Sogawa, T. Paper : Cultural Anthropology Ethnic Sport, its Concept and Research Perspectives Tsuneo Sogawa *

*Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University 2-579-15, Mikajima, Tokorozawa, Saitama 359-1192 Japan [email protected] [Received April 21, 2006 ; Accepted May 25, 2006]

The present paper discusses a concept of "ethnic sport" and its research perspectives. Ethnic sport means the play and games which are practiced by a fi xed ethnic group or in a fi xed society, and relates more or less to the traditional culture, so contributes to identity building. Ethnic sport therefore looks to the ethnicity, and faces international sport such as the Olympics which looks to global standardization. However both were invented or discovered equally in the huge globalization current of the last two centuries. Ethnic sport has been studied from the different ethnological or cultural- anthropological theoretical models such as evolutionalism, diffusionalism, acculturation, structural-functionalism, symbolism and so on. Recently approaches from identity, tourism, ethnoscience body theory have attracted scholars.

Keywords: ethnic sport, international sport, identity

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The purpose of this study is to clarify the concept during the rice-growing season and serves as a prayer of ethnic sports and discuss the research perspectives to the Dragon, the god of water2) ; c) the swinging, that ethnic sport provides. an event held during the Tuan wu festival in Korea in which women compete to see how high they 1. The Concept of Ethnic Sport can swing on 10-meter-long swings. Competitions for this sport are held in North Korea and among Ethnic sport is a general concept for those sports Koreans in China3); d) the big tug of war in Okinawa, that are related more or less to the traditional culture Japan, performed annually from July to September. or contribute to the forging of a specifi c cultural The rice straw ropes used in this event, the Male identity of the people within specifi c countries, rope and Female rope, are each 30 meters long and societies, ethnic groups and areas who perform them. 1 meter in diameter with 3-meter-in-diameter loop Among ethnic sports are the following: a) at the end. The loop of the Male rope is inserted Buzkashi in Afganistan, in which two teams of men through the loop of the Female rope, and the two on horseback compete to bring a sheep that has had ropes are locked together by a log inserted through its head and four limbs cut off to a goal1); b) the the loop of Male rope. This competition takes dragon boat race, held at the Tuan wu festival in the place on New Year’s Day on the old calendar of river basin of southern China on the fi fth day of the Okinawa4) ; e) Ulama, a ball game played in Mexico fi fth month. Traditionally, elongated dugout boats 20 during the pre-Christian Olmeca era. In this game, meters long and 1 meter wide are used in the race; two teams of players use their hips to hit and pass however, recently the dugout boat has given way to a 5-kilogram, 20 centimeter-in-diameter ball made boats made from planks. In an attempt to evoke the from the sap of the rubber tree among one another. image of the ancient creature that this race honors, When Spain ruled the country, this ball game was the participants draw a dragon on the sides of their forbidden out of fear that it would awaken ethnic boats, with the carved head and tail stuck into the consciousness5); f) Holnussen, a ball game played in bow and stern. The Tuan wu festival is celebrated . Players are separated into two teams.

1 Blanchard, K. and Cheska, A., pp.128-130. 2 Sogawa, T., Field work. 3 Sogawa, T., Field work. 4 Sogawa, T., Field work.

