Report | Rapport

National Arts Centre, Ottawa, Ontario

Rhona Goodspeed has been an architectural >Rh o n a Go o d s p e e d historian with Parks Canada since 1990. During that time she has worked on a range of subjects, including military complexes, historic districts, cultural landscapes, ecclesiastical buildings, houses, and other building types. Designation

The National Arts Centre (NAC) was desig- nated a national historic site of Canada in 2005. The reasons for its designation are the following. It is an outstanding example of a performing arts centre in Canada for its overall design, its highly successful integration into its urban set- ting, its succession of interior spaces to create dramatic effect, its unique com- bination of performing spaces and the progressive designs of each one, and its integration of contemporary works of art as part of its design. It is an outstand- ing example of a building illustrating the positive consequences of Canadian federal policy on the performing arts during the second half of the twenti- eth century, considered, in the words of Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson, as a “national institution.” It is an example of state-of-the-art performing spaces and technology at the time of construction, in particular for the aesthetic and tech- nical design of Southam Hall, which is an exceptional example of a medium-sized multipurpose auditorium representing an inspired collaboration between architect and acoustician.

Introduction

The National Arts Centre (NAC) is located on the east side of Confederation Square in the centre of downtown Ottawa (figs. 1-3). It occupies an irregular site on a steep slope descending from Elgin Street, a major artery on the west, to the Rideau Canal on the east. The Mackenzie King Bridge, also a major artery, runs along the south. Just to the north of the building is FIG. 1. National Arts Centre, Ottawa, Ontario; built in 1964-1969, Affleck, Desbarats, Dimakopoulos, Lebensold, Sise, architect; from the east side of the Rideau Canal; 2001. | Marc Fowler, Courtesy of the National Arts Centre.

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Fig. 2. Current site plan showing the location of the Fig. 4. Boundaries of the site. | City of Ottawa, 2002; and Fig. 6. NAC from the north showing a hexagonal NAC in relation to the surrounding streets Judith Dufresne, Historical Services Branch, Parks Canada, 2005. stair tower on the left, and windows of the and the Rideau Canal. | NAC, n.d. Southam Hall lobby on the right. | Wayne Duford, Parks Canada, Canadian Inventory of Historic Buildings, 1989.

Fig. 7. NAC from the west side of Elgin Street. The en­ trance from this street is located behind the car in the centre. | Wayne Duford, 1989.

Fig. 3. Aerial view of the NAC. To the northwest are Fig. 5. Floor plan for the main level of the NAC. This is Fig. 8. View of the NAC from the southwest along Confederation Square and the Parliament the level of the main entrance, box office, main Elgin Street. | Rhona Goodspeed, Parks Canada, 2005. Buildings. The Château Laurier is on the upper foyer, and main lobbies to all performing spaces. right, on Rideau Street. Directly opposite and On the right is Southam Hall; in the centre is beside the Rideau Canal is former Union the Theatre, and on the left is the Studio. To the Station, now the Conference Centre. | NAC, 1970. immediate left of Southam Hall is the much smaller Salon. | Wilkinson Studios, courtesy of the NAC, 1965.

a small park with a manicured lawn, trees, hundred (figs. 5 and 13), as well as the spaces that rise above a series of terraces, and paths as well as recent additions of Salon, a fourth space for small concerts in the form of huge irregular hexagons sculptures and balustrades (fig. 4). and receptions (fig. 5). In addition, the with flat roofs (fig. 3). The main elevation centre houses two rehearsal halls, dress- faces the canal, where the principal, cere- The NAC is a complex structure of irregu- ing rooms, a workshop and prop room, monial entrance is located at the second lar plan whose design is based on the offices for administration, restaurants, level, accessible by car from a ramp des- triangle and hexagon, from the overall the Panorama and Fountain rooms for cending from Elgin Street and then par- composition and layout down to decor- public rental, and a nine hundred-space alleling the entrance before descending ative details (figs. 5-10). The building subterranean parking garage. Designed in again to the level of the canal (figs. 10 houses three main performing spaces: a the Brutalist style, the NAC is constructed and 14). A segment of the ramp forms a multipurpose auditorium with two thou- of poured reinforced concrete and cov- section of the building structure as the sand three hundred and thirty-four seats, ered with precast panels of exposed roof of Le Café, a restaurant for fine din- formerly called the Opera Hall and re- Laurentian-granite aggregate concrete ing at the canal level, where in summer named Southam Hall in 2000 (figs. 5 and with a variety of textures. The visually an outdoor terrace extends out towards 11), the Theatre with eight hundred seats dominant components of its irregular the canal (fig. 10). On the opposite side (figs. 5 and 12), and the Studio with three design are the three main performing of the building, along Elgin Street, below

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Fig. 9. Display windows on Elgin Street, formerly looking into French and English bookstores, an area now housing the Fourth Stage. | Rhona Fig. 13. The Studio in 2000. | Marc Fowler, Courtesy of NAC. Goodspeed, 2005.

Fig. 11. Southam Hall showing the decorative stage curtain, designed by Micheline Beauchemin, and the ceiling, designed by Julien Hébert; 1985. | André Dubreuil, courtesy of NAC.

Fig. 10. The NAC from the Mackenzie King Bridge, Fig. 12. The Theatre in 1999. Since then, the rows Fig. 14. Above is the entrance to the Studio lobby, showing the windows of the administrative have been widened, the seat covers changed while the parking spaces are located directly spaces and the ramp descending from to a bluer shade, and handrails have been opposite the main entrance, seen below. On the main, ceremonial entrance on added. | Marc Fowler and Stephen Fenn, courtesy of NAC. the ceiling of the overhang are the hexag­ the far right. Le Café is located beneath onal light fixtures, also seen throughout the the ramp. | Rhona Goodspeed, 2005. public spaces in the interior. | Rhona Goodspeed, 2005 the terraces, are display windows origin- the tenets of modern architecture; these Bonet, opening into the Salon (fig. 17); a ally designed for commercial space, space works include sculptures, paintings, and large chandelier donated by the Swedish that is now used for the community per- tapestries. Among them are: a nine-ton government and a tapestry by Parisian formances of the Fourth Stage, a small abstract bronze sculpture by Montréal artist Alfred Manessier, woven in France, multipurpose performance hall (figs. 7-9). sculptor and painter Charles Daudelin, both in the Salon; European artist Ossip Two public pedestrian entrances to the located on the south terrace (fig. 16); Zadkine’s Trois Grâces, a bronze for- centre are also located on Elgin Street the stage curtain designed by Québec merly in the National Gallery of Canada (figs. 7 and 15). painter-weaver Micheline Beauchemin (fig. 18); a sixty-foot-high relief sculpture and woven in Kyoto, Japan, for the of brushed aluminium, by Montréal artist Most of the interior walls of the public Southam Hall (fig. 11); a second stage Gino Lorcini, on the wall of the Theatre spaces are covered with precast con- curtain for the hall by Canadian artist lobby (fig. 19); a glass and metal sculp- crete panels of the same materials as Mariette Rousseau-Vermette; the ceiling ture for a fountain, designed by Julien the exterior. A number of contempor- of Southam Hall by Canadian industrial Hébert, in the Studio lobby (fig. 20); an ary works of art have been introduced designer Julien Hébert (fig. 11); two huge abstract mural called Homage to Robert into the centre, many of which are inte- cast-aluminium doors with abstract re- F. Kennedy, by Canadian painter Wil- grated with the architecture, following lief sculpture by Montréal sculptor Jordi liam Ronald, in front of the Studio and

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Fig. 15. Entrance on Elgin Street, opening to a passage leading to the box office and to Southam Hall. Just to the left may be glimpsed the terrace. A second entrance, to the Fourth Stage, is located, further south on Elgin. | Rhona Goodspeed, 2005. Fig. 21. Detail of Homage to Robert F. Kennedy, by William Ronald. | Rhona Goodspeed, 2005. Fig. 18. Three Graces, by Ossip Zadkine, in one of the stairwells on the level of the main lobby of Southam Hall. | Courtesy of NAC, n.d.

Fig. 16. Bronze sculpture, 25 feet long, 10.5 feet high, by Charles Daudelin, on the southern terrace. | Rhona Goodspeed, 2005.

Fig. 19. Sculpture by Montréal artist Gino Fig. 22. Chandelier in stairwell, by William Lorcini, on the wall of the Theatre Martin. | Rhona Goodspeed, 2005. lobby. | Rhona Goodspeed, 2005.

Fig. 17. The pair of cast aluminium doors by Jordi Fig. 20. Studio lobby with sculpture in hexagonal Fig. 23. One of four tapestries designed for the Bonet, opening into the Salon. | The Canadian water fountain. In the background is a paint­ walls behind each of the bars in the lobbies Architect, July 1969, vol. 14, no. 7, p. 59. ing by British Columbia artist Jack Shadbolt, of Southam Hall. | Rhona Goodspeed, 2005. and on the left is a glimpse of the work by William Ronald. | Rhona Goodspeed, 2005.

