Index

Page numbers in bold refer to illustrations and captions. Academia de Guardias Marinas, Cádiz, Arnold, John (1736–99), 214, 223, 230 18–19, 22 Arrowsmith, Aaron (1750–1823), 121 Académie de marine, Brest, 50, 55, artificial horizon, 226, 233 168, 175 Astrolabe (ship), 190, 192 Académie des sciences (France), 2, 6, Astronomer Royal (Britain), see Airy, 8, 56, 76, 139, 174–5, 186 George; Bliss, Nathaniel; and Bureau des , 67, Bradley, James; Flamsteed, John; 70–1, 72 Halley, Edmond; Maskelyne, closure of, 69 Nevil and Connaissance des temps, 55, 56, astronomical clock, 102, 144, 170, 58, 69 172, 231 and , 159–63, 168–9, 171, astronomical quadrant, 18, 23, 101, 184 121, 164, 170–1, 172 and metrology, 136–7, 139 Astronomical Society, 138 and nautical astronomy, 49–53, 55, Atlantic Ocean, 5, 21, 23, 39, 122, 58 147, 171, 174, 180, 183, 193, survey expeditions of, 16, 49, 135, 238 140–3 Atrevida (ship), 22–3 and voyages of exploration, 186–7, Aurore (ship), 159, 163–5, 164, 171 190–2 Australia, 16, 125, 182, 212 see also Meslay Prize Academy of Sciences (Russia), 126 backstaff (Davis quadrant), 113, 174 Admiralty Baltic Sea, 39, 92, 111, 112, 113, 114, British, 90, 115, 122 164 Dutch, 35–6 Banks, Joseph (1743–1820), 4, 25, 73, of Amsterdam, 32, 34, 43 140, 144, 205, 214 of the Maze, 35, 36 Barlow, Peter (1776–1862), 121–2 of Rotterdam, 34 Baudin, Nicolas (1754–1803), 189, Russian, 114, 117, 119 190, 191, 194 see also Bellingshausen, Thaddeus von (1778– Airy, George Biddell (1801–92), 77, 1852), 120, 122, 125, 126 149, 151 Bemmelen, Abraham van (1779– Alexander I, Tsar (1777–1825), 120–1 1842), 34, 40, 41 Americas, 32, 119, 135, 182 Bengal, 214, 215 North America, 90, 100, 118, 120, Bay of, 207, 237 151, 212 Bentham, Samuel (1757–1831), 117, South America, 14, 17, 18, 20, 22, 118 23, 25, 26, 72, 77, 168 Berthoud, Ferdinand (1727–1807), 3, Arago, François (1786–1853), 67, 72, 8, 159, 160–3, 183, 191 192 marine timekeepers by, 22, 23, 37, Arnold (firm) 183–5, 186–7, 191 marine timekeepers by, 23, 37, 121, sea trials of, 163, 168–74 184, 213, 239 Traité des horloges marines, 35

249 250 Index

Berthoud, Louis (1759–1813), 186–7, see also Admiralty; Board of 188, 191 Longitude; ; London; Biot, Jean-Baptiste (1774–1862), 72, Royal Navy; Royal Observatory, 78, 144–5, 146, 190 Greenwich; Royal Society; Bird, John (1709–76), 18, 73, 96, 138, Scotland; ships 153, 210 Buen Consejo (ship), 20–1 Bliss, Nathaniel (1700–64), 99 Bureau des longitudes (France), 6, 7, Board of Longitude (Britain), 2, 7, 43, 38, 39, 43, 65–79, 92 69–70, 73, 77–9, 90, 92, 103, foundation of, 65, 68–70, 188 115, 119, 159, 223 membership of, 70–1, 72–3, 182, (1714), 2, 48, 50, 51, 187, 190, 191 90, 159, 204 rewards from, 65, 74 longitude rewards, 2, 3, 38, 48, survey expeditions of, 72, 77 56–7, 115–16, 121, 159, 161 see also Connaissance des temps; research project on, 3, 4–5, 28, 203 Greenwich-Paris triangulation, sea trials, 3, 104, 117–18 second; Observatoire de Paris see also Nautical Almanac Bombay Observatory, 231, 240 Cádiz, 165–72 passim Borda, Jean-Charles de (1733–99), 20, Academia de Guardias Marinas, 53–4, 72, 144, 171–2, 173, 174, 18–19, 22 187 meridian of, 20–6 Borda circle, 26, 38, 187–9, 193 Real Observatorio, 5, 14, 18, 19, Borda rule, 137, 144, 149, 150 23, 27 Bougainville, Louis Antoine de calendar (1729–1811), 