Is It Really Just ? An Overview of Latin American Colonial Choral Music

Cristian Grases

Cristian Grases Assistant Professor of Choral Music, USC Th ornton Conductor of the USC Th ornton Concert Choir Ethnic and Multicultural Repertoire & Standards Chair for Western ACDA Division [email protected]

24 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 55 Number 2 When discussing choral repertoire of Latin Ameri- A similar issue occurs with the music of earlier peri- ca, general presumption leads us to think of music that ods, commonly referred to as Latin American Baroque. is up-tempo, festive, rhythmically complex, and with Certainly much of the repertoire of this prolonged pe- instrumental accompaniment (generally percussion riod is stylistically akin to the European output of the instruments). Sure enough, much of the repertoire from Baroque period. After all, the connection between both this region contains a combination of these elements. continents was as strong and dynamic as it could be at This neglects to include, however, the large body of the time. The music of early Latin America, however, Latin American repertoire, both sacred and secular, followed a slightly different path and contained other that is unaccompanied, slower in tempo, and more ingredients not present in Europe; so when referring to harmonically or melodically driven. Moreover, this this body of repertoire, using the word “baroque” might preconceived idea overlooks the fact that the major- be insuffi cient, misleading, and too limiting. Perhaps ity of Latin American composers have a very eclectic a more appropriate label is the word “colonial,” for compositional output in terms of style and diffi culty. it allows us to embrace the music of the period as a Concomitant with this, because Latin America (includ- whole, with all its styles and genres. A brief explora- ing the Caribbean) is a geographic region encompass- tion of the historical background of Latin America will ing forty-two independent nations, all with different shed some light on this issue in order to help us fully cultures and heritages, using generic descriptions to comprehend its scope. defi ne its music is too limiting.1

CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 55 Number 2 25 Is It Really Just Baroque?

Under Moorish rule that began in negros or negrillas, and some composers barrier and initiated the communica- the year 711, the Spaniards initiated the in Spain started to incorporate similar tion process. Music already played an reconquest of their land around the rhythmic complexities in secular music important role in native societies, so tenth century. This long historical pro- written in Europe. Spain’s compositional the presence of the new instruments, cess is known as the Reconquista, which technique evolved similarly to what was melodies, and dances brought by the ended in the fi rst half of 1492, when the happening in the rest of Europe. What Spaniards opened a new dimension for Moors were fi nally expelled from their truly set it aside, however, were the the local cultures.6 last bastion in Granada.2 This year was an development of rhythmic textures and But Europeans and Native Americans important one for Spain, given that later the freedom to write in the vernacular.4 were not the only contributors in the on, on October 12, Columbus arrived in the New World. This initiated a historical reversal of roles, in which the conquered Spaniards now became a conquering The Catholic priests rapidly force that dominated an enormous discovered music as a tool to territory for over three hundred years. Columbus traveled three more times, connect with and convert the and after came a multitude of trips natives, for it efficiently broke the led by other captains, which allowed language barrier and initiated the Spain and the colonies to be closely connected throughout this extensive communication process. period. The Spanish court was the main infl uence over the colonies in the New World, but it was certainly not the only one. The played One of the most important secular cultural scene. The traffi c of slaves re- a fundamental role in the battle against forms of the time was the , mained constant throughout the entire the Moors during the Reconquista and which originated as a series of Christmas colonial period and ended circa 1870, remained intimately connected to the songs (much like carols). They gained when most Latin American nations had Spanish Court. Thus, it also traveled to popularity when sacred texts were set, already fought the Spanish Empire and the New World to expand and grow.3 which made the become part won their independence. The interaction Musically, Spain was already a rich of the church service during Christmas between European, Native American, and diverse culture, often considered a celebrations. These were then called and African cultures established a new source of exotic melodies, harmonies, Sacred Villancicos. Many other forms platform upon which a completely and instrumentation. The Moorish cul- became popular, among which are En- original repertoire was eventually cre- ture was not the only one present in saladas, Juguetes, Jotas, Jácaras, and Gaitas. ated. Thus, a particular blend of each of the Iberian Peninsula alongside the Eu- Also popular was the Tono Humano, these cultures can be found in much—if ropean infl uence. Also present were the equivalent to the Aria, which was used not all—of the secular music created Sephardic and Ladino traditions, which mainly in theatrical productions.5 during the colonial period. Each secular survived the persecution of the Moors. song represents a particular hue in Later on, much of the music created in an ever-changing and intrinsically rich the New World came back to the pen- A Blended Heritage kaleidoscope of sounds, which forms insula and became a strong infl uence in the secular colonial repertoire in Latin the musical scene of the time, especially Upon arrival in the New World, this America. This unique mixture of cultures for secular music. A good example of exceptionally diverse Iberian musical represents the fi rst fundamental ele- this was the music based on the highly heritage began to interact, and eventu- ment that separates this body of works rhythmic tunes that traveled with African ally blend, with the local cultures of the from the European repertoire. slaves brought to the colonies, which Native Americans. The Catholic priests But music was not only an effective were based on the Bantu and Yoruba rapidly discovered music as a tool to way to overcome cultural and language traditions of Africa. Songs that included connect with and convert the natives, barriers; it was also a key element of the such local color were often known as for it effi ciently broke the language Catholic service. Music was needed on

