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Performance Evaluation of Organic Rankine Cycle Architectures: Application to Waste Heat Valorisation

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Performance Evaluation of Organic Rankine Cycle Architectures: Application to Waste Heat Valorisation Performantie-evaluatie van organische-Rankine-cyclusarchitecturen: toepassing op restwarmtevalorisatie Performance Evaluation of Organic Rankine Cycle Architectures: Application to Waste Heat Valorisation Steven Lecompte Promotoren: prof. dr. ir. M. De Paepe, prof. dr. M. van den Broek Proefschrift ingediend tot het behalen van de graad van Doctor in de Ingenieurswetenschappen: Werktuigkunde-Elektrotechniek Vakgroep Mechanica van Stroming, Warmte en Verbranding Voorzitter: prof. dr. ir. J. Vierendeels Faculteit Ingenieurswetenschappen en Architectuur Academiejaar 2015 - 2016 ISBN 978-90-8578-897-3 NUR 961 Wettelijk depot: D/2016/10.500/29 Universiteit Gent Faculteit Ingenieurswetenschappen en Architectuur Vakgroep Mechanica van Stroming, Warmte en Verbranding Promotoren: Prof. dr. ir. Michel De Paepe Prof. dr. Martijn van den Broek Universiteit Gent Faculteit Ingenieurswetenschappen en Architectuur Vakgroep Mechanica van Stroming, Warmte en Verbranding Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 41, B-9000 Gent, Belgie¨ Tel.: +32-9-264.32.88 Fax.: +32-9-264.35.90 Proefschrift tot het behalen van de graad van Doctor in de Ingenieurswetenschappen: Werktuigkunde-Elektrotechniek Academiejaar 2015-2016 Dankwoord Wanneer ik dit dankwoord schrijf is er een hele weg afgelegd. De ervaringen en kansen langs die weg culmineerden uiteindelijk in dit werk. Het was echter niet mogelijk om dit te doen zonder de steun van de mensen rondom mij. Eerst wil ik mijn promotoren prof. De Paepe en prof. van den Broek bedanken om me de kans te geven een doctoraat te starten. Bedankt om mij te steunen en om me bij te staan met wetenschappelijke raad en daad. De collega’s hebben me door deze vier aangename maar intensieve jaren ge- loodst. Ze waren een aanspreekpunt voor hulp en ontspanning. Sergei, bedankt om steeds klaar te staan om metingen te doen op de testopstellling. Bruno, bedankt voor de aangename samenwerking. Henk, bedankt om me intensief te begeleiden bij het begin van mijn doctoraat. Marijn, bedankt om een aantal administratieve taken over te nemen. Sven, bedankt voor je kritische blik. Bernd, bedankt voor de ideeen,¨ de wetenschappelijke raad, het nalezen en zoveel meer. Ook de vroe- gere collega’s waren een belangrijke inspiratiebron, bedankt hiervoor Marnix en Kathleen. Daarnaast ben ik ook dankbaar dat ik de fantastische mensen van het ORCNext project heb leren kennen. Ik wil ook graag al het technisch personeel bedanken. Dankzij de uitstekende administratieve hulp van Griet en Annie kwam ik niet in kafkaiaanse toestanden terecht, ook al durfde ik wel eens een ontvangst- bewijs vergeten. Mag ik ook niet vergeten, de hele dierentuin: Frakke, Eddy, Mieke, Godzilla, Soesje, Muffin, Macaron. Jullie waren ideaal om mijn gedachten te verzetten, vooral wanneer er terug een van jullie uitgebroken was. Dankzij mijn ouders heb ik de vrijheid gehad om te doen wat ik graag deed, heel erg bedankt daarvoor. Tot slot wil ik mijn vrouw Jarissa bedanken voor haar geduld en eindeloze liefde. Sorry als ik soms koppig was en geen tijd had voor jullie. Maar de weg startte toen ik klein was. Elke dag kwam mijn opa mij ophalen van school. Ook onder de middag ging ik steevast naar daar. Bedankt oma en opa om me die kans te geven. Het minste wat ik kan doen is deze thesis opdragen aan m’n wijlen grootvader, Gaston De Clercq. Wat ik van jou geleerd heb is, nooit opgeven, blijven doorgaan. Gent, mei 2016 Steven Lecompte Table of Contents Dankwoord i List of Figures ix List of Tables xv Nomenclature xvii Nederlandse Samenvatting xxv English Summary xxix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Towards renewable and sustainable energy . .1 1.2 Introducing the organic Rankine cycle . .4 1.2.1 ORC Working fluids . .5 1.2.1.1 Working fluid characteristics . .5 1.2.1.2 Environmentally friendly working fluids . .7 1.2.1.3 Working fluid safety constraints . .7 1.2.2 Challenges and opportunities . .8 1.3 Objective of the study . .8 1.4 Outline . .9 References . 10 I Organic Rankine cycle architectures and their evaluation criteria 15 2 Thermodynamic and thermo-economic evaluation criteria 17 2.1 Introduction . 17 2.2 Thermodynamic performance evaluation . 17 2.2.1 First law, energy balance criteria . 17 2.2.2 Second law, exergy balance criteria . 18 2.2.3 Performance criteria of pump and expander . 21 2.3 Thermo-economic performance evaluation . 