Volume 3 | Issue 5 | Article ID 1582 | May 19, 2005 The Asia-Pacific Journal | Focus

Firebombing and Atom Bombing: an historical perspective on indiscriminate bombing

Yuki Tanaka

Firebombing and Atom Bombing: an historical perspective on indiscriminate bombing by Yuki TANAKA

The firebombing of , or for that matter the bombing of any city, whether it be , , or , cannot be fully comprehended unless it is examined in the context of the history of indiscriminate bombing throughout the twentieth century.

Tokyo following the firebombing of March 10, 1945

Indiscriminate bombing of civilians during major warfare was first conducted by both the German and the Allied forces during . Initially both sides refrained from targeting civilians or residential areas, but due to the rudimentary nature of their aircraft and aerial bombing techniques, inevitably went astray, killing civilians in their wake. For example, in August 1914, a German plane

1 3 | 5 | 0 APJ | JF dropped five bombs in an attempt to destroy a circles ever since, was simply a myth that has railway station in Paris, taking the life of a never been proven. The leading proponent of woman in a street nearby. By the end of the this theory was an Italian officer, Italian war about 500 Parisians had been killed by strategist Giulio Douhet, author of Command of German aerial bombing. In December 1914, the the Air published in 1921, claimed that the French army bombed the railway station of quickest way to win a war was to terrorize Freiburg, but the bombs missed their target enemy civilians with intensive aerial bombing, and many civilians were killed. combining three different types of bombs, i.e. explosives, incendiaries and poison gas. From early 1915, "revenge bombing" by both sides gradually escalated. Between 1915 and In fact, some British generals had entertained 1918, the Germans dropped 300 tons of bombs similar ideas during the war, although those on London and other English coastal towns, ideas were never been systematically analyzed. killing more than 1,400 people and injuring Towards the end of World War I, in April 1918, about 3,400, most of whom were civilians. In the British government established the Royal the final year of the war alone various cities in , historically the first independent air western were bombed 657 times by force in the world. Combining its Naval Air the Allied forces, who dropped a total of 8,000 Service and Army Flying Corps the move bombs which killed approximately 1,200 sought to strengthen the British airborne and people. From May 1917, the Germans started bombing capability at a time when London had to use a number of new large twin-engine come under repeated attacks by German , called Gotha GIVs, to attack England. airships and bombers. The main task of RAF These were capable of carrying up to 500kg of was to strike targets bombs. The RAF also started producing a as well as densely populated industrial centres similar type of plane called a Handley- in Germany and occupied areas. The bombing Page in order to reach inland German cities. If of industrial centres aimed not only to destroy the war had continued, the number of civilian military arsenals, but also to break the morale victims would have increased dramatically. of German workers. For example, Lord Tiverton, a staff officer of the RAF, advocated World War I was a watershed in both the the use of any method to demoralize German increased quantity and technological workers, including dropping planeloads of improvement of warplanes. For example, by Colorado beetles on farmland in order to November 1918 the British forces possessed devastate potato crops. General Hugh almost 23,000 planes, having entered the war Trenchard, who led the Independent Force (the with only 110 planes. A total of about 100,000 British bomber force), claimed that the 'moral warplanes were produced in France and effect of bombing stands undoubtedly to the England during the war. Most importantly, it material effect in proportion of 20 to 1, and was at this time that the idea of "strategic therefore it was necessary to create the bombing" was conceived and to a certain extent greatest moral effect possible.' After the war, put into practice. Militarists on both sides General Trenchard and other leaders of the argued that the "moral effect" of aerial RAF claimed that British bombing had made a bombing on civilians, i.e., popular fear, great contribution to ending the war by disillusion, and demoralization leading to lost demoralizing German civilians. None of the working hours, lowered production, and post-war surveys conducted by the British, perhaps political upheaval, would force the French and the U.S. forces respectively, enemy nation to surrender quickly. In fact, this however, found evidence to support theory, which has remained robust in air power Trenchard's claim.