26 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 55 Number 2 An Overview of Latin American Colonial Choral Music

a daily basis, so the church as an institu- the political and economic signifi cance called New Spain, centered in tion became responsible for the training of the town or city in which it was City. In the south, the Inca Empire was of the singers and instrumentalists that located.7 spread throughout a vast extension of could provide this service under the the Andes. The center of this empire was leadership of the Chapel Masters or located around what is now Perú and Maestros de Capilla (MdC). Initially, the Establishing A Bolivia. Here, the second Viceroyalty was MdC were musicians born and trained Political Center established and called the Viceroyalty in Europe who traveled to the New of Perú. This political entity grew both World, but eventually this prestigious In the most important cities of Latin north and south to a point in which position was assigned to locally born America, the Spanish court established it became too big to be governed ef- musicians who were trained by the older Viceroyalties, serving as political cen- fi ciently from one location, leading to masters. As were built in each ters and links to the Spanish kingdom. its division in the sixteenth century into city, music schools were also established. They were located in areas in which three independent Viceroyalties: Perú The importance and development of pre-Columbian societies existed. The (centered in the city of Lima, Perú); La each of these schools was intimately Mayan and Aztec empires in what is Plata (centered in the city of La Plata, related to the size and relevance of each now southern Mexico, , and Bolivia); and Nueva Granada (centered , which in turn depended on Belize gave way to the fi rst Viceroyalty in the city of Bogotá, Colombia).8

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Director of Choral Organizations Donald Nally 2014–15 Season Repertoire J. S. Bach, Cantata 140, Wachet auf, ruft, uns die Stimme Eriks Esenvalds, Seneca’s Zodiac Michael Gordon, David Lang, and Julia Wolfe, Lost Objects Ted Hearne, Partition Thomas Jennefelt, Music for a Big Church: For Tranquility Felix Mendelssohn, Psalm 42, Wie der Hirsch schreit Santa Ratniece, horo horo hata hata Maurice Ravel, Daphnis et Chloé Kile Smith, Vespers (with Piffaro in residence) Igor Stravinsky, Symphony of Psalms Toivo Tulev, And then in silence there with me be only You Major Choral Ensembles Bienen Contemporary/Early Vocal Ensemble University Chorale Donald Nally, conductor University Singers Emily Ellsworth, conductor The Bienen School of Music offers · Conservatory-level training combined with the academic flexibility of an elite research institution · MM and DMA degrees in choral conducting · Close proximity to downtown Chicago’s vibrant cultural landscape · A new 152,000-square-foot facility to open in summer 2015 847/491-3141 The Bienen School’s new facility will include the Mary B. Galvin Recital Hall (pictured above), the Carol and David McClintock Choral Rehearsal and Recital Room, an opera black www.music.northwestern.edu box theater, teaching studios, practice rooms, classrooms, and administrative offices.

CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 55 Number 2 27 Is It Really Just Baroque?

Each of the four Viceroyalties had nu- Naturally, many of the sacred works and Classical (1750–1820). merous cathedrals of different statures were written using compositional Given the distance from Europe and relevance, and the most important techniques and styles that were es- and the remoteness of some of the cathedrals housed splendid organs and tablished in Europe, and the Catholic cathedrals, changes in the compositional profi cient choirs and orchestras pro- Church remained stoically resolute in approach were delayed and altered viding music on a regular basis. These rejecting all secular elements of musical in the colonies such that the sacred ensembles initially performed music that culture—with the sole exception of repertoire in the New World often was imported from Europe and man- the Sacred Villancicos performed during refl ected a mixture of European styles. dated by the cathedrals of Seville and the Christmas season, in which some In the catalog of some composers there Toledo in Spain. Copies of music by Pal- rhythmic, melodic, and instrumental can be found compositions written using estrina, Victoria, Handel, Vivaldi, Haydn, secular traits found their way into the different styles (one work that could be and many other renowned composers compositions of the time. However, the considered Baroque and another more have been found in some of the archives sacred repertoire in the Latin American Classical) or a mixture of styles within of cathedrals in the New World.9 Colonial Period was written over a span one composition. This represents a fas- However, the MdC sent from Spain of time that greatly exceeded any period cinating and unique body of works that were very capable musicians and many in Western European music history. The certainly cannot be labeled as merely of them worthy composers. The amount fi rst important cathedral was built in “baroque.” Moreover, the majority of the of music needed for the services Mexico City in 1521, which marks the composers of sacred music also wrote throughout the years was much greater beginning of the colonial music period secular music with elements that came than the music that could be imported in the region.11 This epoch remained from the folk and popular trends of the from Europe, so it was the task of each relatively homogenous until the fi rst time already discussed above.12 MdC to write music for some services, independence battles circa 1810, con- generating an important output of origi- sequently overlapping three stylistic nal works that constitutes the colonial periods in Europe: the Renaissance Maestros music catalog of Latin America.10 (1400–1600), Baroque (1600–1750), of the cathedral of mexico city

