Understanding the Intersection of Spirituality and Service Engagement Among Undergraduates from a Reasoned Action Approach

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Understanding the Intersection of Spirituality and Service Engagement Among Undergraduates From a Reasoned Action Approach

Curtis Lehmann

Abstract Service engagement is critical to many higher education institutions. Past research has looked at spiritual change as a result of service engagement, but few studies have looked at how spirituality might contribute to engagement in service projects, particularly from a reasoned action approach. This quantitative study looked at God concept and religious motivation as predictors of intention to serve with two particular projects being offered at a faith-based university, an inner- city experience and a tutoring service. Participants were 305 ethnically diverse undergraduates. Data were analyzed using multiple regressions. The spirituality variables were associated with attitudes, social norms, and moral evaluations toward both service projects, as hypothesized. However, the spirituality variables were not significantly related with intention to serve for either service project. The findings suggest that spirituality may shape beliefs about service projects but may have little effect on intention to engage in service projects, at least in certain cases. Keywords: service projects, community engagement, attitudes, religion, spirituality

tudent engagement in prosocial To introduce the significance of service for service has emerged as an es- higher education, a review of the service- sential feature of the university learning literature is provided to elaborate experience. Many universities have the context of the current study. Although indicated that developing civic- this study examined intention to engage in Sminded students is part of their mission service projects required at the university, (Jongbloed, Enders, & Salerno, 2008). not service-learning within a classroom Community service projects have even setting, this review may help the reader un- become embedded within the classroom derstand the purpose of engaging students setting in a phenomenon known as ser- in service. vice-learning, which has been studied extensively with well-known positive out- University-Based Service-Learning comes (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011; Conway, Amel, & Gerwien, 2009; Yorio & Service-learning has emerged as an effective means of connecting course Ye, 2012). Alternatively, service engagement material with real-world experiences in can be organized outside the classroom with higher education. Unlike typical community university-level policies, such as a service service volunteering, service-learning proj- hour requirement, that uphold service projects are part of a college course’s curriculum ect participation as a prerequisite for gradu- and learning objectives (Zlotkowski, 1998). ation. The current study is an investigation Service-learning provides reciprocal ben- of how spirituality may influence engage- efits for both the academic institution and ment in community service projects among for the community being served (Bringle undergraduates at a Christian university. & Hatcher, 1996). The academic institu- 21 Understanding the Intersection of Spirituality and Service Engagement Among Undergraduates