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Although Britain won World War I, the war of World War II, both Britain and Germany consumed enormous funds and resources, initially refrained from aerial attacks on leaving the management of the colonies in civilians. However, in a repeat scenario, both disarray. The faced a serious sides deliberately increased their revenge crisis immediately after the war, encountering bombing of civilian quarters in major cites popular revolts and violent political following a series of inaccurately targeted demonstrations throughout the colonies and bombing. The German forces conducted mandated territories. British air power was "Operation Blitz" for almost nine months from immediately utilized to suppress such revolts September 1940, attacking London, , and demonstrations in the territories. For , Manchester and many other example, in 1920, an air squadron was sent to English cities, killing 60,000 civilians and Somaliland to suppress a revolt by the local destroying more than 2 million houses. On militia. The bombing destroyed not only the September 11, 1940, Joseph Goebbels wrote in fortress of the militiamen, but also private his diary that this aerial bombing operation dwellings near by. would be decisive in forcing the British government to surrender. Yet it was in Iraq that Britain employed its air force for the purpose of suppressing local In revenge, the RAF started night raids on revolts most widely and for the longest period. industrial cites in the region in October Full-scale bombing in Iraq by eight RAF 1940. However, aerial attacks on German squadrons began in October 1922 and civilians really expanded in continued until 1932, the year that the British when Arthur Harris assumed the position of mandatory rule of Iraq officially ceased. commander of the RAF . Various types of bombs including delayed and Lubeck, a cultural city with no military incendiary bombs were dropped in attacks on importance, became the first target of Harris' villages where militia were believed to be new strategy called "area bombing." Cologne hiding, and in some cases petrol was sprayed was then attacked by more than 1000 planes. over civilian houses in order to intensify the Other cities such as Essen, Kiel, Stuttgart, ignited by the bombing. Tents and other Manheim, , and Berlin were also types of Bedouin dwellings and even their targeted. In February 1943, Harris pronounced cattle became targets, resulting in the death that the morale of the German population in the and injury of many women and children. British bombed areas had reached an all-time low, and Forces justified this indiscriminate bombing by that if the RAF continued bombing, surrender claiming that their operations 'proved could be expected in the very near future. outstandingly effective, extremely economical Night raids continued on many German cites and undoubtedly humane in the long run' as including , where 7,000 tons of bombs they could swiftly put down revolts and riots. were dropped and about 45,000 people were One of these RAF squadron leaders in Iraq was killed. Yet there was no sign of surrender by Arthur Harris, who later headed the RAF the Nazi regime. Bomber Command during World War II. Based on their experience in Iraq, the RAF leaders In response, the RAF began to target Berlin, concluded that the best way to defeat the bombing the city sixteen times between enemy was to conduct "strategic bombing" on November 1943 and March 1944, while civilian dwellings, in particular those of continuing to other German cities. Still industrial workers. Harris' expectation of Nazi surrender was not fulfilled. On the contrary, the Germans started As in the case of World War I, at the beginning employing new weapons of indiscriminate

3 3 | 5 | 0 APJ | JF killing -- V-1 and V-2 rockets against England. USAAF in Europe and set up the "United States More than 9,500 V-1 rockets were launched Strategic Air Forces" in December 1943. Eaker killing about 6,200 people. About 1,100 V-2 was demoted and Carl Spaatz became the head rockets reached various parts of England, of USSF. killing 2,700 and injuring 6,500 people. Claiming again that the Germans were on the We observe the steady progress of US strategy verge of a collapse in morale, Harris stepped from "" to "strategic up aerial attacks. In February 1945, the bombing" (indiscriminate bombing throughout Bomber Command flew 17,500 sorties and the years 1943 to 1945). In the four months dropped 45,750 tons on German cities. between September 1 and December 31, 1944, Between February 13 and 15, Dresden was the USSF dropped more than 140,000 tons of heavily bombed for the first time by the RAF, bombs on "major targets," 60 percent of them this time together with the US Army Air Force in "blind bombing." Only 674 tons were used (USAAF). During the 14 hour long raid, massive for "precision bombing" in the strict sense. The quantities of incendiaries burnt large areas of percentage of "blind bombing" increased to 80 this city, that housed no military facility, and percent of the entire US bombing campaign in killed many civilians. The estimated victim toll Europe between October 1944 and the end of varies between 70.000 and 135,000, the the war in Europe in May 1945. In February majority being women, children and old people. 1945, together with the RAF the US forces conducted "Operation Clarion," whereby The USAAF led by Ira Eaker joined the numerous German towns and villages were bombing campaign in Europe from August bombed from a low altitude in order to 1942. Despite repeated RAF requests to join it demoralize the enemy nation. It was an in low altitude night bombing, the USAAF operation totally devoid of tactical value. In adhered to its traditional strategy, i.e., the so- short, US bombing activities in Europe became called "precision bombing" in daylight from a no different from "area bombing". The fact that high altitude, using the Norden . the USAAF leaders abandoned "precision However, in reality "precision bombing" was bombing" in reality but maintained it simply as simply an official euphemism as the bombs an official principle is evident in the new regularly fell at least one quarter of a mile from counter plan against V-1 and V-2 rockets the target. It is not surprising therefore that advocated by General Arnold. That was to fly the USAAF killed not only German civilians, but 500 unmanned, -controlled, fully bomb- also many Allied civilians of German occupied loaded B-17 bombers and crash them into cities such as Paris, Nantes, Lille, Lorient, and enemy held cities. Fortunately this plan was Amsterdam as a result of "precision bombing." never put into practice. From November 1943, the US bombers started conducting "blind bombing," by using newly Nevertheless, by the end of the war, 131 invented radar called an . However, given German towns and cities had been bombed and technical limitations, the bombing became approximately 600,000 German civilians had more random and indiscriminate. Eaker shared been killed by "strategic bombing" conducted the same optimism with Arthur Harris that the primarily by the British with support from US British and the US cooperative bombing forces. campaign was destroying German morale. Dissatisfied with the results of "precision It was against this background that the USAAF bombing" by the 8th US Bomber Command in began the bombing campaign of Japan from Britain, however, General Henry Arnold, the late 1944. According to Arnold and Curtis commander of the USAAF, reorganized the LeMay, bombing civilians was essential in