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extending into three levels (figs. 20-21); of the architecture of the whole as a new the cultural history of Canada,” as it advo- and five chandeliers of metal and glass expression of form both stylistically and cated “the principle of federal patronage spirals suspended within five wells for functionally. Here it is demonstrated that of a wide range of cultural activities” and staircases, by William Martin from Milton, the building is an outstanding example of proposed the establishment of a Canada Massachusetts (fig. 22). Tapestries were a performing arts centre for its design in Council to provide federal subsidies for, also installed in each of the four lobbies the modern, Brutalist style, for its success- among other things, the arts across Can- of Southam Hall, and in the lobby of the ful integration with its site and setting, ada.4 The Canada Council was eventually Studio (fig. 23). and for the design of its interior spaces, established in 1957, along the lines sug- including the integration of contemporary gested in the report. State support of the In addition, the NAC’s nine hundred-space art with the architecture, an expression of arts had long been taken for granted in underground parking garage, on three the tenets of modern architecture. most European countries and, in fact, levels, is fully integrated with the struc- had already been “flourishing modest- ture of the building and the surrounding Changing Social, Political ly” in the province of Québec; however, site, and partially located beneath the and /or Economic Conditions the idea was unpopular in Canada and Mackenzie King Bridge. The parking lot is North America, where advocacy of pub- accessed and exited at four points,1 and in The NAC is an outstanding example of lic spending for the arts was considered turn provides access to the public spaces a building illustrating the evolution of detrimental to a political career. by means of escalators, the top one ris- Canadian federal policy on culture dur- ing into the foyer of the box office, and ing the second half of the twentieth The Massey Report addressed the per- by means of elevators, just to the north century and, as one of a number of forming arts in three separate chapters, of that foyer. performing arts centres built across the on the theatre, ballet, and music. For all country, the flowering of the performing three areas, it reported that there were Historic Value of the Place arts nationally during the 1960s. Its con- ample Canadian talent, audiences, and struction was a significant contribution annual festivals, and a significant growth This section discusses the NAC with respect to the improvement of Canada’s capital, in the appreciation of these arts in recent to the guidelines for built heritage of the including its role as a place to entertain years.5 However, in all three areas, it was modern era.2 It begins with a discussion visiting dignitaries. reported that there was inadequate fi- of the social and political conditions that nancial support. In addition, it described a brought about the federal government’s One of the most important early steps nationwide lack of adequate performance construction of the NAC. The Massey Re- taken by the federal government in the facilities. For theatre, the report stated: port is then considered, and the building development of the Canadian cultural “Every great drama […] has been shaped is shown to be an exceptional illustration policy on the arts was without doubt the by its playhouse,” while “facilities for of Canadian cultural policy concerning Royal Commission on National Develop- the advanced training in the arts of the the performing arts during the second ment in the Arts, Letters and Sciences theatre are non-existent in Canada,” and half of the twentieth century, in particu- (1949-1951).3 Chaired by Vincent Mas- even amateur companies are “grievously lar federal government subsidization of sey, then chancellor of the University of handicapped, through lack of suitable or culture and related activities. The NAC Toronto; the commission was unpreced- of any playhouses.”6 Consequently, only is also considered briefly in its role as a ented in Canada in nature and in scope. a few theatre companies existed. Fur- national ceremonial meeting place for Its role was to examine federal institu- ther, there were inadequate rehearsal heads of state and visiting dignitaries, tions concerned with Canadian history facilities.7 The report called for federal which was a significant improvement to and traditions that enriched Canadian subsidies to build suitable playhouses Canada’s capital. This is followed by a life, for example the CBC, the National throughout Canada, and mentioned the discussion of its performing spaces from Film Board, the National Gallery, and the possibility of building a National Theatre a functional and technical point of view, Public Archives. One of the commission’s in Ottawa, from which travelling compan- and how this programme determined, to particular areas of investigation was the ies could go on tour across Canada.”8 For a large extent, the architectural design stystem of aid offered by the federal gov- music and ballet, too, there was a lack and use of materials, with an emphasis ernment. The Massey Report became a of suitable quarters for rehearsal and on the Opera Hall. Following is an analysis landmark of the “utmost importance in performance, impeding growth of these

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arts.9 The commission reported that the and detailed report on requirements for would develop repertory theatre compan- country was singularly deficient in con- a National Centre for the Performing ies in both languages, possibly a resident cert halls. “Without exception, in all […] Arts and the establishment within it orchestra, and a national festival, which centres […] visited […] the musical life of of an annual festival, as envisioned by would be dependent on the centre. It was, the community is gravely handicapped Massey’s 1952 study.14 Identifying its pro- of course, to be a bilingual institution. through lack of appropriate quarters for ject within a national and international concerts and recitals.”10 context, rather than local, this group was With Cabinet approval in 1963, the pro- united in its determination to improve the posed centre became the only major cen- The idea of a performing arts centre cultural life of Canada and its capital. Its tenary project under federal government in Ottawa was taken up in 1952, when president was G. Hamilton Southam, who study for Ottawa.19 The six and a half-acre Vincent Massey, then Governor General, held that the NCAA were “spiritual suc- site, finally chosen amid great contro- commissioned a study on the feasibility of cessors” to Massey and his commission. versy in 1964, was donated by the city.20 the creation of an annual performing arts Inherent in the NCAA’s proposal for a cen- G. Hamilton Southam was chosen as the festival in the capital, modelled after the tre was a “humanist belief that culture project’s full-time coordinator and four highly successful Edinburgh Festival. The must form an integral part of Canadian subcommittees made up of representa- main obstacle was identified as the near society, and become the cornerstone of a tives of the performing arts community complete lack of adequate facilities for distinct Canadian identity.”15 The report were created to advise on building re- the performing arts in the national cap- reiterated the absence of a concert hall quirements. The Montréal firm of Affleck, ital.11 At that time the Capitol Theatre, a and playhouse facilities in Ottawa. Why, Desbarats, Dimakopoulos, Lebensold, movie palace (demolished), was Ottawa’s it asked, support the arts, if there was no Sise was selected to prepare the plans, premier stage; while it had a good num- centre for them in which to perform?16 with Fred Lebensold (1918-1985) as lead ber of seats, its stage was shallow, and architect, reporting to James Langford, there were few dressing rooms, little The NCAA called on Prime Minister Les- chief architect of Public Works, under wing space, and insufficient storage space ter B. Pearson to build the centre and es- whose direction the building was con- for scenery. Venues for theatre, choral, tablish an annual festival of the arts. The structed. As architect of Place des Arts in and orchestral ensembles were gener- Prime Minister took up the project; like Montréal, the Queen Elizabeth Theatre ally schools; for example the Canadian the NCAA, he set it within an internation- in Vancouver, and the Centennial Centre Repertory Theatre, Ottawa’s acclaimed al context, pointing out that the United in Charlottetown, the firm already had professional theatre company, made use States and Australia were already build- considerable experience in the field. The of the La Salle Academy, a high school, ing similar centres. Within the national NAC was one of a number of performing and the amateur Ottawa Drama League context, he saw the centre as having po- arts centres built across the country dur- (now the Ottawa Little Theatre) at first tential for reducing the strain between ing that time, a part of the “gathering performed in the museum on McLeod English and French Canadians, bringing movement across the country,” in the Street, and later in a converted church about a unifying effect. He felt that “[a] words of the Honourable Judy Lamarsh, on King Edward Avenue.12 National Centre to which the best in “to provide housing that will be worthy the development of both cultures could of the high standard of excellence of our By 1963, over fifty arts groups in the be brought for performances and from leading artistic companies.”21 In fact, some National Capital Region had come which the development of both could forty to fifty projects for performing arts together to collectively embrace the idea be encouraged, could become a helpful centres were under consideration across of the creation of a performing arts cen- force in the future of the country.”17 Prime the country in 1964.22 tre in Ottawa. The National Capital Arts Minister Pearson stated that the Canada Alliance (NCAA) argued that the capital Council was an “imaginative first step,” Construction of the NAC began in 1965. of “an ever more culturally confident and while “the establishment of a cultural Built at a cost of forty-six million four mature country deserved better theat- centre with a gradually developing pro- hundred thousand dollars, the edifice rical facilities.”13 With funding from the gramme of activities would be a logical was entirely paid for by the federal gov- Canada Council and volunteer organiza- and positive second step” in this regard.18 ernment. Not completed in time for the tions, it commissioned professional con- It would also be a central facility for na- Centennial as planned, the centre offi- sultants to prepare a well-researched tional organizations serving the arts, and cially opened two years later, on June 2,

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Fig. 24. Cross sections of designs for the performing spaces, showing the Studio Fig. 25. The National Arts Centre Orchestra on the stage of Southam Hall in 1990. on the upper left, the Theatre on the upper right, and the Opera, In the background are the boxes on either side and along the rear the four below; 1965. | Wilkinson Studios, courtesy of the NAC. levels of orchestra, mezzanine, amphitheatre and balcony. | Fred Cattroll, courtesy of the NAC.

1969, still a part of the euphoric spirit as its head, and held the position of dir- in English and l’Hexagone in French, were of the Centennial and attracting inter- ector general of the NAC from 1967 to established, and seasons in English and national attention, both for its inaugural 1977. The National Arts Centre Corpora- French for visiting and in-house produc- stage presentations and for its fine archi- tion was “to operate and maintain the tions were created for the NAC’s stages in tecture.23 The Opera opened with the Centre, to promote the development the Theatre and the Studio.28 That same National Ballet of Canada’s production and production of the performing arts year, Festival Canada came into being; of a new ballet, Kraanerg, with choreog- in the National Capital Region, and to though modest, it heralded the estab- raphy by Roland Petit and music by Ian- assist the Canada Council in the develop- lishment of a festival centred on opera nis Xenakis, conducted by Lukas Foss; the ment of the performing arts elsewhere and chamber music, which would eventu- Theatre opened with Michel Tremblay’s in Canada.”26 While the corporation was ally garner international recognition for adaptation of Aristophanes’s Lysistrata, to be governed by an independent board Canada. In 1973, undoubtedly due to the produced by the Théâtre du Nouveau of trustees, funding was to come from an success of the NAC, federal government Monde, directed by André Brassard; annual appropriation from federal funds, subsidies increased, with the government and the Studio opened with a new play as well as from its own earned revenues. announcing that it would allocate twenty called Party Day, written and directed Subsidies for the performing arts were percent more to the centre in the coming by Jack Winter. Former Prime Minister part of the idea from the beginning. year. G. Hamilton Southam announced Lester B. Pearson, on opening day, de- that he would speak out for even more scribed the NAC as more than a building: The NAC, though, needed to have resident money in the years ahead: the “centre “This is not an arts centre—it is a national companies, that is “a heart that beats,” in has proven itself a success and attitudes institution.”24 The realization of the Na- the words of Jean Gascon, chairman of the have changed […] [it is] obvious not only tional Arts Centre in Ottawa was both a Advisory Committee on Theatre.27 In 1967- in Ottawa but in the centre’s contribution major architectural and cultural achieve- 1969, the National Arts Centre Orchestra to the performing arts across Canada.” ment for the federal government.25 (NACO) was created under music director The NAC has staged performances from Jean-Marie Beaudet and founding con- grand opera, to hard rock shows, to out- The NAC was operated by a crown cor- ductor Maestro Mario Bernardi. A firm door sing-alongs.29 poration established by an Act of Parlia- foundation for theatre was established ment that had received Royal Assent in in 1971, when touring companies for Canada’s capital now had elegant spaces 1966. G. Hamilton Southam was chosen youth audiences, known as The Hexagon for visiting dignitaries and for Canadian