23 2.3.1 Specific area . 24 iv 2.3.2 Specific investment cost . 24 2.3.3 Simple payback period . 25 2.3.4 Net present value . 25 2.3.5 Levelised cost of electricity . 26 2.3.6 Overview of thermo-economic criteria . 26 2.4 Conclusion . 28 References . 29 3 Review of organic Rankine cycle architectures 31 3.1 Introduction . 31 3.2 Thermodynamics of ideal cycles . 31 3.2.1 Comparison of the ideal cycles . 34 3.2.2 Heat recovery from industrial excess heat . 35 3.3 Overview of ORC architectures . 36 3.3.1 ORC with recuperator (RC) . 40 3.3.2 Regenerative feed heating ORC (RG) . 41 3.3.3 Organic flash cycle (OFC) . 42 3.3.4 Trilateral (triangular) cycle (TLC) . 44 3.3.5 Zeotropic mixtures as ORC working fluids (ZM) . 46 3.3.6 Transcritical ORC (TCORC) . 48 3.3.7 ORC with multiple evaporation pressures (MP) . 50 3.3.8 Vapour injector, reheater and cascade cycles . 52 3.3.9 Summary of ORC architectures . 52 3.4 Thermo-economic studies on ORC architectures . 54 3.5 Commercial and experimental prototypes . 57 3.6 Conclusions . 60 References . 63 II Comparison of organic Rankine cycles architectures: ther- modynamic screening and thermo-economic appraisal 73 4 Thermodynamic performance evaluation and regression models of or- ganic Rankine cycle architectures 75 4.1 Introduction . 75 4.2 Cycle arrangements . 75 4.3 Comparing the SCORC, TCORC and TLC . 76 4.4 Thermodynamic model and assumptions . 78 4.5 Optimisation algorithm and strategy . 80 4.6 Regression models . 84 4.6.1 Analysis of the full set of working fluids (Case 1) . 86 4.6.2 Analysis of the environmentally friendly set of working fluids (Case 2) . 91 4.6.3 Analysis of the restriction to a superheated state after the expander (Case 3) . 95 v 4.6.4 Analysis of the restriction with upper cooling limit (Case 4) 97 4.6.5 Analysis of the addition of a recuperator (Case 5) . 99 4.7 Example on the use of the regression models . 101 4.8 Overview and comparison with literature . 102 4.9 Conclusions . 105 References . 106 5 Thermo-economic performance evaluation of organic Rankine cycle architectures 113 5.1 Introduction . 113 5.2 Definition of the case study . 114 5.3 Model and assumptions . 114 5.3.1 Cycle assumptions . 114 5.3.2 Heat exchanger model . 115 5.3.3 Cost models . 117 5.3.4 Working fluid selection . 120 5.3.5 Expander considerations . 121 5.4 Optimisation strategy . 121 5.5 Specific investment costs of the Pareto front . 122 5.5.1 Analysis of the parameter space . 125 5.5.2 Turbine performance parameters . 129 5.5.3 Distribution of the costs . 129 5.6 Financial analysis and appraisal . 130 5.7 Conclusions . 132 References . 134 III Part-load operation of organic Rankine cycle heat en- gines 139 6 Part-load modelling of the organic Rankine cycle heat engine 141 6.1 Introduction . 141 6.2 Modelling approach . 142 6.2.1 The object-oriented paradigm . 142 6.2.2 Levels of modelling detail . 142 6.3 Heat exchangers . 143 6.3.1 Finite volume, moving boundary and hybrid model . 143 6.3.2 Implementation . 144 6.3.3 Plate heat exchangers . 148 6.3.3.1 P-NTU correlations . 148 6.3.3.2 Connection equations . 149 6.3.3.3 Single phase heat and pressure drop correlations 149 6.3.3.4 Two phase heat and pressure drop correlations . 151 6.3.3.5 Supercritical heat and pressure drop correlations 152 6.4 Volumetric expanders . 153 vi 6.5 Centrifugal pump . 155 6.6 Cycle model . 156 6.7 Conclusions . 158 References . 159 7 Experimental validation and optimal operation under part-load con- ditions 163 7.1 Introduction . 163 7.2 The experimental ORC set-up . 164 7.3 Steady state analysis . 164 7.3.1 Steady state detection algorithm . 166 7.3.2 Acquiring the steady state points . 167 7.4 Heat exchanger heat balances . 170 7.5 Validation of the individual component models . 172 7.5.1 Evaporator and condenser . 172 7.5.2 Volumetric expander . 174 7.5.3 Centrifugal pump . 175 7.6 Validation of the full cycle model . 178 7.7 Optimal part-load operation . 182 7.7.1 Effect of the pump rotational speed . 182 7.7.2 Optimised pump rotational speed . 183 7.7.3 Comparison between the SCORC and PEORC . 184 7.8 Conclusions . 185 References . 187 8 Conclusions 189 8.1 Conclusions . 189 8.2 Future work . 191 A A Publications 193 B B Working fluids list 197 C C Experimental ORC set-up 201 C.1 Components . 201 C.1.1 Measuring equipment . 201 C.1.2 Heat exchangers . 201 C.1.3 Centrifugal pump . 203 C.1.4 Volumetric double screw expander . 204 C.1.5 External loops . 204 C.1.5.1 Heating loop . 204 C.1.5.2 Cooling loop . 205 C.2 Uncertainty analysis . 206 References . 209 vii D D Fin and tube heat exchangers 211 D.1 P-NTU correlations . 211 D.2 Connection equations ..
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