No.1 April 2005

What Is The Dutch Integration Model, And Has It Failed?

For a long time the Dutch concept of a multicultural society understood simply as a reaction to immigration in the 1970s has been seen in Europe, and particularly in Germany, as a and 1980s. It is based more on the concept of so-called model of successful integration of people from different origins ”Verzuiling“ (based on ”pillars“), which constituted the historical and of different religions. The murder of Dutch fi lmmaker Theo foundation of the Dutch nation-state. Under this concept, the van Gogh by a fundamentalist Muslim in November 2004, state structure is composed of a number of different cultural, however, sparked off an active debate in both the Netherlands religious or political groups, or ”pillars“ (Wielenga/Taute, 2004). and Europe more generally about the success or failure of this The different groups are therefore represented in state policy multicultural model of integration. through structured negotiations within the polder system. The What is the ”Dutch model”? Why did it serve as an example participation of ethnic minority groups in society on the same for Germany? And has this Dutch model of integration failed? basis was meant to be facilitated in 1985 by granting local voting rights to foreigners, a comparatively easy naturalisation What is the ”Dutch model”? Background, process and comprehensive anti-discrimination legislation development, features introduced in 1994. The approach therefore involved placing an emphasis on consensus and tolerance, and especially the A ”Dutch model” exists in multiple areas of politics. incorporation of ethnic groups into all relevant areas of policy. In numerous analyses the so-called ”Polder Model” has These were also the features that characterised the ”Dutch been identifi ed with features including consensus between model“ as it was understood abroad. In the international employers, trade unions and the government, a policy of wage context of the 1990s the Netherlands even put itself forward restraint, reduction of state expenditure and deregulation. as ”gidsland“ – leading country (Böcker/Thränhardt, 2003). Within society this has led to the sale of soft drugs in coffee Public servants spoke of the ”Dutch model“ at international shops, the legalisation of euthanasia and possibility of conferences. adoption by homosexual couples. These features represent a This comparative self-confi dence on the part of the specifi cally Dutch laissez-faire way of life. Netherlands is in stark contrast to the situation in Germany. The relevant aspect of this ”Dutch model” here is that of For decades, German migration and integration policy has integration policy. A central element of this is what was in 1979 been characterised as ”failed”, ”defi cient”, and certainly less identifi ed as a ”Minority Policy”, which aimed to support and effective than that of its European neighbours. Of the now empower different ethnic communities. Under this policy, the three well known models of integration – assimilation (France), most important ethnic minorities established state-funded multiculturalism (Netherlands) and ”guest worker” (Germany) advisory bodies, through which they could be represented – the German ”anti-integration model” has been seen both in on a wide range of issues affecting them. The opinions of these bodies had to be taken into consideration by 1996 2005 (January) 2020 (Forecast) Allochtonen* - Population in total 2,498,715 (16,1%) 3,112,431 (19.1%) 4,152,415 (24.7%) all state bodies. The advisory bodies Turkish origin 271,514 357,911 451,717 still exist today, although they are Surinamese origin 280,615 328,312 374,720 accorded less weight. In addition, the Morrocan origin 225,088 314,699 431,957 state promoted radio and television Dutch Antilles + Aruba origin 86,824 129,721 188,865 production in minority languages and EU-24 810,070 allowed different denominations and Non-western Foreigners (Turkish, Africa, Latin America, Asia, with religious groups to set up religious exception of Indonesia and 1,171,113 (7.5%) 1,691,982 (10.4%) 2,425,016 (14.4%) schools. It also ensured that students Japan) of immigrant families receive mother- Total population Netherlands 15,493,889 16,294,847 16,799,820 tongue lessons on empowerment from * In its population fi gures, the Netherlands distinguishes between ”Autochtone” and ”Allochtone”. According their own cultural perspective. to offi cial Dutch CBS Statistics, a person with at least one parent born overseas is designated as ”allochtoon”, The underlying ideal of state regardless of the place of their birth (Holland or elsewhere). This is an unusual way of categorising national data on immigration, and implies that Dutch fi gures on immigration appear as somewhat infl ated in international assistance to promote equality comparisons. of minority groups should not be Source: Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (CBS). Policy Brief No. 1