tion benefits by an improved image in the ships may actually be unidirectional, with community (Eyler, Giles, Stenson, & Gray, students serving and then “moving on” 2001) and improved student learning out- without building infrastructure for the comes across several domains (Conway et agency and the population being served al., 2009). (Brown, 2001; Cuban & Anderson, 2007). Another concern is that students may In regard to academic outcomes from ser- remain oblivious to certain types of privi- vice-learning, three meta-analyses have lege, such as race and sexual orientation, found positive impact on academic out- even if they come to appreciate their eco- comes, including GPA, academic motivation, nomic privilege (Jones & Abes, 2004). Other and cognitive development, regardless of downsides have included poor preparation whether the meta-analysis included only by the agency, scheduling difficulties, controlled outcome studies (Celio et al., and poor selection of sites (Rosing, Reed, 2011) or included less methodologically rig- Ferrari, & Bothne, 2010). orous studies (Conway et al., 2009; Yorio & Ye, 2012). An illustrative example is that of a longitudinal study by Astin, Vogelgesang, Spirituality and Service-Learning Ikeda, and Yee (2000), who found that students who participated in service-learning An additional outcome of service-learning projects had better GPAs, writing skills, to consider is the deepening of spirituality. critical thinking skills, and leadership skills Here we consider spirituality to be broadly than students who did not participate in inclusive of religious beliefs and practices, service-learning courses. ethical integrity, sense of purpose, mysti- cism, and transcendence (see Welch & Koth, Academic gains are not the only benefit 2013). Evidence on spiritual outcomes of of service-learning. Service-learning has service-learning is primarily theoretical, also been shown, in a meta-analysis, to but one quantitative study of undergraduate deepen understanding of social issues students that utilized structural equation and increase personal insight (Conway et modeling found that service activities were al., 2009; Yorio & Ye, 2012). Participation predictive of “vocational calling,” which in service-learning can foster a strongly was operationalized as a sense of purpose- prosocial identity in students. Moreover, ful and meaningful involvement (Phillips, participation can improve attitudes toward 2011). This finding indicates that service self, including positive self-esteem, can produce effects on students’ perceptions evaluation of one’s own abilities, sense of of career and work, including seeing work control, and self-efficacy (Celio et al., 2011). through a spiritual lens. Students who engage in service typically become involved with individuals from eco- Other analyses of service-learning have nomic and ethnic backgrounds other than discussed various other possible benefits their own, allowing greater exposure to that may be included as a spiritual out- diversity and building awareness of one’s come. Service-learning has been seen as own privilege (Jones & Abes, 2004). The re- an opportunity for moral growth and for lationships that formed between students appreciating the connections between civic and the community members whom they engagement and spirituality (Dalton, 2006). served gave the students a sense of personal Louie-Badua and Wolf (2008) emphasized responsibility to strive to make conditions that service-learning provides an oppor- more equitable for those people and others tunity to experience interconnectedness, a like them (Mitchell, 2015). Among alumni chance for “opening your heart,” and ex- interviewed about their participation in pansion of self-inquiry and self-knowledge. service-learning courses, some reported Service-learning projects have been per- that the experience instilled a moral obliga- ceived as good opportunities for Christian tion to serve that remained even years later students to practice acting out their beliefs (Jones & Abes, 2004). at their university, rather than merely con- templating or pondering them (Schaffer, Despite the many benefits of service- 2004). Welch and Koth (2013) argued for a learning, some researchers have pointed out metatheory of spiritual formation through potential downsides. Grusky (2000) argued service, indicating that transformation and that, without reflection and intentional transcendence can occur through encounters action, service-learning can potentially with the unknown other. Koth (2003) has reenact historical and cultural injustices. argued that failure to include spirituality in One concern is that community partner- service-learning is a missed opportunity for Vol. 23, No. 2—Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement 22 deepening contemplative practices among in outcomes, spirituality ought to be stud- students and strengthening the long-term ied further for its role in motivations for commitment to serve. service.

Of course, another important consideration regarding service-learning is how spiri- Service and the Faith-Based University tuality may impact initial engagement in Considering the possible motivating effects service. Praetorius and Machtmes (2005) of spirituality on service, as well as the found in a qualitative study that spirituality academic, institutional, altruistic, and spir- was an important motivator for volunteers itual outcomes of service-learning, it is not at a 24-hour crisis hotline. Volunteers in surprising that service-learning programs that study noted their desire to “give back,” would be instituted at faith-based univer- to achieve a new perspective of the per- sities. The research literature includes a ceived challenges and difficulties in one’s number of theoretical arguments on the rel- own life, and to recognize the intercon- evance of service-learning for faith-based nectedness among us all as part of social institutions (Hesser, 2003; Radecke, 2007; fabric. Hunsberger and Platonow (1986) Schaffer, 2004). However, it is important similarly found that volunteering was more to note that students’ spirituality can vary likely among those with intrinsic religious considerably, even at a faith-based univer- motivation than those with extrinsic mo- sity, in a manner that might affect student tivations. perceptions of service projects.

