhich they raise, questions of "there are" is calledfor "theie ihe oftenbeing found where subject. A differentproblem is the by thefollowing plural there there by itin sentenceswhere the word replacement of and serves largelyto fills an empty"slot" in the sentence is not that of aquestion. The signal that theword order door" not in sentences as"It's a man at the result in such "It's some children response tothe question"Who's there?" and again not in responseto a question. Here too playing outside, continuation of anolder the constructionwith it is the English usage. the historicalpresent inrelating past The overuse of down.") is often events ("So hewalks into the roomand sits nonstandard speech,sometimes with the acharacteristic of singular -s beingadded further mark ofthe third-person ("I says to him.""Says you!"). Such to other verbs often noted inspeech, constructions are rarein writing but are especially when the -sending ismisplaced. limited pointsof syntaxmight be mentioned. A few more action, as in of done toindicate completed One is the use going to be hometill late." "I done told youthat I wasn't of already. Here done hassomething of the sense where Another is the useof wherebyin constructions advance his cause,whereby whereas is meant: "He intended to in doing was toweaken it." Whereby is all he succeeded city whereby he also misused for sothat: "He went into the could apply forhis passport." Irregular orTroublesome Verbs

irregular. Not all Most of theverbs we listhere are troublesome, but wehave retained eventhose of them are convenient for ateacher to that are notbecause itis often verbs at hand. Some of theverbs have a listof irregular forms by some listed are regularbut aregiven irregular troublesome invarious ways thatwill speakers. Others are appear fromthe itemsin the list. verbs usedmost frequentlyin everyday The irregular best masteredby thestudents. life are thosethat are already to person andfrom communityto This will varyfrom person in forms andnot if one considersonly errors community, but will probably errors inspelling, thefollowing verbs cause theleast trouble. smell bet fly learn forecast leave spell blow spill broadcast freeze let get make stick buy sweat come give quit go read teach cut tell dig grow say hit see throw do understand draw hold sell hurt sew wed drive win fight knit show find know shut get disadvantaged collegefreshman will A class of of thefollowing verbs about 90 to95 percentof the forms not counted: right ifspelling errors are 2 lean shine tear alight dwell think eat leap shred awaken thrive fall lose sing bend sleep undergo beseech feel mean meet sow undertake bite fit waken fling mow spend break split wear burn foretell pen plead spoil wet burst forget withstand forgive prove spring catch stand write choose hang rend steal -cleave hear ride heave saw sting dare swear deal hide send take drink kneel shear shine in themain 2The superscriptindicates thesecond list. 2

The same group would getabout 80 to 90 percent of the forms of thefollowing verbs right:

abide cling rise speed arise cost run spit befall dive set spread begin dream shake stink behold feed shave strike bereave foresee shoot sting bleed gild shrink swell blend keep sink swim bring lay sit weave build lend sling wind cleave (to) ring speak Errors in verb formswill be more numerous forthe following:

awake flee light spin bear flow put spit beget forbear rid stave in bid forbid ring2 stave off bind forsake seek strew breed gird shed stride cast grave shinel strive chide grind shoe sweep clothe hang (a man)* slay swing cost hew slide thrust creep lade slink tread drag lead slit wake fell lie smite weep wring

*If only hanged is acceptedfor preterit andparticiple; otherwise it will appearin the final block of verbs. Some of the words inthe list just above arenot much needed in everydaylife. The teacher must judgehow much time to give to them inthe light of thepotentialities of the student and hisexpectiations for a career. Probably nothing is gained bydrilling a student in the useof words he is never going toneed.

In the master listwhich follows we havelisted the accepted forms in capitalletters. The forms in lower case listed below the acceptedforms are those thathave been elicited from culturallydisadvantaged students bytests given in the freshman yearin college. They are listed in 3

dialect forms of frequency. A few common descending order of theLinguistic Atlasof have beenadded fromthe records America. oneacceptable, thefirst form Where thereis more than the second. perhaps somewhatmorefrequent than listed being moreforms. The () meanthat Or we haveput 0around one or United States enclosed isnot asfrequent in the the form so The form isacceptable but as the onenot soenclosed. should not beencouraged. after a form have indicatedby an * Occasionally we It is said is somethingmore tobe said. that there forms ratherthan postponedto immediately afterthe cited Sometimes the the page orthe end ofthe list. the foot of This term meansthat some comment ismerely"Archaic." appears tobe old- form wasaccepted but now while ago the that its usein speechand fashioned or evenliterary, so writing shouldbediscouraged. ABIDED, ABODE* ABIDED,ABODE* ABIDE abide 'abide abiden abid abidden

sense'dwell' than *Abide is used moreoften in the in other senses. ALIGHTED, ALIT ALIGHTED, ALIT ALIGHT alight alight alitten

AROSE ARISEN ARISE arose arosed risen rose arosen

ASKED ASKED ASK ask ask axed axed AWAKED,(AWOKE orAWOKEN)* AWOKE,(AWAKED) AWAKE awaken awake waken awoken with o are commonin GreatBritain *The participles When studentsare in theUnited States. but not of theprincipal partsof tested fortheir knowledge mixture wake, andwaken, therewill be a awake, awaken, concern aslong as accepted of forms. This need cause no verbs are usedin the rightslot, since forms of these time will be clear. It would be awaste of the meaning separate theseverbs. to drillstudents so thatthey could AWAKENED AWAKEN* AWAKENED awake

*See note toAwake BORNE BEAR BORE beared bore born* boren beared borned bear

adjective bornis much morefrequent in *Since the since bothwaTA-i speech thanthe participleborne and it is notstrprising that arepronounced the same, born slipsinto the verbforms. BEFALLEN BEFALL BEFELL befalled befell befall befelled befellen

BEGOTTEN,(BEGOT) BEGET BEGOT begetted begetted beget begat begat beget begoted BEGUN BEGIN BEGAN begun began begin BEHELD BEHOLD BEHELD behelded behold behold beholden beholded behelded beholded

BENT BEND BENT bend bended 5

BEREAVED, BEREFT BEREAVE BEREAVED, BEREFT bereave bereave beraved bereaven BESEECHED, BESOUGHT BESEECH BESEECHED, BESOUGHT beseech beseech BET, BETTED BET, (BETTED) BET betten BIDDEN, BID BID* BADE bid bade bidded bidded baded biden baded badden

'bid goodbyeetc.' Some students pronounce *In the sense usualpronounciation. bade like bayedinstead oflike bad, the BID BID* BID bided bidden bade bidded bidden baden

*As at anauction or atbridge. BOUND BIND BOUND binded binded bind bind bounded bonded

BITTEN BITE BIT bite bite bit

BLED BLEED BLED blead bleed bleed blead bleeded bleded BLENDED,(BLENT) BLEND BLENDED,(BLENT) BLOWN BLOW BLEW blowed blowen blewed blowen blowed blewed BOILED BOIL BOILED boilt boilt BROKEN BREAK BROKE broke

BRED BREED BRED breed breed breeded breeded bredded breded breaden

BROUGHT BRING BROUGHT brang brung brung bought (BROADCASTED) BROADCAST BROADCAST(BROADCASTED) BROADCAST, broadcassed broadcassed BUILT BUILD BUILT builded* builded* build build

*Archaic BURNED,(BURNT)* BURN BURNED,(BURNT)* burn burn

*More common inBritish than inAmerican usage. BURST BURST BURST bursted bursted BUSTED BUST* BUSTED bust bust English and itslikes. *Standard only ininformal spoken

BOUGHT BOUGHT BUY boughten*

in such phrases as"boughten bread," *Perhaps acceptable, like but not as thepast participlein verb phrases "had bought." CAST CAST CAST casted casted gari

COUGHT CATCH COUGHT catched catched ketched ketched kitched kitched cotch cotch CHIDED, (CHID,CHIDDEN)* CHIDE CHIDED, (CHID)* chide chide chidded chidded

*More common inBritish than inAmerican usage. CHOSEN CHOOSE CHOSE choose choosen chose

CLEAVED,CLEFT,(CLOVE,CLOVEN) CLEAVE* CLEAVED,CLEFT,(CLOVE) cleave cleave cleaven cleaven claved

*'split' CLEAVED CLEAVE* CLEAVED cleave cleave cleft cleaven cleft

*'adhere' CLIMBED CLIMB CLIMBED climb climb clim clim clom clom CLUNG CLING CLUNG clang clinged fi clinged clang CLOTHED, CLAD CLOTHE CLOTHED, CLAD clothe clothe clothen clothen COME COME CAME come came COST COST COST costed costed 8

COSTED COST* COSTED in business andgovernmentalcircles *A verb used of (a projectetc.).' meaning 'toestimate the cost CREPT CREEP CREPT creeped creeped crep* crepted crepted crep*

*Reflectspronunciation

CUT CUT CUT cutten

DARED DARE DARED dare dare DEALT DEAL DEALT dealed dealed deal deal dole DUG DIG DUG digged* duggen

*Archaic DIVED, (DOVE) DIVE DIVED, (DOVE) div cloven duv diven div duv

DONE DO DID done did DRAWN DRAW DREW drow drew drawed drowen drawed

DRAGGED DRAG DRAGGED drug drug drag draggen drought

AgIrlaw4gglitmott4,44.0t'240...AltWev,AtnaLuougLiftgaw.wataa 9

DREAM DREAMED, (DREAMPT)* DREAMED, (DREAMPT)* dream dream dremp dremp drimpt drimpt drimp drimp *More common in Britishthan in American usage.

DRINK DRANK DRUNK, (DRANK) drink drinken dranked drunk

DRIVE DROVE DRIVEN driv drove druv driv drived druv drive drived drive

DROWN DROWNED DROWNED drownded drownded

DWELL DWELT, (DWELLED) DWELT, (DWELLED) dwell dwell dwellen

EAT ATE EATEN eat ate eaten eat et et

FALL FELL FALLEN fall fell fellen

FEED FED FED feed feed feeden

FEEL FELT FELT feeled feeled feel feel

FELL FELLED FELLED fell fallen falled fell felt fellen feeled 10

FETCH FETCHED FETCHED fotch fotch

FIGHT FOUGHT FOUGHT fit foughten fout fight fit fout

FIND FOUND FOUND

FIT FIT, (FITTED)* FITTED, (FIT) *Certain senses requirefitted, as in "His tailor fitted him for asuit" or "His studies fittedhim for his career."

FLEE FLED FLED fleed fleed flew fleen flee flown flee fleeded flew

FLING FLUNG FLUNG flang flang

FLOW FLOWED FLOWED flew flown flown flowen flow flowned

FLY FLEW FLOWN flowen flew

FORBEAR FORBORE FORBORNE forbeared forbeared forbear forbear forborn forborn forbearen forbored forbearen

FORBID FORBADE FORBIDDEN forbid forbid forbidded forbade forbidded forbaden 11

FORECAST, FORECASTED FORECAST FORECAST, FORECASTED FORESEEN FORESEE FORESEE foreseen forsaw foresought foresought FORETOLD FORETELL FORETOLD foretole* foretell foretollen foretoll* foretole* students' pronunciation. *These spellingsreflect the FORGOTTEN FORGET FORGOT forget forgot forgetten

FORGIVEN FORGIVE FORGAVE forgiven forgave forgive

FORSAKEN FORSAKE FORSOOK forsaked forsaked forsake forsaken forsought forsuke forsok FROZEN FREEZE FROZE freezed froze frozed freezed friz frozed friz

GOT,(GOTTEN)* GET GOT in speech than seenin print. *Heard more often writing. Accepted in speechbut usuallyedited out of GILDED, GILT GILD GILDED, GILT gild gild gilted gilden gilted

GIRDED,(GIRT) GIRD GIRDED,(GIRT) gird gird girdled girdled 12

GIVEN GIVE GAVE give gave giv give giv

GONE GO WENT GRAVEN, GRAVED GRAVE GRAVED engraved engraved grave grave ingraved graven ingrave engrave GROUND GRIND GROUND grinded grinded grind grounded grounded grind grund grund grown

GROWN GROW GREW grow grew growed growed HUNG HANG* HUNG hang hanged hanged

*a picture,etc. HANGED,(HUNG) HANG* HANGED,(HUNG) tang hang 4 considered theprestigious form *a man. Hanged is distinction is but hungis growing. Drill in this probably notworth while. HEARD HEAR HEARD heared heared head head HEATED HEAT HEATED het het HEAVED, HOVE* HEAVE HEAVED, HOVE* heave heave heaven hoven "The schoonerhove *Confined tonautical contexts,as to for thenight." 13

HELPED HELP HELPED holp holp HEWED, HEWN HEW HEWED hew hewen heown hew HIDDEN HIDE HID hide hid hide

HIT HIT HIT hitted hitten HELD HOLD HELD helded helded HURT HURT HURT KEPT KEEP KEPT keep keep keept keept KNELT, KNEELED KNEEL KNELT, KNEELED kneel kneel KNIT, KNITTED KNIT KNIT, KNITTED knitten

KNOW KNEW KNOWN knowed knowed LADEN, (LADED) LADE LADED lade lade laden ladened ladened ladden loaded loaded LAID LAY LAID lay lain

LEAD LED LED lead lead leaded

LEANED LEAN LEANED lean lean leanded leanded 114

LEAP LEAPED (LEAPT) LEAPED (LEAPT) leap leap

LEARN LEARNED (LEARNT) LEARNED (LEARNT) learn learn

LEAVE LEFT LEFT lef* lef*

*Reflects pronunciation.

LEND LENT LENT loaned* lended lended loaned* lend loan loan loanded loanded lend lond

*Apt enough in meaning,though borrowed from theverb loan, which has beengrowing in popularity in thepast decades.

LET LET LET

LIE LAY LAIN laid laid lied lay lie lied

LIGHT LIT, LIGHTED LIT, LIGHTED lighten

LOSE LOST LOST losed lose losed losted

MAKE MADE MADE

MEAN MEANT MEANT mean mean

MEET MET MET meet meet

MOW MOWED MOWED, MOWN mow mowen mowned 15

PENNED (PENT)* PEN PENNED(PENT)* pen pen of'wrote/written,' *Of course notpossible in the sense as in"He penned aletter." PLEADED, PLED PLEAD PLEADED, PLED plead plead PROVED(PROVEN) PROVE PROVED prove provened PUT PUT PUT QUIT(QUITTED)* QUIT QUIT(QUITTED)* in specialcontexts, asin "He claimed *Now used only October 1." he hadquitted thepremises before READ READ READ red red RENT,(RENDED) RENT RENT,(RENDED) rend rend rought RETREADED RETREAD* RETREADED *a tire RID(RIDDED) RID RID(RIDDED) rode ridden RIDDEN RIDE RODE rid rode rid

RUNG RING* RANG rung rand rong

*a bell etc. RINGED RING* RINGED ring rung rang rang ring ring

*'draw a ringaround' RISEN RISE ROSE rise rose raise raise raised rised rised raisen RUN RUN RAN run ran runned SAWED, SAWN SAW SAWED saw saw sawned

SAID* SAY SAID* sayed." *Sometimesmispronounced as SCARED SCARE SCARED scairt scairt SEEN SEE SAW seen saw see see seed seed SOUGHT SEEK SOUGHT seeked seeked sook seek soke sook seek seeken SOLD SELL SOLD SENT SEND SENT send send sended sended SET SET SET sat sat sit sit SEWN, SEWED SEW SEWED sew sown sowed sowen sown sowed sawn

SHAKEN SHAKE SHOOK shoke shook shoken 17

SHAVE SHAVED SHAVED shaven* shaven*

*Used only as anadjective, as in "aclean-shaven fellow." SHEARED, SHORN* SHEAR SHEARED shear shoren

*Shorn is usedchiefly in figurative senses.

SHED SHED SHED shedded shedded shedden

SHINE* SHONE 3HONE shined shined shown shown shoned shune

*as the sun does

SHINE* SHINED SHINED shine shine shone shone

*shoes, silver SHOD SHOE SHOD shoed shoed shoe shoe shodden

SHOT SHOOT SHOT shoot shoot SHOWN (SHOWED) SHOW SHOWED SHREDDED (SHRED) SHRED SHREDDED (SHRED) shreden

SHRUNK SHRINK SHRANK(SHRUNK) shrinked shrunken shrinken shrinked shrank

SHUT SHUT SHUT SUNG SING SANG (SUNG) song sang song

SUNK (SUNKEN) SINK SANK (SUNK) sinked sinked SAT SIT SAT sit sit set set sot sitten sot

SLAIN SLAY SLEW slayed slayed slay slew slain slayed slewed slewn slown

SLEPT SLEEP SLEPT sleep sleep slep* slep* sleap sleap

*Pronunciationspellings. SLID SLIDE SLID slide slidden* slided slide sled sled

*Archaic SLUNG SLING SLUNG slang slinged slinged slunk slanged SLUNK SLINK SLUNK slinked slinked slank slank slinken slinken SLIT SLIT SLIT slitted slitted slite slitten 19

SMELLED(SMELT) SMELLED(SMELT) SMELL smell smell SMITTEN SMITE SMOTE smited smited smite smite smitted smit smiten smitten smoted smit smute smate smote smoten SOWN, SOWED SOWED SOW sowen sow sew SPOKEN SPOKE SPEAK spoke

SPED SPED SPEED* speeded speeded speed

*down the road,path SPEEDED SPEED* SPEEDED *up the motor,the car SPELLED(SPELT)* SPELLED(SPELT)* SPELL spellen spell spell

*Chiefly British. SPENT SPENT SPEND spend spend (SPILT) (SPILT) SPILLED SPILL SPILLED spill SPUN SPUN SPIN spinned spinned spon span spint spon spunned spint spin spunned spin 20

SPIT* SPIT, SPAT SPIT, SPAT spitted spitten spitten spitted

expectorate etc.'

SPIT* SPITTED SPITTED spit spit spited spited spat spiten

*'pierce'

SPLIT SPLIT SPLIT splitted splitted splitten

SPOIL SPOIL (SPOILT) SPOILED (SPOILT) spoil spilt spolld spolled

SPREAD SPREAD SPREAD spreaded spreaded

SPRING SPRANG, SPRUNG SPRUNG sprank sprang sprunk sprong

STAND STOOD STOOD stand stand stode stode

STAVE (in) STOVE (STAVED) STOVE (STAVED) stave staven stoved stoven staven stave stived stoved

STAVE (off) STAVED (STOVE) STAVED (STOVE) stave staven stoved stoved staven

STEAL STOLE STOLEN stoled stole stoled stolden 21

STICK STUCK STUCK stucked

STING STUNG STUNG stang stunged stanged

STINK STANK STUNK STUNK stinked stinked stank

STREW STREWED STREWED, STREWN strew strown strewn strew straw strewen strow strowen strew strawn

STRIDE STRODE STRIDDEN strided strode stroded strided strolled strolled strude stroded stride stride stroden

STRIKE STRUCK STRUCK, STRICKEN* stroke stroke struke struke striken stroken strock

*Stricken is used only in certain contexts, such as stricken from the record, stricken by disease,etc."

STRING STRUNG STRUNG strang strang stringed strong

STRIVE STROVE STRIVEN strived strove strived

SWEAR SWORE SWORN sweared swore swuren swaren sweared 22

SWEAT, SWEATED* SWEAT,SWEATED* SWEAT sweaten

required in suchcontexts as"He sweated *Sweated is results wereannounced" it out untilthe examination the truth outof him." and "Thehoodlums sweated SWEPT SWEEP SWEPT sweep sweep swep* swep* sweept sweept sweeped swepten swepted

*Pronunciationspellings. SWELLED, SWOLLEN* SWELL SWELLED swoll swell swell swellen swoled swolden swollen swoled swoll have, *Swollen is used moreoften afterbe than after the springrains." as in"The river wasswollen after SWAM SWUM SWIM swam sworn swum swom swimmed swimmed swammed swim swim SWUNG SWING SWUNG swang swang swing TAKEN TAKE TOOK taken took take tuck tuck takened taked taked TAUGHT TEACH TAUGHT teached teached

TORE TORN TEAR tore 23

TOLD TELL TOLD tolded toll* toll*

*Pronunciationspellings. THRIVEN, THRIVED THRIVE THROVE, THRIVED thrive throve THOUGHT THINK THOUGHT THROWN THROW THREW throwed throwen thrown throwed THRUST THRUST THRUST thrusted thrusted TRODDEN, TROD TREAD* TROD treaded treaded tread tread trodded treaden

*'step' TREADED TREAD* TREADED reached him." *water "He treadedwater till the canoe UNDERGONE UNDERGO UNDERWENT undergone underwent undergoed undergoned UNDERSTOOD UNDERSTAND UNDERSTOOD UNDERTAKEN UNDERTAKE UNDERTOOK undertake undertook undertaken WOKE)* WOKE,(WAKED) WAKED (WOKEN, WAKE waken awaken wake

in o are commonin GreatBritain, but *The participles tested on, United States. When students are not in the principal parts ofawake, awaken, their knowledgeof the there will be amixture of forms. wake, and waken, forms of This need cause noconcern aslong as accepted used in theright slot, sincethe these verbs are time clear. It would be awaste of meaning will be separate these to drillstudents sothat they could verbs. A

WAKENED WAKEN* WAKENED *see note towake. WOVEN WEAVE* WOVE weaved wove weave weaved weaven weave

*cloth etc. WEAVED WEAVE* WEAVED "The boy weaved his way *For suchfigurative uses as through thebushes." WORE WORN WEAR wore WEDDED (WED) WED WEDDED (WED) WEPT WEEP WEPT weeped weeped wep* wep* weep wepted wepted weep

*Pronunciationspellings WET, WETTED WET, WETTED WET wetten

WON WON WIN woned

WOUND WIND WOUND wond wond wind winded wounded WITHSTOOD WITHSTAND WITHSTOOD withstanded withstode withstode withstand withstanded

WRUNG WRING WRUNG wrang wrang wring wringed wrong wrong WRITTEN WRITE WROTE writ wrote writ FEATURES FOR A CHECKLISTOF SIGNIFICANT DISCRIMINATINGSOCIAL DIALECTS by RavenI. McDavid,Jr.

in a more to theteacher whois interested As an aid problem ofteaching astandard efficient approachto the non- public roles--tothose who use variety ofEnglish--for of features home, thefollowing list standardvarieties at significant) hasbeen bothcystematic and (all of which are collections oftheregional partly fromthe studies. drawn up, partly from moreintensive local linguistic atlases, features ofthe languagethat The emphasisis on those amenable topattern frequently and aretherefore most recur that other,lesswell-patterned It must notbe inferred but drills. unimportant associal markers, features ofEnglish are readily toproductive they do notlend themselvesso only that principal partsof irregular drill. Discriminating the participle seen,is past tense sawand past verbs, such as constitutesstandard of thelinguisticbehavior that by a part see/saw/seen isduplicated only English, but thepattern hand, the foresee. On the other such compoundsof see as is a partof a between I seeand he sees time a discrimination concord thatis faced every pattern ofsubject-verb of a verb. subject is usedwith thepresent tense with socialdialects ofEnglish The listis concerned faced by thenative include allthe problems and does not For eachsituation ofthis speaker of someother language. those contrastivestudies like last kind oneneedsspecial Chicago Press, published bytheUniversity of being currently Finnish needto learnthe Native speakersof Czech or speakers ofcontinental patterns ofEnglish; native phrase in accentual to masterthe perfect Europeanlanguages need in Chicagofor five expressions oftime as Ihave been need such of almost everyother language years;native speakers distinctions asbetween finer-meshed setof vowel boat to learn a and bet andbat, pooland pull, peach andpitch,, bait and bought,hot and hut. features areof indirectconcern The originsof these is what concernsus. they areof socialsignificance here; that that mostof them maybe however, itis clear that inthe In general, speech ofEngland, and traced backto the folk identified with none ofthem isexclusively United States given communitysome ofthem racial group,though in any Negroes. any frequent amongwhites or among may berelatively more This list is restrictedto features that occurin speech as well asin writing. It is recognized thatregional differ in the distancebetween the norms varieties of English They of standard informalspeech and standardformal writing. considerably in the kindsof reductions offinal vary when followed by a consonant clusters,either absolutely or consonant. The plural ocsixth maybe word beginning with a h6le may /sIks/, homonymous with thecardinal numeral; burned a pfints/. be/bgrnd2h61/ butbasned my. pfints /b6rn mai Similarly the copula maynot appear inquestions such as She been drinking? They ready" That your hav We going now? The auxiliary have maynot even appear as areflex of /v/ I been thinkingabout it or webeen in such statements as of telling. you this. In families wherethe conventions written and printedEnglish are learnedearly as a separate of this kind causelittle trouble; but subsystem, differences home for speakers ofnon-standard dialectswho have little exposure tobooks, these features mayprovide additional to write. It is oftendifficult for problems in learning writing the teacher to overcomethese problemsin the students' without fostering anunnatural pronunciation. situ- It should berecognized, of course,that cultural ations may changein any community. To take the Southern dialectal situation withwhich I am mostfamiliar, forty widespread socialdistinction in years ago there was a Ea..] was used by the allophones of/ai/.1 The monophthongal all classes finally, asin rye, or beforevoiced consonants as voiceless consonants,however, educated in ride; before speakers used the speakers had a diphthongand many uneducated monophthong, so thatnice white rice became awell-known In recent years,however, the shibboleth social shibboleth. Southerners now have has ceased to operate,and many educated the numbers of such the monophthongin all positions; and This observation hasalso been made speakers are increasing. who added by James B.McMillan, of theUniversity of Alabama, experience the fallingtogether of /ai/and /a/9 that in his homonymous, was so thatfire and far, hired andhard, become still restricted tonon-standard speech. Yet very recently the Dallas radio, 1 noticed thatthis homonym was common on in the speech of thewomen'seditor.2 assumed, furthermore,that one willfind It should not be speech no othersystematic features,discriminating standard in particularlocalities. Nor should we from non-standard to be so naive as toexpect the speakersof any community regarding the speechof outsiders asipso facto inferior cease be because it isdifferent--even thoughthese outsiders may superior in educationand socialstanding. We are all ethnocentricafter our own fashion;in our localities we may consider somedifferences important whether they are or not;and if enough people worryabout them, some of these mayactually becomeimportant. This is the traditional origin of neuroses,as well as thespecific origin of theproscription of such usefulfeatures of English as ain't andthe multiplenegative. Meanwhile, it is probably good sense as well asgood humor torecognize that though the loss of the white middle-classChicagoan often considers like a lower-class feature.,the cultivated /r/ in barn and the words Southerner oftenassociates the MiddleWestern /r/ in such with the speech of poorwhites--and that thedistinction between /hv-/ and/w-/, as in whales andwails respectively, is socially diagnosticnowhere in theEnglish-speaking world. everywhere, though not The featureslisted here are diagnostic all of them occurin every community wheredifferences in social dialects areimportant.