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Fig. 26. Widely spaced fins on exterior of Southam Hall lobby, angled in the Fig. 27. View from the terrace showing the National War Memorial and, direction of the Parliament Buildings. | Rhona Goodspeed, 2005. behind it, the East Block and the Peace Tower of the Parliament Buildings. | Rhona Goodspeed, 2005.

and international performances. Ottawa performances, in both official languages, hall, which at the time was a relatively was transformed culturally by the con- were offered on a regular basis in appro- new concept but was coming into more struction of the NAC, with its variety of priate and highly attractive spaces, in a frequent use.32 It was to accommodate performing spaces under one roof and central location. orchestra, opera, and ballet, as well as its central location on Confederation popular musicians and other functions. Square, the city’s second most import- Technological Advances The enormous stage area, which was ant ceremonial space, and in proximity slightly larger than the auditorium itself, to the most important, the Parliament- In the design of the performing spaces, was the second largest in North Amer- ary grounds. The NAC was also intended the architect had two main objectives: first ica at the time.33 It included an orchestra as a national ceremonial meeting place, to provide a different spatial experience pit that could be raised or lowered. The where national events would be held and in each one; and second to make each of acoustical design had a major impact on national and international heads of state them as versatile as possible for differing the space’s architecture. Acoustics and and dignitaries would visit as guests of types of performances.31 The Opera was architecture were very closely related Canada. Over the years an impressive list to be an auditorium to accommodate a in auditorium design, with dimensions, of kings, queens, heads of state, and inter- wide range of performances with large materials, shaping, and surface orienta- nationally famous persons, including, of audiences; the Theatre to be for smaller tions playing direct and often key roles course, great artists, have passed through productions, of plays, and the Studio for a in establishing the quality of sound.34 the doors of the centre. Command and range of performances as well, but espe- World-renowned acoustician Russell state performances are an integral part cially for experimental works (fig. 24). All Johnson of BBN was project supervisor of the Centre’s mandate. There is a long three had specific technical requirements, as well as acoustic designer for the Opera list of command performances as well as especially with respect to acoustics and Hall.35 For such a multipurpose hall, it was state occasions that have been held at lighting. The American firm Bolt, Beranek necessary to be able to vary the acous- the NAC. The government of Canada has & Newman, Inc. (BBN) provided advice tic environment. In the design process used the NAC as an instrument of Can- on, and supervision of, the design of the of a performing space, the acoustician adian cultural prestige, and as a point of acoustics for all three spaces. advises the architect, who then decides access to Canadians for culture from other how the architecture of the space shall countries.30 With the opening of the NAC The largest of the performing spaces, be. For the Opera, most of the require- in 1969, a range and variety of types of the Opera, was to be a multipurpose ments laid out by Russell to create good

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sound effects were incorporated or at made of plywood, whose front surfaces architect availed himself of more than least taken into account by the architect. were articulated by the addition of alum- a fraction of advice proffered. One ex- Among these was the seating capacity: inium diffusers.38 Motor-operated cloth ample of true collaboration in this regard the larger the hall, the more difficult it is curtains were installed just below the up- is the 2300-seat Opera Hall in Ottawa.”43 to achieve satisfactory hearing conditions per ceiling, above the boxes and along The acoustics of the NAC were highly for a variety of types of performances.36 the rear wall: by retracting the curtains, praised in reviews at the time of the The relatively small capacity of the hall, reverberance was increased; by extending building’s opening: “Canada’s National that is under about two thousand four them, the articulation of sound was in- Arts Centre opened in Ottawa with hundred, was a good choice and repre- creased.39 This was a relatively new sys- three theatres and some of the world’s sented the current trend of the previous tem that had been little tried elsewhere.40 most advanced technical facilities for the five years towards smaller seating capaci- Helmhotz chambers were also added out- performing arts;”44 and the NAC “con- ties. A compact audience chamber also side the hall, above the collector aisles; stitue une réussite incontestable sur le had a positive effect for most types of these could be opened for symphonies, plan de la qualité architecturale et de performances; for the Opera the dimen- increasing reverberation within the hall. l’équipement technique.”45 Performers, sions chosen were about as long, or deep, The orchestra pit, when lowered, func- for example of opera and ballet, were from the front to the rear of the audi- tioned as an acoustic shell. also very happy with the hall, while musi- ence, as they were wide. In addition, the cians had some reservations—though tiering of seats along the side walls and Just below the ceiling of the hall, a cat- music of the orchestra was well articu- across the rear, using three levels, as op- walk was installed, camouflaged by lated, it tended to be dry, as was the posed to the one or two used in most means of the aesthetic design of the ceil- case with multipurpose halls in general. auditoriums from about 1920-1963, was ing (fig. 11). The catwalk was not included In spite of the dryness of the sound per- also a positive choice, as were the fascias in the initial designs, but it was very soon ceived by musicians and music lovers, of the boxes and balconies, which pro- realized that one would be needed, both in the words of one critic at the time, vided for shorter time delays, for many for sound requirements and, in particular, “there are no acoustical mistakes; sound seats, for reflected sound (fig. 25). The for lighting, for example, the spotlight. at all frequencies is well distributed.”46 fairly steep, rather than shallow, rake of Technical facilities included a lighting the Opera also added to the quality of system whereby a required sequence of Since the hall was built, many of its fea- the acoustics (fig. 24). The use of thick changes in light levels could be recorded tures continue to promote high quality materials throughout was preferable, as in rehearsal and played back in the cor- sound, especially the basic design of the thin materials tended to vibrate more eas- rect order during performance.41 Also hall. The hydraulically-controlled curtains ily, deadening the sound. In addition to along the catwalk was an array of sound are still used; although technical testing the concrete pillars supporting the hall, loudspeakers; others were installed in has shown that they have little effect, there were inverted plaster pyramids as the box and balcony soffits. The console in practice, listeners can hear a positive part of a suspended ceiling;37 the carpets for this system was located in the control difference when they are used.47 How- and fully upholstered seats also helped. room behind and above the top balcony.42 ever, the sound reflecting panels on the For rehearsal purposes, the seats, when Just above this catwalk network was an ceiling were removed because they were empty and folded, were designed to re- array of remote-controlled sound-reflect- not effective. Recently there was a ma- produce absorption qualities of human ing panels, which were vertically placed jor improvement for the orchestra: the beings: the metal underneath the seat for concerts and horizontally placed for addition of an electronic sound system, itself was perforated, so rather than re- musical comedy and lectures. This was to improve the acoustics and add warmth flecting sound, it allowed it to pass into also a new technology. to the sound. For this, speakers were add- the upholstery. The thin glass walls of the ed onto the side and back walls and the hall were thickened on the inside with Acoustician Russell Johnson strongly ceiling, as well as above the orchestra. vertically attached aluminium diffusers, praised the collaboration between the The system adds reverberation and time each of varying thickness, to break up architect and acoustician in the Opera. In delay, and the NACO is extremely happy some of the sound. To alter the hall for his words, “Bolt, Beranek and Newman with it. While the possibility of signifi- symphony concerts, the stage could be have worked on many auditorium pro- cantly upgrading the acoustics has been enclosed with a solid reflective bandshell jects, but in only some of these has the considered in recent years, it would not

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be possible without substantially altering perimental spaces. The only mechanized design. The building is also of interest the architecture of the hall as well as clos- equipment was a hexagonal lift near the for its very carefully designed interior ing it for a year or two. Therefore this centre, which could be lowered to form a which unites several different types of was not seriously considered.48 pit or raised for use as a platform.52 As an performing space in one building, and experimental space was usually a “black creates public spaces which are carefully The eight hundred-seat Theatre was ar- box,” either adapted from an already designed to provide delight and enjoy- ranged in an amphitheatre plan, with existing space or inexpensively built, the ment for spectators by means of spatial the seats in a semi-circle; it had a single Studio was unique in Canada at the time design, art, aesthetics, and lighting ef- balcony and a steep rake (figs. 12 and of construction and probably remains fects. No cost was spared on this fine 24). The stage was adjustable: it had a so today. The Studio retains its original building, from its overall design down to thrust stage and a vomitory to allow the flexibility, though the original seating has the finest details.56 According to architec- actors to enter through the audience, or it since been adapted to conform to the fire tural historian Janet Wright, the building could accommodate traditional proscen- code, which required some seats to be epitomizes the architectural aesthetic of ium productions, in which case the apron attached to others. According to Macy the 1960s in Canada.57 portion of the stage could either provide Dubois in The Canadian Architect, “The additional seating or be lowered to cre- Studio is a remarkable achievement both The architects were given freedom in ate an orchestra pit.49 At the time of con- as a great performing space and very fine developing the design,58 and they took struction, a theatre combining adjustable architecture.”53 inspiration from the general shape of the stage facilities of this type with an am- building’s site (fig. 3). In Fred Lebensold’s phitheatre plan was unique and remains When the NAC was built there was no words, the shape of the whole centre was so in the professional world in Canada. precedent on which to model this com- dictated, “as much by the site on which It presented a “tremendous architectural bination of facilities.54 Further, each one the buildings are located as by the pur- challenge” and since its construction has of them was unique and represented the pose for which they are intended […] The been “a very successful space.”50 state of the art in its technical facilities. hexagonal pattern reflects the shape of Louis Applebaum, musical advisor for the site.”59 The sixty-degree angle at the The Studio was designed to be an ex- the NAC, praised the technical facilities northeast corner of the intersection of the perimental space and was therefore and spaces for performers of the NAC Rideau Canal and Rideau Street provided highly flexible with extensive capabilities in 1971: inspiration for the sixty-degree angles of (figs. 24 and 33).51 Here, there was no the hexagon, while the site as a whole fixed position for the stage or for seating Wing space, side stages, backstages, was generally triangular. The hexagon arrangements. There was a shallow bal- workshops, dressing room areas, film and the triangle were the basic modular cony all around the space; any part of the projection equipment and radio and units used throughout the building (ex- floor or balcony could be used for per- television facilities have all been considered cept for the parking lot), reappearing formers or spectators and curtains were carefully. Whether it be the computerized in plans for the performing spaces, for available if desired. Both the main and lighting console, or the latest-designed stairs, for decorative details of the ceiling balcony levels had public and backstage rigging system, everything is provided to and floor, as well as for the layout of the entrances and the two were connected satisfy the artistic ambitions of the most dressing rooms and rehearsal halls for the by a variety of demountable stairs. The demanding producers. For them, life at the use of the performers. Studio’s three hundred seats could be ar- Centre should be a joy!”55 ranged in innumerable ways: they could The building was designed to house a be either small seat wagons or chairs; the New Expressions of Form and/or number of functions; in addition to the chairs could be placed on demountable Responses to Functional Demands primary functions of performing spaces stairs, if desired. Risers could be installed and related facilities, it included com- or removed. The ceiling was a steel hexag- The NAC is an outstanding example of a mercial spaces, restaurants, and a huge onal grid which allowed great flexibility performing arts centre for its design in underground parking lot. The style chosen for lighting effects. Above the grid, which the Brutalist style, for its integration into was Brutalism, a term derived from the could be removed, was equipment for fly- its urban setting, and for the effective French term béton brut, meaning raw ing scenery, a function rarely seen in ex- integration of art into the architectural concrete, and coined in 1954 to describe