France and the Netherlands as an example of bad practice. The declared that ”my tolerance does not stretch to intolerance”, a Dutch model of multicultural and tolerant coexistence of people dictum that Pim Fortuyn took over ten years later. Scholars had from different cultures was taken as proof that such a diverse also during the 1990s pointed to the high unemployment levels society was possible. The perception of the Netherlands as a among ethnic minorities, their underachievement at school, model was then reinforced by the xenophobic fi re-bombings and their poor living conditions – and the ensuing problems for and attacks on foreigners in Germany at the beginning of integration. The anthropologist Jan Rath (1997) drew attention the 1990s. Thus the Federal Government Commissioner to the fact that Dutch minority policy identifi ed minority groups for Migration, Refugees and Integration as well as other as culturally distinct and therefore as unable to fi t in with institutions and even the ”Süssmuth Commission”1 referred to prevalent socio-cultural norms and to adapt to western culture. the Netherlands as an example of good practice. According to Rath, the idea of supporting for minorities through special programmes had had precisely the opposite effect. The The end of the Dutch integration model? result of the policy was that migrants were perceived as being particularly needy or low-skilled, and seldom viewed as equal The assassination of the fi lmmaker and columnist Theo van partners. The author and commentator Paul Scheffer also Gogh in November 2004 in Amsterdam sparked an Europe-wide emphasised the poor socio-economic situation of immigrants in debate about the ”failure of the Dutch model of integration”. the Netherlands in his article ”Het multiculturele drama” (2000). Unlike the previous murder of the politician Pim Fortuyn by According to Scheffer the high level of tolerance towards ethnic an animal-rights activist, the murder of Theo van Gogh was minorities and their alternative lifestyles created a situation in motivated by Islamic fundamentalist ideas. As a well-known and which the Dutch public overlooked the poor socio-economic provocative public fi gure, van Gogh had always made much of situation of immigrants in the Netherlands. The commentator his right to freedom of speech and had made a short fi lm about therefore demanded that underlying problems and confl icts be the suppression of women in Islam together with Ayaan Hirsi recognised and addressed. Ali, another critic of Islam and a Member of Parliament for the This call for a more honest exposure of the problems right-of-centre liberal VVD.2 In fact, Hirsi Ali herself had been emerging from the coexistence between the native population the intended target of the assassination, which was carried out and migrant communities has been characterised by by a Dutch national of Moroccan descent. Dutch Philosopher Baukje Prins (2002) as ”New Realism”. Dutch public opinion saw the murder as an attack on the This New Realism aimed to break taboos and positioned highly valued principle of freedom of speech – although many itself in opposition to the dominant political correctness. also acknowledged that van Gogh had gone too far in his Representatives of the ”new realism” view themselves as the critique. In the days after the assassination there were a series mouthpiece of the public, articulating a number of popular of attacks and counter-attacks on more than a dozen Mosques, concerns. In the short period between Pim Fortuyn’s fi rst Churches and Islamic schools. These events brought into involvement in local politics in Rotterdam and his murder in focus the question of whether the Netherlands really was a 2002 just before the national elections, he had made this New model of successful integration, and indeed whether or not Realism politically acceptable within the Dutch debate. As a inter-religious and multicultural coexistence was possible at all. professed homosexual opposing the homophobic statements Central to the debate was the question of whether the focus on of a radical Imam in Rotterdam, the controversial politician tolerance had served ultimately to gloss over a number of quite Fortuyn gained a certain legitimacy when he called for ”no real and pressing social problems. tolerance towards the intolerant”. Religion (in % of the total 1998 2003 population) A new view of their German neighbours Roman Catholic 31,0% 30,0% The multicultural consensus was therefore already breaking Protestant (evangelical- down in the Netherlands in the 1990s. By the beginning of 21,0% 19,0% lutheran, calvinist) the new century, it led to the appointment of an Investigative Muslim 4,6% 5,7% Commission by Parliament.3 The Committee was set up to None 41,0% 42,0% look into the question of why Dutch integration policies of the previous thirty years seemed to have gone wrong. Source: CBS (see above). The common view of the German situation also changed. In particular, comparative research on the integration of migrants Intention and reality: Growing criticism into the labour market in Germany and the Netherlands generated debates not just amongst researchers but also in the within the Netherlands since the 1990s broader public. The Dutch sociologist Ruud Koopmans (2003) commented on the paradoxical situation whereby the socio- Although the murder of Theo van Gogh triggered a spate economic integration of migrants in Germany, a country with of German commentaries heralding the end of the idea of no special integration policy, was seemingly more successful multicultural society, in the Netherlands there had already been than that in the Netherlands, a country with a longer tradition quite high profi le criticism of the multicultural policy since the of integration policies. With regard to the situation in the labour early 1990s. market, at the beginning of the 21st century the Netherlands In 1991 the future EU Commissioner Frits Bolkestein was had a unemployment rate among so-called ”Allochtonen” four one of the fi rst sharp critics of Dutch integration policy. He