Pronunciation: thin and /t/ intin, 1. The distinctionbetween /0/ as in /f/ in fin, /s/ in sin. /t/ in them and /d/2/v/2 2. The similardistinction between /z/. bird and Boyd, curl 3. The distinctionbetween the vowels of and coil. significant among A generation agothis contrast was most older speakers ofthe New Yorkmetropolitan area;uneducated older speakers regularlylacked it. It has become less important, since few of the youngerspeakers lack thisdis- for New tinction. But it shouldstill be noted, not only York City but for NewOrleans as well. weak-stressed 4. The omission, insubstandard speech, of a syllable preceding theprimary stress, so thatprofessor insurance may becomefessor, reporter maybecome porter, and become shoo-ance orsho-ance. disproportionate 5. In substandardspeech, a statistically front-shifting of the primarystress, giving suchforms as pa-licel in-surance,ee-ficiency, gui-tar, etc. Front-shifting ischaracteristic of Englishborrowings in balcony it iscompletely accepted; from other languages; by position in hotel and Julyacceptability is conditioned in the sentence. what in standard 6. In substandardspeech, heavy stress on English is a weak-stressedfinal syllable, givingaccident, element, president,evidence, etc. Inflection:

NOUN (come) to see me. Lack of the nounplural; Two host came 7. This (is) Mr.Brown hat. 8. Lack of the noungenitive: PRONOUN /-n/ of mine to otherabsolute genitives, 9. Analogizing of the hisn, hern,theirn. yielding ourn, yourn, yielding hisself, 10. Analogizing of thecompound reflexives, theirself,theirselves. DEMONSTRATIVE Substitution of themfor tkall, asthem books. 11. these-here dogs,that-(th)ere 12. Compounddemonstratives: house,them-(th)ere cats. ADJECTIVES comparisons: the wonderfullest 13. Analogizing ofinflected time, a lovingerchild. a moreprettier dress, themost 14. Double comparisons: ugliest man. VERB of to be. person-number concordof the present 15. Unorthodox generalizing of am oris or are, or This may bemanifest in with all persons,singular and plural. in the use of be of the pastof be: 16. Unorthodoxperson-number concord I were, he were;we was,they was. person-number concordof the present 17. Failure to maintain (this is perhaps indicative of otherverbs: I does, he do the mostwidely recognizeddiagnostic feature) third-person singularforms of common Note that three In the irregular, has, does/dAz/, says /stz/. verbs are irregularity, but many last two thespelling concealsthe learning thisinflection willproduce speakers who are from this /duz/ and /sez/. The form beesis also derived kind of analogy. Ail/ of the presentparticiple: He 18. Omission of the was open a canof beer.3 the past tense: I burn 19. Omission of/-t, -d, -ed/ of in my pantsyesterday. a hole beginning with aconsonant the Note thatbefore a word pants. Those /-d/ may beomitted in speechin I burned aly. have thiscontextual lossof the sound may who normally writing. need to learnthe specialconventions of the loss ofthe inflectionextends to Note also that pastparticiple those verbsthat form thepast tense and irregularly. -5-

participle. /-t, -d,-ad/ of thepast 20. Omission of before a Omission of theverb to bein statements 21. He a goodhoit. predicatenominative: adjectives: be instatementsbefore 22. Omission of to They ready. participles: be instatementsbefore present 23. Omission of to I goingwith you. participles: be instatementsbefore past 24. Omission of to The windowbroke-TOT features21-24 the verb in questionsrelated to Note that oral English,though it be omittedin standard to be may in formalexpository prose. would neverbe omitted of hasbefore been /-s, -z,-az/ reflex 25. Omission of the He beendrinking. in standard in statements: may c.ccurin questions Note thatthis omission English many also thatin standardoral oralEnglish, and of have: I been speakers mayomit the/-v/ reflex Needless to say, educated telling youthis. thinking aboutit; we been expository prose. would not occurin standard this omission done beenfor have, Substitution ofbeen, done, or been 26. singular subject: He done especiallywith a third situations done,at least, In otherperson-number done told you finished. oralEnglish, as I often occursin standard that threetimes. -6-

NOTES

1 in myanalyses of observation wasmade,inter alia, C., metro- This English intheGreenville, S. thepronunciation of Society ofAmerica presented totheLinguistic Chapel politan area, (December,1938) and meetings inNew YorkCity at its (July, 1941). Hill, NorthCarolina

manyEasternersand 2 Southern/ai/ disturbs Themonophthongal forinstance,allege SomePhiladelphians, MiddleWesterners. someDetroiters, that confuseride and rod; thatSoutherners They do not;theconfusion right andrat. obser- they confuse Eastern andMiddle Western exists inthe mindsof the vers. social 3 /-ig/ and/-in/ has no Thedistinctionbetween in educatedspeech, Both formsmay/be heard significance. the speakercomesand the regionfrom which depending on is using. the styleofdiscourse he NON-VERBALCOMMUNICATION by WilliamM. Austin

I. General of the acts of ourlives It should beobvious that most It is only alittle lessobvious that are actsof communication. perhaps amajority, of theseacts are non- a great many, dancing, the way wedress, verbal. Fighting,love-making, sit, a leg- of a hat ornecktie, the way we the selection of the spine,the cross, ashift of thepelvis, rigidity wrist is held,lid closure,eyebrow raising, way the this), laughing, pointing (there aremany waysof doing are allcommunicative acts. crying, sighing,and many others communicate by the waywe smell(or don't), although We even other modalities. well understoodthan some of the this is less "in-awareness" and many are"out- Many of theseacts are in-awareness when we are We learnsomething of-awareness." spelling, arithmeticand, conscious of beingtaught; we learn in this way. Our native for the mostpart, table manners noises and bodymovements, on theother language, vocal out-of-awareness. hand, arelearned almostexclusively out-of-awareness aregenerally learnedearly Things learned last to beforgotten in life andlearned best;they are the eradicated. It is forthis and the mostdifficult to be should languages andothercommunicative skills reason that before school age. be learnedearly inlife, preferably general and We have yet todefinecommunication in in which oneorganism this may bedifficult. A situation We might seem tobe a validdefinition. triggers another rising in themorning to get up, may betriggered by the sun hardly be called anact ofcommunication; but this can But to theinterchange is not anorganism. one partner clock. Is the channel suppose awife sets herhusband's alarm ringing clock andthe husband acommunicative between the communication betweenthe wife and one oris there adelayed probably have toopt for thelatter as husband? We should analogous to theauthor of a bookcommunicating it is somewhat intermediary,mechanical with his readers. Or leaving out any the snoring of onesleeping partner orotherwise, suppose of annoyance. awakens the otherand triggershim into a state communication? We Is the firstinadvertant act oneof We couldmodify ourtentative would probably saynot. organism saying "conscioustriggering of one definition by conscious but this wouldnot workeither if by another" Somecommunicative is taken inits usual senseof "aware". -2

signals, a glance, a lidclosure, a movement in achair, are sent at alower level of awareness, alevel that would not normally becalled conscious. So let us try the deliberate triggering of oneorganism hit another. This would take care of suchthings as snoring andaccidental bumping. Under this are subsumed an enormousrange of activities, mating ofpr-%mitive organisms, playingbridge, hind-leg rubbing ofinsects, reading, talking, thespread of the peacock'stail, the shot heard 'round theworld, the song of thenightingale, the medievalmanuscript illustration, the unfolding of anivory fan in the Ming dynasty,the first notes of a violin concerto, adog's tail It is little wonder that we can sayculture is communication. Communi- cation is achieved, in thebroadest physical terms, by movement or projectionfrom the self--the pressureof an amoeba, the bushy tail ofthe fox, the bright colorsof a courting fish, the sound wavesemitted by the vocal tract, cuneiform on a clay tablet. The stream of life fornearly two billion years onthis planet has been towardgreater and greatercommunication and the prize is alwaysgreater knowledge and greater awareness. With satellite communications systems we are on thethreshold of interplanetary communication. The vast implications ofthese prefatory statements seem a littlegrandiose for a manual of thissize and purpose. We are concernedwith language and closely relatedsystems in man and withcomparisons and analogies of therelated systems with those ofother animals. Homo sapiens is the only animal withlanguage and he has probablyhad it as long as he has beenmaking tools or has had thislabel, this is, let us say, amillion years. Language is physically produced by thearticulated vocal tract, theregion between the nose and lips andthe vocal chords in thelarynx. This system isessentially the same in apes andother animals such as cats, dogs,wolves, foxes, andcontains elements that werebiologically intended for other purposes. The nose and nasal passages arefor the intake of air, the uvula and epiglottisoriginally met and shut themouth off from the pharynx,trachea and esophagus. Even the so- called vocal chords weredesigned to close so pressure could be exerted on thediaphragm, stomach andintestines to facilitatedefecation. Language, then, must bedefined in terms other thanits physical medium. It differs from othercommunicative systems in havingduality of patterning, thatis, it consists of a basic set ofelements, from aboutfifteen to fifty, calledphonemes, and a second setcomposed of -3-

and far greaterin number calledmorphemes these prime elements this While there arehigher orders ofpatterning in language, furdamental dualityallows for anopen-ended system of be inherited in the gene immense complexity,too complex to Man is born withthe capacity forlanguage, with structure. the the neuralconnections that are tobe imprinted, but imprinting must beaccomplished by learning. Other systems ofcommunication exhibitsingularity of patterning and are thusclosed, of a limitednumber and capable of beinginherited. Man generally learnsthese other systems but hewould undoubtedlyhave them without learhing (the raisingof two babies on adesert island by would stillconstitute an interesting a deaf-mute nurse their experiment). Other animals,birds and insects have communicative systemsbuilt into theirinheritance, although species of birds have some learningdoes take place--some their song patternswhen brought up been known to alter direction, with other birds. The worker beecommunicates the distance and kind ofnectar by aninherited haptic and When she returns tothe hive she dances a kinesic system. indicated the rough figure eight,the center axisof which The wing beatingspeed signals thedistance direction. workers. and the nectaris passed by contactto the other kinesically his statusin wolf society by The wolf signals high status the height atwhich he carrieshis tail, up for the legs for lowestclass wolves. It is wolves and between entirely) true that thewolf does notinherit (at least not his status, butthis reaction to statusis automatic. communication as a pro- We have spokenof the act of jection of the selfand questionsmight arise about how modalities there are,why there are more many systems or originated. than one andhow, learned orinherited, they little-known region wherebiology meets Here we enter a communication seem tohave anthropology. Potentialities of development of sensory areasin living organisms. followed the and an increased With each development camegreater awareness ability to discriminateamong theblobs of environment. these blobs becamethe "meaningfulunits" Once discriminated, his universe. of theorganism--to allintents and purposes, tactility with only two, apleasure/pain First came touch or amoeba dichotomy withnondistinctivevariations--a prodded it may withdrawfrom light, butlight will withdraw and of these two as pain, not aslight. There may be degrees the two remain,with varying degrees basic principles but wereachieved of stress, asit were. Once other modalities tactile signals couldbe increased, e.g., the repertory of ace."). by warning andattention taps("Don't trump my psychology thatthere truism ofelementary It is a taste, atleast in man. Taste foursensations of are only safer toamend this tono role (itwould be however, plays no communication. It may, significantrole) in human to be veryimpor- otherspecies; it seems play a roleamong whether thisis anindependent dogs, forexample, but tant with smell is notknown. Smell is modality or anadjuml to with many important meansofcommunication certainly an distinctly ofsecondaryimportance ut with manit is general species, orunderstood. Man has in and as yetlittle studied hearing andin the in favor ofsight and abandoned smell systems whereotheranimals latter hastwocommunicative however, is a of itspertinence, have one. The degree it isquite With Arabs,for example, culture-specific. olfactory rangeof each they standwithin the tactile important: communicativefeedback, othergetting themaximum street), hands whilewalking downthe (they will hold to smelleachother), (they must beclose enough olfactory T. Hall,The Silent auditory(cf. Edward visual and speaker becomeananthropologist Should aTotonac better than Language). might handleolfaction much orpsychologist, he nineteen words,from eight for Totonachas at least flowers we do smells("the smell of different roots,for various smell mint, parsley,tobacco," "the orfood," "thesmell of sweat,"etc.,(cf. mold," "thesmell ofleather or of mushroom 158). Eugene A.Nida,Morphology, p. starting sensation areainto vision, of a stimuli, the The development vastly morepotential with thefishes, provided color, signal units. Here movement, rawmaterial for with visualreception, size becomethe kinesic, kinesic change in Here arethe well-known modality ofcommunication. its bellyturns red, of thestickleback when movements messages and whenit makescircular its eyes,bright blue the nestit has pre- gravid female,pointing to around the fighting postureof the courtship and fins pared. Or the Fighter, withits enlarged Beta splendensthe Siamese familiar withthe coloring. We are all and morevivid dogs: the tail up of domesticcats and the kinesic signals side to side(greeting with wagging from zigzag walkof (well-being), hunt withthecat), the dog, anger oron the lids andflattened (stay behind), orthehalf-closed with sight, the cat defense). All species ears ofboth(aggression, use ofkinesic insects, fish,animals, make some birds, comparativestudy,remains much study,and of visual signaling but Thepotentialities to bedone inthis field. imagine immense andit ispossible to communication are another planetwho hasthis fiction specieson importance somescience modality. With the as theprimarycommunication -5-

in our ownculture somepeople have of readingand writing with us, but onemust impression thatthis is so the native derived from anauditory system. remember thatthese are of livingorganisms washearing, The lastemerging sense middle ear amongfishes. the developmentof the deriving from signaling bysound, thepossibility of With hearing came mouth formost species through thethroat and hind- generally other originssuch as wings or butoccasionally from species-specific Each soundsignal systemis leg rubbing. where itisculture-specific, for all exceptHomo sapiens, call, ingeneral,paralanguage. and thesesystems we different said to haveat leasttwenty-seven Gibbons are more. Currently and somespecies may have vocal symbols being intensivelystudied the bottle-noseddolphin is with a larger (probably) mistakenbelief that, under the that friendlyandintelligent brain capacitythan man's, impossible for an have language. This seems mammal must artifacts or anapparentculture, animal withouttools, ofparalinguisticcommunication. but thereis no doubt Pacific utters acompletely The white-sideddolphin of the from paralanguage andmuch couldbe learned different tank over aperiod oftime. studying the twoin the same with the kinesics, we aremost familiar Again, as with dogs, as far asspecies other paralanguage ofcats and concerned, and someinter-species than our ownare sounds,attention place. Their greeting communication takes areunderstood complaint sounds,in-and-out sounds sounds, them isunderstoodkupltm as by us and ourlanguage to hence, in a verylimited way. The"-tat paralanguage, its own names,but recognizes nowords, not even mean probably including its name. This does not the dogknows some, of language,but rather dog has apartial command that the paralinguisticunits dog haslearnedadditional that the able toreproduce them, from manand, whilenot being Other incorporated theminto its system. neverthelesshas same;certainly probably capableof doing the animals are beinteresting toknow foxes andwolves areand it would speech do. The imitationof human what thedolphin would the myna,must be birds, verygood in thecase of by some of anotherlsparalanguage and considered asthe imitation imitator goes. non-systemic asfar as the non-incorporatedand animal who has been said,is the only Man, as has signal system,language. developed asecondvocal-auditory why thismodality waschosen At first onemight wonder opportunity forthe vision whichoffers greater rather than Thevocal-auditorymechanism discernment ofdiscrete units. -6-

is of sustainingduality of patterning as is as capable The primary reason the visual andthat is allthat matters. motor-sensoryapparatus is that for theselection of this see expenditure of energyis involved, as we can far less functions in thedark, deaf-mutes. It also from observing and, importantly,when the around corners,in deep forests hands and feet areotherwise occupied. olfaction, in fourmodalities. Man communicates,excluding personalconversation allfour In fighting,love making, or of situations usedsimultaneously, butin the majority may be Communication in thedark may involve only three are. reduced to onebut, only two. Man is fairlystrapped when if that oneis language. Haptics, of course,least strapped in more detail. kinesics and paralanguagewill be taken up

LI -7-

II. Haptics Haptics might seemlike an unlikely term forwhat it designates, the study ofcommunication by touching, butit offers greater freedomof derivation than doestactile. We can get theadjectives haptic and haptemic,with the corresponding adverb in -1y,and the nouns hapteme and, unfortunately, allohakt. The derivation is fromGreek haptomai "I touch".

Most living organismscommunicate, in various degrees, by touching. We can disregard, forthe most part, plants and such hermaphrodites asthe oyster but mostfish have at least two, possibly more,haptemes, namely those offighting and courtship(cf. the Beta splendens orSiamese Fighter and the male's prodding ofthe female in thecourtship of the stickleback, Hockett,1961). With the higher mammals haptic activities areconsiderably more complex and by no means completelyunderstood. They vary betweenspecies and between sub-species. With man haptic communication differs from culture to cultureand with social strata, sex and age groupswithin a specific culture,but most members of a cultureunderstand the hapticdialects, e.g. we do not expectchildren to shake handswith each other (unless adults are present andbeing imitated) and when a male slaps a strangefemale on the back heis obviously using some foreign andundesirable haptic language.

Most animal hapticbehavior has hardly beenstudied at all due partly to alack of methodologicaltechniques and partly todifficulties of observation. But we have some stray bits ofinformation. The highly socialanimals wolves, for example, greeteach other hapticallyby briefly holding each other's muzzlesin their mouths. When a man establishes a socialrelationship with a wolf, asoccasionally happens, his initialconduct must be to holdthe wolf's muzzle gently in hishand and then put hisface or hand in the wolf's jaws. Amicable social contactis thus established. Haptic interaction among thedomestic animals and between them and man hasat least been observedif not systematically studied. Pigs touch each otherconstantly, sheep, less and cattle,still less. Man has haptic contact with these animals hardly atall but occasionallywith cows (a patbetween the eyes, on thehead or flank). Man has similar hapticcommunications with horses andthe horse sometimes responds with a nuzzle.Whipping or spurring a horse need not be goneinto. -8-

man's communicationin this modalitywith On the whole With alien species islargely confined tocats and dogs. the latter hisattempts have beenhighly successful, of dogs differ asto the degreein although sub-species "nordic" dogs which they usehaptics. Generally so called (German Shepherds,Spitzes, SiberianHuskies, Malamutes, Schipperkes, and soforth) prefer lesstouching than etc.). mediterranean" types(hounds, Beagles, Dalmations, Man may engage inalmost any sort ofhaptic contact with The dog, of dogs but probablyshould avoid thetail. like to establish amuzzle-to-muzzle contact course, would All- with man but the humananimal generallyavoids this. important to caninecommunication is olfactionwhich we hardly understand orsympathize with, ourancestors having primacy of sight largely abandonedthis faculty for the when they took to anarboreal existencemillions of years animais are ago. By and large the morehaptically involved more dependent onsmell. The highly hapticArabs use olfaction as a communicationmodality far more thanAmericans or NorthEuropeans do. species of animals Haptic differencesbetween genera and biospecific but differences amonghumans, where thereis are culture-specific; there are only one species,sapiens., are communication distinctionsbased on race. A Chinese no like an raised in Londoncommunicates, on all levels, An upper middleclass American Negrocommuni- Englishman. The many cates like an uppermiddle class Americanwhite. differences that doexistamong humans aredue to different dimension of class), cultures(including the vertical different sexes,different ages. Age, sex and class are sub-variables within agiven culture. to be considered as is greater in Inter-cultural confusionand misunderstanding communication than in theverbal; the non-verbalmodalities of the latter, howeverdifferent, is at leastin-awareness while the former havehardly come to ourconscious attention. Americans, for example, areaccustomed topatting small When children (up to aboutthe age often) on the head. we have we meetThais, who to us aresmall and doll-like, an almostirresistable urge to patthem on the head. Since the top of aThai's head is wherehis soul is connected with heaven this is a verygreat offenseindeed. Thais never there. Chinese and Japanese,who touch touch each other shaking hardly at all, exceptin intimaterelations, dislike and heroic hands. When they do thisit is distasteful accomodation to westernhaptic habits. Russians touch more than Americans and areabout midway betweenthe constantly touching Arabs and thenon-touching Chineseand Japanese.

11111,7.1. -9-

for brothers American malesis reserved The bearhug between after lengthy friends oflongstanding before or or close will engagein bear hugsquite separations. Russian menvodka-inspired, as asign ofamity. casually,although often David Susskindon tele- wasinterviewed by When Khrushchev this countryin 1959 he was vision duringhis visit to This ledSusskind Suskind withhis elbow. constantlynudging "an intimateman". conclusion thatKhrushchev was an to the simply tryingto establish Not at all;Khrushchev was are rapport. In ourcountry males ordinaryRussian haptic but women may prohibited fromdancing together absolutely is the reverse. Lacking and do. In othercultures it we, andthey, information onthese matters cross-cultural explanation,such as resort to a morereadily understood often, is thewrong explanation here,as sex. But the easy one. and upperclasssub-culture, In theAmerican middle of haptic sub-cultures,the rules as inall culturesand Messages established andmust not beviolated. behavior are (touch), degreeof pressure, aresignaled by pressure Corresponding pressureand areaof pressure. repetition of in language,are the phonotactics andmorphotactics not touch to areas. A male may permitted sourceand receptor her moderately reason. If he knows a strangefemale for any shoulder and be on thehand, arm, well thetouch may would involve back. Furtheracquaintance touch possibly the of thismanual. Males may mattersoutside the scope with theirpalms in thecommunicative process other males orbriefly onthe knee hand, arm,shoulder, back, there are more on the knuckles asthe source thigh. With the receptor areas or To theabove-listed permittedreceptors. stomach maybe added. The cheek, jaw,chest and the head, medium. If theknuckle contact pressure maybe light or is heavey, an clenched fistand the pressure is from a known asfighting, is ofcommunication, refer only emphatic form remembered thatthese rules It must be roughly involved. white, Americanmales of to middleclass and up, the sourceuses two The handshakein which equal status. is covered onboth sides, that thereceptor's hand either hands, so is ofsuperior status, indicates thatthe source This actcannot with a moreprestigeousposition. older or employee istouched onthe If a minor he does bereciprocated. president ofthe company, arm orshoulder bythe responseof a in the sameterms. A knesic not respond of thehead wouldbeindicated. smile and aslight bowing in ParisBritish Anglo-Frenchconference After a recent in a burstof goodwill, touched EconomicsMinister Brown, -10-

Charles DeGaulle on the arm. There was a gasp from the French and only DeGaulle'saffection for the blunt Brown saved the situation. Women in this same culturehave different hapticsignals. Friends will embrace andkiss each other on thecheek, a message not ofaffection but of peer groupmembership. Men may greet theirfriends' wives in this way. Lower class American women do not usethis hapteme, nor doEuropean women, who aresomewhat shocked bythis. Children have still other sets ofhaptic behavior that havehardly been investigated. They touch a great deal,with some non-adult behavior such as ear-tweekingand hair pulling, butnormally don't shake hands unlesscarefully taught or in the presence of adults. Middle-class Negroes communicatehaptically the way middle-classwhites do. A middle-classJamaican living in London will usehaptics the way anEnglishman does. There is at present verylittle haptic communication between whites and Negroes;both sides, even inwell- integrated situations, arestill a little afraid ofthe "don't shove" reaction. This means thatcommunication is incomplete, although peoplein this situation are not aware of where theincompleteness lies; they have a vague sense of"walking on eggshells". Communication to be complete and natural must bein all modalities thatthe culture permits and these must takeplace within thepermitted distances. Cross-cultural studies arein their infancy and there is very little that the averageperson ortourist can read about about it. Guide books contain somerandom information not pointing in theorient or about Arabsholding hands but these observations arefar from complete andcertainly not systematized. If one touches too muchhe is considered too pushy, aggressive or worse. If one touches too little he is judged to bestand-offish or cold. The best advice is to do nothinguntil native habits havebeen carefully noted with dueregard to sex, age andsocial Americans status. The last is particularlydifficult for many who, on one level ofanalysis--the formal--havethe feeling that there are noclasses in the UnitedStates. The following is asample attempt at ahaptic notation. The left side of the arrowis the source ofhaptic signalling, on the rightis the receptor. The physical areasof both are thenindicated. Lines arranged verticallyindicate degree of pressurewith____for slight,===formedium and for heavy. The number of linesarranged horizontally gives the number ofrepetitions. the P = =>1 sh two rather heavypats by the palm on left shoulder the right r k one lighttouch of the palm on knee (left versusright is probablynon-emic ornon-significant the jaw 1 a punch in > ls a a fingertiptouch on the lower arm (a "woman'stouch") nudges of one elbowagainst el > e3. two slight someoneelse's under the table-- ft )ft a footnudge (generally "discontinue that lineof talk" or "watch the card you'reabout to play" orthe like) kn > st a fairlyheavy knuckle touch(rwek fist) in the stomach("you old so-and-so")

> k a kneenudge, forpeople sitting side-by-side pp = >ha both palms coveringanother s hand with some pressure >up la repeatedlight taps of theknuckle on the upper left arm;a warning

lp > ck a lightkiss on the cheek what these pats,taps, Very little hasbeen said about always want toknow punches, caresses"mean" and people what things"mean". differ kiss on thelips "mean"? How does it What does a neck, the palm? from a kiss onthe forehead,the cheek, the handshake"mean"? Friendliness, What does astrong, vigorous oposite? sincerity, virility oris it adisguise for the knowledge of thetotal frame, ofall con- Meaning involves a of the total activities, andcomplete knowledge current The trainedinvesti.. histories of theindividualsinvolved. observe, compareand employ asystematic gator should parlor game. Being notation. Anything elseis, au fond, a human, we.mustsometimes indulgein parlor games. -12-