The Viceroyalty of New Spain had four important cathedrals. The cathedral Cross-Choral Training® Workshop of Mexico City had three outstanding MdC.13 The fi rst one was Hernando Vocal and Musicianship Pedagogy with Franco (1532–1585). He was born in Dianne Berkun and the Brooklyn Youth Chorus Spain and trained in music at Segovia From the classroom to the concert stage - explore the art cathedral by Gerónimo de Espinar, who and science of vocal and musicianship pedagogy with may also have been a teacher of Tomás the Grammy® Award-winning Brooklyn Youth Chorus. Luis de Victoria and Bartolomé de Ola- Cross-Choral Training® topics include: so. Franco left for the New World circa

OVocal Function – Registration, Resonance and 1554 and initially served as MdC in Cuba Breath Management and at the cathedral in Santo Domingo, ODeveloping Vocal Exercises the oldest cathedral in Latin America OAppropriate Vocal Qualities for Varied Vocal Styles dating from 1496. In 1571 he appears OSight-Singing and Ear Training Approaches in the records as MdC of the cathedral OProblem Solving Challenges in Repertoire of Santiago de Guatemala but left that Two Full Days, position in 1574 and was appointed the Sat & Sun, Oct 11-12 new MdC in Mexico City in 1575, where he served until 1582.14 Brooklyn Youth Chorus REGISTER TODAY: Of the music that survives in the ar- brooklynyouthchorus.org/workshops 179 Pacific Street, Brooklyn NY 11201 chives, there are twenty motets written by Franco, sixteen Magnifi cat settings,

28 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 55 Number 2 An Overview of Latin American Colonial Choral Music

and a Lamentations of Jeremiah for four to compose villancicos and instruct the as organist, then as MdC at the cathedral voices. Franco’s style is similar to that of children at the Colegio de Infantes (Col- of Santiago de Guatemala. In 1606 he other Spanish composers of the period, lege of Noble Youth), following which was appointed MdC in , where though more conservative, treating dis- he was appointed MdC of the cathedral he remained active until his death. In his sonance carefully, avoiding chromaticism and virtuosity. Franco is the earliest- known composer in Guatemala; his two pieces in the archives of the Guatemala It was the task of each Maestro de cathedral, Lumen ad revelationem and Capilla to write music for some services, Benedicamus Domino, are the earliest surviving manuscripts from the area. His generating an important output Salve Regina is an excellent example of of original works that constitutes the Renaissance style in colonial Latin the colonial music catalog of Latin America.15 Manuel de Sumaya (c. 1678–1755) America. was born in Mexico City and was one of the fi rst native composers to be ap- pointed MdC in a major cathedral in the colonies. This happened in 1715 when in 1750. He reformed antiquated nota- declining years, Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla, he was appointed MdC of Mexico City’s tion practices by the cathedral copyists, who was to become his successor at cathedral, where he served until 1738 upgraded the quality of poetic texts Puebla, assisted him. when he moved to ’s cathedral that were to be set as villancicos, greatly His catalog of villancicos is consider- (another important cathedral in the expanded the size of the cathedral able (around 250) and is held to be the Viceroyalty), where he served as MdC orchestra, and composed at a prolifi c largest existing collection of secular mu- until his death. Sumaya was a master rate.17 Many of his works were played sic from the seventeenth-century New of the older Renaissance style and the in the religious services in cathedrals and World. Many of these compositions are Baroque style.16 His Hieremiae Prophe- churches in all New Spain, from Califor- based on local ethnic cultures with Am- tae Lamentationes is a Renaissance-style nia down to Ciudad de Guatemala. Dixit erindian dialects spoken in the region piece of exquisite beauty and spiritual Dominus, Gran Misa en Re, and Maitines around Puebla, including the Tlaxcaran depth. Missa de Tercer Tono a 8 and Sol- para Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe are dialect of Nahuatl, the language of the fa de Pedro are fantastic examples of his prime examples of classical music of the Aztec empire. Some prime examples early Baroque style, while his famous colonies in the New World. are Fernándes’s Eso Rigor e’ Repente, Celebren, Publiquen shows his ability to Tleycantimo Choquiliya, and Xicochi Xi- handle the polychoral sound of the high cochi18 Baroque era. Moreover, Sumaya was the As mentioned above, Juan Gutiér- fi rst person in the Western Hemisphere Maestros of the rez de Padilla (c. 1590–1664) assisted to compose an Italian-texted opera, cathedral of puebla Fernándes in his declining years and Partenope (now lost). This was the sec- eventually was appointed MdC at Puebla ond opera written in the continent and The cathedral of Puebla (Puebla de in 1628, where he served until his death came ten years after the fi rst one by Los Angeles) in Mexico was perhaps re- in 1664. Gutiérrez de Padilla was born Tomás Torrejón y Velasco (Perú) titled ligiously even more relevant than the ca- in Málaga, Spain, and moved to Puebla in La Púrpura de la Rosa. thedral of Mexico City. There were also 1620. His magnifi cent catalog of works The third important MdC at Mexico three outstanding Maestros de Capilla consists primarily of sacred motets, of- City was Ignacio de Jerusalem y Stella who served the cathedral successively, ten for double choir, in the Renaissance (1707–1769), also known as Ignazio ensuring over seventy years of musical and Baroque styles, which often include Gerusalemme. He was an Italian com- excellence at Puebla. Gaspar Fernándes accompaniments for organ or various poser and violinist hired in Spain to (1565–1629) was born in and stringed instruments.19 Some of his most serve in the New World, leaving for served as both singer and instrumental- popular sacred works are Missa Ego Mexico in 1742. In 1746 he was con- ist at the Evora cathedral in Portugal Flos Campi and Exultate Iusti In Domino; tracted by the cathedral of Mexico City circa1590. In 1599 he was engaged, fi rst important secular compositions are De

CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 55 Number 2 29 Is It Really Just Baroque?

