Psychodynamic Theories

Cognive Social Trait Theory Personality Learning Theories

*An individual’s unique paern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that persists over me and across situaons.

Humanisc Theories Issues in Personality

1. Free will or determinism? 2. Nature or nurture? 3. Past, present, or future? 4. Uniqueness or universality? 5. Equilibrium or growth? 6. Opmism or pessimism? Psychodynamic Theories

Sigmund Freud Behavior is the product of psychological forces within the individual, oen Neo‐Freudians outside of conscious awareness

Central Tenets

1) Much of mental life is unconscious. People may behave in ways they themselves don’t understand. 2) Mental processes act in parallel, leading to conflicng thoughts and feelings. 3) Personality paerns begin in childhood. Childhood experiences strongly affect personality development. 4) Mental representaons of self, others, and relaonships guide interacons with others. 5) The development of personality involves learning to regulate aggressive and sexual feelings as well as becoming socially independent rather than dependent. Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud

• The human PERSONALITY is an energy system. • It is the job of psychology to invesgate the change, transmission and conversion of this ‘psychic energy’ within the personality which shape and determine it. These Drives are the ‘Energy’ Structure of the Mind

– Id – Super‐ego – Ego Id

• Exists enrely in the unconscious (so we are never aware of it). • Our hidden true animalisc wants and desires. • Works on the Pleasure Principle • Avoid pain and receive instant graficaon. Ego

If you want to be with someone. Your id says just take them, but your ego does not want to end up in jail. So you ask her out instead. • Negoates between the Id and the environment. • Develops aer the Id. • Works on the Reality Principle. • In our conscious and unconscious minds. • It is what everyone sees as our personality. Superego

• It is our conscience (what we think the difference is between right and wrong) • Develops last at about the age of 5 • The ego oen mediates between the superego and id.

Unconscious What happens when the Id and Super‐ ego can’t reconcile? • The psychic energy has to go somewhere! • Id won’t let it go. • Super‐ego won’t let it happen. • To protect itself the organism employs defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms

Denial: refusal to acknowledge a painful or threatening reality.

Repression: exclude painful thoughts or feelings w/o realizing

Projecon: aribung own feelings on others.

Regression: revert to childlike behavior

Reacon Formaon: exaggeratedly opposite ideas and emoons.

Displacement: redirecon of repressed moves or feelings onto substute objects.

Sublimaon: transforming repressed moves or feelings into more socially accepted forms.

Intellectualizaon ‐ undertaking an academic, unemoonal study of a topic.

Raonalizaon‐ coming up with a beneficial result of an undesirable outcome. Thin line Between the conscious and unconscious

• Somemes our unconscious thoughts, etc slip into the conscious. • How? – “Freudian slips” – Dreams – Humor So how does this play out? • Humans are driven by the desire for bodily sexual pleasure (libido)– it gets released from different centers at different mes. • But the parents act as the social coercion to balance these desires. – ‘Super‐ego givers.’ • Development is the resoluon of a series of conflicts. So how does this play out • “Psychosexual” Stages of development – Oral: 0–18months • Sucking (Weaning) • Fixaon – Gullible or Cynical – Anal: 18months–3 • Defecaon (Poy training) • Fixaon – Self Destrucve vs. Anal Retenve – Phallic: 3‐5/6 • Genitals (Oedipus and Electra Complex / Castraon Anxiety) So how does this play out – Latency 5/6 – 12/13 • all libidinal acvity is suppressed. – Genital Stage – To puberty and beyond! • genitals and orgasm. • Focused on reproducon Oedipus Complex

• Phase One – Boy has a libidinal bond with the mother (breast feeding and mother as primary caregiver) – Parallel to this, the boy begins to idenfy with his father, the figure parallel to him in terms of biological sex. (Idenficaon with the father's role as "lover" of mother.) – In this phase, these 2 relaonship exist side‐by‐ side and in relave harmony. Oedipus Complex

• Boy’s feelings Intensify • Sees the father as an obstacle and a rival who he desires to get rid of or to kill. • Worries the father will castrate him. • Boy is never 100% hosle. He keeps the idenficaon so he is torn – ambivalence • Boy hopefully turns his psychic energy into full‐on idenficaon with the father. “Can’t beat’em, join’em.” • Boy is masculinized, eventually seeks his own sexual partner The Electra Complex

• But what about girls? • During the phallic stage the daughter becomes aached to her father and more hosle towards her mother. • Believes that mom is responsible for her not having a penis. • This is due mostly to the idea that the girl is "envious" of her father's penis thus the term "penis‐envy". • This leads to resentment towards her mother, who the girl believes caused her castraon. The Psychoanalyc Perspecve Neo‐Freudians