III. Kinesics tonus and study ofbody posture, Kinesics is the This disciplineis movement in manand theotheranimals. Ray result oftheinvestigations of almostcompletely the term related (1952, 1963). Kinesics is a L.Birdwhistell refers tomechanical but thelattergenerally to kinetics, parts ofthe body,head, eyebrows, motion. All moveable fingers, thehip, legs, lips, shoulders,elbows, hands, Several eyes, sometimes thetoes areinvolved. knees, feetand simultaneously andthese, kinesicactivities may occur One might notation, canbecomplicated. including their according toculture, bcdy stances,which vary begin with at anyparticular time. age, sexand theindividual tonus stiffer thanthat stance isnotoriously The Germanmale body well back,the spine American, withthe shoulders of the motion. Germansoldiers straight, and verylittle pelvic of the American linesin the Battle whoinfiltrated the to learn,besidesAmerican during WorldWar II had different Bulge comics, andgum-chewing, a English,baseball, slight r,houlderslouch with a morerelaxedspine, a posture stance is moresimilar tothe English body again, and so forth. stance issomethingdifferent American, butthe French that of theAmerican. with a greaterbodylimpness than that of course,differs from The femalebody stance, difference isonly partlybiological. of the maleand the pelvic regionwhile has itsfocus in the Female posture (here we mustexcludecertain the malenormally doesnot and hackneyed "styles", such asthat ofElvis Presley, with Americanwomenin business behavior). However, from pansy suppressed,with the body, or inpublic thisis often of box-like veryrigid in a sort hip toshoulder, held relaxed andthe hips Occasionallythis may be frame. although onthe streetthis generally start movingsinuously, this is theonly abandoned. In somecultures is quickly the female. There is a motion andstance of compli- approved walks like ahungrytiger", a Japanesesaying, "she motion of women. In sinuous,sarong-clad female ment to the other hand,the bodyof the classical Japan,on the head was the steps weremincing, the wastightly encased, the breasts. Every the handsoften covered lowered and female andherrelation to culture hasits idealof the the The worldof DorisDay is not herimmediate space. only one. given base-lines of agegroupswithin a The body of the ageddiffers also differ. The base-line culture may both, fromthat of theyoung. from thatof themature and expansive arm and Teenagers in theUnited States have more pelvic motion, andslightly leg movementsthan adults, more currentlyfashionable. Teen-age hunched shoulders are marked, particularly males,sometimes have very Negroes, elbows, and knees,con- angular movementsat the shoulders, well-known bentshuffle of"Uncle Toms". trasting with the sex-specifics are the culture-, class-, age-,and Here again, differs determinants, not race. The bodybase-line also to individualand we sometimesrecognize from individual their faces people by this whenthey are toodistant for to be discernable. dependent on theneck. In Head motions, ofcourse, are and many others, aleft-right motionindicates our culture, In Greece,however, dissent and avertical motion,assent. is the signalof agreement. The an upwardhead movement attention or head may betilted to theside, indicating A quick sideturn ("tossof thehead") the pretensethereof. flirtatious or at of the femaleis considered on the part capable of several least notindifferent. Eyebrows are elevation and somepeople can movethem separately. degrees of degrees of lidclosure, Most people candistinguish four slits and completeclosure, but wide open, half open, twelve. Again, one Birdwhistell claimsto be ableto detect of assigning"messages" or"interpretations". must be careful considered, as well asthe usual The immediateframe must be and sex parameters. A man's slit cultural, social, age adjustment on aski lid closure couldindicate visual trim in aboxing ring or apreliminary slope, fighting A young girl'swide sexual advancein a dimly lit room. is a parallelsignal to ahigh-pitched, oral open lids "innocence"), while paralinguistic one("helplessness", suprise or aquestion. The nostrils a man'smight indicate by eye- sometimes seem to"flare" but thisis normally caused if any, are notknesic brow movement. (Ear movements, be physiologicalstunts). The lips may communication but the lowerlip slack, tight("tight-lipped"), pursed, or drawn under the upperteeth("agonizingreappraisal"). may be is done with theupper In some culturesdiscreet pointing sometimes pointwith the chin, lip. In our culture we tilting the headslightly. Shoulder and armmovements areimportant signalers suppression oftheir movement, of kinesicinformation and suppressed soldiers are atattention, indicatesthat the as when receive it, to"take to sendinformation, but to are not human beings are onthe receiving orders". In fact, when prefer that information exchange,the senders end of an paralinguistic, all communicationmodalities,linguistic, kinesic and haptic,be suppressed. This can only be done classroom, in church, under certaincircustances, in the lives, when we are in militarysituations, but all our talking, we don't likepeople to"fidget" and wish they Shoulders may be would "sit stilland payattention". hunched slightly,often a signswhennot part of the permanent base-line,of "coolness" amongthe young, or ("bracing oneself" forsomething). We shrug held back that our shoulders,of course, butin some cultures, as of France, thisis done more markedlyand frequently. lower arms only,with the pivot at Women tend to move the the the elbows, morethan men whowill frequently move whole arm with thepivot at the shoulders. East European Jews often keep theelbows close to thebody, gesturing with the lower arms. In all dances ofthe world the one in which the arms aremost inactive andlimp is the Irish wants to. jig. Let the reader makeof that what he Hand movements andwhere and how thehand touches are In our culture,and in mostWestern ones, most important. when we we pointwith the hand orforefinger, although, it, we consider it tooobvious (we say get technical about used in "rude"). Except withchildren, this is generally rather grosscommunication situations,by the police or This can be subduedby pointingwith in giving directions. Orientals the back of thehand, a knuckle, thehead or chin. cannot standbeing pointed at, evenwith a foot or spoon, and this shouldbe a part ofeveryone's cross-cultural Men tend to keepthe fingersslightly curled information. who more often and touch morewith the palm than women, outstretched andseparated and will have the fingers kinesics are touch more with thefingertips. These manual illustrated nicely in thecomic cartoons"Penny" and "Bill". her hips, a male A female may put herfingers and palms on although he may touchhis knees and buttocksin may not, thumb this way. For his hips hemustuse his fist or a The male in generalmakes more use ofthe under a belt. the chin thumb than does thefemale. The hand may stroke ("thoughtful consideration") orpull the earlobe("per- plexity") or cover the mouth,the latter often anindication The of embarrassment--oneis hiding behindsomething. with the arms slightlyoutstretched and exposed palms, often be read as co-occurring raisedeyebrows and lids, can "I didn't doanything," "I'minnocent." "It's not my fault," jerk of the Again, the frame mustalways be considered; a thumb is a signalfor a lift on ahighway or for someone Kinesic to leave theoffice when made by anexecutive. parallelparalinguistic andlinguistic hand signals often dish" may have messages. The sentence"Look at the cute -15-

the linguistic-paralinguisticaccent (primary stress and over-loudness) on look, that, cute ordish. On whichever one it may occur akinesic emphasis marker, ifgiven, must also occur. This emphasis marker is a movementof the hand away from the body,stressed when the arm movesalso, medium, when the hand onlyis moved, and fairly weak,when only a finger moves. The reader should try to say"Look at that cutedish" and put a kinesic emphasizeranywhere else than on that. There are many othersignificant and highly interesting handsignals (note on whatoccasions* for example, a woman touches theback of her hair), andprobably only Birdwhistell hascatalogued them all forthis culture. Research in other cultures hasbarely been suggested. Most of the kinesic signals wehave been discussing aremade unconsciously or out-of-awareness. No one is aware of having learned them or of anyteacher. They are the result of early imprinting andinformal learning. Some kinesic signals are very much in awareness, asthe "speech" of deaf-mutes which is not normally apart of kinesicinvesti- gation. There are many elaboratefinger signals used by some Mediterraneansfor other members of the same sex* indicating the charms, wealth,intelligence and so forth of some third party. There are also thestudied gestures of the stage and the oratorwhich often spill overinto everyday life. These latter can be of greatinterest to a kinesicist, largely because of whatthey conceal.

Hip and leg movements are also numerousand varied. We have different ways ofsitting and send outnon-verbal messages even by that. Women are conditioned tosit more erect in chairs than males,generally with the legscloser together, and many women are morecomfortable in straight- backed chairs than inlounge chairs. The male tends to slouch more with his legsfurther apart. Here status and security are involved. A contrast may be notedbetween two males, one of whomis younger, a jobapplicant or a student, and the other older, anexecutive or professor. The former sits forward onthe chir, leans slightlyfore- ward, has the knees fairlyclose together with noleg cross. The latter leans back,sometimes with an arrogantdisplay of belly, legs further apart("security") or crossed. These kinesic roles cannot beswitched or much modified, or the kinesicexchange--and the wholeinterview--will be in jeopardy. Male teen-agers at the youngerend of the spectrum affect a verysprawling sitting posture, resting on the coccyx with the legsspread out. This is deliberate rebellion against ajunior role in society and is generally abandonedwhen an individualbecomesbetter acculturated. Leg-crosses vary with age,culture, sex and frame (immediateenvironment). Women in this culture crossing the legs wearing normalclothes havetwo options, The formeris considered at the ankles orat the knees. with women to be thematronly leg-crossand is more common when they arebeing photographed. overthirty, particularly while still usedby older women,is more The knee cross, is wearingshort common withthe young. If a young woman above) and sitting on anelevated skirts (knee length or called"cheese- seat such as aship's railingthis cross is above twocrossings as well asa third, cake." Men have the other. the ankle of oneleg on theknee of the the placing of situations withmixed While this is notdone in formal party, it iswidely used byBritish company, such asa tea One males, but farless commonlyelsewhere. and American Chairman Maowith this can hardlyimagine DeGaulle,Nehru or to indulgein psychological leg-cross. If one wishes Other leg- interpretations, onemight read"confidence." The Bengalisplace the backof one crosses arepossible. is difficultand knee directly onthe other kneecap, which uncomfortable for us. also be movedand play a rolein the The feet can Tapping of thefoot and kinesic modality ofcommunication. of raising of the foot arewell-known. Toe movements, difficult to detect,but cansometimes be course, are foot. observed in womenwhen the shoeis half off the walks have beenpartially discussed. Various kinds of infirm, the heavy, There is thehalting gait ofthe aged and of one footafter anotherby those elephant-like placing (children three tofive), still not used tothe technique (similar to the stride of Englishbusiness men the dapper somewhat Americans, but alittle morebrisk), the "cool", whites). This "cool" wayof rhythmic walk oflower-class adolescents in much imitatedby white male walking has*been lexical itemsand nineteen-sixties, alongwith many Negro the class Negropitch range in some syntax. The wide lower It is less paralanguage, however,has not beenborrowed. cool thanslurred speech. this a caveatmust beissued. It would seem For all of friends' unconscious to be a funparlor game toanalyze your to upset yourboss bytelling him kinesic communications, woman, and soforth. The student he crosseshis legs like a consistent and trained observerand employ a should be a also have someknowledge systematic notation. He should linguistics. From thislatter of culturalanthropology and it is assumed prime human meansof communication study of the (a range of that the othermodalities haveemic units that have onefunction andnondistinctive pieces of behavior and so forth. These variations) such askinemes, haptemes, -17-

detailed studies are ofimmense valuein the minute, filmed psychiatricinterviews(microanalysis), analyses of parallel to, oropposite, where non-verbalmessages may run enabling thepsychiatrist, if heis the verbal ones, insights into trained in thesetechniques, togain valuable inner conflicts. Of particularinterest the patient's something signaledin one here is the"double bind", where contradicted inanother. We are all modality may be feelings that loosely aware ofthis and oftenhave vague what they say or are"insincere". We people don't mean "very glad to meetyou" are all veryfamiliar with the and thestraying glance orthe with theindifferent handshake goodnight but doesnot move away. It is girl who says E. H. Sturtevant, little wonderthat a famousAmerican linguist, invented forlying. So the reader said that language was reader is human. has been warned,but, it isassumed, the -18-

IV. Paralanguage It is obvious that notall communicationis vocal and that not all vocalcommunication is language. We have all heard such expressions as"Don't look at me in that tone of voice" or"Get the edge out of yourvoice."We all know about "talkingup" and "talking down",especially in tightly structured situationssuch as the militarybut also in "tone of normal socialintercourse. Adults use a different voice" when talking tochildren than they do whentalking to each other and may useanother when speaking tothe minister or priest or avisiting notable. Some of these signals, to be sure, arelinguistic, such as the supra- segmental #233 for"polite" or "talking up"questions or the use of sir andma'am, but other vocalnoises and affects define it are not. This residue we callparalanguage and as the signalsystem produced by thenon-articulated vocal tract. Paralanguage may be the solesignal modality, as in such items usuallywritten as "ha-ha","hmm", "huh", "ah", "tsk-tsk", "sh" and soforth, or, more commonly,it may accompanylanguage. Only the "dry asdust" speaker ignores paralanguage. We judge the dynamicand effective speaker by his use ofkinesics and paralanguage aswell as language. Billy Graham and EverettDirksen are examples of this, CalvinCoolidge, of the opposite. There are differentparalanguages amongsub-groups of Homo sapiens but thedifferentiations are not asmarked as withlanguage. Up to now(1969) there has been little comparative study in this newfield but somedistinctions are obvious, as onecan ascertainby watching foreign films, for example. English and Americanparalanguage is not too differentfrom that of Northernand Western Europe, differs somewhat fromthat of Italy andGreece, and differs considerably from that ofIndia and Japan. Indianshave United States alip-rounding effect thatis missing in the and the Japanese havethe famous"hissing sound"--an imploded voiceless dentalspirant--and, while theirgiggle is the same as ours,it is used underdifferent circumstances, to indicatedeprecation rather thanamusement, which results in consistentmisunderstanding by westerners. While comparativeparalinguistic research isin its infancy, the descriptive studyof American paralanguageis not (see Smith, 1954, 1957, Trager,1958, Austin, 1965,in the syllabus). Emic, or functional,units can be isolated and their meanings,provided the total frameis understood, can bedetermined. These units are dividedinto three groups which areusually called, veryarbitrarily, vocal qualifiers, vocal modifiersand vocal segregates. Vocal gualifiers,

There are six of these.,subdivided into three of degree and three of mannerand further subdividedinto variations of intensity(loudness), pitch, and tempo, as follows:

Degree Manner overloud A A smooth ".." "9,04 Intensity ,y4. oversoft v vo jerky overhigh. A sing-songcl" Pitch overlow 41 flat WIN w. overfast , drawled 43 0 Tempo overslow 4 clipped qv vp

Loudness and softness are,acoustically, variations in the amplitudeof sound waves, schematized as,

loud soft

Overloudness is usedunder variouscircumstances and its ft meaning" varies with these circumstances. It is used to combat distanceand "channelinterference" ("You know I can't hear youwhen the waterisruRning") or for emphasis(Aop it) or as adAthreat (Letout) or asztan indication of insecurity(I am not talkingtooloud). Americans sometimes, quiteidiotically, use overloudnesswith persons who don't speakEnglish well or who theyconsider stupid. Oyersofteess may indicateresignation (m), strongemotion (aear Ood), or menace(I hue I don't have to repeatthei).. The actor Peter Lorreused it to greateffect in cresting the sinister. -20-

acoUstically, changes Variations inpitch represent, cps) of the soundwaves, in frequency(eyelet; per second, schematized as:

IithiJi t, low . high differentiate the sexes(Japan, In cultures thatstrongly before WorldWar I) womentalk with a the United States In America pitch and men,with a very low one. very high but,biologically, today womengenerally have alower pitch than that of men. Women it is about anoctave higher innocence will use a higherpitch than normalto indicate Males,similarly, and femininity(You mean this isfor me?). (Come on, will use an overlowpitch to signalmasculinity projection of baby). Teen-age boyshelp create the 4, Upper class low pitch(0.K. ma guys). toughness with with a highpitch German malescharacteristically talk iss utterlyimposiple). Baby talkis done (VotLosask, maehor, excessively low with eitherexcessively high or 'er Daddy's, pitch, alongwith phonemicdistortion (Is 4. High (Is 'er Daddy'stittle dirl?). 'ittle dirl?) or American malesin occasionally employedby adult pitch is with New Yorkand aparalanguagedialect associated American Negrospeech Hollywood (Sowho's buggingx22?). 914 use ofhigh pitch(Man, is characterizedby intermittent vaitcan't donuttin"boutdat). are overlyfast or overlyslow. Tempo variations is running Overly fast talk canoccur whentelephone time sections of legaldocuments out or whenreading routine something up. Overly or when oneis trying to cover -21-

speeches (I am here slow speech ischaracteristic of public 4 A tointroduce...) or otheremotional situations. continuous alternationof overly fast andoverly slow speech hasimplications for thepsychiatrist. Turning to the qualifiersof manner we havesmooth in versus jerky. An overly smoothlocution is often heard radio and TV announcersand sometimes in verypoised adults. Vincent Price's is anexample of extremelysmooth paralanguage and thiscreates theimpression of the extremely in sinister. We normally don'ttrust the too smooth, paralanguage as inanything else. The opposite,jerkiness, is characteristic ofemotional involvement,insecurity deep voices, can orinexperience. Teen-agers, even with often be detected overthe telephonebecause of jerkiness 404 401 in their speech(Can I speak to Jane,please?). Sing-song versus flat arethe mannervariations of considered to be pitch. The sing-song effectin females is 4r The same mildly flirtatious(Goodnight. Goodbye,now). paralanguage in malessounds insincere,unctuous or otherwise obnoxious. Sing-song is sometimesheard in the ritual repetition ofwell-memorized passages. Flatness is significant oftotal disinterest orhopelessness . Sm. 411 OM* (Stand back, please. Are you feeling anybetter today?) Drawl and clipping arethe mannervariations of tempo. feature of drawl is tobe distinguished The paralinguistic Drawl from what ispopularly called a"Southern drawl". in a Boston one. can occurin a Southerndialect as well as who's Drawl is often usedfor sarcasm orthreat (Well look Americans talking now. Now aren't you cute,though.). often use drawl orclipping with Les or no;with the former f-4 fno), with they are usuallyspelled yeah andno-o-oh (Eel,

,LtJ %AA& the latter, Lek or yupand nope (yes, no). Some words, often said with such as goodnight,goodbye and O.K., are clipping ("Let's notdwell on this") and appearphonetically Cnait, 9bai, with preglottalizednasals and stops ^ Om Vocal Modifiers

The vocal modifiers aremodifications ofarticulated the nose and sounds in the vocal.tract,the region between lips and the larynx...They may beoutlines as follows: oral Oral vs. Nasal nasal na

clear cl Lingual slurred sl

open Pharyngeal rasp

breathiness Laryngeal glottalization

Nasal versus oralis the vocalmodifier for the upper clear versus slurred,that for the resonance chambers; for tongue or lingualposition; openness versusrasp, that the oral pharynx,and aspiration("breathiness") versus glottalization, that forthe larynx. As mentionedpreviously, flattening, ispossible, a labialeffect, rounding versus of but in Englishit is probably anon-distinctive feature baby-talk or endearment. The areas of thesemodifications are sketchedin the followingdiagram: -23-

modifications ingeneral represent Nasal versusoral Nasality is muscular tonus asopposed to atense one. a lax particularly thosetrying characteristic ofteen-age boys, guys) or of grown mentrying for tough(O.K you to appear also tends tobe nasalin court- the sameeffect. The male states, sexes arenasal invarious toxic ship and both tends to be moreoral, from that is,when drunk. The female Or or borrow EE rollerskates) to a the littlegirl's (You can woman's overhigh pitch,of the mature component,along with tor tor This voice" (Oh no, Isimplycouldn't). "little girl's signals helplessnessand paralinguisticpresentation is commonlyheard, innocence on thepart of thefemale and courtship,complementing in the earlyphases atleast, of the male's"virile" nasality. primarily a slurredparalanguage is Clear versus tongue andits musculartone. question of theplacing of the radio andtelevision Clearness isexhibited by most (with someexceptions insports announcersand newscasters mentally and Other peopletend to beclear when area). "bright-eyed andbushy-tailed." physically alert,when of the tongue is characterizedby a looseness Slurred speech its normalarticulatory with a looserapproximation of sometimes a style,indicating"coolness", positions. It is movies and by many practiced in earlyMarlon Brando as indicative offatigue and, ofcourse, imitators. It also is of narcoticand alcoholicstates. in the oral Openness versusrasp areeffects produced and below thetongue. When pharynx, the areajust back of enlarged, withlax musclesand this regionis maximally The speaker usesit to forward, wehave openness. tongue protective status. Parents give the effectof superior, (There, there, itdoesn't hurt employ it tosoothechildren to give theeffect of anymore,doesit?), clergymen, beloved Undertakers benevolence--"unction"--(Dearly when talkingto the thisparalinguistic role may usurp it becomesalmostintolerable, bereaved ones,in which case constituents. politicians may useit to assuageworried or impression ofoiliness, i.e. In some casesit gives the byconstricting The opposite,rasp,is produced insincerity. indicates strong,almost the musclesof thisregion and 9 9 just can't goon.) unbearableemotion (No, I 214

the finalmodifiers, Aspiration versusglottalization are morespecifically, thevocal occurring inthe larynx or, illustrated by Aspiration, orbreathiness, is chords. singing voice orby NBC'sMiss Bing Crosby'sspeaking and severity-five,partly, Monitor (InAtlanta, thetemV6rature's, and this, it suggestseagerness cloudy). In general does if the erotic. It definitely naturally,could imply low pitchand is combinedwith softness, this feature (all of these arecharacteristic nasality inmale orfemale Glottalization, on sexiness of MaeWest'sspeech). too of the and tension. It is not hand,indicates strain the other clipping. clear howthis differsfrom Vocal Segregates arenonislinguistic The so-calledvocal segregates in English There arefive of these distinctions ofpitch. for Pl, P2,etc., whereP stands and we canlabel them individual toindividual These pitchesvary from paralanguage. Bearing thisin mind,the relative toeach other. and are following as arelative schema: reader mayconsider the

,E)tP4

P2 ctp3

Pi holding tone("Wait, I'm not tone, P3,is the sometimes The middle written ashuh, uh, hmmand finished."), often It isactually not avowel called the"hesitationvowel". non-articu- linguistic sense,but aparalinguistic, in the manifested astwo apicalclicks lated noise. P3 P3, is paralanguagedialectassociated (tsk-tsk) in anarchaic P3's is adevice to ladies". Two quick with "littleold with disapprovalor as attention tosomething, often draw signal ofassent, withaccompanying awarning. P3 P4 is a P3 P2,with the same (uh-uh) ornasality(hm-hm). orality P3115constitutes aparalipguistic modifiers,signalsnegation. told youso", people weknow fairlywell ("I message to P3 P1 isusedprimarily with "I knew thiswouldhappen").

6 e-25-

small children("Too bad").. All except P3 must occurwith other paralinguistic tones. The residue of paralipguistic tones are the 123 of sentenceintonation. In fact, someone might raise the argumentthat the latter areparalinguistic. And there are still otherparalinguistic sigpals. Shouting, whispering, laughing, crying,chortling, sobbing, giggling screaming. The cough can also be aparalinguistic signal, as well asclearing the throat(ahem). One has reason to believe that fifty or sixty maybe the upper limit. Without duality of patterning, a largernumber would be difficultto handle and paralanguage has verylittle, if any, duality. If it did it would be as complex aslanguage; in fact it would be language. We know it is not but itis an invaluable, and human, supplement to language, achannel in the constant stream of communication. The following is a sampletext with paralinguistic notations (the beginning ofGallant Men, with thepermission of Senator Everett L.Dirksen)is---

May I visit with youabout the Americanadveniure?

. > < < .ik 4 From the pilgrims, who camehere nearly three and one half centuries ago,until this very day, people ^ A .A A A A have sacrificed, theyhave contributed, they havebuilt A A A A4v4 > : themselves into the fibreand being of America. It is if. vi, >TA 0 It 14., 4.1. from them that we receivethis land as a legacy.

. . .

Down through the years 4 4' There have been men,

. 4 Brave, gallant men, %Mohave died4 4 That others mightbelkie(14, -26.-

vt And even now tv yt They do it still. v Brave, gallant men Know thatsomeonelauX J. 4 And so they will.

St 4 Gallant men Have built us anation, J. Passed us a torch of fl < ( Let us hold it high < < And light up the sky < CA A? With praise of ourgallant, men.

o < < nN ow Tyrants must kn0 4v. AC, m Now, just asthen, 4^ A< They cannot ptand 't I' Not as long v As thereare gallant men.

The effectiveness ofthis reading is at onceapparent. gallant. Key words aregenerallyslowed--pilgrims, tyrants, The strongestemotional content is onmust in the second st inaudible. In the final stanzaknow and stanza, almo subtlest, and then, withopenness anddrawl, contain the most threaening, of warnings. ENGLISH PROBLEMS OFSPANISH SPEAKERS by A. L. Davis

problems in the The Spanish-speakingchild faces many learning of English. Besides the strictlylinguistic difficulties, the childoften lives in adifferent culture, resemble that ofthe affluentmiddle-class. which may little nation the In some largecities and in largeparts of the completelySpanish-speakingneighborhood; child lives in a outside English is the languageof the schoolsand of the effect on world. This environment canhave an adverse motivation compared tothe highmotivation collegestudents) foreign and immigrants)have to learn thelanguage. In this section wewill discuss some ofthe linguistic difficulties to aid theteacher inunderstanding the most when he is noticeable mistakes theSpanish-speaker makes learning English. The Sounds the The learner of aforeign language willat first hear his own phonemicsystem, ignoringcontrasts language through target which he does notmake and hearingcontrasts where the language has none. sounds and contrast We will firstexamine the Spanish them withEnglish.1

1 For a more completeaccount see RobertP. Stockwell Bowen, The Soundsof English andSpanish, and J. Donald IntroducseOn a una (Chicago: 1965), DanielN. Cfirdenas, del es aiiol E delinglgs (Washington: comparaci6n fonol6gica Phonology" Also Harold V.King Outline of MexicanSpanish 1960). "A Studies in LinguisticsX (1951),51-62; Robert Lado Sound Systems ofEnglish andSpanish," Hispania Comparison of the of XXXIX (1956),26-29; George L.Trager "The Phonemes Travaux du Cerclelinguistique de Prague Castilian Spanish," the HansWolf7-774a7tial Comparison of VIII (1939), 217-222; Language Sound Systems ofEnglish and PuertoRican Spanish," (1950), 38-40 and"Phonemic Structure andthe Learning III (1956), Teaching ofPronunciation," LanguageLearning VI 17-23. Remarks here aboutAmerican English have aMiddlewestern bias. The presentationis simplified. -1- Spanish has only fivevowel phonemes: Front Central Back High Mid Low a

The child must learnto discriminate vowelsnot distinguished in Spanish. The five Spanish vowelsnearly cover the ranges of the English vowels,with the high and midvowels often lowered in syllablesending in a consonant. No Spanish vowel is exactly equivalent to anyEnglish vowel, the closest match being /a/. /i,e,o,u/ are not diphthongized asEnglish /iy, ey, uw, ow/. The consonant systemalso has importantdifferences from English. The stop series/p,b,k,b,d,g/ in Spanish is notaspirated, t and (tare madewith tongue fartherforward touching the upper teethand all are madewith a somewhatless'vigorous articulation. /b/ is a stop only inphrase initial position(or following juncture) or when following m. Otherwise it is abilabial fricativefin made with thelips slightly parted. In Spanish orthography both the lettersb and v are used forthis phoneme. Examples: vino Ding 'wine,' bastanteDastante] 'enough,' Cuba Ocupa], hombreOmbri.)'man.' /d/ and /g/ are also stopsonly in phraseinitial (or following juncture),withstopEd:Ifollowing(nlor(ljand stop CO following(91

The fricativeallophone of /d/Ed) is similar to English articulated. In final positionit may be 4 but more weakly Examples: lost altogether andin intervocalicposition as well. Deritad, donde[donde) 'where,' crudoprudd) 'raw,' verdad 3TRij Itrue,' soldadoritTla o, soldadj 'soldier.' The fricative allophoneof /g/isgj made with the tongue close to thevelum. Examples: ganarrianail 'to win,' Cialg63 'I leave.' tengo fteyg63'I have,' hago 514,0.) 'Ido,' salgo Before w it may belost as in agua,Cara, awea 'water.' With the exceptionof/a/which may be lostjnone ofthe stops occursin final position exceptin rare foreign words. -3-

/f/ is a labio-dental fricative somewhat morelightly urti^ulated than English /f/. It should be noted that the corresponding voiced sound of English/v/ is absent, the bilabialLflj being an allophone of /b/. (Surely, labio- dental articulation, but it isnevertheless, an allophone of Spanish /b/.) 00/ is typical of Castilian Spanish (of Madrid). It enjoys great prestige among speechteachers. It has a voiced allophone an interdental ct. The sound is spelled c and z. In other dialects it is/s/3 /s/ is farther forward than English s. It has a voiced allophone I:0 before voiced consonants. In some dialects (sub-standard?) it may be reduced to aweakrhjin preconsonantal and final positions. Examples: cinco [silko] 'five,' mismo LMizmo, mihmca 'same,' soldadosDoldados, soldaoh], estos Lestos,ehtoh) 'these.'