Carámbanos El Día Se Viste and A Siolo to Guatemala. By 1598, Bermúdez had World and in 1676 was appointed Flasiquiyo.20 become MdC in Santiago de Guatemala, MdC of the cathedral of Lima, where Around the year 1630, Mexican- where he composed most of his music. he remained until his death. His works, born Juan García de Zéspedes (c. In 1603 he left Guatemala, invited by both sacred and secular, are essentially 1619–1678) was a boy soprano in the chapter of the cathedral of Puebla of the Baroque style. A good example is the choir at under to become MdC there. Soon after his his sacred villancico, A Este Sol Peregrino. Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla. He grew up arrival, however, his health declined, and Also, on the occasion of the new King to become a composer, singer, violin- he died toward the end of 1605 at the Felipe V’s birthday, he composed the fi rst ist, and teacher, and in 1664 he suc- age of forty-seven.22 American opera, La Púrpura de la Rosa, ceeded Maestro Gutiérrez de Padilla All of the works by Pedro Bermúdez which premiered in 1701.24 in an interim capacity. The title of MdC are sacred compositions on Latin texts Roque Ceruti (1683/86–1760) became permanent in 1670. Although of the Roman Catholic liturgy, for four- succeeded Torrejón y Velásco at the censured by the cathedral chapter more to eight-voice unaccompanied chorus. cathedral in Lima. Born in Milan, , he than once over disagreements as to his With only one known exception, all traveled to Lima in 1707 as the musi- duties, he had a long career that was of his musical output was written in cal director of the Government Palace, ended by paralysis late in life. His musical Guatemala. Two of his Masses have hired by the Viceroy Manuel de Oms y compositions, both sacred and secular, survived: the Misa de Bomba, a parody Santa Pau. Much like Torrejón y Velasco, were often inspired by folk music. A Mass based on Mateo Flecha’s Ensalada Ceruti was asked to write major works, prime example is Convidando está la “La Bomba,” and the Misa de Feria, to operas, and incidental music as part of Noche, in which he alternates sections be sung during penitential times. The his duties as the MdC of the Viceroy. written with European unaccompanied Guatemalan choir books also preserve Even though only twenty-eight of his compositional techniques and dance-like a collection of hymns for vespers and works survive, his fame was great at rhythmic sections with instrumental ac- compline of different liturgical occa- the time, and copies of his manuscripts companiment.21 sions, the psalm Miserere mei, a Salve can be found in the archives of the Regina, two lamentations, and three cathedrals of Lima, La Paz, Cuzco, Co- passions for Holy Week. His catalog of chabamba, and . His output marks Maestros of the works shows an impressive command a change of paradigm, ending the Span- cathedral of of sixteenth-century counterpoint. ish dominance of compositional trends Two other relevant composers and in favor of a predominantly Italian style santiago de MdC from Guatemala who succeeded of composition in the New World. Two guatemala Bermúdez are Manuel José de Quirós important works by Ceruti are Missa de (late 1600s –1765) and Rafael Antonio Lima and A Cantar un Villancico.25 The cathedral of Santiago de Guate- Castellanos (c. 1725–1791), but their The fi rst musician of half-caste origin mala (currently known as the city of An- outputs are less substantial.23 to become MdC of Lima’s cathedral was tigua) was also an important cathedral in José de Orejón y Aparicio (1705–1765). the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Previous An ordained priest, Orejón y Aparicio to Gaspar Fernándes’s tenure in this ca- was a composer and organist and thedral, Pedro Bermúdez (1558–1605) Maestros of the studied in Lima with Tomás Torrejón y had been extremely active as Santiago cathedral of lima Velasco and Roque Ceruti, eventually de Guatemala’s fi rst important MdC. succeeding the latter as MdC. Often Bermúdez was born in Granada, Spain, In the southern Viceroyalty of Perú, referred to as the most important Ba- and previous to his trip to the New the most important cathedral was roque composer in America, his works World had earned the position of MdC located in the city of Lima, and its fi rst have a notable Neapolitan infl uence, in Antequera, Spain. In 1595 he was important MdC was Spanish-born with a solid technique of the period. His invited by Antonio de la Raya, newly ap- Tomás Torrejón y Velasco (1644–1728). use of harmony and counterpoint is rich pointed bishop of Cuzco, Perú, to follow In Spain he served as a musician for the and comparable to great masters of the him to the New World and become the court of the Count of Lemos in Galicia. Baroque era. His chamber cantata to the MdC at that cathedral. He was offi cially When the count was named Viceroy Virgin Mary, Ah, Del Gozo, and his pas- appointed in September 1597, but after of Perú in 1667, Torrejón y Velasco fol- sion, Pasión del Viernes Santo, are good only seven weeks in this post, he sailed lowed the Count of Lemos to the New examples of his style.26