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architecture influenced by Le Corbusier’s unité d’habitation in Marseilles, with its surfaces of exposed concrete.60 During the 1950s, the International style of the Bauhaus, with its plain smooth surfaces, large expanses of glass, and floor plans based on a square or rectangular module, was the dominant approach to building design. These values were challenged in 1956 by Peter and Alison Smithson from England and architect Aldo van Eyck from Fig. 28. Architect’s plot plan, showing a plan of Fig. 30. Main lobby at night, with the grand stair­ the Netherlands, who called themselves the NAC within the context of never-execut­ case on the right and the upper level, “Team Ten,” at the tenth meeting of ed components of the proposed Parkin Plan, originally a restaurant and now the Pan­ including a conference centre and a wid­ orama Room, on the left. On the far wall is Le Congrès international d’architecture ening of the canal (above left), a pedestrian projected an image of the corporate sym­ moderne (CIAM). They took inspiration walkway across the canal (top centre) and bol of the NAC, three intertwined hexagons; an art gallery (right); 1965.| Courtesy of the NAC. 1998. | Courtesy of the NAC. from other sources such as utilitarian buildings, for example warehouses, and from expressionistic architecture. When the group later divided up, two separate movements developed, one of which be- came known as Brutalism.

Brutalism appeared in North America in the late 1950s. Paul Rudolph’s Art and Architecture Building at Yale, New Ha- ven, constructed in 1958-1962, was de- scribed as a revolt against the Miesian “universal space” glass box.61 An asym- Fig. 29. Interior of main lobby showing the later Fig. 31. View of the balcony lobby of Southam Hall. addition of the display cases and a glimpse In the background is a glimpse of one of the metrical, seven-storey composition with of the box office foyer through the doors. hexagonal staircases. | Rhona Goodspeed, 2005. vertical towers and concrete walls with The black curtain above the pillars was hung rugged texture and vertical striations, temporarily for an event. | Rhona Goodspeed, 2005. the building contained thirty-seven lev- els of interpenetrating and overlapping ing megastructures such as the huge Ya- translucent surfaces associated with the platforms. The then-current interest at manashi press and broadcasting centre, International style were being supplanted Yale in the relationship of buildings to with seven towers, built in 1964-1967. by an architecture of textured surfaces and the urban landscape was reflected in Ru- Internationally the style remained popu- complex compositions composed of varied dolph’s Art and Architecture Building. His lar for buildings through the 1970s. and irregular masses.62 design built on slightly earlier works by Louis Kahn (such as Richard Laboratories Brutalism became popular for buildings Brutalism generally made use of exposed in Philadelphia, 1957-1962) and by Frank in Canada during the 1960s, when Can- concrete, expressing the ruggedness and Lloyd Wright. More or less contemporary adian architects, like their counterparts weight of masonry. Designs often incor- to it was Kahn’s famous Salk Institute, of elsewhere before them, were seeking, in porated block-like geometric shapes and concrete and wood, with a plaza fram- the words of Janet Wright, were frequently irregular. Texture played ing the Pacific Ocean. Kahn went on to a significant role in the style’s aesthetic; design buildings in the Brutalist style in to redefine and rethink modern architecture surfaces, of which there were large ex- Asia, while Kenzo Tange (1913-2005), the in terms of humanistic rather than panses, could be of rough, unadorned most influential architect in post-war mechanistic values. In formal terms, poured concrete, or textured to create Japan, worked in the style there, design- the pristine cubic volumes and the slick, different effects, sometimes alluding to

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hotel, as well as attractively landscaped the hexagon and triangle in various sizes courtyards. The exterior walls are cast-in- and forms, the building assumed an or- place concrete panels exhibiting a variety ganic quality of constantly shifting views, of sandblasted finishes on a reinforced as the visitor moved around the building concrete frame with few windows. Its and along the terraces.65 weighty and massive appearance and tex- tured and monolithic surfaces are charac- The terraces were designed as an integral teristic of the Brutalist style. part of the building, comprising a range of spaces that were shaped aesthetically Brutalism was a style admirably suited partly by the landscaping which included to the function of a theatre, with the a number of planters, all faced with the Fig. 32. Main lobby before the addition of the dais and partitions for the Donors’ Circle, requirement for interior spaces insulated same precast concrete panels, and often and before the blocking in of the skylights; from outdoors sights and sounds. The of hexagonal shape. These were to con- 1980. | Courtesy of NAC. style’s flexibility also made it an appro- tain a variety of plantings, including trees, priate choice to enclose a range of func- shrubs and, in summer, flowers (figs. 3 tions and to adapt to an irregular site. The and 16). The terraces were also carefully NAC’s irregular, monolithic-like massing designed to create views of some of the reflected its interior functions and was city’s most significant structures: of the dominated by the three main performing Centre and East blocks of the Parliament spaces and associated lobbies and stairs Buildings, of the National War Memor- rising out of the series of low-lying ter- ial on Confederation Square and of the races forming the roof of much of the rest Château Laurier, emphasizing the NAC’s of the building (figs. 4 and 8). A lower, role as a place to entertain heads of state more regular block-like mass housed the and dignitaries (fig. 27). The constantly administrative section on the southeast shifting quality of spaces as one moved Fig. 33. The Studio with the original chairs. | The Canadian Architect, July 1969, vol. 14, no. 7, p. 49, at the level of the bridge (figs. 1 and 10). through them reflected the Brutalist The precast concrete panels sheathing the aesthetic; they included spaces that are a building’s interior functions. Brutalist walls were treated in a variety of textures, open and exposed, intimate and seclud- buildings are often criticized for being corresponding in some areas to interior ed, sunny and shady. Accessible from the unfriendly and uncommunicative instead functions, with widely spaced fins on the lobbies of the Opera and Theatre, the ter- of integrative and protective, as was ori- lobbies, smaller-scaled ribs on theatre sec- races allowed members of the audience ginally intended; for example, the loca- tions, and flat surfaces on service spaces to stroll outside during intermissions. Also tion of the entrance is rarely obvious (fig. 26). According to Janet Wright, “the accessible from the street, these spaces to the visitor. Many Brutalist structures, architects treated the surface in a variety were additionally intended to provide a however, came to be appreciated in time of contrasting textures to give the build- setting for outdoor concerts in summer. for their uniqueness or eye-catching ap- ing the sense of fortress-like solidity and pearance. One well-known Canadian ex- rugged massing that defined the Brutalist Further interest was added to the terra- ample of Brutalism is Place Bonaventure aesthetic of the 1960s in Canada.”64 On ces by means of art. For example, on the in Montréal, also designed by Affleck, the canal side, the ceremonial entrance south terrace is a large nine-ton bronze Desbarats, Dimakopoulos, Lebensold, was at the second level, while above, on contemporary abstract sculpture by Qué- Sise, and constructed in 1964-1968, at a the next level, a covered walkway pro- bec sculptor and painter Charles Daudelin time when most North American build- vided access from the terrace to the res- (1920-2001), creator of a number of public ings were designed for a single purpose.63 taurant for fine dining for patrons above monuments during his career (fig. 16).66 Located on a six-acre site, this multipur- (figs. 1 and 14). At the lowest level, to the The Massey Report, which had criticized pose building houses a two-level retail south, beneath the descending ramp, was the International style for its “poverty of arcade, an exhibition area, five levels of a more informal restaurant called Le Café emotional appeal,” called for “painting merchandising mart, an international (fig. 10). With its compositional complex- and colour, however, modest in scale,” and trade centre and a four hundred-bedroom ity, created in part by the repeated use of “collaboration of architect, painter, and