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A player on the offense hits a disc with a bat, and Winners are awarded a branch of the acacia tree, the players on the defense try to hit and stop the disc whose ash is thought to be a source of power. by throwing boards into the air. Points are awarded Wrestlers put the ash on their body before matches based on the distance that the disc fl ies before it and also hope to be buried with the ash when they is brought down6) ; g) Rarajipuami, a type of road die. is loved throughout the world, and race performed by the Tarahumara people in the variations of it can be seen in ethnic sports around highlands of northern Mexico, 2000m above sea the globe: in Switzerland, Ranggeln in level. Rarajipuami is an individual or team sport Austria, in Iceland, Koshti in Iran, in which players run 200km while kicking a ball. in Turkey, Palaima in Greece, Trinta in Romania, The 10cm-in-diameter ball is carved out of wood. Koureche in Qazaq, Goughty in Tajik, Kokh in Players hold the ball on the dorsum of the foot and Armenia, Penches in India, Gulat in Indonesia, Bukh kick it forward. In the team game, the player who in Mongolia, Sirum in Korea, in Japan, the catch up to their own ball have the right to kick it Inuit Pajartuit in Canada, Panmo and Uiteke in Brasil, next. Players are not allowed to use their hands and many others. These varieties of sumo have no matter where the ball comes to rest after a kick, different rules, techniques, costumes and cultural even if the ball lands between rocks or in the water. meanings10) ; k) sports in which animals are used. The distance of the race varies and is determined On Bali Island in Indonesia, for example, a cow cart in advance by discussion. If the competition goes race is held. In Madura, a two-cow sleigh race is through night, supporters prepare torches7) ; h) held. The Lapp in Finland hold reindeer races and sporting events held by the native people of Alaska reindeer sleigh races. Furthermore, sheep fi ghting, during the World Eskimo Indian Olympics (WEIO) bull fi ghting and cock fi ghting are found throughout in July of every year. Events include various unique the world. In China, cricket fi ghting is popular, and sports such as the One-Foot High Kick, in which there is a nationwide organization of cricket fi ghting. contestants must jump up, kick a suspended object Fish fi ghting in Thailand and spider fi ghting in Japan with one foot and land again on the same foot, the are known, as well11) ; i) ethnic sport involving the Nalakatuk, or Blanket Toss, in which "pullers" throwing of objects: the Caber Toss in Scotland in holding a blanket of walrus skins work together which a 5m-long 70kg log is thrown, the Unspunnen to toss the contestant high up into the air, and the rock toss in Switzerland, the Tika spear slide in Ear Weight, in which contestants walk with a 5-kg the Tikopia islands of Oceania, in which a spear weight hung from one ear8) ; i) the Log Relay, run is thrown on the ground for distance, the Ao-Naga by the Timbira, who live near the mouth of the Rio pestle in Assam, in which contestants hold one Amazonas. Runners carry a 100kg log on their edge of a standing pestle used for grain threshing shoulders, passing it to the next runner in a relay and throw it with centrifugal force for distance, between two teams. Not only men but also women and Jyarid in Turkey, in which men on horseback participate in this race9) ; j) Bachama wrestling, throw lances whose edges are rounded trying to hit practiced by the Bachama people of Nigeria that one another. A similar game performed on Sumba is connected to their annual agricultural cycle, island in Indonesia is known as Pasola12); m) sports vayato. The wrestling has very signifi cant social involving lifting and carrying weight: the Tibetan and and supernatural meaning for the men of Bachama Basque sports in which contestants carry large rocks because it is thought to be the most effective way of and the Japanese sport in which contestants carry a increasing one’s muroune, or value as a man. The heavy rice bale13); n) in which contestants Nuba people of Sudan also practice a wrestling. knock down opponents using weapons, or by batting,

5 Krickeberg, W. 6 Schweizerisches Sportmuseum Basel. 7 Blanchard, K. and Cheska, A., pp.130-132. 8 Kelly, M. 9 Hye-Kerkdal, K. 10 Sogawa, T., 1995 ; International Amatuer Wrestling Federation. 11 Sogawa, T., Field work. 12 Firth, R.; Webster, D.; Schweizerishes Sport Museum Basel; Sogawa, T., Field work.