30 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 55 Number 2 An Overview of Latin American Colonial Choral Music

To the east of Lima, there are two ly less relevant than its counterparts to was born into a wealthy family and had important cathedrals that geographi- the north and the south. Nevertheless, the best education of the time. His fi rst cally were relatively close. One of them there are some important composers appointment was as a music teacher of was the cathedral in Cuzco, located in from this region. Gutierre Fernández the Santa Inés nuns in Bogotá. In 1703 the middle of the Andes and close to Hidalgo (c. 1553–1620) was the earliest he was appointed MdC at the Bogotá the sacred Inca city of Machu Pichu. The notable Colombian composer of the cathedral as Cascante’s successor and other was the most important cathedral sixteenth century. Born in Soria, Spain, became the most important and well- in the Viceroyalty of La Plata and was Fernández Hidalgo arrived in Bogotá compensated musician in Colombia at located in the city of La Plata, currently in 1584 and was the singing master at the time with six choirboys, six adult known as the city of Sucre, in Bolivia.27 the seminary. Two years later he moved singers, and four instrumentalists under Even though these two cathedrals be- south and worked in Ecuador and his charge. He wrote sixty-one works, longed to two different Viceroyalties, Bolivia. The majority of his works were including masses, sacred villancicos, and they have the works of Juan de Araujo lost when he sent them overseas in an works for the Divine Offi ce; unfortu- (1646–1712) in common. Araujo was attempt to publish them in Europe. They nately most of his music was lost in the born in Villafranca, Spain, and traveled never arrived. Bogotá’s cathedral has the 1948 riots and looting in the city. His to the New World at an early age. He only twenty manuscripts remaining. His works contain elements of both the completed his education at the Univer- sity of San Marcos in Lima, studying com- position with Tomás Torrejón y Velasco. In 1676 he moved, apparently to Cuzco The first important school of cathedral, where some of his works Venezuelan composers appeared in survive. Four years later he moved again 1771 through the efforts of Father to the cathedral of La Plata to serve as MdC until his death in 1712. His output Pedro Palacios y Sojo (1739–1799). of sacred music in Latin is relatively small in comparison to his outstanding pro- duction of villancicos. His compositional approach was very diverse, writing for many different combinations of voices style is closer to the Renaissance, and Renaissance and Baroque styles. Some and instruments ranging from two some of his notable works are Misa important works are Misa de Difuntos to thirteen parts. Approximately 165 Quarti Toni, Magnifi cat Secundus Tonus, a cinco voces, Christus factus est, and his works have been catalogued. His Dixit and Salve Regina.29 famous sacred villancico, A la Fuente de Dominus for three choirs is one of his Colombian-born José de Cascante Bienes.31 most important sacred works, and Los was the MdC of Bogotá’s cathedral from To the east of Colombia, Venezuela Cofl ades de la Estleya is certainly one of 1650 until his death in 1702. Not many was just a Captaincy General under the most well-known sacred villancicos works survive him. In Bogotá’s cathedral the ruling of the Viceroyalty of Nueva of the period.28 there are twelve non-liturgical religious Granada, and so its political and religious works, an Ofi cio de Difuntos (Requiem), life was much less relevant in com- and a Salve Regina. Some sacred works parison to all Spanish colonial territories. such as his Sábado Sancto ad Vísperas use Despite this, the fi rst important school the Viceroyalty Baroque elements of composition, while of Venezuelan composers appeared of Nueva granada his sacred villancicos use elements of An- circa 1771 through the efforts of Father dean folk music. Some of his important Pedro Palacios y Sojo (1739–1799), who In the northern part of South Ameri- villancicos are: Villancico al Nacimiento, traveled to Rome and Madrid to arrange ca, the fourth Spanish Viceroyalty had its Villancico a Santa Bárbara, and Letra al for the founding in Caracas of an “Ora- center in the city of Bogotá, Colombia. Nacimiento.30 tory of St. Philip Neri” (a congregation The Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada was Juan de Herrera (c. 1665–1738) was of Catholic priests and lay-brothers who perhaps the smallest and least important a contemporary of José de Cascante. lived together in a community bound of all the colonial entities, and its main Often referred to as the most signifi cant by no formal vows save the bond of cathedral located in Bogotá was certain- composer of colonial Colombia, Herrera charity). After receiving the approval of

CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 55 Number 2 31 Is It Really Just Baroque?