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sculptor […] With the modern apprecia- on Confederation Square,69 the architects from the underground parking lot at four tion of light, both artificial and daylight, took great care to integrate the building points were designed to disperse traffic with broad surfaces of unbroken wall and with its surrounding urban space, aesthet- and eliminate traffic jams.73 a free and open plan in public areas, there ically by means of the terraces and func- is every opportunity to make the utmost tionally by means of both the terraces and To fully understand the design of the of the art of painting and sculptor.”67 The the control of pedestrian and traffic flows building in relation to its setting, it should report went on to encourage the use of around the building. The terraces were in- be considered within its original design art in the design of buildings. Beginning tended to be a part of the cityscape. Fred context, that of the Parkin Plan, which in the late 1950s, through the 1960s up Lebensold, commenting on the impact of was commissioned by the National Cap- to the present, art has been included the centre, explained that because it was ital Commission and drawn up in 1962, to within the designs of modern buildings. located in a public square, where it would develop Confederation Square and renew Modern sculpture began to “grace the have been “unthinkable to impede the the urban core of Ottawa.74 Fred Leben- otherwise windswept plazas of modern normal flow of pedestrian traffic, the site sold had stated that “The National Arts ensembles.”68 The incorporation of the was developed as a series of pedestrian Centre is, of course, only part of the plan Daudelin on the exterior, as well as of terraces.”70 These were made accessible for the redevelopment of Confederation other pieces of art in the interior, was from various points along the street, for Square. When the plan is completed the an expression of the then-current trend example by means of stairs leading up Centre will be one of the main focal points in modern design to introduce and inte- from Elgin Street and the bridge, or dir- of the heart of Ottawa—the physical link grate art within buildings, to enhance the ectly from the sidewalk. The major east- between the city’s eastern and western architectural design. During these years, west artery of Queen Street was lined up parts.”75 Early models and plans of the art appeared not only within the lobby with the opening from the sidewalk on NAC show the building within the context space of buildings, but also as a part of Elgin Street onto the terrace, providing a of this plan, including major changes pro- the basic design concept of a number of functional link for pedestrians over to the posed but never carried out, such as the public and commercial buildings, includ- Mackenzie King Bridge, as well as leading widening of the canal, the replacement ing theatres of the 1960s. For the NAC, down to the main entrance and box of- of Union Station with a new conference in order to create a building embodying fice foyer (figs. 2-3). Pedestrians heading centre, the construction of a new art gal- the latest and most up-to-date modern towards the centre could also access the lery to the south, and, in some plans, the design, a visual arts advisory committee main entrance via the park on the north construction of a pedestrian walkway was set up to select artists and/or works (fig. 3), or through the modest entrance from the NAC terraces to the opposite side of art to be included in the centre, all directly on Elgin Street (fig. 15). Like of the canal (fig. 28). The canal had been decisions made in full agreement with some other Brutalist buildings, neither identified within the plan as the most im- the architect. Included on the commit- the main nor the subsidiary entrances to portant landscape component in the area; tee were K.M. Fenwick, curator of prints the NAC were easily identifiable to the hence it made sense for the architect to and drawings at the National Gallery of uninitiated (figs. 7 and 15).71 The building face the building towards it, as opposed Canada, and British Columbia painter Ber- was further linked to its urban environ- to towards Confederation Square. tram Charles Binning. The Daudelin was ment by facing commercial spaces onto the only work on the exterior, but there Elgin Street (fig. 9), used as bookstores When the NAC opened, the terraces and were glimpses of some of the spiral chan- for many years and accessed by doors to the integration of the building with its deliers from the terraces, through the tall the north and south. In addition, Le Café, site were highly praised. narrow windows. a restaurant on the opposite side of the building, was accessible from outside at The outstanding feature of the National Arts While the terraces were a highly at- the level of the canal. Traffic flow around Centre is the way the site has been returned tractive feature of the architecture, they the building, and vehicular access to it, to the city as an intensively developed park. were also central to the integration of the were other key, if purely functional con- The terraces that cover all but the tallest building with its immediate surroundings siderations (fig. 2). Located at “the hub portions of the complex are open to the and setting, both visually and function- of the city’s traffic plan,”72 the NAC would public for strolling and enjoying the views— ally. While the orientation of the NAC draw thousands of visitors on a regular both outward towards the city’s landmarks has been criticized for turning its back basis. The vehicular access to and exit and inward towards lobbies and cafes.76

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According to Architectural Record, it was spaces, “gradually detaching [the specta- and receptions, for example for visiting “masterfully arranged on a difficult tri- tor] from everyday life” and creating “a dignitaries. From here a door opened to angular site […] and ingeniously developed succession of psychological barriers that the stairs to the royal box of the Opera, within a triangular module.”77 And, “this cut people off from the street and turn and access was provided to the Green complex fits right into its environment. them into an attentive audience.”82 The Room for the performers, who were also With half of its mass buried in the canal progression began at the main entrance, often received in the Salon. bank and the rest cropping out in an ir- with its austere exterior (or with the es- regular series of towers and parapets, the calator from the parking lot) opening Approaches to the main performing center follows Ottawa’s Victorian tradition into the box-office foyer, a contained spaces were signalled by the lowering of of romantic landscape and picturesque one-storey space suitable for meeting the ceiling (figs. 20 and 32). The low ceil- building masses.”78 The relation of the up with fellow theatregoers (figs. 14 and ings and low lights of the lobbies were building to the site remains unchanged. 29). Here, as in all the public spaces of the deliberately designed to bring spectators building, the walls were sheathed with together. In Fred Lebensold’s words, “I In its austerity, its plain and closed sur- panels similar to those on the exterior, think there is something most unhappy faces and its consistently dark, sombre creating a certain continuity between about going out into a lobby and be- colouring, the Brutalist exterior was an interior and exterior, and the ceiling was ing alone. One of the wonderful things excellent foil for the interior, which de- covered with fibreglass light fixtures, about the theatre is being with other pended on dramatic spatial sequences, fibreglass hexagons divided into triangles, people. Lobby space should be gauged contrasting lighting effects, and varied which provided a low light. so that while movement is easy, isola- and sometimes colourful pieces of art for tion is impossible.”83 In total there were its design. In the words of one critic, the Reflecting the Brutalist aesthetic of the four levels of lobbies for the Opera, all of NAC was, “un ensemble austère mais non exterior, the interior spaces presented which could be accessed by means of tall, sans force, écran de béton entre l’abri ato- constantly shifting views to the visitor. contained hexagonal staircases on either mique et le blockhaus du mur de l’Atlan- From the box office one glimpsed the side (fig. 5). Each one was decorated by tique, le précieux, le rare, l’exquis étant main lobby, through the windows and the a piece of art by William Martin: a chan- à l’intérieur.”79 “Delight should be the doors. Once entered, this space opened delier of metal and glass suspended from watchword of anyone designing buildings up, expanding outwards to the left and a skylight at the top, down the centre of for the performing arts,” declared Hazen right and upwards to two levels in height, the stairwell; the sculpture lit the stairs Sise, of Affleck, Desbarats, Dimakopoulos, with the upper level open on three sides, by means of reflected light—natural light Lebensold, Sise, in a seminar on architec- which during the day allowed natural during the day and floodlights installed tural requirements for the performing arts light to filter in (fig. 30). Directly across beneath the skylight at night (fig. 22). The in Canada, sponsored by the Centennial from the box office was the ceremonial tall centrally lit space helped dramatize Commission in June 1964.80 grand staircase to the second level of the the more open, more diffusely lit space Opera, while to its left were the striking, of the lobbies. From the second to the Going to the theatre or to a concert two-storey-high cast aluminium doors to fourth level on the north, there were ought to be a pleasurable occasion, looked the Salon, beautifully integrated into the views of Confederation Square and the forward to with anticipation. On entering the architecture (fig. 17). Here the architect Parliament Buildings from the lobbies (the front door one should start a process of had borne in mind that these were spaces concrete fins on the exterior were angled transition from the cares of the real world for mingling, for seeing others, such as in their direction; fig. 26), and the lob- into the world of art; one’s surroundings heads of state and dignitaries, and for be- bies were opened up vertically by a well should prepare one’s mood for enjoyment, ing seen (fig. 30). The doors exhibited an down to the lowest level (fig. 31). On the one should walk through a crescendo of abstract design in relief, executed by Jordi opposite side, to the south, on all levels, architectural excitement with the hall itself Bonet, characteristic of other works he were oak bars; behind them tapestries as culmination. The lights dim and the designed for public spaces. They opened decorated the walls (fig. 23). curtain goes up.81 into the Salon, a hexagonal room pan- elled in oak, forty-five feet across and two Leading from either side of each lobby The architect has effectively developed stories high, intended for small chamber were sparsely decorated collector aisles, this principle in the design of the interior recitals (for up to one hundred people) which narrowed as they led downwards to

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Fig. 34. Confederation Centre of the Arts, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island; Fig. 35. Place des arts, Montréal, Québec, Salle Wilfrid-Pelletier; built in 1963, Affleck, built in 1964; Affleck, Desbarats, Dimakopoulos, Lebensold, Sise, architect. Desbarats, Dimakopoulos, Lebensold, Michaud, Sise, architect. | Journal of the Royal Main elevation above, terrace on lower right, and interior views from Architectural Institute of Canada (JRAIC), November 1964, p. 123. Memorial on lower left. | Reproduced from Geneviève Charrois, “Le Centre des arts de la Confédération,” HSMBC, Submission Report 2002-45. single-storey tinted-glass doors, indicated with its large billowing panels of solid vi- a large abstract mural on three levels, in by single vertical rows of lights. The spec- brant colours, made of cotton, nylon, and strong bright colours, by Canadian paint- tator was unconsciously prepared by these plastic fibres (fig. 11). er William Ronald (figs. 20-21). plain and confined spaces for the theat- rical climax of the architectural compos- The Theatre lobby, to the south, was Care was also taken in the design for the ition, the Opera (fig. 11). The Opera was also accessible from the main foyer and layout of the non-public areas for per- the most highly praised of the performing opened up through three levels (though formers. Backstage, the three performing spaces, with its plush red carpets and rows the Theatre itself possessed only two lev- spaces were connected by a series of of seats arranged in “continental” style, els). Just inside the entrance to the lobby, service spaces at the same level, linking that is with no aisles in the centre. Help- applied to the precast concrete wall also them to the trucking lane at the stage ing to draw the eye upwards, lights were rising through three levels, was a brushed door (fig. 2). The dressing rooms were ar- placed in vertical lines and spaced increas- aluminium relief sculpture by Montréal ranged hexagonally around the Theatre ingly further apart as they neared the sculptor Gino Lorcini (fig. 19). The two and near to the Opera, a design very con- ceiling, in order to increase the sense of levels of the Theatre itself were accessed venient for performers. A large scenery height. These strips of lights also helped by hexagonal staircases similar to those shop between the stages of the Theatre balance the horizontal lines of the hall, cre- of the Opera, with similar glass sculptures and Opera was linked to both by pro- ated by the balustrades of the mezzanine, in the centre. To the south of the Theatre scenium-high metal doors. (The shop was amphitheatre and balcony, and of the was the lobby space for the Studio; here also designed to serve a mobile theatre boxes (fig. 25). The dramatic ceiling com- again were tapestries decorating the walls berthed in the truck dock.) It is reported position, a circular pattern of black and above the bar. In the centre of this space that performers are generally happy with white panels and strips with suspended was a sculpture designed by Montréal the design of these spaces.84 lights effectively camouflaged the catwalk industrial designer Julien Hébert. Set above. The side walls were of tinted glass, within a hexagonal water fountain, it rose Both the exterior and the interior of with the vertical metal diffusers adding a through two levels, to a skylight (fig. 20). the building have remained unchanged subtle aesthetic appeal, though designed Just to the east was the entrance to the except for very minor details. The inter- for acoustical purposes. The outstanding Studio (fig. 5) and, in front of it, a bal- ior of the NAC is stunning for its public single feature was the luxurious stage cur- ustrade overlooking the floor below and areas, for its successions of spaces, for the tain designed by Micheline Beauchemin, providing a view on the opposite wall of variety of attractive views, for its finely

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Fig. 36. Manitoba Theatre Centre, Winnipeg, Manitoba; built in 1969-1970, Number Fig. 37. Grand Théâtre de Québec, Quebec; Victor Prus, architect, built in 1964-1971. Ten Architectural Group, architect. | [http://canada.archiseek.com/manitoba/winnipeg/ Main elevation and entrance. | Nicholas Goodspeed, 2005 downtown/market_avenue/manitoba_theatre_centre_lge.html], accessed April 2005.