/x/ is a voiceless velar fricative. Examples: gente Exente] 'people,' jota gotea the letter'j'. rojo goxci) 'red,' reloj Reloxl 'watch.' The orthographic h is not pronounced except sometimes before whueso Ereso,ywesca 'bone.' /y/ is a palatal with or withoutfriction (the latter like English y) or an affricatelike y, causing yellow and Jello to sound alike to someSpanish-speakers. The palatal 1 of Castilian,[it),isly]in other dialects. Examples: llamo Cyamo7 'I call, hierba Cyerb0 'grass,' voyboy] 'I go,'ails(oygo] 'I hear,' aire fiyrej 'air.' /e/, a voiceless affricate, is like Englishch in China, church with a little lessfriction. Examples chico L6iko] 'little,' muchacharinu6a47 'girl.' /m/ the voiced bilabial nasal is likeEnglish m. Examples: mucho Emub'o) 'much,' calma gcalmii) 'calm.' /n/ varies from labio-dental to velardepending upon its environment. It does not appear before p andb(becoming ftn it is labio-dental before f,dental or alveolar before vowels and finally(depending upon dialect; some dialects have 9 finally),velar(9) before k,g,x. Examples: enfermo lelfermo7 'ill,' donde Cdonde]'where,' ron rron, rol] 'rum,' cinco Lbi9k63, en casare9kasa) 'at home,' tengo Cte9go), monja Cluo9x,t) 'nun.' /fl/ is a palatal nasal occuring betweenvowels (very rarely initially). Example mafiana (ilafianij 'tomorrow.' In some dialects it may be acombination of/n/and/y4 /r/ and /rr/ are almost in complementarydistribution. Initially only/rr/occurs with r infinal position. They contrast in intervocalicposition. /r/may be a fricativein final position or at the end of asyllable. Examples: rojo, Cirox0 'red,' peroalert]'but,' perro Dern] 'dog,' cantar aantarg 'to sing. /dis an alveolar flap or fricative and/rr/an alveolar trill. /1/ the lateral is dental before adental consonant, otherwise alveolar. It is more 'clear' in finalposition than is English 1. Examples: largo tlargO) 'long,' tal [Iall 'how,' alto taltd]'high.' /w/ is a rounded consonantal counterpartof /u/ and in this resembles /y/. It is written u,o. Oaxaca rigaxaka.3, bueno Umenia 'good,' bacalaoOpakaladj^ 'codfish,' aula Eawlig 'classroom.' The distribution of thesephonemes may be summarized.

Stops: non-final except for /d/ which isfricative. The voiced stops arefricatives in intervocalic positions. Not aspirated as in English.

Fricatives: If/non-final.

Affricate: /X/non-final.

Nasals: /m/non-final./n/hasallophonelD1 in some dialects in final position. /r/ and /rr/ - rr initial, r finaleither intervocalically. Consonant clusters: initial stop + 1 or r: plato, 'dish,' primo 'first,' blanco'white,' broma 'jest,' tratar 'to try,' drama'drama,T-T;(7tl- or dl-ralia 'climate,' crema 'cream,'gloria 'glory.' fl- flor'flower,' fr- freno 'brake.' Clusters with w include puente'bridge,' bueno, tuerto 'one-eyed,' duende'ghost,' cuatro 'four,' guante 'glove,' fuente'fountain,' suerte 'luck,' luego 'afterwards,' muerte 'death,' nueve'mine,' ruido 'noise.' Clusters with y include pierna'leg,' bien 'well,' tienda 'shop,' diente 'tooth,' quienCkyeji 'who,' fiesta, siete 'seven,' miedo 'fear,' 'sieve'snow,' riesgo 'risk.' .5_

No final clusters are possible in Spanish and the only consonants which occur are (d), s, 1, n, r and x.

Medially the 'initial clusters' occur; and p2t2k2b2d, g,m,n2l2r2s, plus another consonant. Three consonant groups include p2k2b,g2m2n2l2rosplus the initial clusters; voiced consonant plus s plus consonant. Four consonant groups include bsd,n2r plus s plus the initialclusters.2

In comparison with English then, all vowelswill give some difficulty, especially the /iy:i, uw:u, ey:e, ow:o/ contrasts; /au which will be heard as/e/or/a/(usuallya) and /5/ which will also be/a/(sometimes/0. In weak stressed syllables where English has reduction to /I/ and /a/ for mostvowels,Spanish retains the pronunciation of the loud stress(this gives trouble to English speakers learningSpanish). Final consonants non-occuring in Spanish will be omitted, followed by annej, or a permitted finalwill be substituted: 192. Eta], cake Ckeke] home-run po9roi. Initial clusters frequently have an/eA. preceding: sport res_por]. Final clusters are formidable: bounced /bawntst/ becomesLbawnse(d)) etc. For teaching these sounds and combinations theinstructor must be prepared to demonstrate the placement ofvocal organs and to drill until the physical tricks of the newsounds are mastered. Some of the cluster problems can be helped by making use of the permitted medial consonantcombinations. It should be kept in mind that mere physicaldrill will not suffice--the new phonemic system must become internalized.

The speech rhythm of Spanish differs fromEnglish in many ways. One is the tempo. Spanish syllables in phrases are more even in length, whereasEnglish speeds up and slows down within a phrase. The result is that Spanish may sound more staccato. Within English phrases plus junctures tend to break up the phrase. In Spanish the phrase may seem to be pronounced as "one word." Repetition drills with lengthening of phrases is helpful. "I'm a studentI'm a good student--I'm a verygood student" etc. Syllable division in Spanish follows thepermitted sequences. An intervocalic consonant goes with thefollowing vowel, and an 'initial cluster' in medialposition with a following vowel ca-sa, Pe-dro.

2 efirdenas, p. 26. -6

and stress variesfrom dialect to Spanish intonation three stresses dialect as doesEnglish. Some linguists set up for Spanish, andthree terminaljunctures and three pitches (1211)1 (rising, falling,sustained). Intonations are /121 statements, /1231/with fall in yes-no with fall common for with questions; and somekind of emphases. /122/ with rise vocatives; they yes-noquestions, and /11/with fall in contrast with English/231/ with fall onstatements and /211/ with fall questions beginningwith question words, showing annoyance orlack of interest,/241/ with fall emphatic.3 King and Bowen set uptwo stresses;strong and weak. According to King if twostrong stressesin a phrase occur loudest, if morethan two then thefirst and last the second is of weak stress. areprimary; tertiary andweak are allophones Although the rhythmfeatures are hardestto describe they Even if the greatest importancefor understanding. are of understanding is segmentals are notpronounced accurately better than ifsegmentals are accuratewhile the suprasegmentals are not.

3 J. Donald Bowen"A Comparison of theIntonation Patterns of Englishand Spanish,"Hispania XXXIX(1956), 30-35. -7-

Grammar to signalgrammatical English makes useof fourprimary devices such meanings assubject-verb- meanings, thatis, to mark modified,singular-plural, what ismodifier or command is object, statementlquestion,or tense and mood,whether a sentence, The orderof wordsin a phrase or being uttered. word forms,the use offunction the use ofspecial endings or supra-segmental prepositions andconjunctions, and words such as are thesedevices. stress, junctureand intonation obvious to thenative speakerof English Word order, so treatments ofgrammar, often omittedfrom elementary that it is signalling thatthe hearerwill is so importantin grammatical A sentence interpret it asthe over-ridingdevice. often I," probably neversaid by anative such as"him doesn't see hearer as"he ordinarily berecast by the speaker, would morphologicalmarkers: doesn't seeme," in spiteof three and the verbform.4 the casesof the pronouns

of wordsand inEnglish Morphology meansthe structure endings: (cat-cat's-cats) this is appliedtoinflectional (tall-taller-tallest),derivational (walk-walks-walked-walking) be before orafter thebase:able un-able, affixes which may infixes are usedbut they are quick quick-ly;in somelanguages such as theAustralianinde-bloody-pendent. very rarein English, gild, or variation is vowelchange asin gold An English strong strength. Inflections like vowel changewith suffix special formsof affixation. man men, runran,child children are nature natural is usuallydetermined: The orderof affixation Inflections (or naturallyunnaturally). unnaturalunnaturally construction": always last,"they close the are nearly accelerators, butson-in-lawsons-in-law accelerateaccelerator components arecalled books!). The word (at least in units: un-child-like,cat-s. which areminimum meaning (morphemes or morphemes, independentunits Compounds aremade of two setting in Englishhave stressfeatures combinations) which sfindal+woad, meie sequences: sandal, wood: them off from iae+creET17-7 newcommercial product ice, cream: iCe+cream, the secondaryaccent is calledLemon+wax. In someAdialects is used: bfirn+yard orbgrn+yard. The special endings andword forms setoffmorphological classes. Nouns have special plural orpossessive endings: boy -'s -s, man menmen's. Verbs have third personsingular, present, past, andparticipial endings: walk walks walked walking, ring rings rang rungringing. Adjective-adverbs have comparison: smallsmaller smallest; fastfaster fastest. Pronouns form a specialclass,some having accusative objective) case forms:he hishim, they their them, whowhose uninflected whom. Words which have no inflection belong to an class. Deer has no pluralform, or isundifferentiated from the singular. Because nearly all othercount-nouns have a plural inflection: pen:pens, linguists set up a zeroplural for deer, since it hasthe possessive suffixdeer's. People change-- on the otherhand has nosingular--except with meaning but has a possessive. Some mass nouns areseldom used in the plural orpossessive, the pluralshowing meaning change as in natural sugars. The same applies to someabstract nouns e.g.readiness (possibly pluralin Educationalese). Although the latter entersinto the compound,readinereadiness, it would be only classed as amorphological noun on thisbasis and on its derivationalsuffix. Words which cannotfit morpho- logically are classed withthe uninflecteds. Words may also be classedsyntactically that is, onthe basis of their position andfunction in phrases. The common statement patterns aresubject-verb-(indirectobject)-(object) (adverbial/time, place, manner/): "They gave him their contribution yesterday at theoffice reluctantly."with some variation in the adverbial sequences. The above seems to the writer most"normal" when all three areused when there is no intonation break. Words which fit intothe patterns are classifiedtogether: Gladys, they gave Mrs.Smith, her, him, their contributions,checks, money, at theoffice, at work, yesterday, lastpay-day, very reluctantly,with regret. The substitutionswith similar meanings canbe multiplied. The words fittinginto the subject,indirect object, direct object slots areuominals. Those which wouldfit into the verb slots are syntacticverbs (or verbalsthisis not used here becauseofthe tradifia-il use ofverbal for participial, infinitive, and gerundforms). At the office, at work,yesterday, last night, reluctantly,with regret areadverbials. Their and last are adjectival!(iaistitute meager, and next, with re ositional tense change). Words like at(in,on,hit etc.) are which combine with nominalsto form adjectivalsand advr.,als: The man in the store, thehouse by the river,in the morning etc. Notice that the noun'yesterday,' is adverbial. Conjunction(al)s may be illustratedby "the man andwoman," _9_

when shecalled" "As tall as "He wrote orsaid," "He came is an aredeterminers and very he isetc." The, a,an,goiarirtan," therein It in"it's fillers. intensifier. one in"two red ones" are there ismuchwealth," have no otherfunction. the patternbut seem to They complete will, should,could, would, The modals(can, may, shall, forms--except ought) are usedwith infinitive must, might, toand have nodistinctive third for ought notmarked by present.Thould, shouldwould arerelated personsingular of be, haveand in some uses. The forms to can,shall, will get and 1212with the used withto andinfinitive, be, "kept going," e.g.""is going,""got going," presentparticiple "got hit," havewith past passives"was hit," be and get To with theinfinitive form participle,"has gone," etc. C. C. Fries prepositional use. All of these is a special simple modifiersof Calls functionwords.5 In English precede thewordmodified: nominals generally with complexmodifiers "He is a ver finestudent,"

"The man in thepark" following.

used asgrammaticalsignals in Thesuprasegmentals are other questions fromstatements when no differentiating c6minewith /2-3-3II/ = ? signal ispresent;'Jahn

5 1940). See also American EnglishGrammar(New York: EniTY;T(New York:1952). his TheStructure of English seeW. Nelson extensivetreatments of 1958), For more American English(New York: Francis, TheStructure of Structures: Hill,Introduction toLinguistic Archibald A. (New York:1958), George to Sentencein English From Sound Jr., AnOutline ofEnglish L. Tragerand HenryLee Smith, AnIntroduction 1951), H.A.Gleason, Jr., Structure(Washington: B. Lees,The Grammarof DescriptiveLinguistics, Robert Of greatvalue to (Bloomington,1960). EnglishNominalizations Spanish isRobert P. comparison ofEnglish and for the and John W.Martin, The Stockwell, J.Donald Bowen, A7iTs also Structures ofEnglish andSpanish) Grammatical Staubach,Teaching Spanish Robert L.Politzer andCharles N. (New York:1965). -10-

/2-3-1 #1 = %)to indicateutterance continuance Jahn ctiming in-where single- a signalthat the hearershould not break /4/ may be usedinstead of /#/, andfor indicating bar /I/ or brusqueness-- compounds e.g.sfigar4bawl. They also indicate politeness and othermeanings carriedin the paralanguage. Spanish uses the samekinds of grammaticaldevices inflections, functionwords and asEnglish--word order, learner, they do suprasegmentals. Unfortunately, for the not completelymatch. of*,Spanish occur onthe noun, pronoun, The inflections and verb, and adjective. The noun ismarked by singular it has grammaticalgender. Males are plural endings and either masculine, females arefeminine but all nouns are masculine or feminine: senor -serlores, senorasenoras padres, madre-madres 'sir -sirs,"lady'-'1adies' padre - mothers,' muchacho -muchachos, 'father -fathers,"mother - 'boy - boys"girl -girls,' vez - vezes muchacha - muchachas pluma- 'time - times,"sombrero -sombreros 'hat - hats,' plumas 'pen - pens.' The pluralending is -s, or -es Some of the list aremarked asmasculine by /-s, -es/. hat feminine by -a. There is nological reason for -o or feminine, except that being masculinewhile time and pea are history of thelanguage. There is no it is part of the function word de(of). possessive suffix,Spanish using the feminine, singular The adjectiveis also masculine or to agree with the nounit modifies: el hombre or plural men,' malo 'the badman,' los hombresmalos 'the sick lds calles nuevas'the new street,the new la calle nueva, 'blue' have streets.' Some adjectivesgrande 'big,' azul adding the pluralmarker for agreement. no gendermarked, merely adjectives but is Note that thegender is notinherent for the nounmodified. The adjective as we merely a matter of It may precede: see followsthe noun in theabove examples. hombre 'a goodman.' Adjectives in seriesfollow un buen fat woman.' the noun. Una senora feliz gorda 'a happy el-la-los-las 'the,' un-una'a, an'(11n2g- The determiner in gender and unos'some') is also anadjective agreeing number with the noun. The pronoun hasthe forms: yo - I tu - you(familiar singular) -lasted, formal el - he ella - she nosotros - wenosotras, feminine nosotros - we nosotras, feminine ustedes - you, formal but general ellos - they, masculine ellas, feminin me - me te - you lo le - him used with second singular formal also la - I. nos - us los - them, masculine used with the second person plural also 1 las - them, feminine Jai (used with preposition) tf (used with praposition) le (indirect object him or her) les (indirect object them) se (reflexive thirdperson) me, te, nos are reflexive also. There is a neuter form used esto 'this,' eso'that' aquello 'that' but it is not used in modifying position. The other demonstratives have -e,-a, zero,-os,-aslendings. Additional forms are possessive adjectives mi,mfo, mfa; alsa, gm 'my, minq tu tuyo, tuya tus tuyos tuyas 'your' (singular familiar antecedents); su, tyvo, Eau, sus,suyosasuyas. (third personsingular and plural and second person formalantecedents) nuestro, -a, -os, -as 'our, ours.' The verb forms are quite complex and cannotbe included here. The verb is inflected for person and number, haspresent, imperfect, preterit (past), and future tenses, indicative, subjunctive, and conditional moods, infinitive, present and past participle forms. In addition many of the verbs areirregular. The reader may wish to consult a Spanish grammar forthese forms.

For the learner of English the pitfalls arethat the Spanish system is more extensive and he must learn how to match up the forms. Other devices must be masteredjas for example the use of auxiliary verb formswhich parallel his own forms. Juan hablaba, John was talking; Juanhablarg, John will talk. These parallels will not be exact--he must learn the new system as a system. Spanish word order is similar to English but thesubject may be omitted, if clearlyunderstood "Juan tieng carro. Es rico. 'John has a car. He's rich." No es nada 'It's nothing.' (double negative normal forSpanisiT. The adjective following its noun has been illustrated.

The kinds of grammatical errors producedby learners are often caused by contrastsin the language structures. -12-

The following partiallist is adapted fromTeaching English to Puerto Rican Pupilsin Grades 1 and 2 publishedby the New York City Board ofEducation 0.956, 1963). Older students make the same errors. 1. Omission of pronoun subject: Is big. Is teacher. (Article omittedalso) 2. Not before verb: MarA not is here. (AlsoMarie, no is here, Maria no here.) 3. Adjective following noun: The dress yellow; the dressesyellows with agreement in number (final /s/). 4. The comparative formsused with more, most whereEnglish uses -er, -est: It is more big. He is most fat of the boys. 5. a. Droppingof -s inflection onthird person singular verbs: He go to school b. Dropping of -sinflection on plurals: The book are here. c. Dropping ofpast tense inflection: The boy play. d. Omission of will infuture tense: The boy play. In 4--Spanish usesmas(more), el mes, la mast los mas, las ms(most). In 5 the Spanishinflections differ so much in form from Englishthat omission takes place. Some of the English formsrequire unusual consonant clusters also. Besides, most language learnersfind out that they cansimplify the verb forms usingtime words to get their meanings across: I sa yesterday, etc. 6. Use of so with to for future: He go to sing = He'sgoing to sing 7. Use of no for don't in commands: no run(not 17t-irT)T 8. Use of simple present whereEnglish uses progressive: He sleep now. 9. Omission of article withnationality, profession, etc: Is American. Is teacher. 10. Use of the for possessivein parts of the body, and personal articles: The foot hurts me. The coat(of him)is blue. 11. Titles used with definitearticle: The Mr. Jones. 12. In used for on at: In the table, in MichiganAvenue, in 1515 Michigan Avenue. Prepositions in English areextraordinarily -13-

in any new difficult, in fact,prepositional usage difficulties! language willpresentextraordinary Use of havefor be: 13. = He'ssix years old. I have hunger. He have six years inversion inquestions: 14. Avoidance of does Juan can go? Juan like(s)this? (Spanish word-verbform) Also, not use thedo function to school?) How come theyto school?(or How they come used or orderin error: 15. Noun-compounding not The wife-house,the wife ofthe house. to ther% is nocomplete matchfrom language In vocabulary British We see this evenin the samelanguage as language. Words must belearned in all vest isAmerican undershirt. formality, theirrelated their semantic ranges,their degrees of speaker may say"God" as he says forms. A Spanish-English meaning as aninterjection is Dids in Spanish butthe Spanish 'bye-bye' is usedwith children orfamiliarly, far milder; alive but pescadois fish on the fish is plzin Spanish when list Vocabulary is onlypartly learnedby vocabulary table. vocabulary of thelanguage through translations. We learn the situational contextsincluding theculture. defined ascombinations of words Idioms are usually honses burn downbut small language. In English peculiar to a often lists ofverb- things burn up. Idiom study manuals, understandably popularwith foreign adverbcombinations, are learners. vocabulary Complete masteryof thepronunciation, grammar, impossible for thenative learner. What the and styles are should aim foris mastery atthe learner of aforeign language The true level whichhe will fitinto. social competence is the personequally at bilingual isexceedingly rare, as home in twocultures. understand thesize of In the past,schools havefailed to 'pick up thelanguage soeasily.' the problembecause children apparently learn newlanguage habits more While children important as adults, the agedifference is not so readily than is of topquality. seem,provided thelanguage training it might part of thelanguage islearned: What oftenhappens is that the language may berelegated tofamily use, or the learner's relationships withEnglish speakers. new languageused only in will overestimate hardly likelythat the schools It seems necessaryin time and the problemby committingthe resources will use There may be adanger that someschool systems funds. to providethe proper the size ofthe problem as anexcuse not language training. SOME NOTESON ACADIANENGLISH

Raven I.McDavid, Jr.

impossible in areport ofthis It is language kind todescribe allof the local createpeculiar problems situations that of theAcadian for theschools. The sketch how one mayapproach the situation suggests Portu- problems ofNavahos,Massachusetts uese, orWisconsin Germans. The Acadian Frenchpopulation of Southwestern Louisiana may be considered ahalfway house between the ordinary non-standard dialectsituatioh and that of a foreign language group. The original Acadians werepart of the Frenchcommunity in Nova Scotia. After their colony wasceded to Great Britain at the end of the Warof Spanish Succession,the community was dispersed underorders of the British gover- nor--ostensibly for fear ofdisloyalty, practically because the New Englanders covetedthe rich farmlandswhich the French settlers had developed. The largest group ofthe Acadians went to Louisiana,still under French controlat the time. But since the richfarmlands along theMississippi, Atchafalaya and Red rivershad already been stakedout by the plantation class,the new arrivals weresent to the outlying swamp lands wherethey developed a PoorWhite economy ofsubsistence farming, fishingand trapping.1 They remained largelyisolated from the rest ofLouisiana till the rise of Huey Long,who for the firsttime provided roads, bridges, schoolsand hospitals--and anincentive to vote. Even today many of them arerelatively untouched by recent technology. Among the Acadians thereis every stage in thecommand of English frommonolingualism in French tomonolingualism in the regional standardEnglish.2 In general there is a

1In the Acadian country properthere are almost no Negroes, in contrastwith the old plantation areaswhere Negroes are sometimes more numerousthan whites. In such nearby cities as Lafayette,Lake Charles, Alexandriaand Baton Rouge thereis, as onewould expect, a largeNegro population. For many Louisiana NegroesFrench is their native language; theirdialects have beendescribed by several excellentlinguists, notably George Laneand Raleigh Morgan. 2The number of speakersof Acadian Frenchis hard to estimate; no information onlanguages was obtainedin the census for1940 or 1950, and in1960 only "the mother tongue of the foreignborn," which creditedLouisiana with some 1200 speakers of French. In 1940-42, of theStudents at Southwestern Louisiana Institutein Lafayette(now the Uni- versity of SouthwesternLouisiana) at least two-thirdsspoke French at home; theFrench-speaking populationof Southwestern Louisiana was estimated at about250,000. Despite the high -1- 2

correlation between mastery ofEnglish, degree of education, and socio-economic status,but exceptions are numerous. Bilingualism of various degrees may occurat any social level; as one might expect,the upper working class andlower middle class are most sensitiveabout their French background, though this sensitivity may takevarious forms. Illiteracy has been very high amongthe Acadians--in some parishes(counties) over 35% in 1940. Education is almost entirely in English;however, the pressure of enrollment and the philosophyof social promotion have meant that even a high-schooldiploma does not necessarily indicate a functioning command ofstandard English. In the absence of asystematic contrastive study of Acadian French and local standardEnglish,3 a few observations will suggest problems that maybe encountered in the region. Patterns of intonation, stressand rhythm differ from those of American English. Statements often end with ahigh pitch, weak-stressed Englishsyllables, especially medial ones, are often lost. The spirants /0/ and/5/9 as in think and then, do not occur; they are usuallyreplaced by7.77-71nd /d/, less often by /s/ and /z/.

birthrate, cultural attritionsince then has reduced the number of speakers of French;nevertheless, in suprasegmentals, phonology,inflections and syntax the spokenEnglish of monolinguals todayoften resembles that ofnative speakers of French. 3One variety of localstandard English resembles that of southeast Texas. Historic postvocalic /-r/ becomes /D/ or length; before itsreflexes the contrast between /a/ and /0/ is lost, so that cardand cord are homonyms, and with /0/characteristically a long vowel, thereis no distinction between Arthur andauthor. Likewise the contrast between /I/ and /d/ is lostbefore nasals, so thatpia and RIR are homonyms. 3

Intervocalically or between a vowel and a non-nasal consonant, the nasalp /m, n,n/ appear as nasality of the preceding vowel.4 Final consonant clusters are usually simplified, as /wen/ for went.5 As in French, there is no systematic contrast between /i/ and /I/, between /u/ and /U/; there is no/A/ phoneme. Inflectional suffixes for nouns and verbs do not occur. Thus in Acadian English, regular nouns do notdistinguish the genitive or the plural; verbs do notdistinguish the third singular present indicative, the preterite or the past participle. The copula appears only under heavy stress; cf.the punch line of a favorite story: "He so dronk he tink he me" ("He's so drunk he thinks he's me"). As one would expect, there are manypeculiarities of the vocabulary. Some are simply French words taken over bodily; some designate such local phenomena as flora, fauna, cuisine and general culture; some areprobably loan translations, as make a pass for"call by for."

For the theoretical linguist it isinteresting to speculate whether Acadian English represents ageneral tending of creolizing; here, systematic descriptionsand comparisons are necessary. For the classroom teacher, it should be apparent that standard English cannotbe taught in southwestern Louisiana by the techniques used inmonolin- gual communities in upstate New York, and thattechniques of second-language instruction must beincorporated into the program.

4Thus they are often not representedin writing. 5This is attested in writing by such hyper-forms as becaused, enought, blissed (bliss).