Spirituality also is relevant for the oppor- Rather than focusing on the effects of en- tunity for engagement in service-learning, gaging in service on spirituality, this study as the faith beliefs of faculty have been looks specifically at spirituality as an in- shown to be related to the decision to initi- fluence on intentions to engage in specific ate a service-learning component to courses service projects at a Christian university. (Helm-Stevens et al., 2015). Moreover, dif- Although service at this institution is a fering characteristics of the spirituality of requirement for graduation, students still participants may in turn impact the effec- have choice in the projects they participate tiveness of service-learning (Park, Helm, in. Therefore, understanding the factors Kipley, & Hancock, 2009). shaping which projects are pursued may be important in setting appropriate faith out- At the same time, the notion of spirituality comes. The current study explores the re- being a motive for service bears a potential lations between an individual’s spirituality risk of seeing the community from a deficit and their intentions to engage in a service perspective, lacking in spirituality or faith, project at a university setting. that might reinforce structures of privilege. Volunteer service projects in general can po- To properly understand this project, find- tentially engender the belief that problems ings on the relationship between spiritu- being faced require only individual, rather ality and prosocial behavior will first be than sociopolitical, responses (Brown, reviewed, focusing on specific constructs 2001). This lack of systemic understand- within spirituality that might underlie these ing can also be present when motivated by relationships. Following that, the theoreti- spirituality. Approaching service-learning cal lens being used in this study to explain as an exercise in spirituality or as a means these relations with service projects is re- of evangelism can exacerbate this misun- viewed. The primary backdrop of this study derstanding, perhaps even leading personal is a Judeo-Christian religious understanding spirituality to be seen as the antidote to all of God and religion, but the aim has been to of life’s problems. A faith-based institution identify constructs that may apply to other that emphasizes social justice may mini- religious traditions. mize some of these problems through mis- sional emphasis (Cuban & Anderson, 2007), but individual volunteers may nonetheless Spirituality and Relation to Prosocial hold spiritual commitments that do not ac- Behavior knowledge systemic injustice. Many social, cultural, cognitive, and devel- Spirituality as a motivator for service could opmental factors contribute to determining thus facilitate positive engagement or prosocial behaviors, but spirituality would perhaps lead to reinforcement of systemic seem to be particularly relevant. Although injustice. Given this potentially critical role some have argued that there is no necessary 23 Understanding the Intersection of Spirituality and Service Engagement Among Undergraduates

