Review 1608178
Eur J Hum Genet 1995;3:273-284
Erik Fransen3' CRASH Syndrome: Clinical Spectrum Vance Lemmon0 Guy Van Campa of Corpus Callosum Hypoplasia, Lieve Vitsa Retardation, Adducted Thumbs, Paul Couckea Patrick J. Willemsa Spastic Paraparesis and a Department of Medical Genetics, Hydrocephalus Due to Mutations in University of Antwerp, Belgium; One Single Gene, L1 b Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
Keywords Abstract X-linked disorder LI is a neuronal cell adhesion molecule with important func Mental retardation tions in the development of the nervous system. The gene Hydrocephalus encoding LI is located near the telomere of the long arm of the MASA syndrome X chromosome in Xq28. We review here the evidence that Adducted thumbs several X-linked mental retardation syndromes including X- Corpus callosum agenesis linked hydrocephalus (HSAS), MASA syndrome, X-linked Spastic paraplegia complicated spastic paraparesis (SPI) and X-linked corpus LI callosum agenesis (ACC) are all due to mutations in the LI CRASH gene. The inter- and intrafamilial variability in families with Mutation analysis an LI mutation is very wide, and patients with HSAS, MASA, SPI and ACC can be present within the same family. There fore, we propose here to refer to this clinical syndrome with the acronym CRASH, for Corpus callosum hypoplasia, Retar dation, Adducted thumbs, Spastic paraplegia and Hydroceph alus.
Clinical Aspects for Hydrocephalus due to Stenosis of the Aqueduct of Sylvius. This designation was X-Linked Hydrocephalus based upon the presence of aqueductal steno X-linked hydrocephalus (MIM No. sis in many HSAS patients [1]. However, later 307000) was originally described by Bickers studies reported several HSAS patients with and Adams in 1949. It is referred to as HSAS hydrocephalus but without aqueductal steno-
Received: April 21,1995 Patrick Willems © 1995 Revision received: July 28,1995 Department of Medical Genetics S. Karger AG, Basel Accepted: August 4, 1995 University of Antwerp B-2610 Antwerp (Belgium) sis [2]. Therefore, the occurrence of aqueduc- reported, and some families have been rede tal stenosis in X-linked hydrocephalus might fined as representative of the MASA syn not be the cause of hydrocephalus. Neverthe drome [9-17], The clinical features show in less, the designation of HSAS is still used in ter- and intrafamilial variation, with mental the literature. HSAS is the most common retardation being the only obligatory symp genetic cause of hydrocephalus with an inci tom. Although MASA syndrome is an X- dence of approximately 1/30,000 male births, linked recessive condition, some expressing and it is responsible for about one quarter of carrier females have been reported, possibly male patients with hydrocephalus not associ due to unfavorable lyonization of the wild- ated with spina bifida [3]. The clinical spec type gene [9,14], Corpus callosum agenesis or trum of HSAS is very broad and shows great dysgenesis is also a frequent symptom in intra- and interfamilial variation. The only MASA patients [15]. Even though earlier obligate feature is mental retardation, with studies [9] noticed the clinical overlap be IQs usually ranging between 20 and 50. Hy tween MASA and HSAS, a clear distinction drocephalus presents from impressive macro- was made between those two conditions, cephaly, resulting in pre- or perinatal death, to based upon the presence or absence of hydro minimal enlargement of the ventricles. More cephalus in HSAS and MASA, respectively. over, HSAS families have been described in However, in later clinical studies, the sharp which some mentally retarded members did boundaries between HSAS and MASA be not have hydrocephalus [4, 5]. Adducted gan to fade away as (1) HSAS families were thumbs are seen in approximately 90% of the reported in which some affected members cases. Other features are spastic paraplegia, did not have hydrocephalus [4, 5], (2) some nystagmus and structural brain defects such MASA families contained HSAS patients as hypoplasia of the corpus callosum and sep with hydrocephalus [16], and (3) linkage stud tum pellucidum [5], HSAS is a recessive X- ies assigned the MASA disease locus to Xq28, linked disorder with no symptoms in carrier the same region as HSAS [16, 17]. This led us females. In 1990, we assigned the HSAS dis to suggest that HSAS and MASA were allelic ease locus to the distal part of the long arm of disorders due to mutations in the same gene the X chromosome in Xq28 by linkage analy [6]. sis [6], Further mapping studies refined the disease locus to a region of 2 Mb, distal to