NOTE: Unlike standard Parisian, Acadian French retains the affricates /6/ and/S/ LANGUAGE LEARNINGAND TEACHING by A. L. Davis

his native languagehe begins by When a child learns imitate learning to discriminateverbal auditorysignals and to As he progresseshe makes finerand finerdiscriminations, them. semantic and non-verbal he masters thephonemic, grammatical, He learns thatlanguage is a toolfor communication systems. his culture analysis and synthesis. Simultaneously he learns and his rolein.ito. miraculous. The rate atwhich he acquiresthis knowledge seems because of intricateorganization of the The miracle happens invention, human human brain, andmanIs most remarkable language.1 structure This speed oflearning does notdepend upon the language. Chinese, Turkish,Eskimo, Lithuanian, of the specific structures, yet thechild English--all havequite different learns any of themwith equal facility. While it is true thatlanguages can differin degree of sophistication, for example aliterary traditionintroduces learning in the broadest literary conventions, sothat language (or dialect) sensecontinues throughadulthood, a language is equal to thedemands put uponit.2 developed a scientificvocabulary, Some languageshave not yet sencond language asEnglish or French,which and rely upon a medieval society. occupy theposition held byLatin in European Realization of thenature of languagelearning and what is the basis ofgood language programs has to be learned who are learningother either for nativespeakers or for those

1 Ruth Hirsh For the developmentof child language see Hague, 1962. Weir, Languagein the Crib, The 2 societies often madethe Early observersof non-literate that their culturesand languages were mistake of assuming of complex child-like. Some observersof the sub-cultures make a similarmistake. In either present-day societies the case the errorarises from afailure to understand culture or sub-culture. languages. Ideal programs would combine the best of linguistic and cultural analysis, materials would be organized to follow what is known about language learning, and the classroom teachers, bolstered by the most appropriate teaching-aids would form with the students the ultimate partners in the teaching- learning process. Such programs can only be approximated. Compromises must be made even when there are no outside complications of class size or heterogeneous backgrounds. The order of presentation cannot be that which might be dictated purely by linguistic considerations. One would first learn the pronunciation thoroughly, then the grammatical system and then the use of the language. Machines could be programmed in this way but human beings won't stand for it. The learner needs the satisfaction of being able to say something meaningful from the beginning. This means that all parts of the phonemic system cannot be concentrated upon at the stwe time. Difficult features must be introduced with care or frustration will result. A comparison of Spanish and English shows that the Spanish-speaker learning English will have two consonant problems in the use (of): juice contrasts, with the initial y-j, and the final z-s(the uw-u contrast is notillustrated in this pair). A drill might first concentrate upon the initial sounds: yellow- Jello, Yale-jail, use(n.)-juice, etc., followed by contrast drill of final z-s: bays-base, raise-race, prize-price, etc. In the grammatical structures we introduce those items of different structure from English with equal care, where English requires the adjective to precede its noun, for example. And we are aware of vocabulary items which cause interference (actualmente means "at the present time" not "actually," embarazada means "pregnant"). Once the sequence of materials has been determined, lessons are planned so that the items are practiced over and over until the students have acquiredautomatic control of them. The devices to accomplish this are many and the skillful teacher taxes all his ingenuity to accomplish this control without monotony. A pronunciation item may be introduced with the teacher demonstrating how it is made. It is practiced in words, in phrases, in short sentences, with the teacher acting constantly as a model. The students listen and repeat as a whole class, by half-class, by rows, by groups of four, by pairs, and individuallyin all possible combinations. The pace is lively at all times, teachers often use hand signals like choir-masters to avoid having to call on groups or individuals by voice, the drillmaximizes student practice and immediate correction. The experienced teacher also knows that one "mastery" of a drill will notsuffice, that review must be constant. -3_

Dialogues are frequently found in languagematerials. They allow language practice in naturalsituations. Obviously they must be written with great care. One textbook author has remarked that a good dialogueis as hs:rd to write as a good sonnet. There is much truth in this. The pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary must becontrolled, that iso.elated to what has already been taught and to therest of the lesson, the exchanges must be very short in thebeginning lessons, gradually lengthening as fluency increases, andif it is to be memorized it must be of reasonable length,eight to twelve lines being optional. The content of the dialogue must be typical of a situation that is useful tothe student and culturally suitable as well. This may mean that vocabulary items or a structure may be included whichwill not yet have been taught, but this is unavoidable, attimes. For a dialogue presentation the teacher maygive the complete dialogue while the studentslisten, and make sure that all the meanings are clear. Then it is drilled phrase by phrase most often with the final phrasestaken first to preserve intonation patterns, and toprovide fluency practice. Students listen and repeat in groups, sub-groupsetc., the teacher constantly presenting the model andcorrecting. Drill continues until students can take the rolesthrough the entire dialogue without hesitation. At the end of such intensive practice many studentswill already have the dialogue memorized. The grammar of a lesson builds upon whathas already been taught and introduces each new item separately,always with awareness of the learner'slanguage. A lesson which introduced; the have possessive must stick to this, notincluding the have auxiliary: the lesson planner or writer must also bearin mind that "I have a headache, a new coat, goodhealth" may be quite different expressions for thelearner:"My head hurts me, I have a new coat, I am healthy." Vocabulary control is essential. Word frequency lists are valuable but must beemployed with discretion. In a running count of English, "notebook" is rather rare,but is frequent in the vocabulary the student needs. The vocabulary burden must be kept down or languagelearning is reduced to a dictionary search and the language structure to bemastered becomes secondary. In readings some words may be includedfor recognition only. They should occur infrequently and glossed with a definition or paraphrase. A partial lesson is given here in order toillustrate some of these ts. -13-

I. Pronunciation practice: The vowels/iy/ and /i/; *beeg beep beat beak *becb big bip bit Bic bib peel beef Mies fees team pill biff miss fizz Tim here, and Note: Only monosyllablesare used Two each pairdiffers in theiy/i contrast only. forms are starredindicatirg that they arenon-existent in the language;however, they arepossible,compare The league, gebe(avoided becausederogatory). contrast does not occurbefore -r, -ng, -ge orat the written in ends of words. All forms mighthave been aphonetic/phonemictranscription. Sentences: It's a peel It's the team It's a pill It's Tim It's beef It's big etc. Putting the itemin a short sentenceis to Note: with a statement provide practicein using the item intonation contour.

Dialog "AVisit"

Mr. Hill OEM 11 Good evening,Mr. Sanchez. Mr. Sanchez--Good evening,Mr. Hill. Mr. Hill --Please come in. Mr. Sanchez--Thank you, Mr.Hill. Mr. Hill MID Please sit down. Is Miss Hill here? Mr. Sanchez IMP OM Thanks. Mr. Hill No, my sister'sat the movies. Mr.Sanchez -- Pleasegive her this book. Mr.Hill Yes, I will. Sanchez -- I haveto leave now,Mr. Hill. Mr. Please comeagain. Mr.Hill Goodbye, Mr. Sanchez. Goodbye. Mr.Sanchez Thank you, Mr.Hill. model of prosestyle, but theexchanges The dialog is no the are naturaland useful enough. It incorporates pronunciation itembeing taught as well as the grammar, expressions and vocabulary. usespreviously learned - 5

Ilf. Grammar 1. The polite request form: Please stay Please leave Please come in Please sit down Please speak slowly Please walk slowly Please open the window Please close the window Please open the door Please close the door Please use my pen Please keep my pen Please use my book Please keep my book The student learns that please occupies"subject position," that the verb form is used without to or any inflection. You stay: stay: PLEASE stay.

2. Indirect objects: Give the book to Mary. V 6 p .r0 Give the book to Mr. Hill. Pay the money to Mary. Pay the money to Mr. Hill. Give Nthe book,6 wo,aas. Give Mary the book. V 3:-.0 0 Give Mr. Hill the book. Pay Mary the money. Pay Mr. Hill the money. Give her the book. Give him the book. Pay her the money. Pay him the money. These sentences can be expandedindefinitely staying within the patterns by using other names etc. 1 + 2 Combine with please: Please give the book to Mary. Please give Mary the book. Pleasegivethemoney to Mr. Hill. PleasegiveMr.Hill the money. Pleasegiveherthe book.

etc., etc .

Teaching the lesson:

Pronunciation: The words are drilled in unison, groups) etc., in every possible order. The teacher's model is constantly given, is clear but not exaggerated. When all students can hear the contrast (this can be tested by having them raise their hands for same or different--or any such device) and when they can produce the contrast) then the sentences are used. Before the end of the class the drill may be repeated.

Dialog: After the teacher gives the dialog at conversational speed and meanings are clear, the students repeat phrase by phrase: Mr. Sanchez Good evening, Mr. Sanchez Mr. Hill Good evening) Mr. Hill come in Please come in Mr. Hill Thank you Mr. Hill sit down Please sit down here Is Miss Hill here? Thanks. Is Miss Hill here? the movies at the movies my sister's at the movies No, my sisters at the movies this book give her this book Please give her this book Please give her this book I will Yes, I will Mr. Hill I have to leave I have to leave now I have to leave now, Mr. Hill come again Please come again Goodbye Mr. Sanchez Goodbye Mr. Sanchez. Please come again. _7_

Goodbye Mr. Hill Thank you Mr. Hill Thank you Mr. Hill. Goodbye. The dialog is again repeated without the buildups. Then starting with a student,the next gives the response, the third continues with the fourth student. All this goes on until every student can take either part. Books are closed for the drills.

Grammar The grammar is presented with as little explanation as possible. One teaches the language rather than facts about the language! The first drill with please uses build ups. Stay, please stay, etc. The indirect object is drilled the same way. Then points 1 and 2 are combined, and substitution vocabulary is used. Give the book to Mary pencil pen paper to John to Elizabeth to Harry Lend the book to Mary etc. to John etc. With these substitutions the teacher may offer only a cue: Teacher: Give the book to Mary Students: Give the book to Mary Teacher: Pencil Students: Give the pencil to Mary Teacher: John Students: Give the pencil to John Teacher: Please give the pencil to John Students: Please give the pencil to John. etc. Teacher: Give John the pencil Students: Give John the pencil Teacher: Lend Students: Lend John the pencil Teacher: Lend John the pencil. Please. Students: Please lend John the pencil. -.8-

The drill continueswith substitute vocabularybut the pattern remainingintact. Only one substitutionis made without at a time, becausestudents should beable to respond hesitation. If students cannot do so,the drill is too difficult. No material is usuallyassigned for homework thathas not already beenpresented in class,although students may be allowed to look upvocabulary they areunfamiliar with. In a typical lessonhour the preceding lessonis usually reviewed first, then the newlesson is presented anddrilled. lf a lesson provesrather long it is spread overtwo class "chews up" the neetings. The inexperiencedteacher often material before the studentshave achieved controlof it.

What is most strikingabout this languageteaching technique is that the wholeclass is involved everyminute and the drill isrigidly controlled tominimize mistakes. Many devices which havenot been illustrated areused by experienced teachers: questions with possiblemultiple response, transformation drills(change to negative, toquestion, to that such negative questionetc.). There is no doubt, also, techniques speed up languagelearning.

The suggestion hasbeen made, and in afew places imple- mented, that thetechniques employed byforeign language teachers be used in teachingstandard dialects ofEnglish. At first glance the suggestion seemsfar-fetched, after allthe students do speak English but use"incorrect grammar and havesloppy pronunciation." Yet we must admit thattraditional methods have not been spectacularlysuccessful. The attitude toward thenon-standarddialect(s) is not For a helpful. There is a grammar butit is different. non-standard having I wentand me and him went thereis a special rule involved forthe series construction,which may apply to all personalpronouns. There may be a favoredorder him being more frequentthan him and me, orthe order me and him and I or I and may beindifferent. A dialect might have him but not *he and me or*me and he. If one wanted to learn the sub-standard hewould need to knowthese rules and all others that apply. A common feature of somesub-standard dialects is that finalconsonant clusters aresimplified: (this happens in rapid standardspeech tol,' kep,' jus,' etc. of the also). This simplification caninterfere with addition past tense morphemein speech: 'he walk home,'undifferentiated from 'he walkhome' for presentjthusforming a generalized tense. teaching maxes useof grammarstudy(parts- Traditional study(can-may, of-speech,subject-predicate-etc.) usage if etc.) andexercises forwriting, shall-will, like-as choosing the correctform. including fillingin blanks or talks silent much ofthe time, orthe teacher Classes are Real concentrated and then callsuponstudents in turn. desired formsis not possible. Although practice inusing the is communication isoral, thewritten language most of our of our nationconsumetank- stressed; theEnglish teachers Items oflittle red-ink every yearwithout result. cars of attention as thosewhich require utility aregiven as much But Ida-whom asopposedto(he) likes. intensive drill: and contrast materials can bebuilt arounddialect analysis The rapid-firedrill techniques with the desiredstandard. incorporate The texbooksof the futureshould can beadapted. and thetechniques. the resultsof thecontrastive analyses Audio-visual aids audio-visual Many schoolshave acquiredin recent years sophistication: movie, film-strip, aids ofconsiderable circuit TV, and overhead and opaqueprojectors, closed Such aids canbe no betterthan the languagelaboratories. teachers do into them. We all knowthat many materials put and bulletinboard, old standbys,the black-board not use our hardware. effectively; thereis no magicin the new proliferated. teaching, languagelaboratories have For language recorders andlistening- form theyconsist of tape In their usual of individualrecording booths, with someequipment capable positions, as well. Equipment makers at thestudent-booth features, bring out newmodelsincorporating new continue to in a specificschool some ofwhich may be oflimited value situation. in a class,possibly with Small childrenwould do better machine, or withpart of theclassroom loudspeakers and one to be answeredis how used for taperecording. The question equipment withoutboredom. Older children long they canuse the installation. profit mostfrom the separatelaboratory and adults embarrassment andrepeat the Here they canpractice without drills untilthey havemastered them. which is feature oflanguagelaboratories It is this drill can berepeated in their strongestpoint--classroom of absence can Lessons whichhave beenmissed because the lab. be givensupplementary workand be studied,weak students can work ofinterest excellent studentscan begiven additional to them. -10-

Preparation of tapes, aswell as laboratorymonitoring If a reasonablysound and upkeep,require time and money. not provideddaliving room with rugsand proof studio is little draperies does verywell. Occasional noise is of wished to put thetapes on thecommercial importance unless one prepared tapes market. At least two setsof professionally noise built in toprovide atmosphere. One have background surroundings are notideal. should not hesitatebecause the of The script for atape must beprepared beforehand, they shouldcontrast course. If two or morevoices are used Each speaker shouldbe natural,neither "stagey" in pitch. be normal. norimprecise, and thespeaking rate should assignment the studentsmay beinstructed For a reading prepared reading simultaneouslyin their books or to follow the students may follow aprepared hand-out sheets. More advanced instruction to close The second reading mayhave the outline. questions about the the books. Then the tapevoice may ask informational answers,which the student reading requiring the answers for may record. A whisperedvoice can provide then be againgiven, and a quickcheck-up. The reading may pencil tests be usedto measurecomprehension. be read through onceor twiceat normal A dialogue may repetitions just speed, thengiven with build-upsand student allowed for thestudent to as inclasswork. Time must be just how muchdepending upontrial-andrepeat the phrases, much time forthe A rule of thumbis to allow twice as error. This can bemeasured student as thetime used by themodel. the simpledevice of havingthe model by a stop-watch, or has expression twice tohimself. After a dialogue repeat the reduced to been drilled inthe tape lessonthe time may be one-and one-halfthe model'stime. substitution In grammar thetape lesson canbe used for (better than leavingblanks) and can be drills with cues should the supplemented withpencil exercises. At no time The studentshould grammardrill be a guessingcontest. manipulate the patternwithout hesitation. pattern, Teaching ofpronunciation canfollow the class Students may nothear their but a cautionis necessary. their errors,resulting inconfusion. mistakes and repeat "I'm going to say The tape canhelp this bydirections like Are they thesame? Listen againetc." two words:bit--beet. should be donewhenever Monitoring of what thestudent is saying possible. Supplementary materialswhich can be prepared arereview material lessons, extra drillsfor problem areas, aswell as such At advanced as additionalreadings, songs, orradio programs. levels plays, poetry,lectures, and programstaken from newscasts, provide goodlistening practice. projectors Of the other aidsit is the overhead or opaque which are of greatest usein the classroom. The overhead projector has the advantageof allowing theteacher to face the class and the opaqueprojector requires nospecially get in the way prepared materials. Yet the very gadgetry may of efficient class useof time. Flannel-boards, use of the blackboard with coloredchalk, and the use oflarge pictures ordinarily more of situationswhich can be talked about, are important in class. Commercially preparedmaterials must be carefullyscreened! TRANSCRIPTIONS

speech ofdisadvantagedchildren These samplesof the has orthography. This practice aregiven in amodified recognition of of allowingimmediate the advantage is, for manyhearers,essential grammatical formsused, and phonetic is beingsaid. The narrow tounderstanding what complexity ofthese transcriptiondemonstrates the utterances. the recordingof Senator Theparalinguistics of section Men has beentranscribed in the Dirksen's Gallant The Senatorhas graciously onnon-verbalcommunication. of thismaterial. given hispermission forthe inclusion RICAN TRANSCRIPTIONOF PUERTO ENGLISH by DagnaSimpson

Name: Diana Roman Age: 13 Puerto Rico Place ofBirth: San Juan, Years in U.S.: 1 Years inChicago: 1 I am Come fromPuerto Rico. My name isDiana Roman. and twosister... Yes, I havethree brother thirteen yearsold. brotherhas--let's Ma(rried), huh?. My first ma(rried). Jose Roman. The second yearsold. His name see--have ten fifteen yearsold. The--the is ManuelRoman. He have seventeen yearsold. Roman. He adda nother heis Gilberto I don'tknow say seven--ten andfivefifteen. The firstis Ten and I saytheir names. the years. Let's see. see--she haddafive GenovevaAguila. Sheaddalet's ;.s Carnacion five children. The nother one childrens I don't seeanother one She haddatwo children. Sera. two. Let's see. Genoveva (of)his, I see anymore but I don't see-- in New York. She speaksEnglish. Aguila is onechildren ofher. don't see anymore but Yes... let's see--I nother I seethe twochildrens. Any more. But the gotta tenyears-- Onegottalet's see--one No...Let's see. Guadalupe...Guadalupe. old. Her nameis Lupita or He has-- ten years HectorFlores...Hector. The nother--thenother is hadda--thirt--no--thirteen--fourteen...fourteen.mother isthe see--he My motherwork--my He workin thefactory. wife house...thewife house. oia,e,,247/7y Sze evav u T210 42P

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NOTE: Alveolars Ct ,d, n,sjare usually dentalizeda,ds 3.1, 0. TRANSCRIPTION OF NEGRO CHILD'S ENGLISH by EmilyPettigrew Morris

Name: Velma Age: 14 Place of Birth: Memphis, Tennese Recorded in: Memphis

In theorthographic transcriptionthe diagonal bar showsconsonant omission. If there is any closure orglide the consonantis indicated.

she And Baby Ann cameback an toleribody that Teresa say she thoughtshe didn't git no um, uh,give them to Will cause got--they got toarguin was gone eatum up. And so then they They was havin atrial when wegof bacg. and they had uh. told Joyce was uh,--.Joycewas uh awitness. See somebody hei thaf Baby Annhad said thatTeresa was gon uh,--. wudn'i gon giii BabyAnn things causeshe Teresa saia she I got up there thoughf she was goneatum. An nen so when nothin abouf ifbuf dey aks me. I they,--. I in'f know I told told 'em yea. And nen ney ass mewho told me. eribody went tolaffin. Eribody 'um Ardinatold me. And nen And so nen theyal--. They almost had me wint to laffin. And nen so Ardinasaid on trial causeI was tellin astory. Ardina said deymusf--. Uh thaf----. Uh Ardina Curry. like Teresa mightabeen said thatfor a joke dey, dey uh. And Teresasaid she jusf said Itold her dat for ajoke. jusf kepf onarguin. she didn'f sayit. And nen Baby Ann talkin boutTeresa's mama. Teresa sei And Baby Ann was And so um'on git you. And so Teresais Telisa'sauntie. Baby Ann talkinbout 'er,Teresa's Mildred. So we heard I So we told 'er. So den uh,--. I'int tell it. mama. And nen so was jusflistenin buf I heardeverythang. was'gon take up forBaby Ann talkinbout. Elaine Wesson Mildred, and "Eribody goin againsther." And/nen we told told Baby Ann not tobe talkinbouf Mildred told,--. Uh N nen And nen Telisa wasjust playin wiBaby Ann. thaf. They didn'f she gone gifhof wi her and gonjump on her. fight but theyalmosf got to. Elaine Wesf, deyin the club. Dey Elaine, Ardina and fightin on the Dey done got tofightin. Dey got to had,--. Wesf and Elaine nighf of mybirfgday party. And uh Elaine -2-

Moore got to fightin. See Elaine Wesf--. We went to see "The Bible". Elaine Wesf slip her dress,---hersister dress. You know Sharon got some realpretty clothes. And Elaine slipped Sharon's dress out othe house and took it over Mary Alice en housethaf nighf and Mary Alice kepf if for 'er. N next mornin Elaine put on allhei clothes 1 cept hei dress, and put 'ei coat on, and wenf over Mary Alice en house and put the dress onand went to school. And Elaine Moore told Sharon andSharon gof mad. And so Elaine Wesf gon jump on Elaine Moore. And E---. And Elaine Moore put a greaf bigold black scar,--. It's a,--. It's a greaf big old black scarright up here on Elaine Wesf head. Elaine Moore put it on nere. She jusf,--. She 'one gof to fightin so many times. And if's a girl she been 'one wenf home from school. You know she jusf be walkin. An$ she made up funny. And ney was meddlinhei. And hei sister wear glasses. An$ ney were meddlin hei too. Ana so Elaine Wesf gon git to fightinwith that girl and ney saw the girldidn'f wanna fighf. She was, she was,--. Elaine Wesf popped the girl and thegirl was jusf keep on walkin. And nen she jusf popped the girl. Elaine jusf kepf on poppin on 'af girl. And nen when ney gof upthere by Brown, well 'n ney hitdaf girl and she fell down on ne,--. She fell down,--. Jusf layin down nere. And nen ney gof hei up. An$ nen ney gof her up. An$ nen eribody went to taXliin bout, "I wudnIf in nat.","Iwudn'i in nat.',"I wudn'f in nat, wuz I?" An$ nen-- .Hei liffle sisfei had beentrying to take up foi heii Her liffle sister bouf in nethird gride and Elaine jumped onhei. She jumped on ne lifflegirl. But the liffle girl shedigt,. She (Elaine West) thank she canbeat up eribody. She can do anythang anyboy can do: play marbles, clamb trees. One day we was locked out of dehouse. And you know how how high dem-- de second--upstairs is. She clambed, she clambed upstairs and open0$ ourdo044 foi us. She open--. She openii ne docii half wayand she clambed up on the knob, and got on top thedo$1"; and she clambed on up dere andgof in ne window, and camedownstairi and opened ne do$14. Seven. She'on'f,--. She come to club meetin allthe time, and She 'on'f, she'on'f acf likethaf in club meetin. Didn't you see 'at big black scar upthere? Shar'-- Sharon be neat eriday. See Elaine donq take careof hei clothes. Elaine gif bout ten dressesand Sharon cin git ten and they can git'em on the sameday. And Sharon, eritime she wear her dress, she wash itouf and iron it and have itready foi n nexf day. Elaine wear hei dress. She wear 'em and, -3-

se-, and--andSharon change clothes whenshe come'um school. Elaine play in ne clothes,git to fightin in 'em andtear 'um up. Hef and Mary Alice got tofightin one time n Mary Alice ripped the clothesoff 'er. And Elaine, seeElaine had been talkinbouf my mama. Talkin bouf, talkinbouf on my mama andtalkin bouf Mary Aliceand Mary Alice jumped ore 'er. rippin 'er--. Ripped her clothes off. Dat was bef ne my party. Ripped 'er clo,..her off. And nen me and Elai was gon git tofightin. And nen it was a girl. The girl I told you Iwudn'f gon invite to my party. She cometalkin bouf if I jump on,--jump onElaine, she was gon jumpin if. Well she, she jusfdon'f lack me. I cin go in nat room, sit down and be just asquiet. The whole class c'n be talkin excepf me andshe'll say I be talkin. Thf lady,--. And I used to sif, Isif, I be siffin boufrighthere, and Lavora be siffinrighf here. And nen so she'lljusf be talgin to me and talgin to me. And I jusf besiffin up there writin andlistenin to hef too. And nen she'll say. "You gon git a 'U' inconducf." Be talkin bouf me and she /on/t never say nuffin tohef. See, she inne honofsociety. Buf she the honof societyadvisof. Um hum. And she just be,--. Eriday---. Eridayshe tel/ me um on gif a'U' in conducf. Tuesday---- I 'one already moied. Sif back tere ni. She still blames it on me. And if's wo girls;jusf ligO Lavora; right next to'er, buf she worse. Talg, talg, talg. Dey, Hef, hex' and Lavora cin b jusf talkin and talk the wholeperiod. And I cin jusf turn aroundand asks Barbara cin I uh, uh,usehef hef eraser andshe'll say I be talkin, and tell me um ongit a 'U' in conducf.

Tuesday and Wednesdayeighth,--, seventh andeighf gradO stay in had their uhachievemenf tesf. So we had to stay our home roomall day Tuesday So I was siffinbacg there. So eribodi wastalkin you know,--. And so I wudn'f sayin And din Jackie aksmesomefIffin and I said yea. And noOlin. told nen shetold me she was gon First she had 'on It was the f'rsf time she evertold Lavora Lavora,---. conducf. somefging. She sei she as gon giveher a 'U' in And nen she told me,"You onnaf lisf too. You always One day talkin." And nen so one day shekepf me in nough. she kepf me in. I wastalkin nat day and I sawhef lookin, I--I saw 'er lookin righf in my mouth and Ijusf kepf on talkin and rolled myeyes up. She was jusfsiffin up dere lookin at me. AndI saw 'er lookin at me,and turned my head and jusfkepfon talkin. -It-

Me and my brother'salmosf git to fightineriday. They ---. See me and my brother, wethe only two like to look attelevision and so he have aweek and I have a And so all on my week. I beat him uplasf Friday nighf.. week I let him lookat everythang hewantid look cause I thoughf on his week he was gonlef me look at nothin. And All day Saturday Ilet him look ateverythang all on---. wanted to see he wantia to lookaf. And nen one picture, I it, Friday Nighf atthe Movie. His week wasalmost over wifg, Friday Nighf at theMovie. He let me see halfof it aria nen he changOdstation0 and looked atsomefging else. And nen so den I waslookin at the lafi movie. And nen he call hisself gonchange, gon ma,-- gonchange stations. And so I jusf popped'im. And nen he went, he gonjeck the knob, and I popped'im and popped 'imand poed 'im. And nen he went tocryin and wenfdownstair0. N my mama wudn'f at home and whenshe came home shetold him. I told hei how I had been lettinhim look at televisionand he wanf me look at nuthin. And I finished lookin atthe picture and he went tobed.