finished details, for the effective use of composed, even the restaurant, so that the In the opinion of Janet Wright, “the Na- contemporary art to enhance the inter- right dramatic lead is established for entry to tional Arts Centre introduced the idea ior spaces, and for the performing spaces the grand salle de l’opera. At this moment for that important federal buildings could themselves, especially the Opera. The mo- the first time height isn’t only allowed to take serve as a showcase for the best in Can- tifs of the hexagon and triangle are used over, but […] is encouraged to do so.85 adian architecture.”90 And in the words of effectively and imaginatively to create an Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, interior that brings people together and Verticals in the Opera continue up and an exterior well suited to its irregular site. lose themselves beyond the ceiling.86 It is the culmination of years of work by These motifs, due to their unusual geom- Praise for the contemporary art was not many different organizations and individuals etry, had also posed an unusual challenge universal, but one writer described it as […] In its design and construction, the in construction, with the execution of the “a striking display of modern art incorpor- Centre has drawn on skills and experience various components in concrete, plaster, ated into the design of the whole.”87 acquired during an active decade of work and wood. All details were carefully on similar buildings in all parts of Canada. planned and executed, and contributed Many comments were written praising the Clearly, it has surpassed its predecessors to the creation of unity throughout the building as a whole. According to architect in versatility and comprehensiveness. It will building. No expense was spared by the Jules Gauvreau in Vie des Arts, the NAC, stand comparison with the world’s best.91 federal government in the design or exe- “présente l’incontestable avantage d’une cution of the NAC, from the larger plan- homogénéité inexistante dans la plupart Conclusion ning concepts, the complex but effective des autres centres comparables, récem- floor plans, down to the fine details. ment construits,” and the building is “une To summarize, the NAC illustrates or incontestable réussite architecturale.”88 represents all three cultural phenomena The critics were full of praise for the inter- Macy DuBois in The Canadian Architect described in the guideline for evaluating ior spaces. According to an English critic, wrote: “The Federal Government has built heritage of the modern era. First, the produced a good piece of work. It is the NAC is an outstanding illustration of the The key to the whole drama is that an best building in Ottawa; it is better than changing social and political conditions opera house auditorium must be theatrical anything of its size and function I have with respect to the performing arts in Can- to succeed whereas a theatre auditorium seen in Canada; and it is better than most ada as the only performing arts centre in must not. At Ottawa everything is cunningly such buildings anywhere in the world.”89 the country which was fully subsidized by

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the federal government. From a political and universal ramp have been added. The Comparative Context point of view, it is a significant addition corridor leading from the Elgin Street en- to Canada’s capital as a national cere- trance to the box office has been slightly The NAC is one of a number of per- monial meeting place for heads of state altered and completely enclosed, where- forming arts centres built across Canada and visiting dignitaries. Second, in terms as it had been partially open originally.92 from 1959 to 1970, of which sixteen are of technological advances, it represented The performing spaces are unaltered in listed in the appendix. The Board recom- state-of-the-art technology for lighting appearance except for the Theatre. Here mended the Confederation Centre of the and acoustics, especially in the Opera Hall, the changes are relatively minor, compris- Arts in Charlottetown for national desig- and in terms of adaptability, it introduced ing mainly the installation of new seats nation because either unprecedented or state-of-the-art of a slightly different colour and in a flexibility for all three performing spaces. slightly new arrangement with wider as one of a number of cultural complexes Third, the building was an outstanding rows and handrails, to accommodate an built in the 1960s and 1970s in Canada, new expression of form for its design in aging population. This has resulted in a and as a memorial to the Fathers of the Brutalist style, epitomizing the archi- slight reduction of seat numbers in the Confederation, it is an outstanding example tectural aesthetic of the 1960s in Canada; centre of the Theatre when the proscen- of a national institution dedicated to the for its successful integration into its im- ium is used. In addition, the vomitory has performing arts; when it was built in 1964, portant site on Confederation Square in been somewhat enlarged, to allow for it was highly innovative in its stage design downtown Ottawa; for the outstanding greater access by the performers. As al- and acoustics, and featured state-of-the-art design of its interior spaces; for the suc- ready mentioned, the Studio has had new lighting and construction techniques; and cessful integration of a number of contem- (moveable) seats installed, but its char- it is a distinguished example of Brutalist porary works of art with the architecture; acter and flexibility as an experimental architecture in Canada, which, for its era, and for the Opera, or Southam Hall, of performing space are unchanged. For all is well-integrated with the city.94 (fig. 34) particular note for its aesthetics. performing spaces, apart from the stages, where technological advances have been The NAC was one of two arts centres built Integrity embraced, much of the equipment is ori- in Canada at the time that made use of ginal to the building’s construction. How- federal funds, and it is the only one built The structure and appearance of the NAC ever, the acoustics of Southam Hall have entirely with federal funding.95 In terms are virtually the same as when built, both been augmented electronically to meet of design and function, the NAC is the on the exterior and in the interior. An today’s needs.93 only performing arts centre of the per- unsympathetic addition to the terrace iod designed and built from the start to at street level is the large pillar at the All the performing spaces, including the house three major performing spaces. The northwest corner: while it is covered Salon, continue to house their original other examples were originally designed in the same concrete aggregate as the functions. Changes to functions elsewhere either to house a single performing building, it is not well integrated with include the replacement of the original space, to house a performing space plus the site and it blocks the view of some of bookstores on Elgin Street by the Fourth an additional function, or to house two the Confederation Square buildings from Stage. The space which housed Le Res- performing spaces. a part of the terrace. Inside the building, taurant, the original formal restaurant, changes are minor and reversible, such as is now divided into the Fountain and Pan- Among the examples listed in the appen- the addition of display cases (fig. 29) and orama rooms, which are used for rental dix, five were built with a single auditor- the blocking over of several skylights in functions, such as dinners and receptions. ium (including the required associated the main foyer, the installation of par- Le Café, originally used for casual dining, spaces).96 The remainder included addition- titions for the donors’ circle at the rear now provides fine dining for patrons. In al performing spaces and/or functions as of the Southam Hall lobby, the addition the summer, Le Café opens onto a terrace well. The Hummingbird Centre in Toronto, of a bar and other moveable counters in parallel to the canal, which was not the built in 1960, combined the largest audi- the main foyer, all finished in materials case originally. The interior space just to torium of the period, for an audience of resembling those original to these spaces. the west of Le Café is now the location of three thousand two hundred, with several The carpeted (wood) stairs up to the main a small restaurant called the Oasis, which spaces for exhibiting art. The Queen Eliza- staircase have been extended and a dais is a new use. beth Theatre in Vancouver, built in 1959,

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housed a large hall with two thousand Stylistically, three arts centres in Canada studio, which is adaptable as a performing nine hundred and thirty-one seats and have been identified which are compar- space and could seat five hundred (fig. 37). an art gallery. Place des Arts in Montréal able to the NAC for their designs in the The building also has an area for outdoor included five performing spaces linked to Brutalist style. The Manitoba Theatre Cen- performances in the rear. Again, this is a each other underground; however, each tre (MTC), built in 1969-1970, is a relatively smaller building than the NAC, with few- one was built successively, beginning with modest theatre that is significantly smaller er performing spaces, both of which are a large performing hall for an audience of in size than the NAC, housing only one smaller than their equivalents at the NAC. two thousand nine hundred and eighty- performing space, designed for theatre Generally the plan of the Grand Théâtre two (formerly the Grande Salle, now the (fig. 36).97 Apart from the fly tower, the is rectangular, with truncated corners on Salle Wilfrid-Pelletier), constructed in 1963; building is two storeys high, while the NAC the front elevation where windows occupy all the others were later additions (fig. 35). is built on a number of levels. Character- the full height of the building; these are These three centres all have halls that are istic of Brutalist buildings, the Manitoba the locations of the main entrances. The significantly larger than the Opera, or centre is asymmetrical with four differ- main elevation is more or less symmetrical Southam Hall at the NAC. In contrast to ent elevations and the main entrance at except for the fly tower and performing Place des Arts, the NAC was designed and one side, and is constructed of exposed space seen rising above it. All four eleva- constructed as a whole. concrete. Largely rectangular in plan and tions exhibit tall panels of smoothly fin- occupying a rectangular site, the building ished concrete, projecting outwards near The two centres with auditoriums closest possesses an overall massing that is much the top and divided into bays of equal in size to Southam Hall in Ottawa are those simpler and more block-like than that of width by columns. Windows, of which in Saskatoon and Regina, each with one the NAC. The MTC’s raw concrete surfaces there are few, are at ground level, except medium-sized performance hall combined are carefully—even delicately—expressive those at the corners. with a congress centre. The Saskatoon of the wooden formwork that was used to Centennial Auditorium, built in 1964-1968, create the walls. Various internal functions Like the NAC, the building incorporates holds an audience of two thousand and are expressed on the exterior through ad- art into the design: a large mural by Jordi three, while the Saskatchewan Centre of vancing and receding volumes, and in par- Bonet, over twelve thousand square feet the Arts in Regina, built in 1970, has a hall ticular by expanses of glass fronting the in area, was sculpted into the cement in with a seating capacity of two thousand public lobby areas. At the NAC, the pre- the lobby of the auditorium.98 Its exter- and twenty-nine. The Cleary International cast concrete exterior panel finishes vary ior exposed concrete surfaces and even Centre in Windsor, which opened in 1960, on the exterior to correspond with the its use of concrete for the mural inside housed a smaller auditorium of one thou- functions of the interior spaces. The MTC is an expression of the Brutalist style; sand two hundred and eleven seats as was deliberately scaled to be compatible as a whole it is not, however, nearly as well as a convention centre and exhibition with its neighbour down the block, the complex or ambitious in its design as the space. When it was reopened in 1991 after 1912 Pantages Theatre, though not neces- NAC, with its complete asymmetry, shift- renovations, the auditorium was slightly sarily with the multi-storey warehouses in ing views and overall complexity. Further enlarged but not substantially altered. The the immediate vicinity. The NAC is a much the NAC includes a larger number and St. John’s Arts and Culture Centre in St. more complex example of Brutalist archi- greater variety of works than the Qué- John’s, Newfoundland, built in 1967, in- tecture, carefully adapted to its irregular bec theatre. The Grand Théâtre may be cludes a main performing space for one site, and exhibits a much greater integra- described as a conservative interpreta- thousand seats and a small theatre for an tion with its setting. tion of Brutalism, as it recalls the mod- audience of seventy-five. In addition, the ern International style in its reliance on building housed a library and an art gal- A second example of a theatre in the a certain regularity in plan, its rhythmic lery. None of these buildings was designed Brutalist style is the Grand Théâtre de bays, visible supports, truncated corners to accommodate the variety of perform- Québec in Québec City, built in 1964-1971 and continuous window design rising the ances as was the NAC, with its multipur- to designs by Victor Prus. This building full height of the building at the corners. pose medium-sized auditorium, as well as houses two performing spaces—a formal No particular effort appears to have been a theatre and an experimental studio, not multipurpose auditorium for ballet, opera, made to integrate the Grand Théâtre with to mention the smaller Salon, designed for and theatre for a medium-size audience of its surroundings, though it is generally small concerts as well as receptions. one thousand eight hundred, as well as a harmonious in scale with its neighbours.