4 3 | 5 | 0 APJ | JF order to break Japanese morale and this was From this brief history of indiscriminate the quickest way to force them to surrender. At bombing, we can understand that the phrase the same time it was the most efficient method "discriminate bombing (against civilians)" to minimize casualties to their own men. In this rather than "indiscriminate bombing" is in fact sense, Arnold, LeMay and other US military more appropriate as the majority of victims of leaders inherited the idea of "strategic "strategic bombing" are civilians, in particular bombing" that was originally advocated by the women and children. In plain language, RAF leaders in World War I. According to this "strategic bombing" of civilians is an act of concept, the killing of enemy civilians is terrorism. The real question then is "Is there justifiable, no matter how cruel the method, any moral justification in killing tens of indeed it is indispensable to hastening thousands of non-combatants in the guise that surrender. US leaders, however, in their public it will force a swift surrender?" pronouncements, would continue to insist that their bombs were directed toward strategic In assessing specific cases of indiscriminate targets. Consider, for example, President Harry bombing, we must remember the history of the Truman's announcement immediately after the justification of mass killing of civilians and a bombing of Hiroshima: "The world will note praxis that we have dated from World War I. that the first atomic bomb was dropped on We have shown that in the course of World War Hiroshima, a military base. That was because II, at different times and for particular strategic we wished in this first attack to avoid, in so far reasons, the British, the Germans, the Japanese as possible, the killing of civilians." Truman and the Americans all engaged in strategic made this statement immediately following the bombing with heavy tolls in civilian lives instant killing of 70,000 to 80,000 civilian following a logic that it would demoralize the residents of Hiroshima. By the end of 1945, enemy and speed up surrender. We must be 140,000 residents of that city would have died careful not to get bogged down in an argument from the bomb. In the end, more than 100 such as whether or not the firebombing of Japanese cities were destroyed by firebombing, Tokyo was strategically justifiable, and whether and two by atomic bombing, causing one or not the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki million casualties, including more than half a were strategically justifiable. The fundamental million deaths, the majority being civilians, question is why this theory justifying mass particularly women and children. killing has persisted for so long even after the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It is The United States was not, of course, alone in important to ask why the strategy was applied indiscriminate bombing in the . The during the Korean and Vietnam Wars, and why Japanese Imperial Navy engaged in the first variants of it are still used to some extent to indiscriminate bombing in the Asia-Pacific justify the "collateral damage" of "precision region with the January 1932 attack on civilians bombing" in wars such as those in Afghanistan, on Shanghai. Thereafter, Japanese bombers Kosovo and Iraq. At the same time ways should targeted civilians in Nanjing, Wuhan, be explored to increase understanding of the and other cities. Chongqing, in fact that killing civilians is a crime against particular, was targeted with more than 200 air humanity regardless of the asserted military raids over three years from the end of 1938, justification, a crime that should be punished bringing the total death toll up to 12,000. Here, on the basis of the Nuremberg and Geneva too, the Japanese were not targeting a military principles. Finally, it is important to remember facility, but sought to destroy the that no war has ever been brought to an end Guomindang's centre of power and demoralize simply by indiscriminate bombing and mass the civilians who supported this regime. killing of civilians. Indeed, there is abundant

5 3 | 5 | 0 APJ | JF evidence that such strategies typically Warfare (Princeton University strengthened resistance. Press, 2002)

A note on sources. The following are among the * Ronald Schaffer, Wings of Judgment (Oxford major sources consulted in preparing this university Press, 1985) article. * Denis Richards, RAF Bomber Command in the Archival Documents: Second World War: The Hardest Victory British National Archives Documents: Air 20/ (Penguin Books, 2001) 1027, Air 5/1287. Air 5/344, Air 5/338 * R. Cargill Hall ed., Case Studies in Strategic Secondary Sources: Bombardment (Air Force * George Williams, Biplanes and : History and Museums Program, 1998) British Bombing in World War I (University Press of the Pacific, Hawaii, 2002) Yuki Tanaka is a research professor at the * Scott Robertson, The Development of RAF Hiroshima Peace Institute and a coordinator of Strategic Bombing Doctrine, 1919 -1939 Japan Focus. His books include Hidden (Praeger, 1995) Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II. He contributed this article to Japan Focus. Post * Lee Kennett, A History of Strategic Bombing: at Japan Focus on May 16, 2005. From the First Hot- Air Part of a continuing series of articles on Balloons to Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Charles firebombing and atomic bombing that includes Scribner's Sons, 1982) articles by Kai Bird and Martin Sherwin, Robert McNamara, David McNeill, Greg Mitchell, * Tami Biddle, Rhetoric and Reality in Air Mark Selden and Lawrence Wittner.

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