• Freud The Neo‐Freudians refers to

• Neo‐Freudians theorists who broke with – Carl Jung Freud but whose theories – Alfred Adler retain a psychodynamic – Karen Horney aspect, especially a focus on movaon as the source of energy for the personality. Carl Jung

• Shared Freud’s emphasis on unconscious processes • But libido is all life forces not just sexual ones • Unconscious is posive source of strength • Development comes to fruion by middle age Carl Jung

• Personal unconscious – That part of the unconscious mind containing an individuals repressed thoughts and feelings • Collecve unconscious – The part of the unconscious that is inherited and common to all members of a species

Archetypes

– Self • regulang center of the psyche – Shadow • destrucve and aggressive tendencies – Persona • Our public self – Anima • Female archetype as expressed in male personality – Animus • Male archetype as expressed in female personality

Atude/Personality Types

• Extroverts – Focus on external world and social life • Introverts – Focus on internal thoughts and feelings • Jung felt that everyone had both qualies, but one is usually dominant Personality Types

• Raonal individuals – People who regulate their acons through thinking and feeling – Raonal and logical people who decide on facts – Acts tacully and has a balanced sense of values • Irraonal individuals – People who base their acons on percepons, either through their senses or intuion – Relies on surface percepons – lile imaginaon – Beyond the obvious to consider future possibilies Alfred Adler

• Didn’t see the conflict between the id and superego • People have innate posive moves that make them strive for personal/ social perfecon • The unique mix of personal and social perfecon creates unique direcons and beliefs that become our style of life • This emerges by 4 or 5 Alfred Adler

• Compensaon – Our efforts to overcome real or perceived weaknesses while we strive for that perfecon. • We try to overcome feelings of inferiority • Inferiority complex – Fixaon on feelings of personal inferiority that can lead to emoonal and social paralysis • Would focus on our drive toward superiority and perfecon – father of Humanisc Psychology Karen Horney • Environmental and social factors are important, especially those we experience as children • Viewed anxiety (reacon to real or imagined dangers) as a powerful movang force • seen as being as important as unconscious sexual conflict Karen Horney

• Neuroc trends – Irraonal strategies for coping with emoonal problems and thus minimizing anxiety – Submission (Moving toward people) • Feels the need to give in to other and only feels safe when receiving protecon and guidance. • Friendliness is superficial and masks true resentment – Aggression (Moving against people) • Hides inner feelings of insecurity while they lash out – Detachment (Moving away from people) • If I withdraw nothing can hurt me Evaluang Psychodynamic Theories

• Culture‐bound ideas – Freud made no connecon between women’s subordinate status in society and their sense of inferiority • Psychodymanic theories are largely untestable in any scienfic way • Most of its concepts arise out of clinical pracce, which are the aer‐the‐fact explanaon. Evaluang the Psychoanalyc Perspecve Modern Research

1. Personality develops throughout life and is not fixed in childhood. 2. Freud underemphasized peer influence on the individual, which may be as powerful as parental influence. 3. Gender identy may develop before 5‐6 years of age. Evaluang the Psychoanalyc Perspecve Modern Research

4. There may be other reasons for dreams besides wish fulfillment. 5. Verbal slips can be explained on the basis of cognive processing of verbal choices. (capture effect) 6. If suppressed sexuality leads to psychological disorders. Sexual inhibion has decreased, but psychological disorders have not. Evaluang the Psychoanalyc Perspecve

Freud's psychoanalyc theory rests on the repression of painful experiences into the unconscious mind.

The majority of children, death camp survivors, and bale‐scarred veterans are unable to repress painful experiences into their unconscious mind. Projecve Tests Assessing Unconscious Processes Evaluang personality from an unconscious mind’s perspecve would require a psychological instrument (projecve tests) that would reveal the hidden unconscious mind. Themac Appercepon Test (TAT)

Developed by Henry Murray, the TAT is a projecve test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

The most widely used projecve test uses a set of 10 inkblots and was designed by Hermann Rorschach. It seeks to idenfy people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretaons of the blots. Lew Merrim/ Photo Researcher, Inc. Projecve Tests: Cricisms

Crics argue that projecve tests lack both reliability (consistency of results) and validity (predicng what it is supposed to).