In the country. Sardis. Uh, Strayhorn. We gef one And our stay in Strayhornand we gof one stay inSardis. auntie stay east ofSenitobii. And somebod3",--. Our uncle stay in Crenshaw. We st,-- over ourgrandmama'0 house we stay in Strayhorn. Aw I be doin,--. Uh, I be-- I be They be readin. That's only thang I bedoin most time. ouf in pasture somewhere. When,---. We went down nere on before Easter. We was goin to afuneral and my ne Sunday wantOd us mamaboughf all us our Easterclothes cause she to wear um to thefuneral. So she wenf andboughf them they suifs anderithing. And nen when neygof down nere ney found out my grandmamawudn'f goin, they wenf outthere. The funeral was attwo, aria ney stayedout there ti/ five minutes to two,--comminin ne house cau00 theyknow they Two,--. Lef me see,--. I was fifteen wudn't go gif. goi minutes to two,--. Cause then they knowthey wudn'f house, and have no chance to go. And nen ney commin in ne And nen my daddy say, nen comefalgin bout, "We wannago." "You ain'f goin cause youain't gof youi haircuf." Me and my auntie, we wasfinna go. And nen ney wenfbacg in naf room and gon goto cryin. In He, he gofcoffon. We have to chopcoffon too. more'em we did las% ne summertime. We gon have to chop Lasf year. Lasf year we, we gotthiough in two dayi. year he had two acres. This year he gotfoii. He gof gof a coffon. And he gof corn. And den my grandmama gafiii,---gof two gardens at lealif. She gof one up--updere by fgehouse, and shegof one on over dere. And in nere she gof watermelon, corn, peas,mushmelons, aria stufflike thaf.

Ak.iLaA&Aattiraitliiatjat.1 t -5-

"I Our teacherwhen we firstgot in nere. English. Teachers haven't got apet." She ateacher's daughter. teacher'0 daughter overthe otherchildren, always like the that school. especially if theteacher go--is ateacher at next to me. So she sostingy. I uh have She sif right foi some and I some candyuh something,ana she'll aks me give it to 'erbut I'll go onand give it 'on't be wantin to little And so nen oneday she aks mehow de spell a to 'er. It start wi a'5'. ola simple word. What was thatwora? scot, I think.S-C-O-T. She didn't know If was, if was word if, ana I told'er. It was on a cross how to spell Naw. The girl puzzle. Ana nen I aksdhei foi something. side of menamed Deloies sheaks her sittin on ne other "After today you not let 'er use herink pen. She sayp ink pen anymore. You betterbring your own." gonna use my Ana nen teacher Ana so, Deloies gaveher the ink penbasig. "I don't have anypets in here." cometa/gin houf uh. Here go Teresa, Eriboay cin comein ne roomana sif down. to so and soand so andso'0 room?" "May I go ov,--over She have bout "May I go over to soand so and soru--?" when she gitin nat room,ana teacher let ten places to go haa, I haa mybrother'i her go eriplace. Ana one day I ana I wanted togibe it to him. Ana I told lunch money Ana she wouldn't evenlef 'er ne reasonI want0a ne go. she say couldn'tnobody goana me gobut--ana, ana she say, just walked up, upthere ana hadten places to nen Teresa but I couldn't go go ana shewent to allof them(ubum), take mybrotger he0 lunch money. I do my, I do mylesson. Ana I 'on't saynuffin to um. front of de teacherstoo. Dag what I.--. I sif, Isif right in They alway0 to sit infront of noteacher'i desg. I on'f like the back. See she got us put my seat updere. I be goin to Ana nat way,--. If's a, it's around in alphabeticalorder. um on ne circle and denit's anotherround circle ana nen desg too. But I, I do myworg. out3ide. Right at heli She'on't I 'on'f saynuffin ne nobodyhardly. I do my,--. foi doin nuffin. I never haveto git on mein English But Teresa. Sometimes shecin go kin't never saynuffin. doin "Teresa I'msurprised at youbout you tell Teresa, She 'on'fla0g fur nat." Ana nen she, she'on't ana she lon'tlaig fur you tochew you detalk in hei room She 'on't Ana, ana nemchiren just bechewin away. gum. next to me bechewin, beslippin in saynuffin. Person sit She really ana chew eri oncein a while. Ana she git'em. git'em. to stay dere. treasuriii. Yea, I wanted I used to be had'um eri three I was de treasurer. Ana nen we have, -6-

N in Jaivary we, wechose officersagain. months, I thing. and, and uh I And uh, I wassecretary. Joyce was secretary I un forgof who was treasurer,and before if wassomebody. See we didn'f,"All in favor soand so waspresident. We and so and so for We 'idn'f solige thaf. Ogiuld just put all the namesin jusf,--. We decidOd dat we and pull out. Say dis gon bepresidenf, we pull out a bag And Georgia a nameand who ever thaf be,be the president. turned outvice-president. John,--. May both times she She, You know thaf onewhaf Mildred saydon'f hardly,--. she talk a lot,but she wudn'ftalkin nen. She 'on't hardly, ever talk though,unless she gofsomefging ne say. See I alway,---. Me and Joyce Ardina nem try do. when we talk overclub business on ne wayto school and nen club meetin come wealready knowwhaf we gof talkabouf. I 'on'f know. I'on'f never go nowherewith If's all righf. She 'in't tell me 'em hardly though. Mildred told me. wh--you know whenthey was goin tothat basketball game. Mildred told me shesaid, uh Liberty Bowl,--. She told And so I me meet'er at the busstoi at ten o'clock. call4d hex( and nen shesaid she told me she wasgoiti gii0 fifteen extra minutes causeshe forgof. See I,--. See me and nen she 'int't tell mewhat time. And so I calltid hei o'clock. And if was fifteenminutes to ten. she told me ten And She told me she was gongii0 me fifteen extraminutes. up there atthe bus station. You know at ten o'clock I was tell me it up thereaf Walker, up,--. And nen so she didn'f Porter and Williams. And I was up there was down nere on If's and nen dey leff me. Cau$0 I 'in'f know whereto go. If 'on'f make me nodifferen00. I jusf soon be all righf. All dey be doin af home lookin aftelevision. Go somewhere. goin,--. Jusf laig when ney wentto de circus,-- when dey be leff All dey bedoin--goin to the bathroom. Only time I intermission. And if's a lady, lady out was when it was fAen sent me at uh, uh,at somefgin. I 'in'f wanf ne go, wenf. She gave me adime. Arnita Smith'0 buf I wenf on an 'in'f never come mama. Arnita Smith, she wasin it, but 3he to club meetin. yet. My llome Aw yea. I ainqthiough bout my teachers I made a,--, Imade a 'A' in her roomthis Ec. teacher. She lacg me. Yea six weeks. I 'on'i donuttin in nere. she la0gs me. But she 'on't lack me. She lack Charlotte--- I have to take. Eritime I have to Secretary's daughter. Charlotte take a class wid ateacher's daughter orsomefgin. Shoof she, she treateribody differenf. is secretary's daughter. They, All nem teachersdo. Jusf lack teacher'sdaughteri. I 'on'f takeCivics they git,--. Jusf lack in uhCivics. -7-

talg. Teacher. on risperiod but I donhad. I don heard people She crazybouf all the secretarydaugh--. Same teacher. She giie Uh all thechildren who mama teachand stuff. them work to do andstuff like thaf. And if you on the honor society you reallywid her. I did try and nenI got a And nen my Civicsteacher cometalgin bouf, 'C' in English. told, gave "Don't beg for nogradO." See our English teacher and she lef% offtwo ot our papersand den us our average aad she told us if weneeded them grades,well she would mines to if. But she added gem to it. And so she didn't add of the otherchi/dren. And I was a 'C' some other--, some bola, and nen I told myhomeroom teacher. She come ta/g/i "Don'f beg for nograde." I say, "Iain'f beggin for -dis hundrede and grade, I earnednaf grade." I made two one they on git 'em now. go on nissix weeks. I 'on'i care of I ain't gon tryto make the honorroll no more. I 'on'f,--. cookin My Home Ec teacher. She may lacg,--. In ne, in ne couldn't do nuffinfoi Charloffe cause youknow room she if you eribody had to cookseparately. But in the sewin room apron, wellthen make a apron and youmake a good mark on ne dress. I,--. Charloffe didn'f s'pose you'll uh cin make a hei on make no dress. Cause all fge workdaf was done on the teacher. Seedis the way it do. hei apron was done by to the so and She'll say, she'll say,"Have, have, have you got 'No ma'am." And so and soand soCharloffe?" Charloffe say, children be ready for datanA she'll saywait awhile. the other dress And nen whenCharloffe finish she'lltake Charloffe'e and, and, and show uswhat to so. And and and her apron /ge only person'e nen shewudn'f so nobody elselike daf. Only person'e apronshe demonstrated dress she demonstrated on. Naw on wasCharlotte's andCharloffe madeninefy-three. ninefy-two. I vete on makeninety six on my apronand nen If on care. I she took off threepointe though. I on---. diffeieeee. And she, she jusf crazybout on'i make me no And some Charloffe. Erithing haen, Charlottedo this. If, if you on'tgit to know teachersat school chi/dren,--. quief Jus li1 f was a girl. She real fgat ain'i nuffin. to the teacher. en'on'f. She jusf go to herclass and listen haihdly ever talk. And ifs,--. And Ole teacher She 'on'f "No aks hex', "Do youknow desecretary?" And she said. ma'am." Ana nen she'um ta/gin liouf. "You 'on't know Charloffe's mama. Charloffe go and show heryolii mama. nel e6y sc.7 4. .7a et) `1,191 Ll. c 7

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C 19 19-010 y 2 -s% as' LIG, Og ve y $jui6' (lox/ op s.42ce .?f f 7,in prr e.,att C6/0 dvte TRANSCRIPTION OF APPALACHIAN ENGLISH

by N. Louanna Furbee

Name: Donnie Age: 10 Place of Birth: Barboursville, Kentucky Recorded in: Chicago (Chicago, 1 yr.)

That's all I knows is aks him. He went in ner an it wern't nothin an he looked over pigs pen An it was the pigs rootin in the... it was the corn. Scared me ta death. Ders a cottonmouth bit--bit er cow right over here, and it swelled and we got ta take ta cow to a doctor ... We went fishin down ner at di park and we never--we stayed all day and never even got a bite

They aint got no ponies; they got big horses ...I rode one, real big uns. Scare me ...I had a pony. Ya say get up Peanut, den he'll say yonk,choom! I dont know. It (w)as. A red one. Yah red one...And it had a slick back, it goes mmm, like at .He got down 'n wallered wif me. See he started to lay down an when he started wallerin I got off. Wif this new saddle, he tore this new saddle off. My brother got mad. He wentnt down 'n got wallered with this new saddle. Me on him too. But I got off I know. He did dat to my cousin too and she hopped off like everything. She wouldn't get on his back no more ...See, yeh my cousin--my broth--, my brother, my cousin see he got on it 'n made that--pony got after me, and so I went up in the barn, climbed up in the barnloft. His long tail got real long. My father had to cut his hair off, it was laygin right on the ground. His tail... -2-

ker, My father cutit off some. His hair, ...By his neck his--hit uz hangin down. My father--Hit wuntreal long. father Hit was hangin downpretty well. I wouldn't let my hit cut hit off. ...I wouldn't let myfather cut some of off. ...I wouldn'tlet my father cut someof it off. ..Cause hit wasn't long. He wanted to cutit off. He didn't like it hangindown. I do. ...Braid it,what's that...Yeh...He likes youto comb his, youknow, hair. His hair's real curly...seeit goes downstraight--way down pony's hair. some and atthe bottom of it,curle up. ...My See it goesstraight down...Youknow, this. ...It goes straight down the half wayden turns up 'ncurls. ...No, Another one. we solddim for a cow. We needed a cow. Cause ers wasn'tgivin too much milk. My father traded He had six, and im. Our cousin had--uh--twoponies. sellin he was sellin emfor his boss, see,the job was for pony--offin our cousin. em. That's where we bought er v ?in n'egb ?teft's 7i n

n7.7

de° sKeaf%c/ i SUMMARY

Teachers are beingrequired to deal moreeffectively Such with the languageproblems ofdisadvantaged children. children include thein-migrant poor from therural South and thenon-English speakers such asthe Puerto avail Ricans. Yet most teachershave been unable to themselves of opportunitiesto acquire therequisite linguisticltraining to enablethem to improvetheir insighte and methodologies. It is the purposeof this project tomake such information\available to theseteachers in such afashion that they will be ableto profit fromit without having access to the help oftrained linguists orformal course work. In order toaccomplish this, wehave begun with two background sections. The first discussesthe three dimensions of languagedifferences--historical,regional, and social--thataccount for usagesfrequently condemned without being understood. The secondaims at providing a deeper understandingof the nature ofthe social classes, particularly what itis like to bedisadvantaged.

Most difficult forteachers to comprehendis the phonological system ofthe language. The traditional orthography and perhaps abowing acquaintancewith the diacritics used in theWebsters II unabridgeddictionary tend, indeed, tohandicap the teacherin hearing the systematic speechdifferences which peoplefrom different dialect or languagebackgrounds produce. The sections on phonetics and phonemicsand on thesuprasegmental phonemes organi- progress fromthe most simple ofphonetic data to zation of more complexdata into aphonological system. Problem Areas inGrammar, using thetraditional morPhology--roun, pronoun,verb, adjective categories of which and adverb--andof syntax, pointsout those items have proved mosttroublesome fordisadvantaged learners. The materials arebased upon experiencewith disadvantaged speakers supplementedby research datafrom Linguistic Atlas studies. by The pronunciationand grammarsections are followed phonologic and morphologicfeatures that have a list of lower- been found to benearly universallyassociated with class or non-standardEnglish. -1- -2-

important role Non-verbalcommunication plays a most verbal messages. in determining ourattitudes toward Paralanguage, thesounds which accompanythe ordinary kinesics or the studyof body motion,and speech message, expression of feeling haptics, thesignalling and the and bodily contact,aredescribed in detail. through touching notational For the firsttime anywhere,it is believed, a is set forth. A transcriptionof the system for haptics Gallant Men paralaaguage of SenatorDirksen's reading of is given in thissection. Because many of ourforeign-language-speakingchildren comparison are ofSpanish background, adetailed analysis and phonology ofEnglish and Spanish. The is made of the however, grammatical systems arenot treatedin such detail, in Spanish wouldbe needed in since a complete course The sketch of order to make such acomparison complete. of AcadianEnglish speakers,the Louisiana language problems simplified study of French, shows how ateacher may make a to form a a particularforeign-language-speaking group basis for languageteaching. language learningand teaching,the In the section on in methods which havebeen proved bythree decades of use described, including asample lesson 72SOL programs are This is with its presentationof audio-lingualdrills. brief explanationofaudioLvisual aids, the followed by a labor4ory and preparation most importantbeing the language of tapes forlesson supplements. Transcriptions of thespeech of threedisadvantaged children, a Negrogirl, a hillboy, and aPuerto Rican accompanying tapesillustrate thepronunciation girl, with The and somegrammatical featuresof these speakers. transcriptions show howcomplex theirdialects are, narrow follow and the modifiedorthography enablesthe hearer to the tapes withrelative ease. Untranscribed materials tapes provideadditional sourcematerial for recorded on the variations from noting informallythe range andnature of the Standard English. by a selected A book-listbibliography is followed extended comment. Of course, all bibliography with However, sufficient pertinent materialscannot be included. information has beengiven to allow aninterested teacher within the range ofher interest to selectbooks and articles for further study. GENERAL LINGUISTICS

Transformational Grammar Bach, Emmon. An Introduction to New York: Holt, Rinehartand Winston, 1964. and Trager, GeorgeL. Outline of Linguistic Bloch, Bernard, of America, 1942 Analysis, Baltimore,Md.: Linguistic Society (out of print).

Bloomfield, Leonard. Language New York: Holt, Rinehartand Winston, 1933. Carroll, John B.(ed.). Lan ua e Thou ht and Realit Wharf. Cam ri ge: The MIT Selected Writingsof Benjamin Lee Press, 1956.

Chomsky, Noam. S ntacticStructures The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1957. General Linguistics Dinneen, FrancisP., S. J. An Introduction to New York: Holt, Rinehartand Winston,1967. F., and Pickett,Velma B. An Introduction to Elson, Benjamin Summer Institute Morphology and Syntax,Santa Ana,California: of Linguistics,1965. Structure of Language Fodor, Jerry A.,and Jerrold J.Katz (eds.). Englewood Cliffs,N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1964. A., Jr. An Introduction toDescriptive Linguistics Gleason, Harold Winston, 1961. rev. ed.,New York: Holt, Rinehart and Greenberg, Joseph H. Essays in Linguistics Chicago: University of ChicagoPress, 1957. Language, 2nd rev.ed. Jr. Linguistics and Your Hall, Robert A., Doubleday & Co.,Inc., 1950. Garden City, N.Y.: Archan Books, Householder, Fred W.,and Austerlitz,Robert. Hamp, Eric P., of Chicago Readings in LinguisticsII, Chicago: The University Press, 1966. General Phonetics Heffner, R-M. S. Press, 1964. Madison, Wisconsin: The Universityof Wisconsin Modern Linguistics Hockett, CharlesF. A Course in New York: Macmillan Co., 1958 GENERAL LINGUISTICS

-2-

American Hockett, Charles F. "The Origin ofSpeech," Scientific CCIII (1960), 89-96. Hoenigswald, Henry M. Language Change andLinguistic Reconstruction Chicago: University of ChicagoPress, 1960. Jakobsen, Rom'an, andHalle, Morris. Fundamentals of Language The Hague: Moutun and Co., 1956.

(ed.). Readings in LinguisticsI: The Development Joos, Martin The of DescriptiveLinguistics in America, 925-56, Chicago: University of ChicagoPress, 1957. An Koutsoudas, Andreas. Writing TransformationalGrammars: Introduction, EnglewoodCliffs: McGraw-Hill, 1966.

Lamb, Sydney M. Outline ofStratificational Grammar Washington, D.C.: Georgetown UniversityPress, 1966.

Lehman, Winfred P. Historical Linguistics: An Introduction New York: Holt, Rinehart andWinston, 1962. Merrifield, William R.,Naish, Constance M.,Rensch, Calvin R., Laboratory Manual forMorpholog,y and Syntax and Story, Gillian. Linguistics, 1965. Santa Ana, California: Summer Institute of Analysis of Words Nida, Eugene A. Morphology: The Descriptive kin Arbor: The University ofMichigan Press, 1946. (Translated by John WebsterSpargo). The Pedersen, Holger Century Discovery of Language: Linguistic Science inthe Nineteenth Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana UniversityPress, 1931. Theory of Pike, Kenneth L. Language in Relationto a Unified Summer Instituteof the Structure ofHuman Behavior,Glendale: Linguistics, 1954-60. Reducing Languages Pike, Kenneth L. Phonemics: A Technique for The University ofMichigan to Writing, Ann Arbor, Michigan: Press, 1947. Analysis of Phonetic Pike, Kenneth L. Phonetics: A Critical Technic for thePractical Descriptionof Sounds Theory and a 1943. Ann Arbor, Mich.: The Universityof Michigan Press, Survey Robins, R. H. General Linguistics: An Introductory Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana UniversityPress, 1964. ..3.

Culture, Language Sapir, Edward (ed.by David G.Mandelbaum). Berkeley, Calif.: Univ. ar,oUCalifornia Press, 1960. the Study of Seech Sapir, Edward. Lan ua e: An Introduction to 1921. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Wor 9 Charles Bally andAlbert de Saussure,Ferdinand (Edited by Sechehaye, in collaborationwith Albert Reidlinger;translated by Wade Baskin). Course in GeneralLinguistics London, England: Peter Owen Ltd.,1959. Sturtevant, Edgar H. An Introduction toLinguistic Science New Haven, Connecticut:Yale UniversityPress, 1947.

Waterman, John T. Perspectives inLinguistics Chicago: The University ofChicago Press, 1963. ENGLISH LINGUISTICS(GENERAL)

Allen, Harold B. (ed.). Readings in Applied EnglishLinguistics New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1964 (2nd ed.).

Allen, Robert Livingston. The Verb astem of Present-Day American English, The Hague,The Nethirri-nds: Mouton & Co., 1966.

Baugh, Albert C. A History of the EnglishLanguage New York: D. Appleton-Century Co.,1935 (2nd ed. 1958). Francis, W. Nelson. The En lish Lan ua e An Introduction: Background for Writing, NewYork: W. W. Norton & Co., 1963.

Francis, W. Nelson and McDavid,Raven I., Jr. The Structure of AmericanEnglish, New York: Ronald Press, 1958.

Friend, Joseph H. An Introduction to EnglishLinguistics Cleveland: The World Publishing Co.,1967.

Fries, Charles Carpenter. American English Grammar: The Grammatical Structure ofPresent-Day American Englishwith Special Reference to SocialDifferences or Class Dialects New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1940.

Fries, Charles Carpenter. The Structure of Ainglish: An Introduction to the Constructionof English Sentences New York: Harcourt, Brace and World,1952.

Hill, Archibald A. Introduction to LinguisticStructures New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1958(pp. 13-30).

Joos, Martin. The English Verb: Form & Meanings Madison, Wisconsin: The University of WisconsinPress, 1964.

Krapp, George P. The English Language inAmerica, 2 Vols. New York: The Century Co., 1925.

Kurath, Hans. A Phonology and Prosodyof Modern English Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press,1964.

Lees, Robert B. The Grammar of EnglishNominalizations The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1963. ENGLISH LINGUISTICS (GENERAL) -2-

Marckwardt, Albert H. American English New York: Oxford University Press, 1958.

Marckwardt, Albert H. Introduction to the English Language New York: Oxford University Press, 1942.

Mencken, H. L. An Inquiry into the Development of the American Lan ua e: En lish in the United States, (ed. by Raven I. McDavid, Jr. ), New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963.

Nida, Eugene A. A S no sis of En lish Syntax The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1966.

Nist, John. A Structural History of English New York: St. Martin's Press, 1966.

Pike, Kenneth L. The Intonation of American English Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1945.

Pyles, Thomas. The Origins and Development of the English Language, New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1965.

Pyles, Thomas. Words and Ways of American English New York: Random House, 1952. Robertson, Stuart (Revised by Cassidy, Frederic G.) The Development of Modern English, 2nd ed. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1954.

Sledd, James. A Short Introduction to English Grammar Chicago: Scott, Foreman and Co., 1958.

Thomas, Charles Kenneth. An Introduction to the Phonetics of American English, New York: The Ronald Press, 1958. Trager, George L. and Smith, Henry Lee, Jr. An Outline of English Structure Norman, Oklahoma: Bottenberg Press 1951.

Whitehall, Harold. Structural Essentials of English New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1951.

BaileyBeryl L. Jamaican Creole Syntax: A Transformation Approach, London: Cambridge University Press, 1966.

Cassidy, Frederic G. Jamaica Talk: Three Hundred Years of the English Language in Jamaica, London: Macmillan & Co., 1961.

McIntosh, Angus. Introduction to a Survey of Scottish Dialects University of Edinburgh Linguistic Survey of Scotland Monographs

No. 1 Edinburgh, Scotland: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., 1961. AMERICAN ENGLISHDIALECTS

"Grease and Greasy: A Study ofGeographical Atwood, E. Bagby. (University of Texas),1950, Variation" Studies inEnglish 249-260. "The Methodsof AmericanDialectology" Atwood, E. Bagby. (1963), 1-29. Zeitschrift fOrMundartforschung,XXX, No. I Eastern United Atwood, E. Bagby. A Survey ofVerb Forms in the University of MichiganPress, 1953. States, Ann Arbor,Michigan: Robins, Clarence) Cohen, Paul S.(Labov, William and Structure of EnglishUsed by Negro A PreliminaryStudy of the Speakers in NewYork City - AnOutline of and Puerto Rican Reports, (CornellUniversity, Research Results,Project Literacy Ithaca, N.Y.), No.7 (Sept.,1966) pp. 13-17. (ed.). Dimensions of Dialect Evertts, EldonnaL. of English,1967. Champaign, Ill.: National Councilof Teachers Handbook of theLinguistic Geographyof New Kurath, Hans. 1939. England, Providence,R.I.: Brown University,

Kurath, Hans andMcDavid, RavenI., Jr. of English inthe AtlanticStates The Pronunciation 1961. Ann Arbor: University ofMichigan Press, United States A Word Geographyof the Eastern Kurath, Hans. Michigan Press,1949. Ann Arbor,Michigan: University of lish in New The SocialStratification of En Labov, William. Center for AppliedLinguistics, 1966. York City,Washington, D.C.: Dialect Conversationstl_l_Negro American Loman, Bengt. Linguistics, 1967. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied (ed. 3), New York,1963. Maurer, DavidW. The Big Con, of an UrbanSociety" McDavid, RavenI., Jr. "The Dialectology du PremierCongressInternationale In Communicationset Rapports generale, 1960: Premiere Partie de Dialectology Windekens, 1964, pp.68-80. Louvain, France: A. J. Van and Inter-Group I., Jr. "Dialect Differences McDavid, Raven (1951), 27-33. Tensions" Studies inLinguistics, IX and SocialScience I., Jr. "Dialect Geography McDavid, Raven 1946-47. Problems" Social Forces,XXV: 168-172, AMERICAN ENGLISHDIALEC

-2- Nonsense AboutAmerican McDavid, RavenI., Jr. "Sense and No. 2, 1966,7-17. Dialects" PMLA, LXXXI, West" I., Jr. "The Talk ofthe Middle McDavid, Raven Middle West,(Autumn, 1966), Inland: The Magazineof the 12-17. Austin, WilliamM., (eds.) McDavid, RavenI., Jr. and Barriers tothe CulturallyDeprived Communication 2107), Washington,D.C.: Office Research Project Welfare, 1966. (Cooperative of Health,Education, & of Education,U.S. Dept. McDavid, VirginiaGlenn McDavid, RavenI., Jr., and to the of theSpeech ofAmerican Negroes "The Relationship XXVI: (1951), 3-17. Speech ofWhites" American Speech, of Englishin Metropolitan Pederson, LeeA. "The Pronunciation XLIV (1965). the AmericanDialect Society, Chicago" Publication of William A.(eds.). "Non-Standard Pederson, LeeA. and Stewart, Speech and theTeaching in Chicano" Non-Standard Nenro Spaech Series-2, Centerfor Applied of En911,a,Langui..0£nrormation Linguistics-1964. American Dialects,Champaign, Ill: W. Discovering Shuy, Roger of English,1967. National Councilof Teachers and theSouthern Drawl" Sledd, JamesH. "Breaking, Umlaut, Language, XLII(1966), 18-41. Wilma R. Dictionaries andthat Sledd, James,and Ebbit, Lexico ra hersand the A Casebook onthe Aims of Dictionary: Scott,.Foresmanand Co.,1962. Targets ofReviewers,Chicago: of Defining "Observations onthe Problems Stewart,William. CAL and NCTE,April, 1966. Negro Dialect" Washington, D.C.: the Historyof "SociolinguisticFactors in Stewart, William. Fl Reporter American NegroDialects" The Florida V, No. 2,(Spring, 1967)1-4. the GullahDialect. Turner, LorenzoD. Africanisms in Chicago Press,1949. Chicago: University of Taylor, PeterAlan (eds. G., Hendrickson,R. H., and Wilson, Kenneth York: Harcourt,Brace and Harbrace GuidetoDictionaries, New World, 1963. Dialects ofAmerican English Reed, CarrollE. Publishing Co.,1967. Cleveland andNew York: The World LINGUISTICS AND THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH

Brooks, Charlotte K. andStewart, William A. (eds.). "Some Approaches to TeachingEnglish as a Second Language" Non-Standard S eech and the Teachingof English Language Information Series-2,Center for Applied Linguistics 1964, $.50. Corbin, Richard, and Crosby,Muriel (co-chairmen). Language Programs for theDisadvantaged: Report of the NCTE Task Force on Teaching English tothe Disadvantaged, 1965.