Pope Clement IV in 1769, Father Sojo his father, Pedro José Caro, who was a position is akin to the Viennese School: established the Oratory on December local musician. Father Sojo’s fi rst tran- orchestration a otto (2 fl utes or oboes, 2 18, 1771. scriptions and arrangements were of horns, 2 violins, viola, and continuo); sup- Father Sojo brought with him instru- Caro de Boesi’s compositions, and the pression of doublings; da capo forms; and ments and copies of many compositions increasingly important orchestra of the chromatic motives. Olivares composed from some of the most important clas- cathedral of Caracas then performed the fi rst ever set of Carols for the three sical composers in Europe. Many of the some of this music, which contributed Matins of Christmas Eve in Venezuela. local musicians in the area of Caracas to his emergence as an important local Some of his important works are Sta- started to congregate in Father Sojo’s composer of the time. bat Mater, Lamentatio Prima In Sabbato coffee estate located in the outskirts of His style resembles that of the Sancto, and Salve Regina.35 Caracas, in a place called Chacao. These Neapolitan music from the fi rst half Another important composer of the colonial period in Venezuela was José Angel Lamas (1775–1814). Born in Caracas, at age thirteen he was given With the impoverishment of the a salary of sixty pesos and appointed mines at the end of the century, the “third singer” in the cathedral. He served under three different MdC, which al- focus of musical activity shifted lowed him to observe three different to other centers, especially Rio de perspectives of the trade from an early Janeiro and São Paulo. age and exposed him to the works of important composers such as José An- tonio Caro de Boesi and Juan Manuel Olivares. Later he played the bassoon and cello for the cathedral and learned musicians started to study and play the of the eighteenth century, as he uses how to compose after copying music for works Father Sojo brought with him and homophonic textures doubled by the the orchestra. With a reported output of eventually started to write new music soprano line, colla parte violin parts in close to thirty works, some of his most based on the compositional techniques unison, thirds, and sixths; and repeated important compositions are Salve Regina, and style of these compositions, giving notes in the basso continuo. In contrast, In Monte Oliveti, Sepulto Domino, Missa birth to the fi rst school of composers he writes using simple tonal shifts and Solemnis, and his famous Popule Meus. that became known as the Escuela de classically styled melodic lines. Some of Other important colonial composers Chacao (Chacao School).32 his important works are Mass for the in Venezuela are Pedro Nolasco Colón Ambrosio Carreño (1721–1801) Dead, Missa a Due, Missa a Tre, Missa a (c.1770–1813) and José Cayetano Car- was the oldest composer of this group. Quattro, Tantum Ergo, Christus Factus Est, reño (1774–1836).36 Born in Caracas, he served as MdC and Dextera Domini.34 at the cathedral of Caracas between Juan Manuel Olivares (1760–1797) 1750 and 1778. One of his important was also born in Caracas. His childhood works is Gloria. José Francisco Velásquez was associated with the Oratory of St. jesuit missions in the Rojas (1755–1805) was also a prolifi c Philip Neri, so it is assumed that his initial amazon region Venezuelan composer of this period. music education occurred under Father He was known as El Viejo (the old one) Sojo’s infl uence. He was reported to Finally, it is important to explore the to distinguish him from his namesake be the organist of the Oratory around Jesuit missions in the Amazon region. son, who was also a composer. Some of 1771. During these years, the MdC at Based at the cathedral of La Plata, the his most important works are: Misa en the cathedral was forced to use more Jesuit priests sent missions to the east Re Mayor a cuerdas y dos voces, Tercera music from local composers for the ser- of the Andes to fi nd and convert the Lección de Difuntos, and Pange Lingua y vices in Caracas due to political circum- natives of the Amazon. The initial settle- Tantum Ergo.33 stances. Many of the works used were ments, which later developed into towns, José Antonio Caro de Boesi (1758– written by Olivares, which contributed were called Reducciones and had a very c. 1814) was born in Caracas and was to his rise and notoriety as a composer active and vibrant religious life. Conse- likely initiated in his music studies by in Venezuelan society. His style of com- quently, music was of prime importance.

32 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 55 Number 2 An Overview of Latin American Colonial Choral Music