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striking and hitting with hands and legs. Such sports pre-modern societies (i.e.: primitive societies exist worldwide: Kararipayat in India, Puntjak Silat and non-Western societies) where all sports are in Indonesia, Mukalekale on Bali Island, Tjatji on supposed to be traditional, it is unnecessary to use Flores Island, Muray-Thai in Thailand, Wushu in this adjective. S. Culin in America, for instance, China, Tae kwon do in Korea and Kendo, Kyudo and titled his detailed reports on the traditional sports of Karate in Japan. Because regional and indigenous the North American Indians, "Games of the North religions play a role in many of these martial arts, American Indians" (1907), and his comparative they are strongly related to identity formation14); o) research of traditional sports in Korea, China and the sport of kite fl ying, in which contestants compete Japan, "Korean Games with Notes on Corresponding for height, or attack and knock down other kites. Games" (1895). Similarly, H. Damm, who studied Kite fi ghting is very popular in Southeast Asia, the sports of Oceania and Indonesia as deeply as S. especially in Pakistan where contestants fl y small Culin, titled his book "Die Gymnastischen Spiele der 50cm square kites, and in Japan, where, in Shirone, Indonesier und Südseevölker" (1922). K. Reutler’s for example, teams of 30~40 people fl y giant 7m by doctoral dissertation on the traditional athletic games 5m kites that weigh 50kg15); p) top spinning, in which (Leibesübungen) of primitive people, which was contestants compete for length of time. Malaysian submitted to Rostock University in 1939, was entitled tops, in Kota Bharu, are fi ne and heavy, weighing "Über die Leibesübungen der Primitiven." C. H. 4kg. Wooden discs that are thickly tinned can spin Kool’s doctoral dissertation on traditional children’s two hours16). games in Indonesia, New Guinea, and Philippines, The ethnic sports listed here represent only a which was submitted to Zürich University in 1923, portion of those that have been investigated and was titled "Das Kinderspiel im Indischen Archipel." documented. In addition, these sports are all involve Furthermore, R. Janssen’s doctoral dissertation adult participants. If board games and the sports on traditional games in Micronesia, which was involving children are added, the list would be submitted to Wien University in 1971, comparatively enormous. recently, was titled "Spiele im Mikronesien." Meanwhile, things are different in Europe. 2. Terms for Ethnic Sport For example, the conferences for the survey and development of traditional European sports, which When referring to such ethnic sports separately, were held by the EU (European Union) in 1988 and there has been a tendency to use the native names 1991, were referred to as the "European Seminar on of the respective sports, as in the cases of Tika, Traditional Games," and the books of the respective Holnussen, and Silat. When there is a need to refer participating countries’ presentations published after to such sports generically, certain adjectives such the conferences, in several different languages, was as traditional oror volkstümlich are often used. It is titled "Bibliography of Traditional Games." This noteworthy that Western researchers have tended tendency in Europe dates back to the 19th century. to use the adjective, traditional, or other adjectives In Britain, for example, A. B. Gomme published that have a similar meaning when referring to their a two-volume book, "The Traditional Games of own traditional sports, while they refer to sports England, Scotland, and Ireland," in 1894 and 1898. of so-called primitive societies and non-Western In 1924, Eidgenössische Schwingerverband (Swiss societies simply as the sports of such and such -Style-Wrestling Association) published a book of people. This may be attributable to the recognition, the association’s history, which was subtitled "Eine especially among early ethnologists, that in Europe, Darstellung Vaterländischer Volksspiele." In Holland, a modern society where modern and time-honored similarly, D. J. Van der Ven published "De Herleving sports coexist, it is important to use the adjective, van het Nederlandse Volksspel" in 1944. traditional, when referring to the latter in order Of course, the adjective, traditional, has not always to distinguish them from the former, while in been used to refer generically to only time-honored