72, 100–1, 181–3, Republican, 69, 188 186 Cambridge, University of, 4, 90, 100, 102 Bouguer, Pierre (1698–1758), 49–50, Canary Islands, 13, 20, 165, 170 53, 55, 57, 60, 160, 169 Cape Horn, 22, 26, 125, 185 Bradley, James (1693–1762), 99, Cape of Good Hope, 14–15, 20, 21, 101–2, 162, 203, 204 51, 52, 120, 184, 237, 238 Brander, Gustavus (1720–87), 95–8, Cape Town, 52, 184 102 Cape Verde, 13, 16, 51, 170, 172 Bréguet (firm), 37, 191 Caroché, Noël-Simon (1740–1813), Bréguet, Abraham-Louis (1747–1823), 72, 74–5 191 cartography, 7, 13–14, 17, 20–6, 32, Bréguet, Louis François Clement 40, 42, 70, 112, 118, 168–71, (1804–83), 73, 191 174, 211–13, 228–31, 236, 239 Britain, 3, 6–8, 13, 73, 78, 93, 98, see also charts; meridians; surveying 102–4, 115, 194, 201–2, 208, Cassini, César-François [Cassini III] 215 (1714–84), 50, 58, 140, 142, 166 British metrology, 137–8, 140–2, Cassini, Jean-Dominique [Cassini IV] 144–7, 149, 150–1, 180 (1748–1845), 20, 72, 74, 140, British Museum, 95 166, 167, 168 and France, 48, 59, 69, 74, 100, Catherine II, Empress (1729–96), 117 161–2, 166, 168, 188 Chagos Archipelago, 237, 239 and Netherlands, 32–3, 37–9, 43 Charnières, Charles-François de and Russia, 111, 116, 117–18, (1740–80), 163, 164, 169, 170, 119–22, 126–7 171, 183, 187 and Sweden, 89–90, 92, 95–6 see also mégamètre Index 251 charts currents (ocean), 2, 4, 39, 42, 169, accuracy of, 125, 181, 193, 237 186, 227, 228, 237, 238, 240 longitude on, 32 loss of, 125 d’Alembert, Jean-Baptiste le Rond production and revision of, 7, 22–3, (1717–83), 50, 57, 58, 100, 203 34, 40, 51, 114, 126, 168–71, Dalrymple, Alexander (1737–1808), 174, 181, 211–13, 229–31, 211, 212–14, 229, 230, 234, 241 235–6, 241 Davis quadrant (backstaff), 113, 174 purchase and supply of, 36, 39, 114, dead reckoning, 116, 134, 169, 173 230, 235 description of, 2, 206 use of, 4, 5, 7, 34, 38, 114, 122, 206, use of, 3–4, 8, 9, 122–3, 181, 182, 209, 224, 229–30, 238 186, 189, 203, 208–15 passim, see also cartography; meridians; 227–8, 235–9 passim surveying see also compass; longitude; Chatham (ship), 212 navigation; speed, China, 118, 120, 213, 214, 215, measurement of 238, 240 declination chronometer, see timekeeper method; magnetic, see magnetic variation timekeepers solar, 53, 55, 167 Churchman, John (1753–1805), Delambre, Jean-Baptiste Joseph (1749– 119 1822), 26, 38–9, 72 circle (instrument), see Borda circle; Delisle, Joseph-Nicolas (1688–1768), Mayer, Tobias, reflecting circle 55, 58, 113 Clairaut, Alexis-Claude (1713–65), d’Entrecasteaux, Antoine Bruni 49–50, 51, 56–9, 60, 160, (1737–93), 184, 186–8, 190, 203 192, 193 Clarke, Alexander Ross (1828–1914), depth (ocean), see sounding 148–50 Descubierta (ship), 22–3 Commissioners of Longitude, see Diana (ship), 118, 120 Board of Longitude Discovery (ship), 212 compass (magnetic), 53, 112, 114, Dixon, Jeremiah (1733–79), 139, 142 121–3, 138, 164, 173, 208, 209, dockyards, 18–19, 89, 96, 101–4, 211, 227, 228, 235, 239 117–18 azimuth, 20, 42, 121, 122, 169 Plymouth, 102–4 computers, 56, 68 Portsmouth, 103–4, 117 Connaissance des temps Dollond (firm) content of, 25, 54–6, 58–9, 169 instruments by, 18, 97, 121 production of, 52, 66, 69, 140, Dollond, John (1707–61), 90, 96 188 Dumont d’Urville, Jules Sébastien use of, 23, 53, 60, 183, 186–7 César (1790–1842), 189, 190, Cook, James (1728–79), 117, 206 192 observations by, 125, 186 Dunn, Samuel (1723–94), 207, 208, reputation of, 118, 119, 125–6, 186 234 voyages of, 8, 118, 119, 125–6, 202 Dutch East India Company (VOC), 33, third, 118 38, 39–40, 41, 43 Coquille (ship), 190, 191, 193 see also East India Company Courtanvaux, François César Le (British) Tellier, marquis de (1718–81), Dutch Republic, 33, 40, 43 162, 163–5, 164 see also Netherlands 252 Index