causal effect of religion on morality and that that priming concepts related to religion morality is a concept in and of itself without increased generosity in an anonymous the obligations and beliefs of a specific kind dictator game. Similarly, Pichon, Bocatto, of religion (McKay & Whitehouse, 2015), and Saraglou (2007) found that prosocial the relationship between spirituality and behaviors were more likely when positive morality remains of interest to research- religious words had previously been sub- ers and the general public alike. Examining consciously primed. These authors found the broader relationship between spiritual- that religious concepts by themselves can ity and various types of prosocial behavior unconsciously activate prosocial behav- could provide a better understanding of the ioral schemas. Although not focusing on relationship between spirituality and service prosocial behaviors, Randolph-Seng and projects. Nielsen (2007) found that cheating was less likely when participants were primed Empirical studies on the relationship be- with religious words. Fishbach, Friedman, tween spirituality and prosocial behavior and Kruglanski (2003) found that priming have found a modest but robust relation- participants with a temptation, or a desired ship (for a review see Saraglou, 2013). behavioral action, not only influenced the Ruiter and DeGraaf (2006) found that activation of overriding religious goals but religious attendance was associated with also affected goal-congruent behavioral greater volunteering with both religious choices in line with the religious goals. and nonreligious organizations. In a literature review, individual religiosity, as well as parental religiosity, was found to Multidimensional Approaches to be associated with increased religious and Relations Between Spirituality and secular philanthropy (Bekkers & Wiepking, Prosocial Behavior 2011). Faith maturity has been found to Researchers studying spirituality have long add unique predictive variance toward recognized the need to study constructs prosocial behavior above and beyond per- related to spirituality multidimensionally sonality self-ratings (Ciarrocchi, Piedmont, (e.g., Hill & Pargament, 2003; Hood, Hill, & & Williams, 2003). Developmentally, reli- Spilka, 2009). The dimensions of spiritual- gion plays a role in initial volunteering, ity have included closeness to God, religious which was associated with later volunteer- motivations, and religious support (Fiala, ing with both religious and nonreligious Bjorck, & Gorsuch, 2002; Hill & Pargament, institutions (Johnston, 2013). The results 2003), as well as God concept, religious of that study also indicated that increased coping, locus of control, and spiritual well- religious belief and attendance resulted in being (Wong-McDonald & Gorsuch, 2004), a greater likelihood of engagement in reli- among many others. gious institution volunteerism. God concept. One facet of spirituality that The motivational dimension of religion may relate to prosocial behaviors is God might affect internalization of values, as concept. Morewedge and Clear (2008) Hardy and Carlo (2005) found that pro- found that anthropomorphic God concepts, social values mediated the relationship whereby a person perceives God as having between religion and prosocial behaviors. human characteristics such as being ac- Einolf (2013) found that daily spiritual ex- cepting, caring, and comforting, was related periences were a significant predictor of to the evaluation of violations of the Ten volunteering, charitable giving, and help- Commandments as being morally wrong, ing individuals one knows personally, even as well as being against their religion. The among those who did not identify with a finding suggests that beliefs about God are religious congregation. This suggests that associated with the formation of a moral spiritual motivations may be important for code by which one lives. helping behaviors among those who are not conventionally religious. Studies where concepts of God are primed have found an influence on prosocial be- Another paradigm for studying the relation- havior. In one study, participants who were ship between spirituality and morality is primed with God concepts gave more money cognitive priming. Numerous priming stud- to a stranger in an anonymous dictator ies have investigated the effects of religious game, and this was not dependent on self- priming (e.g., using words like “church” or reported religiosity (Shariff & Norenzayan, “God”) on prosocial and antisocial behav- 2007). Similar to this finding but with an iors. Shariff and Norenzayen (2007) found important distinction, Lin, Tong, Lee, Low, Vol. 23, No. 2—Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement 24 and Gomes (2016) found that priming God view see Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010). The RAA concept increased intention to engage in argues that all behaviors are most strongly prosocial behaviors, but only for those who determined by beliefs that are specifically professed to believe in God. related to each particular behavior, rather than by broad attitudes toward general Providing a theoretical interpretation of behaviors. This theory is useful precisely the past research on religious beliefs and because it narrows down the potential path- prosociality, Preston, Ritter, and Hernandez ways of influence to specific beliefs about (2010) argued that a supernatural principle the behavior. for prosocial actions based on belief in God can have a different effect on prosocial In the reasoned action approach, the spe- behavior than a religious principle that em- cific behavioral beliefs have been grouped phasizes the religious group. By following into three categories: attitudes, social the supernatural principle, the individual norms, and perceived control. Attitudes were is likely to consider engaging in virtuous defined as the evaluative beliefs regarding behaviors rather than simply protecting in- the experiential consequences of a behavior group members. Thus, beliefs in God may that were rooted in either a hypothetical or more broadly influence prosocial behavior. past response to the behavior. Social norms were defined as the interaction between Religious motivation. Another relevant the beliefs of how others perceive the in- dimension of spirituality for prosocial be- dividual’s involvement in the behavior and havior is the motivation for religious in- the individual’s motivation to comply with volvement, which can be intrinsic or extrin- those norms. Finally, perceived control was sic (Gorsuch & Venable, 1983). Hunsberger defined as an individual’s perceived level and Platonow (1986) found that intrinsic of difficulty in performing the behavior, religious motivation predicted the inten- along with their perception of control in tion to volunteer in service projects. In that performing the behavior. Attitudes, social study, Christian orthodoxy was not a signif- norms, and perceived control uniquely con- icant predictor, indicating that motivational tribute to predicting intentions to engage factors, rather than beliefs, underlay the in the behaviors (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010). relationship. Looking at religious motiva- Moreover, meta-analyses have shown that tion as a possible threat to evaluations of the intention to engage in a behavior is behaviors as moral, due to the attribution causatively linked to the actual completion of the behavior to the religious benefit the of the behavior (Sheeran, 2002; Webb & person would receive, Gervais (2014) found Sheeran, 2006). that religious motivation (e.g., asking one- self, “What would Jesus do?”) for a vignette Although the RAA has been refined over prosocial behavior was associated with de- several decades, some researchers have creased likelihood to perceive the prosocial argued for further expansion. For instance, act as moral. The findings suggest that Augustine (2009) found that moral evalua- religious motivation may relate to service tions predicted behavioral intentions, even engagement, given that it distinguishes when controlling for attitudes. One research those who participate in religion due to study that utilized this approach was con- internalized values from those who par- ducted by Ortberg, Gorsuch, and Kim (2001), ticipate for external gain. who studied the effects among a Christian congregation of two interventions targeting either attitudes or moral evaluations toward Spirituality and the Reasoned blood donation. They found that each in- Action Approach tervention influenced only the associated predictor, confirming the independence in One challenge in relating spirituality and construct validity of attitudes and moral service engagement is identifying a theo- evaluations. Given the potential relevance retical approach that can aid in the in- of moral evaluations for engagement in terpretation of findings and developing service, this study included this variable interventions for increasing enrollment. The alongside the RAA variables. current study utilized the reasoned action approach (RAA) as a theoretical framework. Although evidence supporting the theory The RAA has been supported by numerous is considerable, the aspect of the RAA that studies across various domains showing is understudied is what broader influences that it is highly predictive of both behavioral form and contribute to the beliefs that the intentions and actual behavior (for an over- RAA posits underlie behavior. These beliefs 25 Understanding the Intersection of Spirituality and Service Engagement Among Undergraduates