13 Sogawa, T., Field work. 14 Sogawa, T., Field work. 15 Sogawa, T., Field work. 16 Sogawa, T., Field work.

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Western sports. Sometimes, such an adjective has jeux traditionelle." A book co-edited by the Chinese been used to refer to non-Western sports, as well. For Gymnastic Museum and State Physical Culture and example, Van de Seriere in Holland studied games Sports Commission in 1990 was entitled "Traditional in Java, Indonesia, and published his reports in the sports annals of the Chinese nationalities." The journal, Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsche Indië, in commemorative issue of essays published at the serial form in 6 installments in 1873 and 1874, under time of the 7th Traditional Sports Festival of Chinese the title of "Javasche volksspelen en vermaken". Ethnic Minorities was titled "Essays on Ethnic According to W. Kauden17), a sample of wicker ball Sports." Furthermore, regarding the WEIO (World used in Sepak Raga, which is played in Mindanao, Eskimo Indian Olympics) which is held by Eskimos Indonesia, is exhibited in the Linden Museum in and Indians, the indigenous inhabitants of Alaska, Stuttgart, Germany with the description, "gebraucht every July, the Tundra Times, a local newspaper in zum Spielen eines Volksspiels." Alaska, described the WEIO games as "native sports" In German-speaking countries, besides traditionell, in an article dated July 17, 1996. In a book on the other attributive words such as Volk aandnd volkstümlich WEIO written by Kelly19), they were introduced are often used on such occasions. It should be as "Alaska native games and dance." In Japan, a noted that a strong sense of identity underlies such 792-page book was published in 1998 under the title tendencies. One of the earliest examples of the use of of "Encyclopedia of ethnic play and games." the term, Volkstümliche Spiele, is seen in a headline As shown above, in recent years, there has been in "Illustrirte Welt" issued in 1893. The term was a tendency to use the adjective, traditional, or used in order to contrast Turnen, a nationalistic other adjectives with a similar meaning for sports German gymnastic movement founded by F. L. Jahn when needed to emphasize or appeal to certain in 1811 when German was subject to French, based ethnic or societal identities. The following are on traditional German sports, with modern sports some of the terms which have actually been used: introduced from Britain. According to H. Glöckle18), traditional games, jeu traditionels, traditionelle Turnen was aimed to encourage traditional German Spiele, traditionelle Leibesübungen, folk games, folk games as volkstümliche Spiele while criticizing those sport, Volksspiele, volkstümliche Spiele, volksspel, sports introduced from Britain as uncivilized, overly indigenous games, native sports, native games, competitive activities. Athletic meets named Volkst and ethnic sports. The term, ethnic sport, used in ümliche Spiele were held throughout Germany in this study can be substituted by any of these terms. order to prevent young people from being attracted Being conscious of the identities of their own sports, to British-style sport clubs which were beginning to researchers and those involved in sports in modern become popular. No matter what the direct motives society use such terms in order to distinguish their were, such a movement indicated Germany’s intention sports from the sports of others. However, attention to protect their own culture against British culture. should be paid to the fact that not all the sports The term, Volkstümliche Spiele, was thus associated described as traditional sports or folk sports have with their sense of ethnicity and nationality. long histories. While some sports, such as Ulama Even in non-Western societies, in those countries in Mexico and the Dragon Boat Race in China, have which have been modernized by the West and archeologically and historically been proven to be have established themselves as nation states, such very old, many sports were created within the past adjectives as, traditional, have been used when century, just as the Kechak dance in Bali. What is describing their own sports, just as in the case of called traditional sport is, as E. Hobsbawm20) says, Germany mentioned above. For example, a book often an invention of tradition. This invention, edited by the Sport Authority of India in 1987 was however, is quite meaningful. The motivation behind entitled "Indigenous games and martial arts of India," the invention of a traditional sport seems to be related and a book edited by Ministere de la Jeunesse et to the inventor’s sense of identity and ethnicity. des Sports in Senegal was entitled "Repertoire de Certainly ethnic sporting events such as the World