Earth Fleurieu, Charles-Pierre Claret, comte shape of, 7, 16–17, 18, 48, 49, de (1738–1810), 20, 163, 122, 135–6, 143, 147, 149–51, 168–71, 182, 184–9 passim 191, 208 Flore (ship), 20, 159, 163, 171–5 East India Company (British), 8–9, 96, Florijn, Jacob (1751–1818), 34, 35–6, 120, 202–3 39, 40 Committee of Shipping, 232–5 France, 3, 5–6, 13, 15, 22, 47–60, Hydrographers to, see Dalrymple, 65–79, 100, 120, 134, 144, Alexander; Horsburgh, James 159–75, 180–94 observatories, 230–2 and Britain, 48, 59, 69, 74, 100, promotion of longitude methods, 161–2, 166, 168, 188 115, 212, 214, 230, 234–6, 241 French metrology, 6, 66, 71, 77, surveys, 238–40 136–7, 140–9, 150–1, 180 use of longitude methods, 8–9, 206, navy, 48, 53, 54, 69, 72, 159–61 209–10, 211–15, 223–41 passim, 169, 171, 175, 183, see also Dutch East India Company 193–4 eclipses and Netherlands, 33, 35, 37–9, solar and lunar, 14, 20, 58, 71, 43 174, 227 periods 180 see also Jupiter’s satellites, method Napoleonic, 147, 189 education, see training Old Regime, 43, 181–5 Ellicott, John (1702/3–72), 18, Restoration, 190–4 99–101 Revolutionary, 6, 25, 65, 66, 69, England, see Britain 185–90 English Channel, 136, 139, 140–2, Third Republic, 66 141, 147–8, 149 and Spain, 25, 26–7 Enjouée (ship), 159, 163, 165–8 see also Académie des sciences; Entrecasteaux, Antoine Bruni d’, see Bureau des longitudes; d’Entrecasteaux, Antoine Bruni Greenwich-Paris triangulation; ephemerides, 51, 53, 55, 56–60, 68, Ministère de la Guerre; 69, 71 Ministère de la Marine; nautical espionage, scientific and industrial, almanacs; Observatoire de Paris; 18–19, 90, 94, 104 Paris; ships Euler, Leonhard (1707–83), 100, 113, Franklin, Benjamin (1706–90), 100 115–16, 118, 203 Fraunhofer, Joseph von (1787–1826), lunar theory of, 57, 58, 59, 115 73–4 expertise, 7, 16, 48–50, 68–72, 77, 98, Freycinet, Louis Claude de Saulces de 111, 113, 117, 119–21, 125–7, (1779–1841), 72, 190, 191, 193 168, 175 Galilei, Galileo (1564–1642), 2, 47, 48 Favorite (ship), 190, 192, 193 geodesy, 6, 52, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, Faye, Hervé (1814–1902), 68, 71, 72, 74, 77–9, 134–52 78–9 in Lapland, 16, 48, 137, 143 Ferrner, Bengt (1724–1802), 6, 89–105, in Scotland, 144–5, 146 91 in South America, 16, 18, 137, 143 figure of the Earth, see Earth Géographe (ship), 189 Flamsteed, John (1646–1719), 134, glass (optical), 73, 74, 97 136, 151 Golovnin, Vasilii Mikhailovich lunar theory of, 203–4 (1776–1831), 118, 120 Index 253

Graham, George (1673–1751), 102, Humboldt, Alexander von (1769– 138, 210 1859), 23, 190 Great Northern War (1700–21), 91, Huygens, Christiaan (1629–95), 111 2, 159 Greenwich, 13–14, 28 meridian of, 5, 32–3, 34, 37, 56, Imperial Academy of Sciences, 135, 140, 183, 211 St Petersburg, 113, 115, 118, Observatory, see Royal Observatory, 121, 126 Greenwich imperial system (measurement), 7, Park, 102 135, 138, 143 Greenwich-Paris triangulation, 7, India, 69, 120, 135, 202, 213, 227, 135–6, 150–1 230–2, 236, 237–8, 240 first, 139–43, 141 see also East India Company second, 147–9 Indian Ocean, 238, 240 Grégoire, abbé Henri Jean-Baptiste Irwin, Christopher (dates unknown), 6 (1750–1831), 38, 69, 74, 188 marine chair of, 6, 97–8, 116 Gunter scale, 206, 207, 209 Isis (ship), 159, 168–71, 173, 175