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The NAC, in contrast, has a terrace which in smoothly finished sandstone, the same Current Status effectively carried this integration out in sandstone used in the construction of terms of pedestrian access and attractive, the legislative building. A few examples a) Threat(s) highly symbolic views. of modern sculpture are located on the Funding constraints allow the NAC terrace. The inside of the building also to deal only with immediate building The Confederation Centre for the Arts, makes use of sandstone for portions of needs. Funding for capital repairs is allo- built in 1964 in the Brutalist style to de- the walls, though marble is used in the cated first to repairs involving health and signs by Affleck, Desbarats, Dimakop- memorial. Originally there were several safety, major building code issues, and oulos, Lebensold, Sise, was designated a murals inside, but they did not all survive. operational sustainability. In the medium National Historic Site of Canada in 2003 The works of art inside appear to be as- term, however, precast and structural (fig. 34). Of all the arts centres built in sociated with the art gallery rather than component failures present an increased Canada, it is the most comparable to with a design to integrate them with the operational risk of shutdown.100 In addi- the NAC in terms of its fine design in architecture. The interior of the Charlotte- tion, much of the equipment original to the Brutalist style and its generally large town complex is a great contrast to the the building’s construction is nearing the scale.99 The Charlottetown building is interior of the NAC. The smooth straight end of its lifespan.101 usually described as a complex, in that lines of the interior, the generally recti- it houses several functions: a memorial linear floor plans, the clarity of the design b) Other Designations space to the Fathers of Confederation, a and the use of materials create a purity When the building opened, two bronze theatre for a fairly small audience of one in the design and a still, contemplative plaques, one in French and one in English, thousand, a library and an art gallery. The atmosphere, appropriate to the memorial were placed in the central lobby of the building, like the NAC, takes inspiration as well as to the gallery and the library. building. The texts were written by two both from Brutalist principles and from well-known Canadian authors. Robert- its urban, downtown setting, next to The NAC, with its overall irregular design son Davies wrote the English version and Province House—though the focal point and its changing spaces and shifting views, Robert Choquette the French version. The in the design was the memorial, rather was designed to create specific effects ap- text in English reads: than the performing space, a contrast to propriate for a performing centre, such as the NAC. The finely designed Confedera- psychologically preparing the audience for Part of the land on which the National tion Centre for the Arts is composed of a performance. The impetus behind the Arts Centre is built was given to Ottawa four visually distinct but similarly scaled design of the NAC was the creation of for a marketplace by Nicholas Sparks in pavilions which rise above, and are con- spaces for the performing arts, and the 1848. The city’s generous gift of land to nected below a single-level terrace, not building is characterized by varied, dy- the people of Canada is historically apt, for far from street level. The scale of the namic, and theatrical spaces which express a town hall was raised here which served centre is conditioned by that of Province their differing needs. The design of the also as a theatre and a concert room from House, including the centre’s pavilions NAC is more complex than the Charlotte- 1849 until 1865; and on a nearby site, which are the same height as Province town centre, as it relies on the more un- from 1897 until 1928, stood the Russell House. The floor plan is arranged in a usual motifs of the hexagon and triangle, Theatre, in which the most eminent plays horseshoe around the memorial, with on contrasting massing and shapes, on the and players of English, French and American the different functions housed in each use of differing textures, and the incor- theatre were seen. Thus the stage of pavilion. Windows are few, designed ver- poration of a variety of works of art within our inherited tradition in theatre, music tically and located at the corners of each the overall design of the architecture. The and dance becomes the stage where the pavilion except for the memorial, where Opera Hall of the NAC represents an un- native growth in these arts is cherished, the roof is entirely of glass and a second usually satisfactory collaboration between and honour done to those living, dead or large window effectively frames the side architect and acoustician when compared yet to be born who serve us honourably, as elevation of Province House. to other arts centres in the country. Fur- musicians and artists of the theatre. This ther, the Opera at the NAC appears to have superscription was unveiled by her majesty Typical for Brutalist buildings of the era, been a fairly rare example for its time of a Queen Elizabeth II, on the fifth day of July, the Charlottetown centre is constructed multipurpose hall, representing the trend in 1967, the centennial year of Canada’s of concrete, but in this case it is sheathed towards a medium-sized hall. Confederation, before it was placed here.

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In 1970, the NAC was the recipient of a APPENDIX103 Massey Medal for architecture.102

CITY NAME DATE ARCHITECT(S) c) Community Value “The marvellous building on Confedera- Affleck, Desbarats, Vancouver B.C. Queen Elizabeth Theatre 1959 Dimakopoulos, Michaud, tion Square brings for the first time to Lebensold, Sise our doorsteps the performing arts at their best,” wrote the editor of the Ottawa Edmonton, Alta. Jubilee Auditorium 1954-1957 Public Works 103 Citizen on the day of the opening. The Calgary, Alta. Jubilee Auditorium 1954-1957 Public Works construction of the NAC, with its variety of performing spaces and wide range of Kerr Cullingworth Riches Associates Architects; Saskatoon Centennial performances, from the time it was built Saskatoon, Sask. 1964-1968 Affleck, Desbarats, Auditorium until the present, has made possible the Dimakopoulos, Lebensold, Sise appreciation and enjoyment of the per- forming arts for the citizens of the na- Saskatchewan Centre Regina, Sask. 1970 Izumi, Arnott and Sugiyama tional capital area. Known by everyone in of the Arts the community who is interested in the

arts and beyond, it is attended regularly Smith Carter, Moody, Moore, Winnipeg, Man. Centennial Concert Hall 1967 by thousands. The NAC is without doubt G.B.R. Architects one of the most important buildings in the city to a large number of the city’s Number Ten Architectural Winnipeg, Man. Manitoba Theatre Centre 1969-1970 inhabitants, all of whom would agree Group that Ottawa would not be the same Stratford, Ont. Festival Theatre 1957 Rounthwaite & Fairfield without it. The NAC also provides spaces

for additional functions, such as art ex- Hummingbird Centre for the Earle C. Morgan and Page Toronto, Ont. Performing Arts (O’Keefe 1960 hibits, graduations, and social events. It and Steel Centre) is currently busy six days and evenings a week. Douglas C. Johnson and Windsor, Ont. Cleary International Centre 1960 Cunningham McWhinnie NOTES Affleck, Desbarats, 1. These points are: from the ramp on the east Ottawa, Ont. National Arts Centre 1964-1969 Dimakopoulos, Lebensold, side of the building, near the main entrance; Sise just north of the bridge at the level of the canal, at the east corner; just south of the (Salle Wilfrid-Pelletier) Affleck, Desbarats, south ramp to the Mackenzie King Bridge, Montréal, Qué. Place des arts 1963 from the east side of Elgin Street; from Albert Dimakopoulos, Lebensold, Michaud, Sise Street, through the Albert Street tunnel, just west of Elgin Street (figs. 2-3). Québec, Qué. Grand Théâtre de Québec 1964-1971 Victor Prus 2. According to this guideline, “A building, ensemble or site that was created during Fredericton, N.B. The Playhouse 1964 [information unavailable] the modern era may be considered of sig- nificance if it is in a condition that respects Affleck, Desbarats, Confederation Centre for the Charlottetown, P.E.I. 1964 Dimakopoulos, Lebensold, the integrity of its original design, materi- Arts als, workmanship, function, and/or setting, Sise insofar as each of these was an important Affleck, Desbarats, St. John’s Arts and Culture part of its overall intentions and its present St. John’s, Nfld. 1967 Dimakopoulos, Lebensold, Centre character; and it is an outstanding illustration Sise of at least one of the three following cultural phenomena and at least a representative if less than outstanding illustration of the