page 2 Policy Brief No. 1

times higher than in the native population: in Germany, by and the degree of identifi cation with various norms and values contrast, the unemployment rate is ”only” twice as high. prevalent in the host country. Such elements are clearly more As a possible explanation, it has been suggested that the diffi cult to measure, but they are nonetheless important education and training system in Germany offers comparably aspects of successful integration. In the search for such criteria good chances for young migrants to start a career. In addition, and measurements of success in integration, it may therefore the representation of migrants in trade unions and staff be worth considering a wider range of indicators. This may associations in Germany is better developed than in the also imply adopting a more pragmatic approach, that does not Netherlands, a factor that experts have argued is more effective in protection against discrimination than any sophisticated anti-discrimination legislation (Thränhardt/Böcker, 2003). Commentary: Dr. Jeroen Doomernik, Institute for Migration and Ethnic Studies (IMES), University of Amsterdam 25 Unemployment as % Since the year 2002, and in particular following the events among 15-64 year old 20 22% surrounding the politician Pim Fortuyn, the integration of 'Autochtonen' in the immigrants and their children has been the focus of the Netherlands 15 Dutch policy agenda. However, there have been few efforts 14% to pin down what the term ”integration“ actually means. It is 10 widely assumed that integration is coterminous with cultural 9% Unemployment as % among 15-64 year old assimilation. In this context, Islam is often singled out as a 5 6% 4% 'Allochtonen' in the particularly problematic: it is frequently characterised as 3% Netherlands 0 incompatible with the Netherland’s liberal values, with little 1996 2001 2003 attempt to distinguish between different types of Islam. The current debate also simply disregards certain Source: CBS. aspects of integration. For example, the percentage of the ”Allochtone“ in the labour market has increased steadily Role models, integration models: where over the past years, and their access to the labour market next? has been continually improving. Considerable progress has also been made in the area of education, which seems to Against this background, Dutch integration policy has have been equally ignored in the debate. adopted some of the features of a more assimilationist The focus on cultural assimilation is all the more approach in recent years. Already by 1998 there was an astonishing when one considers that the Netherlands has obligatory integration programme for new immigrants that for many centuries been successful in respecting religious included 600 hours of language classes, social studies pluralism. This form of intra-societal interaction has applied and careers advice. The new system was heavily criticised, to both politics and the administration. It would seem, among other things, for its assimilationist leanings, but now however, that today this can no longer be taken for granted. it is an approach that is generally accepted. Moreover, the The current public debate is triggering opposition from the government plans to introduce a basic Dutch language test in immigrant groups at which it is targeted, thereby bringing the country of origin for potential new immigrants who intend about precisely the opposite of what is aimed at – and in the to become permanent residents. These immigrants would worst case, becoming a self-fulfi lling prophecy. ”Multicultural subsequently have to gain an additional language qualifi cation co-existence“ has been reinterpreted as ”assimilation“, and after arrival in the Netherlands. This tendency for moves recent immigration policies would be best described by the towards greater integration requirements can be understood word ”inhospitable“. as ”post-multicultural” (Michalowski, 2004). The trend in the public debate about these measures also refl ects academic This all raises the following question: Is what we are discussions about ”the return of assimilation” (Brubaker, witnessing simply a transitional phase for Dutch society, 2003). which will precipitate renewed refl ection on traditional Do these developments imply the unmitigated failure of values of tolerance? Or does it imply a fundamental break the Dutch multicultural model? To answer this question, it is with past values? useful to take a step back from these particular cases, and In this era of globalisation in which people are so mobile, reconsider the more general issues at stake in this debate: governments are encouraging all forms of international how can we defi ne integration, and what sorts of indicators co-operation, as well as student and labour exchanges help measure its success? And which sorts of policy measures as a foundation for knowledge-based economies. In this introduced in different countries have been successful, and context, countries need to adopt an open and constructive why? The integration of immigrants into the labour market is approach towards immigration and integration issues. We one important aspect of integration, which is relatively easy to can only wait and see how the Netherlands will manage measure and compare. But other important aspects should these contradictory objectives. not be overlooked. Also crucial is the level of social interaction between immigrants or ethnic minorities and the wider society;