Hadley quadrant (octant), 3 Jeaurat, Edme-Sébastien (1725–1803), manufacture of, 37, 42, 209–10 56, 58–9 purchase of, 22, 36, 42 Jesuits, 13, 16, 21, 22, 50, 53, 55 use of, 34, 39, 51, 159, 164, 170, Juan, Jorge (1713–73), 16, 18–19, 19, 172–4, 183, 206, 208–10, 21, 22, 25 212–16 passim, 225–6, 233 Jupiter’s satellites Halley, Edmond (1656–1742) method (longitude), 2–3, 47, 90, lunar distance method of, 50–1, 52, 102, 174 59, 203, 208 use of at sea, 21, 23, 174, 183, 231 and magnetic variation, 114 use of on land, 48, 100, 102, 187, Harrison, John (1693–1776), 1, 6, 98, 230, 231, 239 111, 116, 181, 203, 223 see also Galilei, Galileo; Irwin, and the French, 8, 49, 161–2, 183–4 Christopher; marine chair; historical narratives about, 1, 20, navigation 111, 181, 223 marine timekeepers by, 98, 227 Kamchatka, 112, 114, 118, 123, 125 ‘H1’, 3 Karlskrona, 92–3, 103 ‘H3’, 19 Kater, Henry (1777–1835), 144–6, 146 ‘H4’, 3, 8, 49, 98, 116, 174, 180 Kerguelen-Trémarec, Yves-Joseph de trials of, 3, 90, 103, 117, 161–2, (1734–97), 171, 183–4 163, 164, 173 Keulen, Gerard Hulst van (1733– Herschel, William (1738–1822), 27, 74 1801), 34, 37–8 Hooke, Robert (1635–1703), 2 see also Van Keulen (firm) Horsburgh, James (1762–1836), 214, King George (ship), 212 229, 239, 241 Klingenstierna, Samuel (1698–1765), Hoste, Paul (1652–1800), 53, 55 92, 96–7, 100–1, 102 hourglass, see sandglass Knowles, Charles (d. 1777), 117–18 Howse, Derek (1919–88), 201, 205–6, Kotzebue, Otto von (1787–1846), 118, 216 125–6 Huddart, Joseph (1741–1816), 213, Krusenstern, Adam Johann von 215, 237–9 (1770–1846), 118–24, 127 254 Index

Lacaille, Nicolas-Louis de (1713–62), see also Board of Longitude; Royal 47, 49–55, 58–60, 160, 169, 203 Society of London Laccadives (Lakshadweep), 237, 239 longitude La Hire, Philippe de (1640–1718), 22, methods of finding at sea, 3–4, 48 90, see also dead reckoning; Lalande, Joseph Jérôme Lefrançois de Jupiter’s satellites, method; (1732–1807), 38, 50, 52, 53–60 lunar distance method; passim, 72, 74, 161, 169, 172, magnetic variation; navigation; 183 timekeeper method La Pérouse, Jean-François de Galaup, Longitude Act (Britain), see Board of comte de (1741–88), 175, Longitude 184–5, 186, 187 Longitude Committee (Netherlands), Laplace, Cyrille Pierre Théodore 5, 32–43 (1793–1875), 190, 192, 193 foundation of, 33–4 Laplace, Pierre-Simon de (1749–1827), longitude rewards, 2–3, 92 38, 59, 72, 74 British, see Board of Longitude latitude, 15, 134, 135, 137, 139, 143, Dutch, 2, 47 151, 167 French, 48, 160, 184, see also Bureau measurement of, 18, 38, 40, 49, 113, des longitudes; Meslay Prize 119, 122, 126, 135, 171 Spanish, 2 see also Davis quadrant; dead López, Tomas (1730–1802), 17–18, reckoning; Hadley quadrant; 22, 29 navigation Löwenstern, Hermann Ludwig von lead and line, see sounding (1771–1836), 120–1, 123–5 Le Monnier, Pierre-Charles (1715–99), lunar distance method (longitude), 3, 49–50, 51, 52, 55, 59, 162, 163 36, 39, 160, 201–3, 205–6, 223 Le Roy, Julien (1686–1759), 160, 