Thanks to the work of musicologist In the area of Brazil, the fi rst accounts A shift in Father Piotr Nawrot (b.1955)—a mis- of musical activity are dated as early as musical activity sionary of Polish origin dedicated to the 1549, and the fi rst Jesuit settlements for study of the music heritage of the Reduc- indigenous people—called Reduções With the impoverishment of the ciones—close to eleven thousand pages (the Protuguese word for Reduccio- mines at the end of the eighteenth cen- of manuscripts have been recovered and nes)—began as early as 1559. One tury, the focus of musical activity shifted preserved. century later, the Reduções of southern to other centers, especially Rio de Ja- Much of this music was probably Brazil, which were founded by Spaniard neiro and São Paulo. On November 29, written by natives and is signed anony- Jesuits, had a strong cultural develop- 1807, the Bragança royal family (and its mously with the acronym AMDG (Ad ment, including some music schools. court of nearly fi fteen thousand people) majorem Dei gloriam, meaning “For However, the fi rst important composi- moved from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro the greater glory of God”). The largest tions known date from the second part just days before Napoleonic forces catalog, with around 5,500 manuscript of the eighteenth century. invaded Lisbon on December 1. The pages, came from the old mission of At the time, the town of Minas Portuguese crown remained in Brazil Chiquitos and includes sonatas, instru- Gerais fl ourished rapidly due to the from 1808 until the Liberal Revolution mental music, concertos, operas, and important gold and diamond mines of 1820 led to the return of John VI of over forty polyphonic masses, some of found in the area. The music from this Portugal in 1821. For thirteen years, Rio which incorporate lyrics in their own period was eventually known as Barroco de Janeiro functioned as the capital of native languages. Another collection of Mineiro (Baroque from the Mines), and the Kingdom of Portugal. The arrival of over four thousand pages of music was the group of composers was known as the Portuguese King’s household in Rio found in the Reducción de Moxos. It is the Escola de Compositores da Capitania de Janeiro was a crucial factor in the believed that converted Indian Ameri- das Minas do Ouro (Composers’ School musical scene. The king brought with cans also composed the majority of this of the Gold Mines Province). Much of him the great musical library from the collection, mostly consisting of sacred this music, however, is more akin to the House of Bragança, and ordered the music.37 classical style. Thus, the term Colonial import of musicians from Europe, even Not all the documents found in the Music, although more generic, remains constructing an important theater, the Reducciones were anonymous, however. a more inclusive and appropriate term Royal Theater of São João. Domenico Zipoli (1688–1726) was an when referring to this repertoire.39 Thanks to his appointment by King Italian Baroque composer known as the From this period José Joaquim John VI as Master of the Royal Chapel, most accomplished musician among Emerico Lobo de Mesquita (c. 1746– Padre (Father) José Maurício Nunes Jesuit missionaries. He studied under 1805)—commonly known simply as García (1767– c. 1830) became the Alessandro Scarlatti in Naples and Bo- Lobo de Mesquita—was the most most important composer of this peri- logna circa 1712, and in 1716 joined the important representative. He was an od. Born in Rio de Janeiro, Nunes García Society of Jesus in Seville, Spain, with the organist, conductor, and composer born was a son of free slaves and eventually desire to be sent to the Reductions of in Minas Gerais. He worked as an organ- became a priest. He was taught from an Paraguay in the New World. He arrived ist in Diamantina, Vila Rica, and later on early age by Salvador José de Almeida in Buenos Aires in 1717 and completed he became the organist in the Capilla de e Faria, who was trained in the musical his studies in Córdoba around 1724. las Carmelitas in Rio de Janeiro until his style of the province of Minas Gerais Through this time he was already serv- death. He was known for his virtuoso in the eighteenth century. His musical ing as MdC in a local cathedral, and organ playing and art of improvisation, style was strongly infl uenced by Vien- soon his works came to be known from and his catalog of works represents the nese composers of the period such as Paraguay to Perú. Struck by tuberculosis, largest output of compositions in the Mozart and Haydn. Around 240 of his Zipoli died in the Jesuit house of Cor- Minas Gerais archive (around fi fty-eight compositions have survived, while at doba. A portion of his catalog was found titles, many of which are multi-move- least 170 others are believed to have in Chiquitos and included two Masses, ment works). Some of his important been lost. Most of his compositions are two psalm settings, three Offi ce hymns, compositions are Bênção das Cinzas e sacred works, but he also wrote some a Te Deum laudamus, and other smaller Missa for Ash Wednesday, Missa em Fá secular pieces, including the opera Le pieces. Of these, Missa San Ignacio is a Maior, and Dominica in Palmis.40 due gemelle and the Tempest Symphony. fantastic example of his compositional Much of his music has been catalogued, style.38 preserved, and published thanks to the

CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 55 Number 2 33 Is It Really Just Baroque?