Spastic Paraplegia DXS52 and proximal to F8C [7, 8]. As the Spastic Paraplegia (SP) is a clinically and neural cell adhesion molecule LI (LICAM) is genetically heterogeneous condition. Some in located in this interval, we suggested that vestigators divide SP into pure and compli HSAS might be due to mutations in LI [7], cated forms [18], In pure SP, spasticity of the lower extremities is the only clinical sign. In MASA Syndrome complicated SP, additional symptoms such as In 1974, Bianchine and Lewis described an mental retardation and/or congenital brain X-linked disorder characterized by Mental re malformations are present. Most hereditary tardation, aphasia, .Shuffling gait and Ad forms of SP are inherited in an autosomal ducted thumbs [9], Referring to these four dominant or recessive way, whereas X-linked clinical features, the name ‘MASA syndrome’ SP is rare. A locus for X-linked SP (SP2) has was assigned to this disease (MIM No. been localized on the long arm of the X chro 303350). Several MASA families have been mosome in Xq21-q22, both in families with
274 Fransen/Lemmon/V an Camp/Vits/ CRASH Syndrome Coucke/WiUems pure [19] and complicated [20] SP. This lat linked recessive condition with ACC and a ter form of SP results from mutations in the variety of symptoms including macrocephaly, proteolipid protein (PLP) gene and is allelic anal anomalies, Hirschsprung’s disease, con to Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease (MIM No. stipation, hypotonia and mental retardation 312080), a severe X-linked disorder in which [22], The gene responsible for FG syndrome progressive demyelination of the central ner has been mapped to Xql 3 [Briault, pers. com vous system occurs [21], Kenwrick et al. [12] mun.]. Several ACC/DCC syndromes with have described a form of X-linked compli unknown sublocalization on the X chromo cated SP (SPI, MIM No. 312900) in a family some have been described. Menkes et al. [23] with SP, mental retardation and adducted have reported a family with X-linked ACC/ thumbs. Linkage analysis assigned the SPI DCC, seizures, mental retardation and disease locus to the distal part of the long arm Hirschsprung’s disease, which might repre of the X chromosome in Xq28. Later clinical sent an example of FG syndrome. An X- studies of this SPI family revealed that the linked DCC family with hydrocephalus, mi clinical spectrum was compatible with MASA crocephaly, mental retardation and brachy- syndrome [17], suggesting that SPI and dactyly has been reported by Kang et al. [24], MASA syndrome are coallelic. Kaplan [25] reported two males with com plete absence of the corpus callosum and Agenesis of the Corpus Callosum severe psychomotor retardation, one of the The corpus callosum is the largest fiber patients having adducted thumbs and slightly tract in the brain, and plays a key role in the enlarged ventricles. This spectrum of anoma communication between the two brain hemi lies is reminiscent of MASA syndrome. The spheres. Corpus callosum agenesis (ACC) or fact that ACC/DCC in some families might dysgenesis (DCC) is a rather aspecific abnor represent MASA, is also corroborated by the mality. Many cases of DCC, and to a lesser finding that ACC or DCC have been reported extent ACC, are found incidentally at necrop in patients with MASA syndrome [15] and sy in individuals who had normal cerebral HSAS [5]. This suggests that there might be function. The frequency of ACC/DCC in the just one gene for HSAS, MASA, SPI and general population has been estimated at 0.3- ACC/DCC. 0.7%, whereas it is found in 2-3% of the men tally retarded. In most cases, ACC/DCC is an isolated finding. However, ACC and DCC Molecular Aspects can also occur as part of a syndrome, when accompanied by a number of other malforma Identification of LI as the tions. Many chromosomal and monogenic Disease-Causing Gene in HSAS, MASA, disorders have ACC/DCC in their spectrum SPI and ACC/DCC of anomalies. X-linked forms of ACC/DCC, The localization of the HSAS gene in Xq28 however, are very rare. Aicardi syndrome, an in a 2-Mb interval containing the LI X-linked disorder that occurs only in females, (LICAM) gene suggested that LI was a candi has a clinical spectrum including ACC, cho date gene for HSAS [7], Therefore, extensive rioretinal lacunae, infantile spasms and psy mutation analysis was performed in the LI chomotor retardation. The gene involved in gene from a large number of HSAS families. Aicardi syndrome has provisionally been In 1992, the first LI mutation in an HSAS mapped to Xp22. FG syndrome is an X- family was reported by Rosenthal et al. [26].