162 development of, 5, 25–6, 47–60, Le Roy, Pierre (1717–85), 3, 8, 159, 116, 174, 187–8 161–3 examination of proficiency in, 41, marine timekeepers by, 162, 172 232–3 sea trials of, 163–8, 171–4 ‘golden age’ of, 8, 201, 214–15 Le Verrier, Urbain (1811–77), 67–8, teaching of, 34–6, 40, 207–8, 216, 72, 77–9 233, 235 Lisianskii, Yuri (1773–1837), 118–21, use of, 8, see also Borda circle; 124–5 Hadley quadrant; sextant Litke, Feodor Petrovich (1797–1882), British, 206–16, 226, 227–8, 118, 120, 122–4, 126 234–8, 239 log and line, see speed, measurement Dutch, 39–40 of French, 50–2, 169, 173, 182–3, London, 6–7, 9, 13, 17, 227, 229 184–94 passim Europeans living in, 18–19, 22, 25, Russian, 121 26–7, 95–6, 105, 161, 162 Spanish, 20, 21 Europeans visiting, 6, 38, 89–91, 92, see also Connaissance des temps; 95–105, 119, 120 Nautical Almanac; navigation pendulum length in (gravimetric lunar theory, 3, 14, 57–8, 115, 203–5 observations), 143–5 see also Euler, Leonhard; Flamsteed, scientific instrument trade, 18, 38, John; Halley, Edmond; Mayer, 42, 96–9, 102, 120–1, 184 Tobias; Newton, Isaac Tower of London, 139 Index 255

Madagascar, 237 Méchain, Pierre (1744–1804), 38, 56, Madras, 214–15, 230–2, 238, 240 72 Observatory, 230–2, 240 mégamètre, 163–5, 169, 170–3 passim, magnetic variation (declination) 183, 187 observations of, 114, 118–19, 191, see also Charnières, Charles-François 194, 214 de use for navigation, 4, 90, 92, 114, Mendoza y Ríos, José de (1761–1816), 119, 169, 173–4, 194 25–6, 27 Malacca, Straits of, 213, 238 meridians, 13–14, 15–17, 187, 207–8, Malaspina, Alejandro (1754–1810), 22, 230, 238, 239, 240 23, 24, 24, 25, 26 prime meridians, 5, 13–14, 18, 23, Maldives, 237, 239 34 Mannevillette, Jean-Baptiste d’Après Cape Verde, 13, 16, 34 de (1707–80), 51, 160, 170 Lizard, 207, 211 Marchand, Étienne (1755–93), 182, London, 13, 17, 113 185–6 Tenerife, 13, 32, 34 marine chair Toledo, 15 by Fyot, 172 see also Cádiz, meridian of; by Irwin, 6, 97–8, 116 Greenwich, meridian of; Paris, by Lomonosov, 116 meridian of see also Galilei, Galileo; Jupiter’s Meslay Prize, 3, 8, 48, 160, 162–7, satellites 172–3, 174 Maskelyne, Nevil (1732–1811), 25, metric system, 7, 25, 69, 71–2, 135, 101, 115, 116, 139, 161, 203 137, 143 as Astronomer Royal, 14, 69 see also standards and the French, 48, 52–6, 59–60, Ministère de la Guerre (France), 67, 169, 173 70, 148, 161 and marine timekeepers, 162, 173 Ministère de la Marine (France), 8, 48, and the Nautical Almanac, 55–6, 69, 49, 50, 55–6, 67, 70, 78, 161–2, 169, 187, 205–6, 208, 233 163, 165–6, 168–73 passim as ‘villain’, 181, 223 Moller (ship), 118 voyage to St Helena (1761), 53, 169 Moore, John Hamilton (1738–1807), Mason, Charles (1728–86), 102, 121, 39 139, 142 Practical Navigator, 207, 208, 234 mathematics Morin, Jean-Baptiste (1583–1656), teaching of, 104, 115 47–8, 50–1, 59 utility of, 8–9, 115, 201–16 passim Mozambique, 213 Maupertuis, Pierre-Louis Moreau de Channel, 237–8 (1698–1759), 16, 49, 51 May, William Edward (1899–1989), Nadezhda (ship), 118, 120–1 208, 210, 211, 223, 225 Nairne, Edward (1726–1806), 18, Mayer, Tobias (1723–62), 3, 18, 56–9, 89 205 Napoleonic Wars (1800–15), 5, 26–7, lunar tables by, 60, 115, 116, 121 37–43 passim, 190 repeating circle, 174, 187 national identity, 5–7, 14, 20, 91, Mazarredo, José de (1745–1812), 21, 95–6, 98, 100–1, 103–4, 105 23, 25 National Maritime Museum, McCluer, John (1759?–95), 213, 223, Greenwich, 4, 209, 210 228, 239 Naturaliste (ship), 189 256 Index