1. When evaluang the same paent, even trained raters come up with different interpretaons (reliability).

2. Projecve tests may misdiagnose a normal individual as pathological (validity). Personality Type

Personality types, assessed by measures such as the Myers‐ Briggs Type Indicator (looks at preferences in people and how they perceive the world), consist of a number of traits. For example, a feeling type personality is sympathec, appreciave, and tacul. More research is needed on this popular test’s validity.

Sympathec Appreciave Tacul

Feeling Type Personality Assessing Traits

Personality inventories are quesonnaires (oen with true‐false or agree‐disagree items) designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors assessing several traits at once. MMPI

The Minnesota Mulphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) (assesses the structure of the personality and diagnose mental illness) is the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. It was originally developed to idenfy emoonal disorders. MMPI Test Profile Trait Theory

Social Cognive Theory

50 The Trait Perspecve

An individual’s unique constellaon of durable disposions and consistent ways of behaving (traits) constutes his personality. Examples of Traits Honest Dependable Moody Impulsive

Allport & Odbert (1936), idenfied 18,000 words represenng traits. 51 Gordon Allport • Three levels of traits: – Cardinal (rare) • The trait that dominates and shapes a person’s behavior – Central • General characterisc found in all people – Secondary • These only manifest in certain circumstances 52 Raymond Caell

Factor analysis is a stascal approach used to describe and relate personality traits.

Caell used this approach to develop the 16 Personality Factor (16PF) inventory.

Raymond Caell

(1905‐1998) 53 Factor Analysis

Caell found that large groups of traits could be reduced down to 16 core personality traits based on stascal correlaons. Irritable Boisterous

Excitement Impaent

Basic Superficial trait traits 54 Impulsive Personality Dimensions

Hans and Sybil Eysenck suggested that personality could be reduced down to two polar dimensions, extraversion‐introversion and emoonal stability‐ instability.

55 The Big Five Factors

Today’s trait researchers believe that Eysencks’ personality dimensions are too narrow and Caell’s 16PF too large. So a middle range (five factors) of traits does a beer job of assessment.

Conscienousness Agreeableness Neurocism Openness Extraversion 56 57 Quesons about the Big Five

1. How stable are these traits? Quite stable in adulthood. Though change over development.

2. How heritable are they? Fiy percent or so for each trait.

3. How about other cultures? These traits are common across cultures.

4. Predict other personal Yes. Conscienous people are aributes? morning types, and extraverted evening types. 58 Evaluang the Trait Perspecve

The Person‐Situaon Controversy

Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points that traits may be enduring but the resulng behavior in different situaons is different. Thus traits are not good predictors of behaviors.

59 The Person‐Situaon Controversy

Trait theorists argue that behaviors may be different from situaon to situaon, but average behavior remains the same, thus traits maer.

60 The Person‐Situaon Controversy

Traits are socially significant and influence our health, thinking and performance (Gosling et al., 2000). John Langford Photography

Samuel Gosling 61 Social‐Cognive Perspecve

Bandura (1986, 2001, 2005) believes that personality is the result of an interacon that takes place between a person and his social context.

Albert Bandura

62 Reciprocal Determinism

Bandura called the process of interacng with our The three factors, behavior, cognion and environment are interlocking determinants of each environment reciprocal determinism. other. Stephen Wade/ Allsport/ Gey Images

63 Individuals & Environments

Specific ways how individuals and environments interact.

Different people choose different The school you aend, the music environments. you listen to, are partly based on your disposions. Our personalies shape how we Anxious people react to situaons react to events. differently than calm people.

Our personalies shape situaons. How we view and treat people influences how they treat us. 64 Behavior

Behavior emerges from an interplay of external and internal influences.

65 Personal Control Social‐cognive psychologists emphasize our sense of personal control – whether we control the environment or the environment controls us.

External locus of control refers to the percepon that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

Internal locus of control refers to the percepon that we can control our own fate.

66 Learned Helplessness

When unable to avoid repeated aversive events an animal or human learns hopelessness.

67 Opmism vs. Pessimism

An opmisc or pessimisc aribuonal style – is your way of explaining posive or negave events.

Posive psychology aims to discover and promote condions that enable individuals and communies to thrive.

68 Evaluang the Social‐Cognive Perspecve

Crics say that social‐cognive psychologists pay a lot of aenon to the situaon and pay less aenon to the individual, his unconscious mind, his emoons and his genecs.