Fries, Charles C. Linguistics and Reading New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965.

Golden, Ruth I. Improving Patterns of Language Usage Detroit, Michigan: Wayne State University Press,1960.

Holbrook, David. English for the Rejected: Training Literacy in the Lower Streams of theSecondary School, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1964. Hurst, Charles G., Jr., and Jones,Wallace L. "Psychosocial Concomitants of Sub-StandardSpeech" Journal of Negro Education,(Fall, 1966), 409-421.

Jones, Allen (ed.). Language Teaching, Linguistics,and the Teaching of English in aMultilingual Society, Kingston, Jamaica: Univ. of the West Indies Facultyof Educ., 1965.

Lin, San-su C. Pattern Practice in theTeaching of English to Students with a Non-StandardDialect, New York, N.Y.: Bureau of Publications, TeachersColiiiiTTolumbia University, 1965. Marckwardt, Albert H. Linguistics and the Teaching ofEnglish Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1966. McDavid, Raven I., Jr. "Dialectology and the ClassroomTeacher" College English, XXIII,(1962), 111-116.

Quirk, Randolph, andSmith, A. H. (eds.). The Teaching of English London: Oxford University Press,1964. Smith, Henry Lee, Jr. Lin uistic Science and theTeachin of English, Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1956. EDUCATING THE DISADVANTAGED

Bereiter, Carl and Englemann, Siegfried. Methodology, Elementary School; Projects, Urban and Rural Teaching Dis- advantaged Children in the Preschool, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966.

Cheyney, Arnold B. Teaching Culturally Disadvantaged in the Elementary School, Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books Inc., 1967.

Cowles, Millie (rd.). Perspectives in the Education of Disadvantaged Children, Cleveland, Ohio: World Publishing Co., 1967.

Gordon, Edmund W., and Wilkerson, Doxey A. c.(2.111EtE§A.t.911t Education for the Disadvantaged, Programs and Practices: Preschool through College, New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1966.

Hiskerson, Nathaniel. Education for Alienation, Englewood Cliffs, New Jerseit: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966.

Janowitz, Gayle. Helping Hands: Volunteer Work in Education Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1965. Jewett, Arno, Mersand, Joseph, and Gunderson, Doris V. (eds.) English Skills of Culturally Different Youth Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education, 1964.

"The Negro American" Daedalus, XCIV, No. 4, (Fall, 1965).

Pasamanick, B. and Knobloch, H. "Early Language Behavior in Negro Children and the Testing of Intelligence" Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, L, (1955) 401-402.

Shuy, Roger W.(ed.). Social Dialects and Language Learning Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1964.

U.S. Office of Education. National Conference on Education of the Disadvantaged: (Report of a National Conference Held in Washington, D.C., July 18-20, 1966) Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Webster, Staten W.(ed.). The Disadvantaged Learner: Knowing, Understanding, Educating, San Francisco, Calif: Chandler Pub- lishing Company, 1966.

44.0 EDUC.

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A. "Foreign LanguageTeaching Method in a Stewart, William and Quasi-Foreign LanguageSituation" Non-Standard SettEll English, LanguageInformation Series-2 the Teaching of Linguistics, 1964. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied A. (ed.). Non-Standard Speechand the Stewart, William Center for Applied Teaching of English,Washington, D.C.: Linguistics, 1964. TEACHING ENGLISH ASA FOREIGN LANGUAGE

French, and Shute,Margaret Allen, Robert L.,Allen, Virginia English Sounds andTheir Spelling New York: Thomas CrowellCompany, 1966. Listen and Guess Allen, Robert Z.,and Virginia F.Allen. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965. "Advanced Reading Baumwoll, Dennis,and Saitz, RobertL. Exercises in English asa SecondLanguage and Writing" 1965. New York: Holt, Rinehart,and Winston, Your New Benardo, Leo U.and Pantell,Dora F. En2lish: Silver Bur ettCompany, 1966. Language,Morristown, N.J.: City of New York. Teaching Dialogues Board of Education, Teacher s English as a NewLanguage Programfor Adults with Guide and Tapes,1966. New York, PuertoRican study Board of Educationof the City of to PuertoRican Pupils inGrades 1 and 2 Teaching English Board of Educationof the City Language GuideSeries, Mew York, of New York. Reprinted 1963. A PracticalGuide Cornelius, EdwinT., Jr. Teaching English: Forei n Lan ua e Washington for Teachersof En,lish as a oa as ngton, D.C.,1955. u cat ons, 3 T1 tary English Crowell, ThomasLee, Jr. Index to Modern New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964. Drills in FundamentalEnglish Dixson, RobertJ. Oral Pattern Company, 1963. New York: Regents Publishing in English Services. Drills and Exercises English Language Vowels, Washington,D.C.: Pronunciation: Consonants and Collier-MacmillanInternational, 1967. Selections for Finocchiaro, Maryand Lavenda,Hoch, Violet. Wew York: Regents Pib1ishing Co.,Inc., 1966. Learning English as aForeign C. Teaching and Fries, Charles Michigan Press,1945. Language, AnnArbor: University of Inter- Practical Conversationin English for Hall, Eugene J. Company, 1965. mediate Students,New York: Regents Publishing TEFL

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Halliday, M.A.K., McIntosh, Angus, and Strevens, Peter The Lin uistic Sciences and Lan ua e Teachin B oom ngton, n d.: Indiana University Press, 1964. Kane, John and Kirkland, Mary Contemporary Spoken English New York: Thomas Crowell Company, 1967.

Kaplan, Robert B. Reading and Rhetoric New York: The Odyssey Press, 1963.

Lado, Robert. Language Testing: The Construction and Use of Foreign Language Tests, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1961.

Lado, Robert. Linguistics Across Cultures: ApplildLinguistics for Language Teachers, Ann Arbor: University of Mihc . Press, TO-57.

Lane, Harlan. "Programmed Learning of a Second Language" Sonderdruk aus IRAL, II, No. 4, Nov., 1964, 249-301.

Lefevre, Helen, and Lefevre, Carl A. Writing by Patterns New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1965.

Macnamara, John. Bilingualism and Primary Education: A Study of Irish Experience, Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press, 1966. Newmark, Leonard, Jerome Mintz and Jan Ann Lawson Using American English, New York: Harper & Row, 1964.

Nichols, Ann Eljenholm. English Syntax: Advanced Composition For Non-Native Speakers. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965.

Plaister, Ted. English Monosyllables: A Minimal Pair Locator List for Teaching English as a Second Language, Honolulu, Hawaii: East-West Center Press, 1965. Available from Pub- lications Section, Center for Applied Linguistics, 1717 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036.

Roberts, Paul. English Sentences, New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1962.

Robinson, Lois. Guided Writing and Free Writing New York: Harper and Row, 1967.

Saporta, Sol. "Problems in the Comparison of the Morphemic Systems of English and Spanish" Hispania, XXXIX, 1956, 36-39. -3-

Shen, Yao and Crymes,Ruth H. Teaching English as aSecond Language: A ClassifiedBibliography, Honolulu, Hawaii: East-West CenterPress, 1965, llopp. Strevens, Peter, ed. piggies in La wir_MALImagm_IgAshini London: Oxford UniversitiPress, 6 . Hyman, Ruth L. Hoc as an AllophoneDenoting Open Juncture Hispania, XXXIX (1956) in SeveralSpanish-American Dialects," 293-299. Kahane, Henry R. andBeym, Richard. "Syntactical Juncture in Colloquial MexicanSpanish," Language, XXIV(1948), 388-396. Stockwell, Robert P.,and Bowen, J. Donald. The Sounds of English and Spanish(Contrastive StructureSeries, Charles A. Ferguson, GeneralEditor) Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965. I. Stockwell, Robert P.,Bowen, J. Donald,and Silva-Fuenzalida, "Spanish Juncture andIntonation" Language, XXXII(1956), 641-665. Pronun- Wolff, Hans. "Phonemic Structure andthe Teaching of ciation" Language Learning,VI (1956), 17-23. USING THE LANGUAGE LABORATORY

Hayes, Alfred S. itTeLaboratoriesFgmm4_vzIlities:TectLatinical Guide for the Select on urc ase se, an alntenance ew e a or nstruct on o. ce o ucation, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963.

Mathieu, G. "The Case for Tapes Without Pauses" Modern Language Journal, XLIX (1965), 40-43.

Modern Language Association. "A Dozen Do's and Don'ts for Planning and Operating a Language Lab or an Electronic Class- room in a High School" New York: Materials Center, Modern Language Association.

Morton, Rand F. "The Teaching Machine and the Teaching of Lang9ages: A Report on Tommorrow" PMLA, LXXV, No. 4, Part 2 (1960), 1-6.

Stack, Edward M. The Language Laboratory and Modern Language Teaching (revised ed.), New York: Oxford University Press, 1966. PARALANGUAGE AND NON-VERBALCOMMUNICATION

Austin, William M. "Some Social Aspects ofParalanguage" Canadian Journal ofLinguistics, XI (1965), 31-39.

Birdwhistell, Ray L. "Some Relations betweenAmerican Kinesics and Spoken AmericanEnglish" In: Smith, Alfred Y. (ed.), Communication and Culture, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Win- ston, 1966, pp.182-189. Birdwhistell, Ray L. "Kinesics", Chapter 3. In: McQuown, Norman A. The Natural Historyof an Interview, (in preparation), 1967. Birdwhistell, Ray L. Introduction to Kinesics Foreign Service Institute,Dept. ofSTIEF(TOT2).

Critchley, MacDonald. The Language of Gesture New York: Longman's Green, 1939.

Darwin, Charles. The Expression of theEmotions in Man and Animals, John Murray,London (1872) Reprinted D.Appleton & Co., New York, 1898.

Efron, David. Gesture and Environment New York: King's Crown Press,1941. Frank, Lawrence K. "Tactile Communications" Genetic Psychologl Monographs, LVI,(1957), 209-255. In: Communication and Culture, q.v., Smith,Alfred Y. (ed.), New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1966.

Gumperz, John J. "Dialect Difference andSocial Stratification in a North IndianVillage" American Anthropologist, LX,(1958), 668-682. Haldane, J. B. S. "Animal Communicationsand the Origin of Human Language" Science Progress,XLIII, (1955), 385-401.

Hall, Edward T. The Hidden Dimension,Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., 1966.

Hall, Edward T. The Silent Language,Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., 1959.

Hall, Edward T. "A System for Notationof Proxemic Behavior" American Anthropologist,LXV, (1963), 1003-1025. -2- Gestures" LaBarre, Weston. "The Cultural Basisof Emotions and Journal of Personality,(1947), 49-68.

Smith, Alfred Y.(ed.). Communication and Culture New York: Holt, Rinehart andWinston, 1966. Smith, Henry Lee,Jr. "An Outline ofMetalinguistic Analysis" Report of the ThirdAnnual Round TableConference on Lin uistics and Lan ua eStud Geor etown Mono rah Series 952

Trager, George L. "Paralanguage: A First Approximation" Studies in Linguistics,XIII (1958), 1-12.

Trager, George L. "Taos III: Paralanguage", Anthrosolosical Linguistics, (1960),24-30. ANIMAL BEHAVIOR AND "LANGUAGE"

Frisch, K. von. Bees, Their Vision, Chemical Senses,and Language,, Uttica, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1950

Frisch, K. von. The Dancing Bees

Kroeber, A. L. "Sign and Symbol in Bee Communications" Proceedin s of the National Academ of Sciences, XXXVIII 1952 , 753-758.

Fringe, H. and M. "The Language of Crows", ScientificAmerican CCI (1959), 119-131.

Scott, John Paul. Animal Behavior, 1958, (The NaturalHistory Library, N29).

Thorpe, N. H. "The Language of Birds", ScientificAmerican CXCV (1956), 129-138. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS AND SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Bram, Joseph. Language and Society, New York: Random House, 1955. Bright, William (ed.). Sociolinguistics: Proceedings of the UCLA Socio-Linguistics Conference,1964, The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1966.

Capell, A. Studies in Socio-Linguistics The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1966.

"Color and Race" Daedalus, XCUI, No. 2, Spring,1967.

Dance, Frank E.X. (ed.). Human Communication Theory: Original Essays, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967.

Fishman, Joshua A. Language Loyalty in the UnitedStates: The Maintenance and Perpetuationof Non-English Mother Tongues by American Ethnic and ReligiousGroups, The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1966.

Hall, Edward T., and Trager, GeorgeL. The Analysis of Culture Washington, D.C.: American Council of Learned Societies, 1953 (out of print).

Hockett, Charles F. "Animal Language and Human Language" The Evolution of Man's Capacityfor Culture (J. N. Spuhler, Editor) Detroit,1959.

McQuown, Norman A. "Linguistic Transcription andSpecification of Psychiatric InterviewMaterials" Psychiatry: Journal for the Study of InterpersonalProcesses, XX, No. 1, (1967),78-86.

McQuown, Norman A. The Natural History of anInterview (in preparation 1967). Pittenger, Robert E., Hockett,Charles F., and Danehy, John J. The First Five Minutes, Ithaca,N.Y.: Paul Martineau, 1960. Pittenger, Robert E., andSmith, Henry Lee, Jr. "A Basis for Some Contributions ofLinguistics to Psychiatry",Psychiatry, XX (1957), 61-78. Also in: Smith, Alfred Y. (ed.) Communi- cation and Culture New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,1966.

Sebeok, Thomas A., Hayes,Alfred S., Bateson, Mary Catherine Approaches to Semiotics: Transactions of the Indiana Conference on Paralinguisticsand Kinesics, The Hague: Mouton, 1964 COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS

Cherry, Colin. On Human Communications New York: Science Editions, Inc., 1961. Dolezel, Lubomir, Segall, Peter,and Vachek, Josef (eds.) Prague Studies in MathematicalLinguistics: Volume 1: Statistical Linguistics, AlgebraicLinguistics, and Machine Translation, University, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1966. Garvin, Paul L., and Spolsky, Bernard(eds.). Computation in Linguistics: A Case Book, Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1966.

Garvin, Paul L.(ed.). Natural Language and the Computer New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1963.

Hays, David G. Computational Linguistics New York: Ameveer Elsevier Publishing Co., 1967.

Hays, David G.(ed.). Readings in Automatic Language Processing New York: American Elsevier Publishing Co., 1966. v9

BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Allen, Harold B. Linguistics and English Linguistics New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1966.

Aural Aids in English for Foreigners Washington: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1964, llps., 250. Booth, Robert E., Manheim, Theodore, Satterthwaite, Diane A., and Dardarian, Gloria L. Culturally Disadvantaged: A Bibliography and Keyword-Out-of-Context (KWOC) Index Detroit, Michigan: Wayne State University Press, 1967. Educational Research Information Center (ERIC), U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare. Research in Educating

(No. 1 and 2), Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966. Ferguson, Charles A., and Stewart, William A. Linguistic Reading Lists for Teachers of Modern Languages, Washington: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1963, 114pp. $2.50.

Edmund W. Gordon, (ed.). IRCD Bulletin. Eric Information Retrieval Center on the Disadvantaged, Ferkauf Graduate school of Humanities and Social Sciences, 55 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10003. Hammer, John H. & Rice, Frank A. A Bibliography of Contrastive Linguistics, Washington: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1965, 41 pages, $1.50.

Haugen, Einar. Bilingualism in the Americas: A Bibliography and Research Guide, Publications of the American Dialect Society XXVI (1956). National Association for Foreign Student Affairs and the Insti- tute for International Education. Research in International Education, Published yearly.

Ohannessian, Sirarpi. Interim Bibliography on the Teaching of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Washington: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1960, 53 pages, 750.

Ohannessian, Sirarpi, et al. Reference List of Materials for English as a Second Language. Part I: Texts, Readers, Dictionaries, and Tests ,Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1964, 154pp. Ohannessian, Sirarpi, et al. Reference List of Materials for English as a Second Language. Part 2: Background Materials and Methodology. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1966, 105pp. BIBLIOGRAPHIES

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Ohannessian, Sirarpi. 30 Books for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language, Washington: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1963.

Rice, Frank A. and Guss, Allene. Information Sources in Linguistics: A Bibliographical Handbook, Washington: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1965, 42 pages, $1.50.

Walters, Theodore W., S.J. The Georgetown Bibliography of Studies Contributing to the Psycholinguistics of Language Learning Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1965. GLOSSARIES

Namp, Eric P. A Glossary of American Technical Linguistic Usage 2nd ed. Utrecht and Antwerp: Spectrum, 1963.

Pei, Mario. Glossarx_of Linguistic Terminology. New York: Columbia University Press, 1966. "SELECTED ARTICLES FROM LANGUAGE LEARNING"

Anthony, Ann. "Tools for Teaching Pronunciation," I, 131-134.

Buell, Maxine Guin. "Picture Exercises for Oral Drill of Structure Patterns," I, 96-115.

Dykstra, Gerald. "Teach Grammar," I, 83-86.

French, Virginia, "Do IDo That?" A Suggested Check List for Teachers of English as a Second Language," I, 46-50.

Fries, Charles C. "As We See It," I, 35-39. Lado, Robert. "Maintaining Interest" I, 59-61.

Lado, Robert. "Materials and Tests in English as a Foreign Language: a Survey" II, 31-37.

Lado, Robert. "Pattern Practice--Completely Oral" I, 42-45.

Lado, Robert. "Teaching General American r to Spanish Speaking Students" I, 141-146.

Lado, Robert. "Testing Control of the Structure of a Foreign Language" I, 193-211.

McIntosh, Lois, "Linguistic Science and the Practical World" I, 33-34. Reed, David W., Lado, Robert, and Shen, Yao. "The Importance of the Native Language in Foreign LanguageLearning" I, 17-23.

Reed, David W. "The Nature of Language" I, 17-23.

Shen, Yao, "Are You Missing A Contrast?" I, 40-41.

Wallace, Betty J. "The Importance of Classroom Atmosphere" I, 62-64.

Wallace, Betty J. "Pronunciation as a Two-fold Process" I, 128- 130. RESEARCH IN PROGRESS

(Osborn, Jean; Englemann,Siegfried; Reidford, Bereiter, Carl Development in Early Philip A.), "Accelerationof Intellectual for Culturally Childhood (AnAcademically-Oriented Preschool Deprived Children),"Institute for Research onExceptional Children: University of Illinois,Urbana. Goehl, Henry; Clark, Dennis; Wolf,Abraham; Halfond, Murray; (Labov, William), "TheDialect Remediation Ecroyd, Donand, and University,' Project of TempleUniversity-BereanInstitute,"Temple Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. of the Deutsch, Martin, etal. "Long-Range Investigation Developmental, Psychological andSocial Determinantsof the Learning andIntelligence, withParticular Emphasis on Influences," Institutefor Developmental Role of Environmental College. Studies, Departmentof Psychiatry: New York Medical for Dillard, J. L. "The Urban LanguageStudy of the Center 5 Applied Linguistics" The LinguisticReporter, VIII, No. (October, 1966), 1-2. Eddington, Neil, TitleUnknown, Department ofAnthropology: University of Californiaat Berkeley.

Entwisle, Doris R. "Analytic Studies ofChildren's Word John Associations," Department of ElectricalEngineering: Hopkins University,Maryland. Robert), "Prepara- Francis, Nelson W. (Bailey, Beryl and Maskill, and Course of Studyfor Improving theCommand tion of Materials College, of StandardEnglish of EnteringFreshman at Tougaloo Mississippi," BrownUniversity, Providence,Rhode Island. "Ethnic Use of Micro-Spacein Interpersonal Hall, Edward T. Chicago, Illinois. Encounters" IllinoisInstitute of Technology, Nemser, William,Stewart, William A.(Carroll, Hayes, Alfred S., Columbia Urban William, and Friedman,Anita), "District of Language Study"Center for AppliedLinguistics, Washington, D.C.

Hurst, Charles, "Identification ofPsychological Correlates Howard University, of Dialectolalia"Department of Speech: Washington, D.C. Standard Lin, San-su C. "Pattern Practice inthe Teaching of with a Non-StandardDialect" Department English to Students Louisiana (work of English: Southern University,Baton Rouge, done at ClaflinCollege, Orangeburg,North Carolina). "Study of StandardDialect of NegroCollege Laurence,Caroline. Language and Language Students," Center forResearch in Michigan, AnnArbor. Behavior: University of Department ofLinguistics: Uni- Lott, Marilyn,Title Unknown, versity ofCalifornia atBerkeley. and Midkiff,Ronald. "Some Evidence for Morin, Shirley Burrillville High Teaching English as aSecond Dialect" and Rome CitySchools, Ga. School, Harrisville,Rhode Island, in Children withEmphasis on Osser, Harry. "Speech Development who Speak a Non- of Syntax inUrban Children the Development Hospital, Baltimore,Maryland. Standard Dialect," John Hopkins Edwin J. "Development of Language Riegel, Klaus F.and Martin, Center for DevelopmentalStudies inSemantics," Functions: University ofMichigan, AnnArbor. Human Growthand Development; of "A Comparisonof SomeGrammatical Aspects Rumery, June. Department ofLinguistics: Non-Standard andStandard English" University ofCalifornia atBerkeley. Speech of NegroHigh Williamson, Juanita. "A Study of the Department ofEnglish, LeMoyne School Studentsin Memphis," College, Memphis,Tennessee. Dialect Researchat AmericanHigher Institutions. Current Social and the Washington, D.C.: Center forApplied Linguistics National Councilof Teachers ofEnglish. and the NCTEhave cooperated The Center forApplied Linguistics Clearing House forSocial DialectStudies to in forming the research in thefield. regularly issuesummaries of current write Roger Shuy,Center forApplied Linguistics, For information, Washington, D.C. 20036. 1717 MassachusettsAve., N.W., I.

Allen, Harold B.(ed.)

Second Edition. New York: Readin s in AppliedEh lish Linuistics. Appleton-Century-Crofts,19

relate to differenttopics in Ehglishlin- Allen has selectedpapers that background on thehis- parts of thebook give adequate guistics. The first two linguistics, and onthe varioustheories influ- torical developmentof modern compiled with The entirecollection has been encing Englishlinguistics today. For example, PartIV (Linguistics the needs of theEnglish teacherin mind. teachers face whenthe dicta of"traditional and Usage) dealswith the dilemmas of structurallinguists.Eleven grammar" do not correspondto'the stateMents points of view, the differencesin these two articles therespecifically treat two of the mosthelpful are"Prescriptivism drawing parallelswhere possible; Teaching," byArchibald A. Hill,and "Teachers' and Linguisticsin Language Womack. The sections on grammar Attitudes TowardCurrent Usage,"by Thurston (Part VI), and literaryanalysis and composition(Part V), the dictionary by is an especiallyinteresting paper (Part VII) are allgood; in the last Teaching IntroductoryLiterature." Seymour B. Chatman,"Linguistics and dialectology, the mostvaluable sectionwill be For thoseinterested in most papers init are on regional Part III, LinguisticGeography. .Although in Pronunciation,"by dialectology, at least one("Some Social Differences in social dialectology,and all papers Raven I. McDavidJr.) is devoted to information ondialectology. In addition to the section offergood general also appear inthe section: "Area Linguistics that by McDavid,the following "Linguistic Geographyand Ftieshman and the Teacherof English"(Hans Kurath), "The LinguisticAtlases: Our New Resource" Ehglish" (AlbertH. Marckwardt),

t, Page 2 - Allen (Readings)

(Harold B. Allen),' "Principal and Subsidiary Dialect Areasin the North Central

States" (Albert H. Marckwardt), "The PrimaryDialect Areas of the Upper Mid- west" (Harold B. Allen), "Grease and Greasy: A study of Geographical Variation"

(E. Bagby Atwood), and "Phonemics and Phonics in HistoricalPhonology" (Hans

Kurath). The book as a whole can be recommended asboth a good text and a valuable reference work.

A OW' .4 4-,evr.,- n - Atwood, E. Bagby

United States.Ann Arbor,Michigan: A Survey ofVerb Forms inthe Eastern University ofMichigan Press,1953.

examination of thefield records fromthe A very usefulbook based on an and South AtlanticStates. Linguistic Atlas ofNew England andof the Middle he used incompiling and evaluating Atwood has outlinedconcisely the methods records. He also hasgiven information on the pertinentmaterial from field study (TypeI--those of pooreducation, II-- the types ofinformants in the is further of superioreducation; each group those of faireducation, III--those informants, and B,middle-aged or younger, divided into A,aged or'old-fashioned are divided The verb formsin the survey proper hence more modern,informants). personal forms ofthe presentindicative, into six categories: tense forms, infinitive and presentparticiple, and number and concord,negative forms, in which they forms, the authorprovides the context phrases. For all these the pret- the worksheet); for example, occur(corresponding to the question on "He (began) totalk." The various respon- erit of "begin"recorded in context for each of,theitems; that is,in what ses tothis question arethen surveyed informants each item wasrecorded.There are regions and amongwhat types of of items andisoglosses areplotted. also 31 maps, onwhich the occurrences evaluates the data,discusses thegeographical The final sectionof the book verb forms, andsummarizes distribution of theforms, givesorigins of some

some ofthe characteristicsof popular usage. Baugh, Albert C.

A History of the EnglishLanguage. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1935.