are likely impacted by numerous sources of sion psychology courses, where there is a influence, such as media, parental influ- requirement to complete up to 3 hours of ence, peer influence, academic culture, and, research participation or an equivalent al- finally, spirituality and religion. Although ternative. Students were granted 0.5 hours religion may have little relevance to certain of credit for participating in this study. behaviors, behaviors with a greater moral There was a total of 311 participants, though component could be expected to be influ- four were removed due to less than 50% re- enced by spirituality and religion. sponse and two others were removed due to being multivariate outliers, leaving a sample In the current project being proposed, size of 305. spirituality will be measured as God concept and religious motivation. As noted The mean age of participants was 19.1 years above, these constructs have been found to (SD = 1.78), with a large majority being relate to moral behaviors, sometimes with female (80.7%). The sample was ethni- theoretical explanations provided post hoc. cally diverse, with White (48.0%) being the By utilizing these constructs alongside the largest group but Asian Americans (21.1%), RAA variables, including moral evaluation, it Latino/as (18.4%), African Americans might be possible to clarify the relationship (4.6%), and multiple ethnicity/other (7.9%) of these variables to service engagement. being fairly well-represented. Reflecting the lower level classes from which they The significance of this project would be were recruited, most of the participants in identifying possible causal pathways were freshmen (63.6%), with sophomores that can be investigated experimentally (17.1%), juniors (14.1%), and seniors (5.2%) in the future. By identifying how specific also being represented. behavioral beliefs are related to spiritual constructs, it may be possible to conduct Procedure experiments where participants may be primed with specific spiritual constructs The study was approved as exempt status (by reading or listening to sermons, for ex- by the institutional review board prior to ample) and measure how this priming im- collection of data. Data collection occurred pacts the RAA variables and the behaviors or in two phases. In the first phase, occur- behavioral intentions to engage in service. ring in January through March 2016, 163 participants were collected and were asked questions related to service projects avail- Hypotheses able later in the semester. In the second The study hypotheses were as follows: (1) phase, 144 participants were surveyed from The reasoned action approach variables October through December about willing- would be related with intention to engage ness to participate in service projects the in service. (2) Moral evaluations would add following semester. This two-phase data unique variance in predicting intention to collection process was due to low sample engage in service, after controlling for the size during the first phase, which led to a reasoned action approach variables. (3) lack of statistical power for the study. In a Spirituality, measured as God concept and given semester at the university, there are religious motivation, would be associated approximately 450 students, so that ap- with attitudes, social norms, and moral proximately a third of all students across evaluations. (4) Spirituality, measured as two semesters participated in the study. God concept and religious motivation, would Participants were able to select the study be associated with intentions to engage in from the online Psychology Department service. Research Participation System, where they were linked to an online survey. The Method questionnaire began with an opportunity for informed consent. Participation was voluntary and all participants were offered Participants alternative methods of earning credit The participants were undergraduate stu- through their courses. Those who consented dents at a Christian faith–based university were presented with a questionnaire that in Southern California who were recruited consisted of 52 closed-ended items and from the online Psychology Department generally took less than 15 minutes to Research Participation System. Study complete. No identifying information was participants were enrolled in lower divi- collected. Vol. 23, No. 2—Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement 26