Nautical Almanac, 5, 59, 69, 78, 115, Observatoire de Paris, 7, 76, 140, 144, 119, 201 193 content of, 60, 140, 169 and the Bureau des longitudes, use of, 21, 23, 34–5, 37, 173, 183, 66–8, 69–71 passim, 77, 78, 147, 187, 205–6, 207–9, 212, 215–16, 188 229, 233 clock trials at, 184, 193 nautical almanacs, 47, 52, 56, 59–60 foundation of, 2 British, see Nautical Almanac see also Greenwich-Paris Dutch, 32, 34–6, 39–40, 42 triangulation; Paris, meridian of French, 52, 55, see also Connaissance observatories, 4, 6, 7, 48, 72, 74, 77–8, des temps 89, 90, 99, 101, 134, 188, 223, Portuguese, 21, 55 224, 229, 230–2, 240 Russian, 119 temporary observatories, 7, 23–4, Spanish, 23 24, 125, 226 see also tables time checks at, 42, 167 170, 193, Naval Academy, St Petersburg, 113 227 navigation see also Bombay Observatory; complementarity of methods, 1, 3, Madras Observatory; 7, 8–9, 111, 122–3, 126, 172, Observatoire de Paris; Oxford; 181, 184, 185, 186, 190, 191, Real Observatorio, Cádiz; Royal 192–3, 203, 213, 226, 228–9, Observatory, Bogenhausen; 235–6 Royal Observatory, Greenwich; linked to national power and Stockholm; Uppsala prestige, 5, 6, 25, 33, 36, 48, 55, octant, see Hadley quadrant 68–9, 92–3, 105, 112, 117, 122, optics, 97, 202 126, 180, 188, 194, 202 Ordnance Survey (Britain), 138, see also dead reckoning; Jupiter’s 144–5, 147–9 satellites, method; latitude; Orléans, Philippe II, duc d’ (1674– longitude; lunar distance 1723), 47, 160 method; magnetic variation; Oxford, 99–100 timekeeper method; training Radcliffe Observatory, 99 Netherlands, 5, 6, 40, 33–43 Savilian professors, 90 and Britain, 32–3, 37–9, 43 University of, 90, 102 and France, 33, 35, 37–9, 43 navy, 32, 34, 35–43 passim Pacific Ocean, 8, 14, 16, 20, 22, 120, see also Admiralty; Dutch Republic; 125–6, 180–94, 212 Longitude Committee; nautical Paris, 9, 17, 18, 25, 38, 51, 58, 67, 78, almanacs 139, 142, 143, 145, 148, 162, Neva (ship), 118, 120 168, 191 Newfoundland, 39, 166, 168, meridian of, 13, 17, 25, 32, 37, 56, 170, 172 135, 137, 140, 144, 163, 183 Newton, Isaac (1643–1727), 74, 201 Treaty of, 161, 166, 180 advice to parliament on longitude, 2 see also Académie des sciences; lunar theory of, 3, 57, 202, 203–4, Bureau des longitudes; 208, 216 Greenwich-Paris triangulation; Principia Mathematica, 3, 204 Observatoire de Paris Newtonianism, 16, 17, 48, 50, 92, pendulum, 18, 22, 122, 143–5, 159, 136–7, 143, 152 160, 164, 167, 169, 172, 185, 193 New Zealand, 193, 212 see also London, pendulum length in Index 257

Pennington, Robert (1752–c. 1813), Royal Admiral (ship), 215, 237, 239 120–1 (Royal) Astronomical Society, 138 Peter I, Tsar (1672–1725), 111–12 Royal Mathematical School at Christ’s Philosophical Transactions, see Royal Hospital, 103, 113, 202, 232, Society 233, 235 Picard, Jean (1620–82), 22, 48 Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, pilots, 14, 40, 120, 124, 125 101, 104, 121 Pingré, Alexandre-Guy (1711–96), 20, Royal Naval Academy, Portsmouth, 47, 51, 52, 58, 59, 160, 164–5, 103, 216, 233 169, 171–4 passim Royal Navy (Britain), 90, 103, 117–21, Portsmouth, 102–4, 117, 122, 124, 144, 214 216, 233 and longitude methods, 206, 207, see also dockyards 209, 211–12, 