17 Kaudern,W., pp.92-93. 18 Glöckle, H., p.111. 19 Kelly, M., p.4. 20 Hobsbawm, E. and Ranger, T.

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Eskimo Indian Olympics, the Highland Games in model to describe culture impressed in ethnic sport, as Scotland, and Basque Sports, cannot be performed seen in "La course de pirogues au Laos: un complexe without a strong awareness of ethnicity. Focusing on culturel" (1972) by C. Archaimbault. performers’ identities and ethnicities, the term, ethnic In recent years, attention has been paid to a sport, has been created. theoretical model, the anthropology of tourism. According to reseaches in sport history, sports Anthropologists used to be frustrated seeing the that were modernized in a special environment, traditional culture of their surveyed societies 19th century British society, were introduced later changing and disappearing as the society became to non-Western society mainly through the British modernized. At fi rst, they tended to feel that it would colonial network, and were then established be their mission to document such culture before it as international sport through the IOC and the disappeared completely. But they gradually began Olympics. Such sports which enable people with to pay attention to the process of the local people different cultural and societal backgrounds to consciously acculturating their traditional culture into compete by shared rules are called international sport a modernized one. Of a variety of such acculturation, or global sport. This globalization, on the other hand, the most infl uential is the tourism, whose signifi cance has led people to an awareness of their racial identity, has been highlighted in recent years to the extent of that is, ethnicity. We are now living in a time when producing a theoretic model for the anthropology international sport which tends to develop the global of tourism. Behind it, mass tourism, which began standardization, and ethnic sport which appeals to in the 20th century, became signifi cantly harmful in ethnicity coexist. the 1980s. As alternative tourism, ethnic tourism was advocated to encourage tourists to experience 3. Research Perspectives for Ethnic Sport traditional local life and culture. At any rate, people in traditional society, whose culture had been avoided Ethnic sports have been the subject of study by Westerners as primitive, superstitious, or heretic, by ethnologists and anthropologists since the 19th have begun to use their very culture to attract tourists century, when the term, ethnic sport, did not yet from the West. What should be noted here is that exist. Focusing on how sports originated, how they their traditional culture tends to be altered in order diffused, the diachronic theoretic model was dominant to draw the attention of tourists. The Balinese in such early studies. Representative early studies Kechak dance mentioned previously serves as a include "The history of games" (in: Fortnightly prime example of such a tendency. What is more, Review, 1879) by E. B. Tylor and "On American it was W. Spies, a German artist staying in Bali in lot-games as evidence of Asiatic intercourse before the 1930s, who altered the dance in response to the the time of Columbus" (in: International Archives Balinese wish to attract Western tourists. As seen for Ethnography, 1896) by E. B. Tylor. In those in this example, many ethnic sports were compelled days, the origins of sports were usually explained by to be transformed. Such acculturation or the the concept of survival which had been advocated invention of ethnic sports due to tourism is beginning by Tylor. In the 20th century, the mainstream to be studied. A prime example of such study is approach turned to fi eldwork, in which researchers "Acculturation of ethnic sports in East Asia due to stayed in a certain society for a long time. Ethnic tourism" (2004-2007, T.Sogawa, et al.), a project sports began to be studied from the perspectives with grants for science research from Ministry of of functionalism and the social structural theory Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology model, following the methods of B. K. Malinowski in Japan. and A. R. Radcliffe-Brown. Representative works Body culture in ethnic sport is another of the time were "A dart match in Tikopia" (in: contemporary theme of study. In cultural Oceania, 1930) by R. Firth and "Wettkampfspiel anthropology, the body has been viewed as a relevant und Dualorganization bei den Timbira Brasiliens" subject of study based upon the idea of "technique (in: Die Wiener Schule der Völkerkunde, 1956) du corps," which was advocated by M. Mauss in by K. Hye-Kerkdal. Viewing an ethnic sport as a 1935. In cognitive anthropology, the body has manifestation of the invisible culture in the society been studied as a subject of ethno science, as seen being examined, some adopted the symbolic theory in "Kewa ethnolinguistic concepts of body parts"