275 Table 1. LI mutations in HSAS, MASA, SPI and ACC families
No. Mutation Exon Domain Disease Ref cDNA level protein level erence
1 321 Del 80 FS 107 frameshift 4 Ig2 HSAS 29 2 G551A R184Q missense 6 Ig2 HSAS 30 3 C630G H210Q missense 6 Ig2 M ASA/ACC 32 4 G791T C264Y missense 7 Ig3 HSAS 28 5 G1354A G452R missense 11 Ig5 HSAS 30 6 C1453T R485STOP nonsense 12 Ig5 HSAS 30 7 G1792A D598N missense 14 Ig6 MASA 32 8 2137 Ins 39 8121ns 13AA insertion intron 17 Fn2 HSAS 26 9 2884 Del G FS 961 frameshift 22 Fn4 HSAS 30 10 3489 Del TG FS 1163 frameshift 26 cytoplasmic SPI 30 11 C3581T S1194L missense 28 cytoplasmic MASA 31 12 3541 Dpi 125 FS 1223 frameshift 28 cytoplasmic HSAS 27 13 Del 3541-end FS1181 frameshift 26-28 cytoplasmic MASA 32
This was a novel mutation in a branch point LI Protein and Function signal of an intron, leading to aberrant splic LI, also referred to as LI CAM, is a neuro ing. Soon thereafter, we discovered a second nal cell adhesion molecule belonging to the LI mutation [27], a duplication in the original superfamily of the immunoglobulins [33, 34], HSAS family, which was used to localize the It is a transmembrane protein, expressed on HSAS gene [5]. This confirmed that muta the outgrowing axon of postmitotic nerve cells tions in the LI gene are responsible for HSAS. both in the central and peripheral nervous Since then, we and others have found many system and on Schwann cells. LI is implicated LI mutations in HSAS families [28-30; Ken- in the pathfinding of an outgrowing axon and wrick and Willems, unpubl. results]. in neural cell migration during the develop As MASA syndrome was thought to be alle ment of the nerve system, as it plays a role in lic with HSAS, the LI gene of MASA patients the adhesion between neurons, stimulates was then analyzed, and several LI mutations neurite outgrowth and fasciculation, and me were found [30-32], LI mutations were also diates the interaction between neurons and found in the original complicated SPI family Schwann cells during meylination [35-38], LI [30] which was later redefined as a MASA is also important in the regeneration of dam family [12], and in an ACC/DCC family with aged nerve tissue [39], MASA features [15, 32], This proves that The protein has a molecular mass of HSAS, MASA, SPI and ACC/DCC are allelic 200 kD with 138 kD due to polypeptide and disorders due to mutations in a single gene, LI the rest to carbohydrate [40], It is composed (table 1). of various domains including (1) a cytoplas mic domain which is highly conserved among
276 Fransen/Lemmon/Van Camp/Vits/ CRASH Syndrome Coucke/Willems E ■o
_Q E E
6 Immunoglobulin domains 5 Fibronectin domains £ Cytoplasmic domain
NH3 COOH
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the LI molecule. The LI protein is represented with its different domains: six immunoglobulin domains (loops), five fibronectin domains (filled ovals), the transmembrane and the cytoplasmic domain.