For some time, this has been oneof the most popular texts for coursesin the History of the English language.The book begins with a section onlanguage and selected linguistic topics,including a chapter on the Indo-Europeanlan- guage family,which relates all branches of that familyand also reviews basic principles of dialect differentiationand language change, includingGrimm's law. With this as background, Baughthen traces the history of English from

Old English to Modern English. For each period, he relates changesin the

language to linguistic, cultural,and political influences.In the final chap-

ters, he gives a careful reviewof modern trends in the language,and of the

views of traditional grammarians onwhat is "proper". One chapter is devoted

to the English language inAmerica, including a settlementhistory, comments on

American ideas of purity in language,and a survey of American dialects.The

last is out of date, but thegeneral statements on dialects arevalid. There

are two appendices: one giving specimensof the Middle English dialects,and

one on Englishspelling. 1

Bloomfield, Leonard

Languav. New York: Holt, Rinehart andWinston, 1933.

of the densityof the material A rther difficultbook, mainly because is presented.The author covered rather thanthe manner inwhich the material nature of language,and then proceeds begins with generalstatements about the communities and thelanguages of the world. He pre- to a discussionof speech organization of a grammerand on grammat- sents a comprehensivesection on the the fundamentalassumptions of struc- ical theory, whichhas provided many of general principlesof historical and tural linguistics.He then traces the chapter on dialectgeography which, comparative linguistics. Also included is a of the basicprinciples under which though thirty-five yearsold, contains many

current dialectgeographers still operate. dealing with historicallinguistics, The final chaptersof the book, those the editorship ofHarry Hoijer, as have been reprintedin paperback, under Winston, 1965. Language Historx,New York: Holt, Rinehart and Francis, W. Nelson

The Structure of AmericanE:1;lish. New York: The Ronald Press, 1958.

including A standard non-transformationalintroduction to English structure, The phonetics, phonemics, morphemics,parts of speech, syntax, andgraphics. chapter on the analysis of sentencestructure, however, is ratherdated, since

the author uses of "Chineseboxes," now no longer in use, toseparate consti-

tuents.

Raven I. McDavid, Jr. hascontributed a chapter, "The Dialectsof American

English," which delimits themajor dialect areas of the easternUnited States.

McDavid also points out thesalient differences between thesedialects, and

traces the methodology usedin the Linguistic Atlas of theUnited States and

Canada. Fries, Charles Carpenter

of Present-Day American American English Grammar:The Grammatical Structure Differences or ClassDifferences. Ehglish with EspecialReference to Social 1940. New. York and London: Appleton-Century-Crofts,

The author uses letters A pioneer studyin social languagedifferences. writers of to the U. S. WarDepartment during WorldWar I, and divides the school graduates, these letters intothree classes: college graduates, high He then describes what usages and those of eighthgrade education orless.

were commonto each group. surprising, and certainlyat vari- Many of Fries'conclusions are rather example, that educatedspeakers ance withschool grammars. He discovered, for examples of "bad grammar."Because use "Iwill," "It's me," andother so called in the schools of these and otherfindings, Fries arguesthat English programs standard English, ratherthan be based on someempirically-derived concept of

on thepresumptuous dicta of"authorities." Fties, Charles C.

Holt, Rinehartand WinstonInc., 1962. Linguistics andReading. New York:

of modernlinguistic knowledge, an A non-technicaldescriptive survey in the light ofthat knowledge, analysis of thenature of thereading process of the kindsof materials towhich the and a detailedlinguistic examination responses. Fries reviews past reader must develophigh-speed recognition of reading andthe question oflanguage practice and theoryin the teaching spelling, both past After a surveyof English meanings andlanguage signals. presents theoutline of alinguistically sound and presentpatterns, Fries That approachinvolves three stages: approach to theteaching of reading. and the includes thelearning of letters the first, the"transfer" stage, second is thestage of"productive" reading, learning of spellingpatterns; the "vivid imaginativerealization". and the thirdis the stage of %%. %. 1%.

Gleason, H. A., Jr.

An Introduction to DescriptiveLinguistics, (revised edition) New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,1961.

One of the best introductionsto linguistics to date.After discussing analysis of the the ways the linguist viewslanguage, the author presents an

English language in order toillustrate the basic principles ofdescriptive

introduc- linguistics. He begins with morphology andsyntax, including a brief tion to transformational grammar.Then, he introduces articulatoryphonetics tha history of and the phoneme.The book concludes with chapters on dialects, writing, and the classificatioriof the languages of the world.

To best profit from thisintroduction, one should use it inconjunction with Gleason's, Workbook inDescriptive Linguistics (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955). Although the problems in theworkbook are seldom ones of

English structure, one can usethe workbook in order to betterunderstand how

the linguist solves languageproblems in general.Unfortunately, however, no

answer key to theproblems is provided.

, Gleason, H. A., Jr.

Linguistics and English Linguistics.New York: Holt, Rinehard and Winston, 1965.

An attempt to bridge the gapbetween the work of the linguist and the

teacher of English.The author divides his book intothree major sections.The

first traces both the history ofthe schoolroom grammar tradition andthe de-

velopment of modern linguistics.The second section contains a detaileddiscus-

sion of English grammars viewedmainly from the point of view of transforma-

tional grammar and immediateconstituent analysis. In the third section, the

author tries to form a bridge betweenthe first two parts, to show whatlinguis-

tics can add to the classroom Englishteacher's repertoire of ideas and methods.

He concludes by arguing for"critical thinking" about grammar. Hickerson, Nathaniel

Prentice-Hall, Inc., Education for Alienation.Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: 71966.

which demonstrates that our A burning indictmentof American education, disadvantaged child to a dis- present system ofeducation more often condemns a skills advantaged adulthood ratherthan eying him eitherthe motivation or the Hickerson views the result as avast waste to compete in thedominant culture.

of human energy, resources,and talent. Children from The process of alienationbegins in the elementaryschool.

disadvantaged homes enter withfewer skills (or withskills incompatible with affluent homes. the aims of middle-classteachers) than do children from more reading Since they are not yet"ready to learn to read,"they are put in remedial disadvantaged are held backin their groups, and,while other children progress,

grade, ability is oftenscreened with I.Q. learning. By the second or third accurately than innate abil- tests that actually testlearned knowledge much more assigned to "slow" ity. Children who have been inremedial groups are usually In high school, since classes, often taught byprejudiced, inadequate teachers. these children partici- they have inadequatepreparation in academic subjects, adequate teaching of pate in vocational programs.These seldom offer really To effect reform, Hickerson skills; the skills taught maynot even be marketable. facts con- makes the followingrecommendations: familiarize teachers with the and the effect of culture cerning the relationshipbetween race and intelligence institutions to give studentsexperience on behavior;require teacher-training deprived; purge from the teachin working with thechildren of the economically race-mindedness or social or ing profession any who arenot reasonably free of Page 2 - Hickerson(Alienation)

curriculums in thesocial sciences to economic caste-inspiredintolerance; alter casteless; eliminateI.Q. test- indicate that democracycan betruly raceless and children according tosupposed ability; ing; reconsider ourpractices of grouping economically deprivedinto the schoolenviron- try to bring thefamilies of the schools representativesof minority groups ment as participants;bring into our enlist the who have achievedeconomic success; and economicallydeprived peoples deprived who have donewell in school; aid of older childrenof the economically offered to theeconomically deprived;elimi- strengthen theacademic curriculum inservice education programsfor nate segregationin schools;institute massive public school work. teachers, administrators,and counselors in Koutsoudas, Andreas

New York: McGraw-Hill Writing TransformationalGrammars: An Introduction. Book Company, 1966.

The best and most recentintroduction to the field. The principles of applying the prin- transformational grammar areintroduced, and exercises in These exercises are ciples are liberallyinterspersed throughout thebook.

well organized, and answersto them are provided,along with extended discus-

sion of solutions. Kout- After introducing the basicconcepts of transformational grammar,

soudas proceeds to take upeach.aspect of such a grammarin turn; i.e., mor- The author includes an phophonemics, permutation,embedding, and the like.

appendix, in which all symbols arelisted and defined, and also aselected

bibliography. Kurath, Hans

Ann Arbor, Michigan: The A Word Geography ofthe Eastern UnitedStates. University of MichiganPress, 1949.

of New This study, based onthe field records forthe Linguistic Atlas geographical England and of theMiddle and South AtlanticStates summarizes the have been charted on distribution of over600 vocabulary items, of which many chapter, Kurath gives a surveyof the one of the163 maps. In the introductory States, of the national settlement areas and speech areasin the Eastern United sample, and of the typesof stocks and social classesrepresented in the Atlas and folk). He then speech represented byinformants (e.g., cultivated, common, of Eastern United States(Northern, gives an excellentoutline of the speech areas linguistic regions withineach Midland, and Southern) andof the various smaller includes ample examples to of the three majorregions. All such discussion individuality of a section.The substantiate statementsabout the linguistic reference work. book makes interestingreading, and is an excellent Kurath, Hans, andMcDavid, Raven /.9 Jr.

Atlantic States. Ann Arbor: The University The Pronunciationof En,lish in the of Michigan Press,1961.

is one of thefirst analyses of Based on LinguisticAtlas surveys, this of data(nearly 1500 informants). American pronunciationwhich used a large corpus techniques involved inthe Atlas, theauthors After discussingthe methods and cultivated speech alongthe eastern seaboard delineate the majordialect areas of regional and socialdifferences in of the U. S. They also discussin detail the consonants, and provide180 maps and charts. the pronunciationof vowels and Bloch, Julia andHansen, Marcus,L.) Kurath, Hans(with Bloch, Bernard;

Providence, R. I.: Handbook of theLinguistic Geographyof New England. American Council ofLearned Societies,1939.

results of the LinguisticAtlas of New A presentation ofthe methods and detail the dialect areasof New England, the Ehgland.After discussing in These methods concern authors explain themethods used in theAtlas project. selection of communitiesand informants, the the training offield workers, The settlement history conduct of interviews,and even editorialprocedures. biographies of theindividual informants. of New England isreviewed, as are the alphabet, the work sheets(questionnaire) Also included arethe Atlas phonetic bibliography of relevantworks on linguisticgeography. used in theproject, and a social dia- Without question, if oneis interested inAmerican regional and Here, in one volume, arenot only lects, the Handbookis "requiredreading". but also the resultsof the first major the methods usedby dialectologists,

linguistic atlas surveydone in the UnitedStates.

611& Language Teachers. Iinsuistics Across Cultures:Aulied Linuistics for Michigan Press, 1957. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of

this book offers Designed for use byteachers of foreign languages, for teaching a standard, methods equally applicableto developing materials Lado outlines the pro- second dialect tospeakers of a nonstandarddialect. grammatical structures, twovocab- cedures for comparingtwo sound systems, two In comparing any two ulary systems, twowriting systems, and twocultures. those parts of the newsystem systems, the teachershould be able to predict speaker of some otherlanguage, as which will be acquiredeasily by the native The easy and difficultaspects well as those thatwill present problemsfor him. language of the student. of the.new language vary,depending on the native Marckwardt, AlbertH.

Oxford UniversityPress, 1958. American English.New York: language in America. the historyof the English A good shortintroduction to and some English spokenin Americais like today, The book beginswith what the settle- British English. In tracing the of the waysit differsfrom present-day the characteris- States, Marckwardtdiscusses some of ment historyof the United settlers of America;it was Shakes- tics of theEnglish spokenby the original American English. In the the startingpoint for pearets languagethat formed influences of otherlanguages,(principally following chapterhe surveys the American Eng- Spanish, Dutch,and German) on American Indianlanguages, French, forms, and vocab- conservative trendsin pronunciation, lish.Some of the more British then discussed,and compared to ulary in AmericanColonial English are arose duringthe settlingof English of the sameperiod. Later innovations beyond theApplachians out that, asthe settlements the West. Marckwardt points and also appearedin these areas, prospered, aglorification ofthe commonplace

this was reflectedin the language. in American regional andsocial variations Marckwardt thendescribes the of individual pattern ofsettlement andthe history speech, tyingthem to the variations in placenames andsurnames across regions, and he coversbriefly the in the finalchapter. of AmericanEnglish is treated the country. The future their values,and list of phoneticsymbols with There is anappendix, giving a pronunciation of the transcribedphonetically in the a speechfrom Shakespeare

16th century. Marckwardt, AlbertH.

London andBloomington, Indiana: bincuistics and theTeachina_of English. Indiana UniversityPress, 1966. in English of linguisticscience be applied An argumentthat the findings how this can beaccomplished. The author classes, and somesuggestions as to to English grammar,and arguespersuasively compares thecurrent approaches He further pointsout that both"structural" against theprescriptive approach. be used; theyboth share the samepropensity and "transformational"grammar can what speech and not, asdoes prescriptive grammar, to describewhat is English

ought to be said. linguistics in the areasof usage, The author pointsto theoontributions of and reading, andnotes that, in composition, literarycriticism, spelling, appeal to to be sought. He closes with an each area,objectivity is a goal to languageteaching. all educators toadopt amore.enlightened approach McDavid, Raven I., Jr.

"Dialectology and the ClassroomTeacher" College English. (Nov., 1962), 111-116.

of Teachers In a paper given at the1961 meeting of the National Council that dialectology can helpthe of English, McDavidoutlines some of the ways the English teacher. The first part of the paperincludes an introduction to aims and methods of dialectologyin America. In the last half of the paper, aid the English McDavid cites specificexamples of the ways dialectology can following: teacher, especially theteacher of composition. Some of these are the English composi- students from German-speakingcommunities may carry over into phrase between tion the German habit ofinserting a participial or prepositional determiner and noun; AmericanNegro students may dropconventional inflectional suffixes from nouns or verbs;Southerners, including theeducated, pronounce misspell words the final consonant cluster-sts as just -s, and so they may used to into an such as fists, as fis; easternKentuckians sometimes convert would bake their own adverb, as in the sentence,"Used to, everyone around here

bread"; students who have nocontrast between horse andhoarse, former and farmer,

do and due, and cot andcaumht may have spellingproblems with these words. McDavid, Raven I.,Jr.

PMLA, LXXXI(1966), 7-17. "Sense and Nonsenseabout AmericanDialects"

examples of someof the nonsense In this article,McDavid offers concrete expressed in otherwiserespectable quarters; about dialectscurrently being dialect study inAmerica summarizes the methodsof and typesof findings from it significance of dialectstudy, especially as and Europe; anddiscusses the nonsensical ideasMcDavid has docu- relates to teachersof English. Among the there is a mystical"standard", mented are thefollowing: (1) a belief that dialects (2) a belief thatthere are "racial" devoid of allregional association; "strong" experiences; (3)snobbishness toward independent ofsocial and cultural of nonparallelterms such as dialects, such asthat of Boston;and (4) equating study, In his historicalreview of dialect "pidgin," "Cajun,"and "Midland." Linguistic Atlas ofthe U.S. andCanada, and he includesinformation on the else- New York City,Chicago, Akron, and similar projects onsocial dialects in facts about Americandialects, including where. In conclusionhe states some

these: varieties of AmericanEnglish and manysubvarieties 1. Most regional can indicate can now bedescribed; fromthese descriptions, we that are to befound further some of thesocial differences cities. in various dialectareas and in some major

between external normsand the expectations 2. There are tensions lower middle class. of one's associates,especially in the acquire a in slum areashave been found to 3. Ambitious students any teachingprogram high degree offunctional bidialectalism;

should make useof this humanfacility. Page 2 - McDavid (Sense)

4. Grammatical forms are the surest social markers in American

English; hence should be the first target of any teaching

program.

5. Relatively few pronunciation features are clear socialmarkers.

6. Few people can really identify the race of a speaker by pro-

nunciation and voice quality.

7. There can be no single standard in programs for thedisadvantaged;

target dialect must vary according to the standard ofthe region.

8. The dominant culture must be educated in the causesand signifi-

cances of dialect differencesif it is to be expected to be more

tolerant of deviations from its own dialects. Mencken, H. L.

The American Language: AnInquiry into the Development ofEnglish in the United Alfred A. States. (edited and abridged by Raven I. McDavid,Jr.) New York: Knopf, 1963.

A thorough study of the waysby which Americans, beginningwith the language at the timeof Shakespeare, have developedtheir own brand of English, quite distinct from the Englishof the British Isles. The author traces the various foreign influences(German, Spanish, Yiddish, etc.) on AmericanEnglish, untechnically discusses the differentparts of speech, comparesAmerican and

British English, and much more.McDavid has added much newinformation,separated by square brackets, intoihe running text.

In the comparison of Britishand American English, the sections onHonori-

fics, Jargon, Euphemisms,Forbidden Words, Terms of Abuse, andExpletives show

Mencken at his best; hence, they areboth informative and amusing.

But this classic study is far morethan a mere compendium oflinguistic

facts about American English. In fact, the book as a wholeis organized to

make one rhetorical point: that the American language isfar superior to the questionable, The American Language is English language. While this is certainly

a must for anyonewho is in any way involvedin the teaching of English. Reed, Carroll E.

Dialects of American En.lish, Cleveland andNew York: The World Publishing Co., 19.7.

An introduction to the basic principles ofdialectology, as well as to the history of the major dialect areas ofthe United States. The author discusses published andunpublished dialect research and research now in progress.

He concludes with some observations on "the futureof American dialect studies."

This is, perhaps, the best introduction for thoseunfamiliar with American dialectology.In addition to the background material that thebook itself provides, the author has included a bibliography whichlists the most important studies in the field. Robertson, Stuart (revised by Cassidy, FredericG.)

The Develowent of Modern English.Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,

An easy-to-read text, which firstdiscusses the nature of language, spec- ulates about its origin, and then focuses onthe English language. There is

an extensive treatment ofEliglish as a member of the Indo-European family which

is analyzed in some detail. In the section of the book on the history of the

language, each chapter deals with a different aspectof English. First the

authors trace the history of English sounds andinflections, then the sources

of, and changes in, the English.vocabulary, and,finally, historical develop-

ments in syntax and usage.They conclude with two chapters on the modernperiod:

one on dictionaries and spelling,and one on pronunciation. A glossary is also

Trovided. Sapir, Edward

Harcourt, Language: An Introductionto the Study ofSpeech. New York: Brace & World, 1921.

the relationship betweenlan- In his classic study,the author discusses patterns and the word; guage andthought, with referenceboth to phonological Sapir outlines gram- both of which areviewed as "psychologicalentities." compounding of roots,inter- matical processes(e.g. reduplication, affixing, change) prior to introducingthe topic nal vowel change, andinternal consonant that a languageorganizes concepts of form in language. He considers the way The book includes a in a sentence to becentral to the form ofthat language. typological classification of linguisticconcepts. Later, Sapir presents a

(2) classification for languages,based on (1) the typesof concepts expressed, fusional, agglutinative, or sym- the technique ofexpression (e.g., isolating, to language bolic), and (3) the degree ofsynthesis. Two chapters are devoted languages in- as a historicalproduct; these, alongwith the chapters on how especially interesting fluence each other and onlanguage, race and culture, are

4kOx'sterms) and phonetic law to dialectologists. Language change("drift" in changes resulting from are covered,with special attentionpaid to morphological languages influence eachother includes phonetic changes.The chapter on how The chapter sections on borrowingand phonetic modificationof borrowed words.

the notion that languageand race are on language, race,and culture destvoys considers style in literature as necessarily congruent.The final chapter of the language in whichthe something conditioned bythe inherent features

literary work is written. Shuy, Roger W.

National Council of Discovering AmericanDialects. Champaign, Illinois: Teachers of English,1967.

It offers anintroduction both A book designedfor use in theclassroom. regional), and to how oneinvestigates to the nature ofdialects (social and pronunciation differences,Shuy outlines them systematically. In the section on classroom and homeworkexercises to helpstudents practical phonetics,and suggests regional variants ofvocabulary develop skill intranscription. A checklist for differences. Although gramma- items is includedin the discussionof vocabulary and vocabularychoices for tical choices are asimportant as pronunciation for determiningregional differences. determining sociallevels, they are less so items for which some Included in the bookis a listing ofthose grammatical In a chapter on the reasonsfor dialect regional association canbe identified. settlement history;patterns of popu- differences, Shuydiscusses patterns of isolation because ofmountain lations, and patternsof physicalgeography, such as the major regionalAmerican dialect areas, ranges orrivers.After introducing languages on Americandialects. There Shuy discusses theinfluence of foreign For all sections inthe book, exercises is also a chkpter onliterary dialects.

are givenin the form offieldwork assignments. Shuy, Roger(ed.) National Council Learning. Champaign,Illinois: Social Dialectsand Languare of Teachers ofEnglish,3.964.

social dialectology,held at the The proceedingsof a conference on Alva L. Davis ofthe IllinoisInsti- University of Indianaand directed by by Raven I.McDavid, Jr., dis- tute ofTechnology.The introductory paper, the remaining papersdeal with different cussessocial dialectologyin general;

aspects of theproblem. and Roger Shuydiscuss their ownthen Lee A. Pederson,Juanita Williamson, Ruth I. Golden,and Thomas J.Creswell current projects,and San-su C..Lin, Then, WilliamLabov, BerylBailey, and discuss existingschool programs. research projects. of completedsocial dialect Charles Fergusonpresent reports represented by RobertGreen, John Gumpery, The otherbehavioral sciences were implications for futureresearch werediscussed by and Henry Levin,and the Albertt.'. Doris Gunderson,and W. NelsonFrancis. Muriel Crosby,Charlotte Brooks, the areas of the proceedings,and pointed out H. Marckwardtprovided the summary which were notdiscussed. not reached,and the areas on whichagreement was and was Sledd, James and Ebbit,Wilma R. (eds.)

Scott, Foresman andCo., 1962. Dictionaries and THATDictionary. Chicago:

and a collection ofreviews and Both an intioductionto lexicography Dictionary (the "THATdictionary" of articles on Webster'sThird International present an "introductionto the history and the title). First, the authors they quote passagesfrom such famous intent of Englishlexicography," in which and Richard C.Trench. lexicographers as NoahWebster, Samuel Johnson, reception of Webster III,contains The second sectionof the book, on the clear that most of thereviewers a largesample of reviews. It soon becomes presented in part one,for they betray themselves had never readthe materials

traditions. an awesomeignorance of lexicographical contains DwightMacdonald's attack The third section,titled "Postscript," Kilbourn's and JamesSledd's answers. on structurallinguistics, and Patrick others, the authors In addition topresenting the reviewsand essays by discussion and alsosuggest topics for provide a number ofquestions for class

classroom use. long papers, makingthis book ideal for

LH Smith, Henry Lee,Jr.

Cambridge, Massachusetts: Linpistic Science andthe Teaching ofEnglish. Harvard UniversityPress,19667

School of Education of Smith's 1954 "InglisLecture" to the Graduate the lecture provides anintroduction Harvard University. The first part of relevance his work maybe to the educator; to what a linguistdoes and of what the differencesbetween speech and also included inthis part are statements on of the spoken lan- writing, and on theimportance of awarenessof the structure reading and, to thosewho must teach a guage, especiallyto those who teach The second part ofthe lecture is standard spokendialect to their pupils. to the vowel andsuprasegmental phonemes of technical: A brief introduction clearly written andmakes a good intro- American English. This section is very In the last sectionof duction to Trager-Smithphonemic analysis ofEnglish. relevance of suchinformation for teaching the lecture, theauthor discusses the approach to the solvingof English, and makes a pleafor an interdisciplinary

classroom problems. Stack, Edward M.

Modern Lan ua eTeachinG.revised edition, The Lanmua eLaboratory and Press, 19 New York: Oxford University laboratories, the nature and kindsof language After firstdiscussing the The laboratory can beused to bestadvantage. author tellshow the language should be thecreation after the labis installed, first priorities,for example, staff, eachmember its use, and theestablishment of a of routineprocedures for to perform. of which withspecific duties in some detail. and studentsis spelled out The use of thelab by teachers (i.e., pattern different drillsto be used Not only doesthe authordiscuss the ways tointegrate the labexperience drills of variouskinds), he also presents for in each. In and what goalsshould be aimed with theclassroom experience, different ways toevaluate studentperformance, the last chapter,he suggests procedures. how to constructadequate testing and providesseveral hints on

.1 Stewart, William A.(ed.)

Language InformationSeries 02. Non-Standard S.eech andthe Teachinr ofEn lish. Linguistics, 1964. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied

Language Teaching Methods A collection ofthree papers. The first, "Foreign is Stewart's. In it, he gives four exam- in Quasi-ForeignLanguage Situations," teaching achieves little successbecause ples of situationsin which English designed for teachingnative speakers of the materials andmethods used are speech is either acreole, as in standard English,while the students' own that there isstructural Jamaica, or a dialect sodevient from the standard In the second paper, mismatch, as in manyurban schools in theUnited States. Lee A. Pedersonsummarizes some of his "Non-Standard NegroSpeech in Chicago," phonology of ChicagoNegros and whites."Some findings from acomparison of the Language," by CharlotteK. Brooks, Approaches to TeachingEnglish as a Second taught successfully asif suggests (1) thatstandard Englishshould and can be non-standard dialect,and it were a secondlanguage to children who speak a reject his firstdialect. (2) that the child ought notto be taught to Thomas, Owen

of Ehdiah.New York: Holt, Transformational Grammarand the Teacher Rinehart and Winston,1965.

teacher, thisbook provides the"easiest" Specifically gearedto the English with a transformational grammar. The author starts entry into thesubject of transformational approachesto definition of grammar,and then worksthrough speech"), and someelementary permutation grammatical categories(i.e., "parts of statement on theplace of(transformational) transformations. He also includes a analysis can bemade relevant tothe grammar inthe schools, andhow grammatical is included. study of literature. A bibliography Waterman, John T.

of ModernLinguistics. Ptrspectives in Linistics: An Accountof the Back round Chicago Press, 19 3. Chicago: The University of

traces the historyof linguistics This very short(about 100 pages) book four sections: (1) The study from ancient timesuntil 1950. The work falls into (2) Medieval and EarlyModern Periods,(3) The of Language inAncient Times, Century to 1950.On the whole, itis Nineteenth Century,and (4) The Twentieth their ideas, andespecially of how an abreviatedbut lucidaccountof people and philosophical andscientific ideas oftheir linguistic theoriesrelate to other Neo-Grammarians, PragueSchool, 'leo- times. Major members of"schools" (e.g., contributions to linguistic Bloomfieldians) are discussed,along with their Rather than discusstheories in thought and theirinfluences on eachother. illustrate key pointswith data fromvarious abstract terms,Waterman chooses to enhances its clarity. Tables of phonetic languages, a featureof the book that bibliography are alsoincluded. characters and aselected, annotated Whorf, Benjamin Lee

Lanakage, Thoughtaand Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. John B. Carroll (ed.) Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press,195677

Whorf's basic statements ongrammatical categories and on the organization of a descriptive grammar areincluded in this collection. In addition, the book has an introduction bythe editor, a long-time friend of Whorf, and a forward by Stuart Chase. Whorf arrived at his conclusions about grammarsthrough his experience with American Indianlanguages, especially with Hopi. One of the most stimulating and.controversialideas in linguistics also derives from his findings: the Whorf hypothesis(or the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis).After comparing the world views held by nativespeakers of Hopi and other non-Indo-European languages to those held by speakersof English and other Indo-Europeanlanguages,

Whorf concluded that a person's view ofreality is shaped by the grammatical

structure of his native language.The paper, "Science and Linguistics",is the

classic statement of this hypothesis.The book also includes articles on Mayan

hieroglyphs and on language and thought.