page 3 Policy Brief No. 1

constantly revert to the classic national integration models of ”assimilation” or ”multiculturalism”. In fact, European countries and the European Commission are now working together to develop precisely such indicators of integration.

Footnotes

1 Report of the Independent Commission ”Structuring Immigration, Fostering Integration”, 4 July 2001. 2 Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (People’s Party for Freedom and Democracy). 3 The commission was named ”Commissie Blok” after its Chairperson.

About the Author: Ines Michalowski is completing her PhD at the Political Science Institute, University of Münster and the Centre for Sociology of Organisations (Sciences-Po/CNRS), Paris.

References Further Reading • Böcker, Anita/Groenendijk, Kees (2004), Einwanderungs- • Haus der Niederlande (Universität Münster), Dossier zur und Integrationsland Niederlande. Tolerant, liberal und multikulturellen Gesellschaft und Migration und zur “Akte offen?, in: Friso Wielenga/Ilona Taute (Hrsg.): Länderbericht Van Gogh”, accessible at: http://www.uni-muenster.de/ Niederlande. Geschichte – Wirtschaft – Gesellschaft, Bonn, HausDerNiederlande/Zentrum/Projekte/NiederlandeNet/. pp.303-361. (German only) (German only) • Brubaker, Rogers (2003), The Return of Assimilation? • Koopmans, Ruud (2003), Good Intentions sometimes make Changing Perspectives on Immigration and its Sequels bad policy. A comparison of Dutch and German Integration in France, Germany, and the United States, in: Joppke, Policies, accessible at: http://www.wz-berlin.de/zkd/zcm/ Christian / Morawska, Ewa, Toward Assimilation and pdf/koopmans_good_intentions.pdf . Citizenship: Immigrants in Liberal Nation-States, Houndmills / Basingstoke, pp.39-58. • Santel, Bernhard (2004), Wissenschaft kurz gefasst! Informationen zu Migration und Integration aus der • Michalowski, Ines (2004), Integration for Newcomers – A Forschung, Nr. 2, Landeszentrum für Zuwanderung Dutch Model for Europe?, in: Anita Böcker/Betty de Hart/ Nordrhein-Westfalen. (Schwerpunkt dieser Nummer ist die Ines Michalowski (Hrsg.), Migration and the Regulation Integrationspolitik ist ein Vergleich zwischen Deutschland of Social Integration, IMIS Beiträge Special Issue, Nr. 24, und den Niederlanden, sowie eine Hinterfragung des pp.163-175. “Modells Niederlande”), accessible at: http://www.lzz- • Prins, Baukje (2002): The Nerve to Break Taboos. New nrw.de/docs/Wissenschaft_kurz_gefasst2004_2.pdf. Realism in the Dutch Discourse on Multiculturalism, in: (German only) Journal of International Migration and Integration 3/(3/4), • Rath, Jan (1997), Das strenge Gesicht von Frau Antje. pp.363-380. Die andere Seite des niederländischen Modells für die • Thränhardt, Dietrich/Böcker, Anita (2003), Erfolge Integration ethnischer Minderheiten, in: Neue Praxis, 26 (6), und Misserfolge der Integration. Deutschland und die pp.479-494, accessible at: http://users.fmg.uva.nl/jrath/ Niederlande im Vergleich, in: Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte. downloads/@Rath%20Das%20Strenge%20Gesicht%20Fr Beilage zur Wochenzeitung Das Parlament, B 26, pp.3-11. au%20Antje%201997.pdf. (German only) (German only) • Scheffer, Paul (2000), Het multiculturele drama, in: NRC Handelsblad, 29.01.2000, accessible at: http://www.nrc.nl/ W2/Lab/Multicultureel/scheffer.html. (Dutch only)