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other two cultural phenomena of its time: built appear to have been influenced by the for concert hall and opera house design. In a) changing social, political, and/ or economic findings of the Brown Book (Dominion Con- 1970, the year after the NAC opened, John- conditions; b) rapid technological advances; sultants Limited, op. cit.). son founded ARTEC, of world renown in the c) new expressions of form, and/or responses field of all technical aspects of performing 17. Décary, p. 13. to functional demands.” arts spaces design. 18. Ibid. 3. Unless otherwise indicated, this section on 36. The volume of sound is directly proportional the Massey Commission is based mainly on: 19. Id., p. 17. to the size of an auditorium; for example, Kallmann, Helmut, “Massey Commission,” 20. The NCAA considered sixteen sites in their a large auditorium allows for less available The Canadian Encyclopedia, [http://www. report using ten criteria, and recommended sound than a smaller one. thecanadianencyclopedia.com], accessed that the centre be built at Sussex and St. Pat- 37. Canadian Building News, 1969, no. 3, p. 4. January 21, 2005; Litt, Paul, 1992, The Muses, rick streets. The site chosen was not among the Masses, and the Massey Commission, To- 38. This was put together with pieces suspended those that they considered (Dominion Con- ronto, University of Toronto Press; and Royal from either side of the ceiling and walls, or sultants Limited, p. 54-65). Commission on National Development in the towers, on wheels, that could be moved in- Arts, Letters and Sciences (1949-1951), [http:// 21. Décary, p. 50. wards. Twenty-eight feet tall and ten feet www.collectionscanada.ca/massey/h5-400-e. 22. Architectural Requirements for the Per- wide, these towers were rolled onstage and html#content], accessed March 11, 2005. forming Arts in Canada, 1964, A Seminar locked in position for performances. 4 . Kallmann, op. cit. Sponsored by the Centennial Commission, 39. The curtains were to be retracted for organ Ottawa, The Parliament Buildings, June 1-2, recitals and symphony concerts and extended 5. See Royal Commission on National Develop- 1964, Ottawa, Roger Duhamel, p. 3. for musical comedy and lectures. ment in the Arts, Letters and Sciences, op. cit. 23. Submission from the National Arts Centre 40. Bob Allen, conversation with the author, Corporation, to the Executive Secretary, His- March 15, 2005. 6. “The Theatre,” Royal Commission on Na- toric Sites and Monuments Board of Canada tional Development in the Arts, Letters and 41. The Canadian Architect, July 1969, vol. 14, (HSMBC), n.d., p. 3. Sciences, p. 3. no. 7, p. 63. 24. Frazer, Robbin, 1971, “The Stradivarius of 7. Id. p. 6. 42. This sound-reverberation system was used for Arts Centres,” Performing Arts in Canada, the performance of electronic music, for spe- 8. Id. p. 10. March. cial effects with film exhibition, for theatrical 9. “Ballet,” [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/ 25. Wright, Janet, 1997, Crown Assets: The Archi- effects, for opera and musical comedy, and massey/h5-400-e.html#content], p. 3 accessed tecture of the Department of Public Works, for certain popular music attractions. March 11, 2005. 1867-1967, Toronto, University of Toronto 43. Johnson, p. 62. Press, p. 265. 10. “Music,” ibid. 44. Id., p. 32. 26. Décary, p. 45. 11. Grace, Gerry, 2001, “The National Arts Cen- 45. La Technique des travaux, January-February tre: A Brief History,” unpublished manuscript 27. Id., p. 19. 1971, no. 327, p. 3. on file, NAC Archives, December, p. 2; and 28. The original plan for the Stratford Festival Décary, Robert, 1986, “The National Arts 46. “The resulting sound has that dry, ‘hi-fi stereo Theatre to be winter resident as the Strat- Centre: A History of the Events Leading to quality’ which music critics cannot agree on.” ford National Theatre, and the Théâtre du its Creation,” Final Draft, on file at the Par- (Dixon, John Morris, 1969, “Cultural Centre Capricorne, a new ensemble established for liamentary Library, Ottawa, p. 1-3. Canadian Style,” Forum, October, p. 51.) a resident French theatre, did not work out. Bob Allen, currently head sound engineer, 12. Other high schools used for performances 29. Globe & Mail, April 4, 1973; and La Presse, worked at the NAC from the time shortly included Glebe Collegiate and Ottawa Tech- April 11, 1973. after it opened. He stated that the acoustics nical High School (See, for example, Grace, were “great” and could not name a centre p. 1). 30. Gerry Grace, Curator, NAC; e-mail to author, April 11, 2005. in Canada with a multipurpose hall which he 13. Grace, p. 1. thought had better acoustics at the time. 31. CBC Times, May 31-June 6, 1969, vol. 21, 14. Dominion Consultants Limited, 1963, “A no. 49, p. 3. 47. Bob Allen, conversation with the author, National Centre for the Performing Arts: March 15, 2005. A Study Prepared for the National Capital 32. Bob Allen, head sound engineer, NAC; con- 48. Gerry Grace, Archivist, NAC, site visit, Arts Alliance,” October. This study is often versation with the author, March 15, 2005. March 15, 2005. referred to as the Brown Book. 33. The Canadian Architect, July 1969, vol. 14, 49. The Canadian Architect, July 1969, vol. 14, 15. Grace, p. 2. no. 7, p. 32. no. 7, p. 32. 16. The report made detailed recommendations 34. Johnson, Russell, 1969, “Acoustic Problems,” 50. Paul Hennig, director of Production Oper- for the requirements of such a centre, which The Canadian Architect, vol. 14, no. 7, p. 62. ations, NAC; conversation with the author, they stated needed an opera hall, a theatre, 35. Johnson had founded and become principal April 20, 2005. a studio, and a small reception/performing consultant of BBN’s Theatre Planning and area. The sizes of the performing spaces as Consulting Division and technical coordinator

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51. This section on the Studio is based on Hen- 70. CBC Times, May 31-June 6, 1969, vol. 21, should have a scheme of development which nig, id.; and CBC Times, May 31-June 6, 1969, no. 49, p. 3. The idea for terraces with views would help to establish first an atmosphere vol. 21, no. 49, p. 3. of the Parliament Buildings and having space of concentration and an ‘inner gravity’ and for concerts appears to have originated with then the encouragement of conversation 52. Dixon, p. 51. the Brown Book (see p. 68). during the interval.” (Dominion Consultant 53. DuBois, Macy, 1969, “Critique,” The Canadian Associates Limited, p. 67-68.) 71. This is a feature of the NAC often criticized. Architect, vol. 14, no. 7, p. 46. But one may also consider the following com- 83. “Building /A Discussion,” RAIC (Royal Archi- 54. Hennig, April 20, 2005. ment: “One has only to compare the National tecture Institute of Canada) Journal, 1963, 55. Frazer, op. cit. Arts Centre with Toronto’s O’Keefe Centre, vol. 40, no. 11, p. 54. however, to recognize the virtues of avoiding 84. Site visit, March 2005. 56. For example, see Terry J. Waller, 1968, “The a bombastic entrance, unused during most National Arts Centre,” Plywood World, vol. 8, working days, but standing like an unbeat- 85. Bentham, Frederick, 1970, “National Arts no. 3, p. 1; and 1971, La Technique des Tra- en drum waiting for its brief use.” (DuBois, Centre, Ottawa,” TABS, no. 1, p. 20. vaux, January-February, no. 327, p. 3. p. 44) 86. Ibid. 57. Wright, p. 265. 72. Wright and Johnson, p. 226. 87. CBC Times, May 31-June 6, 1969, vol. 21, 58. Ibid. 73. Dixon, p. 46. no. 49, p. 3.

59. Waller, p. 4. 74. The inclusion of the NAC within the Parkin 88. Gauvreau, Jules, 1969, “Au seuil d’une Épo- 60. Banham, Reyner, 1966, The New Brutalism, plan was mentioned by Pearson in 1963 (Dé- que Nouvelle… l’Architecture,” Vie des Arts, London, England, The Architectural Press cary, p. 14). For the plan, see John B. Par- vol. 56, p. 15. kin Associates, 1962, Confederation Square London, p. 16 and 21-22. 89. DuBois, p. 48. Development: A Proposal to the National 61. For Brutalism, see Tzonis, Alexander, Liane Capital Commission, vol. 1, December; and 90. Wright, p. 265. Lefaivre, and Richard Diamond, 1995, Archi- John B. Parkin and Associates, 1967, “Confed- 91. “Hexagon,” unpublished manuscript, on file tecture in North America Since 1960, Boston eration Square Development: A Proposal to at NAC, p. 18. / New York / Toronto / London, A Bullfinch the National Capital Commission,” March 1, Press Book, Little, Brown and Company, esp. Ottawa Public Library. 92. Gerry Grace, site visit, March 15, 2005. p. 22-24 and 82-84; Khan, Hasan-Uddin, 2001, 93. Ibid. Le Style International : Le Modernisme dans 75. CBC Times, May 31-June 6, 1969, vol. 21, l’architecture de 1925 à 1965, Cologne, Tasch- no. 49, p. 3. 94. HSMBC, “Minutes,” December 2002. en; and Maitland, Leslie, Jacqueline Hucker, 76. Dixon, p. 52. 95. Charrois, Geneviève, “Centre des arts de la and Shannon Ricketts, 2004 [2nd ed.], A Guide Confédération, Submission Report, HSMBC, to Canadian Architectural Styles, Peterbor- 77. “A Performing Arts Center for an Urban Re- 2002-45, p. 7; and Gordon Fulton, director, ough, Ontario, Broadview Press, p. 203-209. development,” Architectural Record, Decem- ber 1964, p. 20. Historical Services Branch, Parks Canada, con- 62. Wright, p. 265. versation, March 4, 2005. 78. Dixon, p. 48. 63. For Place Bonaventure, see Kalman, Hal, 1994, 96. Description of comparatives is largely based A History of Canadian Architecture, vol. 2, To- 79. “Le Centre national des arts ouvre ses portes on Charrois, op. cit. ronto, Oxford University Press, p. 832; and ce soir,” Le Devoir, May 31, 1969. 97. See Maitland et al., p. 206. Tzonis et al., p. 120-123. 80. Architectural Requirements for the Per- 98. “Site officiel de Jordi Bonet,” [http://www. 64. Wright, p. 265. forming Arts in Canada, p. 14. jordibonet.com], accessed March 17, 2005. 65. Ibid. 81. Ibid. 99. This analysis is based on Charrois, op. cit.; and 66. Charles Daudelin, [http://en.wikipedia.org/ 82. As described in the Brown Book, where it Charrois, conversation with the author, April wiki/Charles_Daudelin], accessed March 17, says, in full, that the “theatre-temple […] 2005. 2005. must be given an interior which […] reflect- ing the expectations of the theatre-goer, will 100. “Submission from the National Arts Centre 67. Quoted in Bronson, Susan, 1997, Built Herit- gradually detach him from everyday life to Corporation,” January 2004. age and the Modern Era: Overview, Frame- lead him to the auditorium in a psychological 101. Ibid. work for Analysis, and Criteria for Evaluation, state favourable to the performance he is go- 102. “Massey Medals for Architecture,” Architec- Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Can- ing to see. The architecture of the various ture Canada, 1970. ada, Appendix 6, p. 10, [http://www.collec- corridors, cloakrooms, foyers and lobbies tionscanada.ca/massey/index-e.html]. becomes […] a succession of psychological 103. Young, Christopher, 1969, “A City Grows Up,” 68. Ibid. See also Wright, op. cit. barriers that cut people off from the street Saturday Citizen, May 31, 1969. and turn them into an attentive audience. 104. This chart was drawn up by Charrois, p. 15. 69. For example, Janet Wright and Dana Johnson, The sequence provided by the entrance halls, “Confederation Square, Ottawa, Ontario,” cloakrooms, staircases and lobbies leading to- Agenda Paper, HSMBC, 1984-17. wards the auditorium, and inversely, from the auditorium to the foyers during the interval,

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