various species, (2) a transmembrane do binding [42] (fig. 2a). The activated FGFR main, composed of 23 hydrophobic residues, then phosphorylâtes phospholipase C, which (3) five fibronectin-III-like domains, and (4) triggers a cascade of events producing arachi- six immunoglobulin-type C2-like domains, donic acid. The elevated concentration of ara- each containing one disulfide bridge (fig. 1, chidonic acid causes a Ca2+ influx into the cell 2). The extracellular part of LI interacts with through N- and L-type Ca2+ channels. The its surroundings through homophilic binding same cascade is activated by soluble forms of with other LI molecules [41] and through the LI molecule, suggesting that cell adhesion heterophilic interactions with other neural as such is not required to activate this signal cell adhesion molecules such as axo- transduction pathway [43], Four different nin-l/TAG-1, F3/F11 and phosphocan. The FGFR genes have been identified. All have a cytoplasmic tail of LI interacts with ankyrin, motif of five consecutive amino acids homol a protein involved in the binding of the cyto- ogous to a protein sequence located between skeleton to the cell membrane. It is unclear the third and fourth immunoglobulin do whether the cytoplasmic domain of LI only mains of LI. In the same FGFR domain ami offers an anchor to the cytoskeleton, or is also no acid stretches are found which show ho part of a secondary signal transduction sys mology to N-CAM and members of the tem (fig. 2a). The different effects of LI are cadherin family. This domain is now referred not only mediated by cell adhesion, but are to as the FGFR CAM-homology domain also the consequence of intracellular changes (FGFR-CHD). brought about by binding of LI to the fibro blast growth factor receptor (FGFR). Recent The LI Gene ly, evidence has been provided that LI acti The LI gene spans 16 kb [Rosenthal, pers. vates the FGFR tyrosine kinase upon ligand commun.] and is composed of 28 exons. The
277 1 immunoglobulin domain
2 fibronectin domain
3 transmembrane domain
4 cytoplasmatic domain 5 putative signal transduction system 6 CAM homology domain (CHD) 7 tyrosine kinase domain 1 8 tyrosine kinase domain 2 9 cell membrane
10 intercellular space 11 intracellular space
FGFR a
cTa pp pq if b c 278 Fransen/Lemmon/V an Camp/Vits/ CRASH Syndrome Coucke/Willems Fig. 2. Hypothetical models for the disturbance of open reading frame has 3,825 bp, and encodes normal LI function by different mutations, indicated a protein of 1,275 amino acids. The first 19 by an asterisk, a Normal functioning of LI. Homo- amino acids form a signal peptide that is philic interaction between LI molecules on neighbor ing neurons. The fibroblast growth factor receptor cleaved from the native protein, which is (FGFR) interacts with LI via its CAM homology 1,256 amino acids long. The exons 3-14 en domain and dimerizes upon activation. This leads to code the 6 immunoglobulin domains with two activation of the two tyrosine kinase domains, b A mis- exons for each domain (fig. 1). Exons 15-24 sense mutation in the extracellular part of LI. The encode the 5 fibronectin domains, exon 25 the homophilic interaction between LI molecules is weak ened or absent, leading to absent or abnormal intracel transmembrane domain and exons 26-28 lular transduction, c A mutation in the cytoplasmic form the cytoplasmatic domain. An alterna domain. Adhesion between neurons, and between LI tive splicing variant lacking four amino acids and the FGFR remains unaffected as the extracellular in the cytoplasmatic domain has been ob domains are intact. However, the cytoplasmic domain served in the peripheral nerve system [44] but is truncated or absent. This might lead to absent or abnormal intracellular transduction, or impaired inter its functional importance is unknown. Struc action with the cytoskeleton. d A nonsense mutation in tural and functional homologues of LI have one of the immunoglobulin domains leading to a pre been found in mouse (LI), rat (NILE), chick mature extracellular stop codon. As the truncated pro (G4/8D9) and Drosophila (neuroglian). The tein lacks some immunoglobulin domains, the fibro- cytoplasmic domain is by far the most con nectin domains, the transmembrane segment and the intracellular domain, it is secreted into the extracellu served, sharing 100% homology at the amino lar space. There it might be rapidly degraded, it might acid level between human and mouse [34]. be stable but not functional, or it might block normal interaction of other cell adhesion molecules with LI Mutations immunoglobulin domains. All mutations found to date are private mutations that have never been observed in more than one family. The mutations are dispersed throughout the whole LI gene, and include deletions, a duplication, missense, nonsense, splice site mutations, and a novel type of mutation in a branch point signal leading to aberrant splicing. An overview of lr 4 all LI mutations reported so far in HSAS, d MASA, SPI and ACC/DCC is given in ta ble 1. a The mutations can be classified into three d d broad