Measures at-risk children and their families The questionnaire, available online at http:// are equipped to thrive academi- bit.ly/2Xwv0cB, included the measures in the cally, socially, and spiritually. The following order: demographic, inner-city [Tutoring Project] is located at project items (i.e., attitudes, social norms, [Church] and serves K-12th-grade perceived behavioral control, moral evalu- students daily. Students commit to ations, and intentions toward inner-city serving for 10 weeks at one of the service project), tutoring project items, following time periods. . . . [Specific single-item measures of spirituality, a days of the week and times were God concept scale, and the Age-Universal provided.] Intrinsic/Extrinsic Religiousness Scale. Demographic data included the participant’s Providing details about each project allowed gender, age, ethnicity, class level, living the students to become acquainted with the situation, and total number of university service project and to form beliefs related to service units acquired so far. their intention to engage in these projects. The inner city was Los Angeles, located Intentions. The intention to engage in the about 25 miles from the university, and service project was challenging to assess, thus most students who attended did not as participants were likely to have varied have extensive familiarity with the cultural in their prior knowledge of what the ser- context. This program had been in existence vice project encompassed. For this reason, at the university since the LA riots but was participants were given a description of altered prior to the study to include three the service project, which was provided by service projects, rather than only cultural the university office responsible for service immersion, to encourage service-oriented projects. The Inner City Project was de- learning (Ender, 2016). The tutoring project scribed as follows: was located in a building about half a mile from the university. Note that it is possible, This urban immersion provides an and perhaps likely, that prior knowledge opportunity for students to embark about these projects existed (e.g., based on a four-day experiential learn- on experiences of friends) and so the re- ing trip in the heart of [Inner City]. lated behavioral beliefs may not reflect only Participants become acquainted the descriptions. The study did not assess with the social realities of di- whether the participants had any prior fa- verse communities in [Inner City], miliarity with the service project. while developing a biblical understanding of justice, compassion, The intention to engage in the project was reconciliation, and stewardship. assessed by a single item querying the Open to students of all backgrounds participant’s intent to volunteer on spe- and interests, [Inner City Project] cific dates within the upcoming semester challenges participants to think on a scale of 1 (very unlikely) to 7 (very critically about issues that affect likely). As an example, intention to serve the disenfranchised while learn- on Inner City Project was assessed, “I will ing about their involvement or volunteer with the [Inner City Project] this contribution to these problems. semester, on either March 19–22 (Saturday [Inner City Project] endeavors to to Tuesday) or April 9–12 (Saturday to encourage a more comprehensive Tuesday).” Previous research has shown understanding of the world around that intentions are strongly related to actual us, and examine the implications of behavior (Sheeran, 2002; Webb & Sheeran, the privilege or disadvantage that 2006), suggesting that intentions to engage social location provides. in service projects would be informative of actual behavior. Likewise, the Tutoring Project was de- scribed as follows (identifying information Attitudes. Attitudes were assessed with se- is excluded): mantic differential scales utilizing discrep- ant adjectives to describe the engagement in [Tutoring Project] has a long- the service project (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010). standing relationship with [the Participants rated how they felt about vol- university]. The mission . . . is to unteering for each of the service projects on establish and sustain neighborhood a scale ranging from 1 to 7 with two sets of based learning centers . . . where polar anchors: boring/fun and pleasant/un- 27 Understanding the Intersection of Spirituality and Service Engagement Among Undergraduates