69 Posive Psychology and Humanisc Psychology Posive psychology like humanisc psychology aempts to foster human fulfillment. Posive psychology in addion seeks posive subjecve well‐being, posive character and posive social groups. Posive Psychology Center/ University of Pennsylvania Courtesy of Marn E.P. Seligman, PhD Director,

Marn Seligman 70 Exploring the Self

Research on the self has a long history, because the self organizes thinking, feelings and acons and is a crical part of our personality.

1. Research has focused on the different selves we possess – some we dream and others we dread. 2. Research on how we overesmate our concern that others evaluate our appearance, performance and blunders (spot‐light effect). 3. Self‐reference effect in recall.

71 Benefits of Self‐Esteem

Maslow and Rogers argued that a successful life results from a healthy self‐image (self‐esteem). There are two reasons why low self‐esteem results in personal problems.

1. When self‐esteem is deflated, we views our self and others crically. 2. Low self esteem reflects reality – our failure in meeng challenges or surmounng difficules.

72 Culture & Self‐Esteem

People maintain their self‐esteem even with a low status by valuing things they achieve and comparing themselves with people with the similar posions. 73 Self‐Serving Bias

We accept responsibility for good deeds and successes than for bad deeds and failures. Defensive self‐esteem is fragile and egosc whereas secure self‐esteem is less fragile and less dependent on external evaluaon.

74 Barnum Effect (Forer effect)

• It is the tendency for people to accept very general or vague characterizaons of themselves and take them to be accurate.

75 Humanisc Perspecve

By the 1960s, psychologists became discontent with Freud’s negavity and the mechanisc psychology of the behaviorists. hp://www.ship.edu

Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers (1908‐1970) (1902‐1987) Humanisc Personality Theories

• The humanisc view asserts the fundamental goodness of people and their constant striving toward higher levels of funconing. • Does not dwell on past occurrences, but rather focuses on the present and future. Self‐Actualizing Person Maslow proposed that we as individuals are movated by a hierarchy of needs. Beginning with physiological needs, we try to reach the state of self‐actualizaon—fulfilling our potenal. Ted Polumbaum/ Time Pix/ Gey Images hp://www.ship.edu SA are self aware, self accepng, open and spontaneous, loving and caring, and not paralyzed by other’s opinions. “acquired enough courage to be unpopular, to be unashamed about being openly virtuous” College students most likely to become self‐ actualized were “privately affeconate to those of their elders who deserve it.” and “secretly uneasy about the cruelty, meanness and mob spirit so oen found in young people.” Self Actualizaon

• Maslow esmated only 1% of the populaon reaches this. • The top of the movaonal hierarchy. This makes it the weakest of all needs and the most easily impeded. • “This inner nature is not strong and overpowering and unmistakable like the insncts of animals. It is weak and delicate and subtle and easily overcome by habit, cultural pressure, and wrong atudes toward it.” Maslow • Jonah Complex – must be willing to sacrifice safety for personal growth. • Society? • Childhood? Perceived Self vs. Ideal Self

• Perceived Self – In a stream of consciousness manner – Describe yourself • Ideal Self – In a stream of consciousness manner – Fantasy – how would you like to be? Perceived Self vs. Ideal Self

• Did you write the same thing for each prompt? • From a humanisc perspecve, a fully funconing, self‐actualized person finds the perceived self as completely congruent with the ideal self. • Rogers suggests that if our self‐concept is negave, that is, if we fall far short of our ideal self, we feel dissasfied and unhappy. It follows that parents, teachers, and friends should help others know, accept, and be true to themselves Carl Rogers – Fully Funconing Person • Goal of every organism is to fulfill the capabilies of our genec blueprint – actualizing tendency. • Human beings form images of themselves – called self concepts. • Drive to fulfill self‐concepts – self actualizing tendency. Assessing the Self

In an effort to assess personality, Rogers asked people to describe themselves as they would like to be (ideal) and as they actually are (real). If the two descripons (real and ideal self) were close the individual if a fully funconing person.

All of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an answer to the queson, “Who am I?” refers to Self‐Concept. How to become fully funconing? Early Childhood Maers • Uncondional posive regard – Full acceptance and love of another regardless of our behavior • Genuineness • Accepng • Empathy • Condional posive regard – Acceptance and love conngent on certain behaviors and fulfilling certain condions. Evaluang the Humanisc Perspecve

1. Humanisc psychology has a pervasive impact on counseling, educaon, child‐rearing, and management. 2. Concepts in humanisc psychology are vague and subjecve and lack scienfic basis. 3. Some view these theories as overly opmisc and that they ignore the nature of human evil 4. Some argue that humanisc view lead to self‐ indulgence, narcissism and self‐centeredness – Western view of hyper‐individualism