215, 225, 231, Portugal, 14–18, 21–2, 54–5 233–4 and Spain, 15–16 Royal Observatory, Bogenhausen, 74 Praslin, César-Gabriel de Choiseul, Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 7, 13, duc de (1712–85), 50, 161, 162, 18, 19, 101–2, 104, 140, 144–7 165, 168, 169, 172 passim, 203 precision, 2, 3, 50, 123, 134–8, 142, foundation of, 2, 202 143, 147–9, 151, 160, 166, 173, timekeeper trials at, 122, 162, 173 181, 185, 192, 193, 205, 209, see also Astronomer Royal; 210, 213, 214, 226, 228, 236, Greenwich; Greenwich-Paris 237, 238 triangulation prime meridians, see meridians Royal Society of London, 73, 97, 99, 138 quadrant, see astronomical quadrant; Fellows of, 19, 25, 95, 99, 214 Davis quadrant; Hadley and longitude, 3, 114, 202 quadrant and metrology, 139, 140, 142, 144, 150 Ramsden, Jesse (1735–1800), 23, 38, Philosophical Transactions, 25, 26, 74, 170, 210 39, 50, 53, 99, 141 Real Observatorio, Cádiz, 5, 14, 18, Presidents of, 90, 99, 205 19, 23, 27 Royal Society Club, 100 reflecting circle, 26, 121 Rurik (ship), 118 see also Borda circle; Mayer, Tobias, Russia, 7, 8, 92, 111–27, 135, 147, repeating circle 149, 150 refraction, 47, 51, 60, 203 and Britain, 111, 116, 117–18, Republic of Letters, 6, 90, 94, 104, 105 119–22, 126–7 Rio de Janeiro, 20, 51 see also Imperial Academy of Robertson, John (1707–76), 103–4, Sciences, St Petersburg; Naval 207–8, 234 Academy, St Petersburg; School Rochon, abbé Alexis-Marie de (1741– of Navigation, Moscow; ships 1817), 54, 59, 74, 163, 169, 170, 171–2 Sabine, Edward (1788–1883), 79, 122, Rossel, Élisabeth Paul de (1765–1829), 145 187, 188, 192 Saint-Domingue, 39, 170, 172 Roy, William (1726–90), 140–2, 141 sandglass, 123, 160, 169, 186, 207, 208 Royal Academy of Sciences of Sweden, School of Navigation, Moscow, 95 112–13 258 Index

Schubert, Friedrich Theodor (1758– lead and line, 227, 228, 229, 237 1825), 119, 121 sounding machine by Massey, 121 science as spectacle, 89, 92, 96–9, Spain, 2, 6, 13–28, 39, 144 101–2 and France, 25, 26–7 Scotland, 39, 98, 102, 144, 146 navy, 21, 22, 23, 25 secrecy, 6, 19, 56, 73, 74, 75 and Portugal, 15–16 Seniavin (ship), 118, 120, 122 see also Cádiz; ships Seven Years’ War (1756–63), 20, 69, Spalding, Abraham (1712–82), 95–8, 90, 102, 161, 166, 174, 180 102 sextant, 3 speed, measurement of manufacture of, 42, 119, 209–10 log and line, 123, 124, 173, 207–9, purchase of, 36, 37–8, 42, 120–1 211, 227, 228, 235 use of, 23, 34–42 passim, 119–21 speed log passim, 159, 172, 173–4, 183, by Bouguer, 169 188, 206, 208–10, 212–16 by Foxon, 209 passim, 225–6 by Le Valois, 166–8 shipbuilding, 92, 104, 115, 117–18, by Massey, 121 121, 225 see also dead reckoning see also dockyards standards (metrological) ships battle of the, 135–6, 147, 150 British, see Chatham; Discovery; King length, 7, 135–9, 143–5, 149–52 George; Royal Admiral; Swallow weights and measures, 23, 38, 138, French, see Astrolabe; Aurore; 139, 144 Coquille; Enjouée; Favorite; Flore; Strömer, Mårtin (1707–70), 92–3, Géographe; Isis; Naturaliste; 102 Solide; Thétis; Uranie; Vénus Sully, Henry (1680–1729), 2, 160 Russian, see Diana; Moller; Nadezhda; surveying, 7, 9, 22, 73, 118, 119, Neva; Rurik; Seniavin 134–52 passim, 169, 174, 210, Spanish, see Buen Consejo; 213, 214, 224, 226, 229–32, Descubierta; Atrevida 238–40 ships’ logs and journals, 8, 9, 33, 35, triangulation, 