pleasant. As an example, “Volunteering with found to have two distinct factors, resulting [Inner City Project] would be (Unsatisfying/ in a 7-item Christian God concept subscale Satisfying),” with unsatisfying being a 1 and and a 3-item wrathfulness subscale (Wong- satisfying being a 7. The attitude toward McDonald & Gorsuch, 2004). For this scale, each service project was then calculated as adjectives are presented with synonyms in the average of the two items, after being parentheses to help clarify the intended reverse scored as appropriate, with higher adjective (e.g., God is kind [loving and for- values indicating greater favorability. giving]; God is fierce [critical and cruel]). Each item was rated on a scale of 1 (Strongly Social norms. Social norms toward each ser- Disagree) to 7 (Strongly Agree), with certain vice project were assessed with two items items reverse scored as appropriate. that assessed the participant’s perceived norms among a group they were likely Using the data obtained from this study, an motivated to conform with (i.e., “people exploratory principal axis factor analysis close to [him/her]”). Responses were on a was conducted, and the results were con- 7-point scale with polar anchors of “inap- sistent with a two-factor structure with propriate/appropriate” and “should/should items loading on the expected factors. not.” For example, “Most people whose The Christian God concept and wrathful- opinion I value would think it is (inappro- ness scales correlated at −.16. The alpha priate/appropriate) to volunteer with [Inner reliabilities of the 7-item Christian God City Project].” The social norm toward each concept scale and the 3-item wrathfulness service project was then calculated as the scale were .87 and .69, respectively. average of these two items, after being reverse scored as appropriate, with higher Religious motivation. The study also in- values indicating more favorable social cluded the Age-Universal Intrinsic/Extrinsic norms. Religiousness Scale (Gorsuch & Mcpherson, 1989; Gorsuch & Venable, 1983), which Perceived behavioral control. The partici- used a 7-point rating scale ranging from 1 pant’s perception of their behavioral control (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) to over volunteering for the service project was measure motivations for religiousness. The assessed with two items. Responses were on scale included items such as “I go to church a 7-point scale with polar anchors of “easy/ because it helps me to make friends” and difficult” and “no time/plenty of time.” “Prayer is for peace and happiness.” In this After reverse scoring the items as appropri- study, the alpha reliability was .81 for the ate, the perceived behavioral control score 8-item intrinsic subscale, .77 for the 3-item for each service project was computed as extrinsic personal subscale, and .64 for the the average of these two items, with higher 3-item extrinsic social subscale. values indicating higher perception of control. An example item was “I think that I would have (No Time/Plenty of Time) to Results volunteer with [Inner City Project].” In order to ensure generalizable results, re- Moral evaluations. Moral evaluations sponses were tested for multivariate outliers were determined with two items, scored using the full set of variables and robust on a 7-point scale, that had polar an- estimates of center and dispersion. Two chors of “moral/immoral” and “no good outliers were removed due to Mahalanobis young people should do/all good young distance scores greater than 10. Removal of people should do.” One such item read, these two participants left a sample of 305 “Volunteering with [Inner City Project] is participants. (moral/immoral).” For each service project, a moral evaluations score was calculated Descriptive statistics of the study variables as the average of the two items, with the were computed and are presented in Table moral/immoral item being reverse scored. 1. Mean scores on the intent variables indi- Higher scores on this scale thus indicated cate that participants tended to be neutral higher perception of the morality of the or undecided in regard to their intent to action. volunteer for both service projects, with an overall trend toward being slightly unlikely God concept. This study utilized a 10-item to participate. Mean scores on measures of God concept scale (Wong-McDonald & attitudes, social norms, and moral evalu- Gorsuch, 2004, adapted by Lehmann, 2009; ations toward both projects tended to be Lehmann & Gorsuch, 2017). This scale was favorable, but perceived behavioral control Vol. 23, No. 2—Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement 28