11 efforts of Musicologist Cleoffe Person conclusion Javier Marín López, “The Musical Inventory of Mexico Cathedral, 1589: A Lost de Mattos (1913–2002). Some of his Document Rediscovered” in Early Music important works are Tota pulchra es The colonial repertoire in Latin 36, no. 4 (Oxford: Oxford University Maria, O Redemptor Summe Carmen, America constitutes a rich cultural Press, 2008): 575– 596. Pange Lingua, Missa de Santa Cecilia, and heritage. The composers discussed em- 12 41 Andreo, Hispanoamérica. his Requiem. ployed diverse styles and compositional 13 For more information on other composers To conclude, it is worth mentioning approaches in both sacred and secular see: Robert Stevenson, “Mexico City Esteban Salas’s contribution in Cuba. works. While European infl uences are Cathedral Music: 1600– 1750,” in The In 1755 the town council of Havana noticeable, the historical pathway of Americas 21, no. 2 (Oct., 1964): 111– requested permission and funds from Latin American music is unique. This is 135. the Spanish King to establish a chapel especially obvious in the secular music, 14 María Gembero Ustárroz, “El Compositor of music in the cathedral to address in which both Native American and Español Hernando Franco (1532- the mediocre state of religious music. African cultures greatly infl uenced the 85) antes de Su Llegada a México: Charles III approved this petition in European establishment melodically, Trayectoria Professional en Portugal, 1765, and the town council focused its rhythmically, and instrumentally. Early Santo Domingo, Cuba y Guatemala.” attention on Esteban Salas (1725–1803), Latin American sacred music also had Latin American Music Review/Revista de whose fame as a good musician had multiple infl uences, especially given the música Latinoamericana 26, no. 2 (Fall – already made it to that part of the coun- length of this epoch in comparison with Winter, 2005): 273– 318. 15 try.42 Salas has been a greatly overlooked the European musical periods of the Eladio Valenzuela, “A Survey of Choral fi gure in the history of Latin American time. Given all of the above, the term Music of Mexico During the Renaissance music. Carpentier states: “Colonial music” seems to be the most and Baroque Periods” (master’s thesis, appropriate representation of this im- University of Texas El Paso, 2010). 16 Craig H. Russell, “Manuel de Sumaya: Salas was much more than an portant collection of compositions. honest Latin American priest…. Reexamining the a Cappella Choral Salas was the starting point for the Music of a Mexican Master” in Encomium practice of serious music in Cuba; Musicae: Essays in Honor of Robert J. that is, he initiates the distinction NOTES Snow. David Crawford, ed., (2002), 91– between popular music and cultured 1 106. music, with an evolving coexistence Also read: Gerard Béhague, “Boundaries 17 Ana Treviño Godfrey, “Sacred vocal mu- between the two…. Under the and Borders in the Study of Music sic by Ignacio Jerusalem found in the leadership of Salas…the cathedral in Latin America: A Conceptual Re- archives of the national cathedral of Santiago was to become a Mapping,” Latin American Music Review in Mexico City” (DMA thesis, Rice true conservatory, to which many 21, no. 1 (Spring-Summer, 2000): 16– 30. musicians remained linked during the 2 University, 2009). Kathleen Deagan, “Colonial Origins and 18 nineteenth century…. After him, no Aurelio Tello, ed., Archivo Musical de la Colonial Transformations in Spanish worthy composer in Santiago could Catedral de Oaxaca. Cancionero Musical America,” Historical Archeology 37, no. 4 be considered as such if he had not de Gaspar Fernandes. Tesoro de la composed for the church. Salas’ (2003): 3– 13. 3 Música Polifónica en México. Tomo X. work created an order of discipline Ibid. (2001). 43 4 unknown in Cuba before then. Gerard Béhague, Music in Latin America: An 19 John Koegel, “Padilla, Juan Gutiérrez de” in Introduction (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. During his thirty-nine years in this 1979). 5 http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com. post, Salas was able to create a small but Ibid. 6 libproxy.usc.edu/subscriber/article/grove/ profi cient classical orchestra and choir, Dante Andreo, Hispanoamérica: Música de la music/20676. create a music education program that época virreinal (Madrid: Editorial Música 20 Teresa Bowers, “The Golden Age of Choral Mundana, 1992). served as a model for other cathedrals, 7 Music in the Cathedrals of Colonial and compose many Masses, motets, Gerard Béhague, Music in Latin America: An Mexico” Choral Journal 40. no. 9 (April Introduction (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Christmas carols, psalms, and hymns. 2000): 9– 13. 1979). 22 Ibid. Among his most important works are 8 Andreo, Hispanoamérica. 22 Oscar García Landois, “A study and Ave Maris Stella, Requiem Mass, and his 9 44 Ibid. transcriptions of a group of selected monumental Stabat Mater. 10 Ibid. Christmas villancicos from the period

34 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 55 Number 2 An Overview of Latin American Colonial Choral Music

1740 to 1780 from the cathedrals of Colombia” The Americas 19, no. 2 (Oct., 38 Piotr Nawrot, Domenico Zipoli. Vol. 1. Santa Guatemala City and Mexico City” (PhD 1962): 121–136. Cruz de la Sierra: Fondo Editorial Pro 30 diss., University of Texas at Austin, 2003). Claro-Valdés, Antología. Arte Divina / Editorial Verbo Divino, 31 23 Ibid. Ibid. 2002. 32 24 Samuel Claro-Valdés, Antología de la música José A. Calcaño, 400 años de música 39 Ignacio Dalcim, Breve história das reduções colonial en América del Sur (Santiago de caraqueña (Caracas: Universidad Central jesuítico-guaranis. São Paulo: Edições Chile: Ediciones de la Universidad de de Venezuela, Ediciones de la Biblioteca Loyola, 2011. Chile, 1974). EBUC, 2001). 40 Sérgio Macedo Pires, “Sources, style and 33 25 Ibid. David Coifman Michailos, De obispos, context for the Te Deum of José 26 Diana Fernández Calvo, José de Orejón y reyes, santos y señas en la historia de Joaquim Emerico Lobo de Mesquita Aparicio: La música y su contexto (Lima: la capilla musical de Venezuela (1532– (1746?– 1805): A critical edition” (DMA Fondo Editorial Universidad Católica 1804). Madrid: Sociedad Española de diss., Boston University, 2007). Sedes Sapientiae UCSS, 2009). Musicología, 2010. 41 Cleofe Person de Matos, Acervos. http:// 34 27 Geoffrey Baker, “Music in the Convents Ibid. www.acpm.com.br/CPM.htm. Accessed 35 and Monasteries of Colonial Cuzco” Ibid. November 15, 2012. 36 Latin American Music Review/Revista de Ibid. 42 Alejo Carpentier, Music in Cuba (Minneapolis: 37 música Latinoamericana 24, no. 1 (Spring- Piotr Nawrot, “Teaching of Music and the University of Minnesota Press, 2001). Summer, 2003): 1–41. Celebration of Liturgical Events in the 43 Ibid. 28 Claro-Valdés, Antología. Jesuit Reductions” Anthropos 99, no. 1 44 Ibid. 29 Robert Stevenson, “Colonial Music in (2004): 73– 84.

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The application and contest guidelines are available at . Application Deadline October 1, 2014.

CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 55 Number 2 35