categories. The first class consists of mis Q P tr sense point mutations in the extracellular do main (mutations 2-5, 7). In these cases, the ■Q sP mutant protein is still an integral membrane protein with a normal transmembrane and cytoplasmic domain. However, the binding ca pacities of the LI protein towards its ligands or its signaling pathways might be distorted, as the structure of the extracellular domains has d been altered at one amino acid position (fig. 279 2b). The second class of mutations has a dis tions with the cytoskeleton, has been observed rupted cytoplasmic domain, either by missense in a family with a mild MASA phenotype [14, mutation (mutation 11), frameshift (mutation 32]. In contrast, missense mutations can lead 10) or large rearrangements such as a duplica to a very severe clinical picture [28, 31]. It is tion (mutation 12) or a deletion (mutation 13). also unlikely that a good genotype-phenotype In all of these cases, the extracellular and trans correlation exists, because of the large intra membrane domains remain intact (fig. 2c). familial clinical variability with patients with The influence of these mutations on the func HSAS, MASA, SPI and ACC/DCC being tioning of LI is unclear. It is possible that present within the same family. Schrander- mutations in the cytoplasmic domain disturb Stumpel et al. [pers. commun.] have reviewed the transduction of extracellular signals into the clinical characteristics of many families the cell via an unknown signal pathway. Alter with HSAS, MASA, SPI and ACC/DCC, and natively, it is possible that these mutations lead found that most families have a mixed pheno to impaired binding with the intracellular cy- type with large intrafamilial variability. Most toskeleton. The third class of mutant LI pro families have been referred to as HSAS, teins has a premature stop codon in the extra MASA, SPI or ACC/DCC, depending on the cellular part, due to a nonsense mutation (mu clinical phenotype of the proband. In many tation 6) or a frameshift mutation (mutations 1 families, however, affected relatives had dif and 9). The mutant protein could be secreted ferent phenotypes. into the extracellular space as no transmem LI is not the only gene showing pleiotropic brane domain is present (fig. 2d). Obviously, manifestations. More than 100 genes are such a protein loses its normal function as con known in which different mutations cause tact with the nerve cell is lost. It is intriguing, more than one clinical disorder. One of the however, that truncated soluble forms of LI most interesting examples is the RET protoon still seem to be able to activate FGFRs and cogene. RET is a transmembrane protein, with stimulate neurite outgrowth in vitro, although a cadherin-like extracellular domain, and a cys they miss the transmembrane and cytoplasmic teine-rich extracellular region next to the trans domain [43]. This might suggest that LI has membrane region. Although RET mutations essential functions not mediated through the cause four different clinical disorders, there is a FGFR signal transduction pathway. It is, how good genotype-phenotype correlation. Inacti ever, also possible that the naturally occurring vating mutations in several different domains truncated LI proteins in these patients are of RET cause Hirschsprung’s disease, a devel unstable and degraded quickly. opmental disorder of the enteric nervous sys tem. Missense mutations of specific cysteine residues in the cysteine-rich region cause either Genotype-Phenotype Correlation multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A and 2B, or medullary thyroid carcinoma through a Mutations in LI cause a complex and vari dominant-negative oncogenic mechanism able spectrum of clinical abnormalities. How [45]. In contrast, the different LI mutations do ever, no obvious relationship has been found not cause a constant phenotype. The compli between the disease phenotype and the type cated signal transduction pathway, of which L1 or position of the LI mutation. Deletion of a is one of the many components, might be large part of the cytoplasmatic domain, which redundant and allow for variation in the ex would be likely to disrupt signaling or interac pression of a loss-of-function mutation in LI 280 Fransen/Lemmon/Van Camp/Vits/ CRASH Syndrome Coucke/Willems by the varying influence of other components. drocephalus is present and the diagnosis On the other hand, gain-of-function mutations CRASH is suspected, it is highly probable that might also have a variable clinical picture. an LI mutation will be present. However, Understanding the clinical variation encoun Strain et al. [48] have postulated the existence tered in CRASH syndrome might increase of a second locus for CRASH, approximately when we know more about the functioning of 10 cM proximal from the LI gene. The link LI. The interactions of LI with FGFR open age analysis upon which the authors based another exciting field to be investigated. Re their findings, however, was remarkable, in cently, several mutations in the genes encod that it showed an impressive number of inter ing FGFR 1 and 2 have been discovered, each marker recombinants over a short distance. of them associated with different craniosynos- Subsequently, a LI mutation was identified in tosis syndromes including Apert, Crouzon, this family, excluding the existence of the Jackson-Weiss and Pfeiffer syndromes. Muta hypothesized second locus [Brock, pers. com tions in FGFR3, on the other hand, give rise to mun.]