7, 16, 134–5, 140–52, 36, 39, 123, 125, 194, 205, 206, 141, 230 211–15, 224, 225, 229, 233, see also cartography; charts; 235, 237, 238 geodesy; Greenwich-Paris shipwrecks and ship losses, 49, 102, triangulation; Ordnance Survey 125, 134, 230, 237, 239 Swallow (ship), 213, 215 shipyards, see dockyards Sweden, 48, 91–4, 102, 105, 111, Short, James (1710–68), 18, 96–7, 161 120 Simpson, Thomas (1710–61), 100–1, and Britain, 89–90, 92, 95–6 104 navy, 92, 94 Sisson, Jeremiah (1720–83), 97–8, 210 Stockholm, 94, 97 Sisson, Jonathan (1690? –1747), 101 Observatory, 101 Sobel, Dava (b. 1947), 14, 203, 223 Swedenborg, Emanuel (1688–1772), Society for the Improvement of Naval 92 Architecture, 115 Swedish Academy of Sciences, 95, 99, Society of Antiquaries, 95 101 Solide (ship), 186 Swedish church, Wapping, 95 sounding (depth), 125, 211, 227, 228, Swinden, Jan Hendrik van 229, 237 (1746–1823), 33, 34, 38–9 Index 259 tables (mathematical and Marinas, Cádiz; Académie de astronomical), 7, 47–60 passim marine, Brest; Naval Academy, calculation and production of, St Petersburg; Royal Naval 7, 21, 23, 25–6, 35, 38–9, 42, Academy, Portsmouth 47–60 passim, 140, see also navigational, 7, 21–2, 34–6, 40–2, computers 52, 54, 92–3, 112–13, 117–19, lunar, 21, 32, 34, 49–60 passim, 102, 120, 126, 207–8, 232–5, 241 115–16, 121, 183, 186, 205 examination and certification, 3, 9, solar, 38, 51, 167 35–6, 40–2, 216, 232–5, 241 Tables Requisite, 205, 208 triangulation, see surveying use of, 35, 36, 38, 52–4, 114, 140, Tronjoly, Jean-Baptiste Lollivier de 171, 183–4, 188, 192, 224, 226, (dates unknown), 166, 168 228 Troughton, Edward (1753–1835), 121, see also Connaissance des temps; 188, 210 Nautical Almanac; nautical trust almanacs in individuals, 7, 56, 97, 111–13, Tahiti, 125, 192 124–6, 136, 143, 147, 149, 151 telegraph, electric, 147, 151 in instruments, 7, 9, 36, 111–12, telescope, 18, 22, 73–4, 96, 119, 121, 123, 125, 136, 139, 143, 185, 163, 164, 169–73, 187 227–9, 236 reflecting, 18–19, 27, 97 in methods, 4, 8–9, 125, 136, 143 transit, 121, 164, 172 Thétis (ship), 190, 191 Ulloa, Antonio de, 16–19, 19 timekeeper method (longitude), 1, Uppsala 2–3, 8–9, 36–7, 47, 49, 50, 90, Observatory, 97, 101–2 111, 114, 116, 160, 181, 184, University of, 92 201, 208–9, 211, 223–9, 238 Uranie (ship), 190, 193 see also navigation timekeepers Vancouver, George (1757–98), 23, 212 checking and rating, 3, 9, 37, 40, Van Keulen (firm), 37, 39, 41, 42 42, 123, 163–8, 170, 172–3, see also Keulen, Gerard Hulst van 181, 182, 184–5, 187, 190–3, Vénus (ship), 190, 192 226–8, 230–1, 236, 238, 240–1 Verdun de la Crenne, Jean-René de maintenance and repair of, 27, 42, (1741–1805), 20, 172–3 165, 172, 184 Véron, Pierre-Antoine (1736–70), manufacture of, 37, 72, 119, 223, see 181–3 also under individual makers VOC, see Dutch East India Company use of, 20, 23, 35, 37, 42, 120–6 passim, 144, 182–94 passim, Wales, William (1734–98), 234 212–16, 230–1, 233–6, 239 Wargentin, Pehr Wilhelm (1717–83), see also astronomical clock; 96, 99, 102 sandglass; timekeeper method Warren, John (1769–1830), 231 time signal, 71, 170, 173, 227 Whiston, William (1667–1752), 4, toise, see standards 203 training, 55, 119 wrecks, see shipwrecks naval schools and academies, 21–3, 33–6, 92–4, 103–4, see yard (imperial measure), see standards also Academia de Guardias