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(in: the Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, Culin, S. 1907 Games of the North American Indians, 1963) by K. J. Franklin. In the fi eld of ethnic sport, Government Printing Offi ce; Washington, D. C. Damm, H. 1922 Die gymnastischen Spiele der Indonesier und S especially Oriental martial arts, researchers have üdseevölker, Verlag von Otto Spamer; Leipzig. tried to establish the theory of the body as ethno Eidgenössiche Schwingerverband 1924 Die Geschichte des science. Some scholars have engaged in the cultural Eidgenössischen Schwingerverbandes: Eine Darstellung vaterl study of martial arts based on the theory of the body ändischer Volksspiele, Zürich Firth, R. 1930 A dart match in Tikopia, in: Oceania, 1: 64-97. developed through Indian Yoga, Buddhist Tantrism, Franklin, K.J. 1963 Kewa ethnolinguistic concepts of body and Chinese Taoism. parts, in: Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 19: 54-63. Furthermore, relationships between ethnic sports Glöckle, H. 1987 Geschichte des Sports, Südwest Verlag; Mü and international sports have begun to be studied. As nchen. Gomme, A.B. 1964(1894, 1898) The traditional games of ethnic sports become international sports, problems England,Scotland,and Ireland, 2 vols., Dover Publications, can occur, as seen in the issue of Judo uniform color. Inc.; New York. In Judo as a Japanese ethnic sport, the uniform Hobsbawm, E. and Ranger, T. 1983 The invention of tradition, color is white, which is supposed to represent the Press of the University of Cambridge; England. Hye-Kerkdal, K. 1956 Wettkampfspiel und Dualorganization the spiritual aspect of training for self-discipline, bei den Timbira Brasiliens, in: Die Wiener Schule der Vö not mere competition with others. In Judo as an lkerkunde, 504-533 international sport, however, this spiritual aspect is International Amateur Wrestling Federation 1963 The history of no longer regarded as relevant. For the convenience wrestling of the countries affi liated to the FILA, FILA; Paris. Janssen, R. 1971 Spiele im Mikronesien, Inaugural- of spectators, the International Judo Federation has Diessertation. regulated that one player must wear a blue uniform Kaudern, W. 1929 Games and dances in Celebes. and the other white. When an ethnic sport becomes Kelly, M. 1990 Heartbeat: World Eskimo Indian Olympics, an international sport, native culture, which had been Fairweather Press; Alaska. Kool, C.H. 1923 Das Kinderspiel im Indischen Archipel, inseparable from the sport, tends to be washed off. Inaugural-Diessertation. This phenomenon can be called culture laundering. Krickeberg, W. 1948 Das mittelamerikanische Ballspiel und An ethnic sport which has become international seine religiöse Symbolik, in: Paideuma, 3; 118-190. through culture laundering, therefore, can be viewed Melville de Mellow 1987 Indigenous games and martial arts of India, Sports Authority of India; New Delhi. as no longer being the same as the sport created by Ministere de la Jeunesse et des Sports le Senegal, Repertoire de an original ethnic group. Such a view can help the jeux traditionelle, Senegal. sport spread even further. In Indonesia, for example, Obayashi, T., Kishino, Y., Sogawa, T. and Yamashita, S. 1998 while no Chinese culture was admitted during the Encyclopedia of ethnic play and games, Taishukan-shoten; Tokyo. ( 大林太良・岸野雄三・寒川恒夫・山下晋司 １９９８ 民族 30-year-long Suharto administration starting in 1968, 遊戯大辞典、 大修館書店 ) the dragon boat race was accepted and conducted Reutler, K. 1939 Üeber die Leibesuebungen der Primitiven, by the Indonesia Boat Association on ground that Inaugural-Diessertation. the race was an international sport supported by its Schweizerisches Sportmuseum Basel 1991 National- und Volksspiele der Schweiz, Schweizerisches Sportmuseum international federation. Basel; Basel. In this way, the research perspective for ethnic Sogawa, T. 1995 Traditional sports of the 21 century, Taishukan- sport is indeed extensive. shoten; Tokyo. ( 寒川恒夫 １９９５ ２１世紀の伝統スポーツ、大修 館書店 ) Sogawa, T. Field work References Tundra Times, Fairbanks. Archaimbault, C. 1972 La course de pirogues au Laos: un Tylor, E.B. 1879 The history of games, in: Fortnightly Review, complexe culturel, Artibus Asiae; Ascona. 1, May: 735-747. 1896 On American lot-games as evidence Blanchard, K. and Cheska, A.T. 1985 The anthropology of of Asiatic intercourse before the time of Columbus, in: sport: an introduction, Bergin &Garvey publication, Inc.; International Archives for Ethnography, Supplement to vol. 9: Massachusetts. 55-67. Chinese Museum of Sports and Chinese National Committee Van der Ven DJ. 1944 De herleving van het Nederlandse of Physical Education, 1990 Traditional sports annals of the volksspel, Naarden; Rutgers. Chinese nationalities, Zhonghua minzu chuantong tiyuzhi; Van de Seriere 1873, 1874 Javasche volksspelen en vermaken, China. ( 中国体育博物館・国家体育運動委員会 １９９０ 中華民族 in: Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsche Indië. 伝統体育志、 広西民族出版社 ) Webster, D. 1973 Scottish highland games, Reprographia; Scotland. Culin, S. 1895 Korean games with notes on the corresponding games of China and Japan, University of Pennsylvania; Philadelphia.

International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.4, 96-102, 2006 101 http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm Sogawa, T.

Name: Tsuneo Sogawa

Affi liation: Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University

Address: 2-579-15, Mikajima, Tokorozawa, Saitama 359-1192 Japan Brief Biographical History: 1981 Ph.D., University of Tsukuba 1992- Professor of Waseda University 1999-2000 Editor in Chief of the Japan Journal of Sport Anthropology 1999-2003 Editor in Chief of the Japan Journal of Physical Education , Health and Sport Sciences 2000- President of Japan Society of Sport Anthropology 2003- Associate Editor of the International Journal of Sport and Health Science Main Works: ･ Sogawa, T., 2003 Historical ethnology of play and games, Meiwashuppan; Tokyo. ･ Sogawa, T.(ed.), 2004 Sport anthropology, Taishuukanshoten; Tokyo. Membership in Learned Societies: ･ Japan Society of Physical Education, Health, and Sport Sciences ･Japan Society of Sport Anthropology

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