. In our own experience of more than 50 achondroplasia [46]. None of the latter syn HSAS or MASA families with multiple af dromes show clinical overlap with CRASH fected cases, we have not found evidence for syndrome, and clinical features such as cra- linkage heterogeneity. Only one small Ger niosynostosis or dwarfism encountered in man family was found in which a presumably cases of an FGFR mutation have not been healthy normal male had the same Xq28 hap observed in families with an LI mutation. lotype as his brother and a cousin who were This is not surprising, as until now LI muta both affected with HSAS [7], However, the tion analysis was only performed in families normal male refused brain imaging or IQ test with CRASH features. It is possible that LI is ing, so that it could not be excluded that he a candidate gene for Xq28-linked diseases was mildly affected. In some cases of the with bone malformations. In this respect, it CRASH syndrome, the typical facial features would be interesting to look for mutations in of fragile X syndrome including elongated patients with oto-palato-digital syndrome, a face and large everted cars are present [5], bone disorder gene located in Xq28. X-linked spasticity and mental retardation (SPI) due to mutations in LI have to be dif ferentiated from SP2 [19,20]. This can be dif Differential Diagnosis ficult when SPI is not associated with other symptoms from the CRASH clinical spec In view of the large clinical spectrum of the trum (table 2). However, mental retardation CRASH syndrome, the clinical diagnosis can is always moderate to severe in the CRASH be difficult, especially when hydrocephalus syndrome and mild in SP2. The gene respon and adducted thumbs are absent. Nearly all sible for SP2 is PLP, located in Xq22. The patients have moderate to severe mental re PLP genes has two gene products, produced tardation, but it is still unclear how frequently by alternative splicing: DM20, involved in LI mutations will be found in nonspecific oligodendrocyte maturation, and PLP itself, Xq28-linked mental retardation, but without involved in myelin sheet compaction. Muta hydrocephalus, spastic paraparesis or ad tions affecting both gene products lead to Pe ducted thumbs [47]. It is possible, therefore, lizaeus-Merzbacher disease, whereas muta that patients with LI defects are not recog tions in PLP but spliced out in DM20 lead to nised as having CRASH syndrome. When hy SP2 [21], 281 Table 2. Clinical spectrum of diseases associated with LI and LI mutations PLP mutations PLP mutations HSAS MAS A SPI PMD SP2 Mental retardation ++ ++ ++ ± ± Hydrocephalus ++ + Motor deterioration ++ + Adducted thumbs + + ± Chorea ++ ± Cerebellar ataxia ++ ± Nystagmus ++ ± Hypotonia ++ Demyelination on MRI ++ ± MRI = Magnetic resonance imaging. Prenatal Diagnosis itself to be able to perform prenatal diagnosis and carrier detection. In large families with HSAS, MASA, SPI or ACC/DCC linked to the Xq28 region, DNA diagnosis based upon DNA analysis is Conclusion possible as the Xq28 region contains many highly polymorphic markers. RFLP analysis Mutations in the neural cell adhesion mol can be performed using probe F814, which is ecule LI, located in Xq28, can lead to a wide a hybrid probe recognizing both a VNTR clinical spectrum of neurologic anomalies in marker DXS52 and a two-allellic RFLP in cluding corpus callosum hypoplasia, mental F8C. DXS52 is approximately 1-2 cM proxi retardation, adducted thumbs, spastic para mal to LI, whereas F8C is 1-2 cM distal to paresis and hydrocephalus. We therefore pro LI. LI itself is not very polymorphic as only pose to refer to this clinical spectrum as the one RFLP with a very low polymorphism CRASH syndrome. information content has been found in LI [49]. Nowadays, polymorphic microsatellites, amplified by PCR, are preferred, because this Acknowledgements speeds up the analysis and requires a smaller amount of DNA, whereas microsatellites are The research reviewed here was supported in part by the NFWO (National Fund for Scientific Research), much more informative than RFLP markers. the AFM (Association Française contre les Myopa In somes cases, a reliable diagnosis with flank thies) and a concerted action from the University of ing markers is not possible, as (1) the distal Antwerp. E.F. holds a scholarship from the IWT (Insti Xq28 markers are not always informative, tute for the Support of Research in Science and Tech (2) not enough DNA samples are available nology). Y.L. received support from the NEI (National Eye Institute) and NINDS (National Institute of Neu and (3) there is a de novo mutation. 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