Table 1. Means and Standard Deviations of Variables Variable M SD Inner City Intentions 3.31 1.53

Attitudes 5.35 1.19 Social norms 5.48 1.18 Perceived behavioral control 3.99 1.16 Moral evaluations 5.81 0.89 Homework Tutor Intentions 3.82 1.65 Attitudes 5.70a 1.21 Social norms 5.89b 1.16 Perceived behavioral control 4.19 1.23 Moral evaluations 6.14a 0.79 God concept Christian God concept 6.61b 0.61 Wrathful God concept 3.70 1.50 Religious motivation Intrinsic 5.32 1.00 Extrinsic personal 4.81 1.29 Extrinsic social 3.07 1.22 Note. All of the scales above had a range of 1–7. N = 305. aM < 1.25 SD from range endpoint. bM < 1.0 SD from range endpoint. was lower, indicating that participants per- gression analyses were run; the results are ceived their ability to serve on these projects presented in Table 2. The reasoned action to be limited. Also note that the sample was approach model, identified as Model 1, was highly religious, as expected at a Christian significant and strongly predicted both college, although variance can be seen in service project intentions. In this model, religious motivations among the sample. attitudes and perceived behavioral control (PBC) were the strongest predictors, with To investigate the bivariate relationships of social norms being a marginal predictor of the RAA and spirituality constructs with in- inner city intention and not significant in tention to serve on each project, correlation predicting tutoring intention. coefficients were calculated and are presented in Table 2. These correlations show Table 2 presents analyses of the expanded that each of the RAA constructs, including reasoned action approach, which included moral evaluation, was significantly related both to the Inner City intention and the moral evaluation, under Model 2. Moral Tutoring intention. Moreover, this analysis evaluation did not add significant variance revealed that the measures of spirituality in predicting either of the service projects. utilized were not significantly related to This was contrary to hypothesis, which pre- the intentions, except extrinsic social and dicted that this variable would add unique Tutoring intention. variance for predicting intentions. Table 2 also presents, under Model 3, the results To test the hypothesis that the reasoned of a regression analysis of the spirituality action model would predict intent to vol- variables to predict service project inten- unteer for the service projects, multiple re- tion. Contrary to hypothesis, this analysis 29 Understanding the Intersection of Spirituality and Service Engagement Among Undergraduates

Table 2. Intention to Volunteer: Raw Correlations, Standardized Betas, and Multiple R2 Inner City Project—Intention Homework Tutoring—Intention Parameter Estimates Parameter Estimates Predictor r Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 r Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Attitudes .490*** .33*** .31*** .368*** .19** .20** Social norms .386*** .10* .07 .249*** −.04 −.03 PBC .461*** .32*** .32*** .605*** .55*** .55*** Moral .08 .121* −.04 .334*** evaluations Christian God −.03 −.058 −.05 .045 concept Wrathful God −.07 −.085 −.09 −.076 concept Intrinsic .050 .04 −.051 −.03 Extrinsic .13* .054 .04 .107 personal Extrinsic social −.100 −.12 .124* .11 Whole Model (R2) .35*** .35*** .03 .39*** .39*** .03 Note. Model 1 is the established reasoned action approach model. Model 2 is the RAA model with moral evaluations included. Model 3 is the set of spirituality predictors included in the study. Parameter estimates are standardized betas. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

was not significant for both service projects, analyses, God concept and religious moti- indicating that spirituality was not predic- vation accounted for 5–10% of the variance tive of intention. in these variables. This finding is consistent with past research findings that spirituality To investigate the relationship between is interconnected with prosocial behavior, measures of spirituality and the reasoned providing ethical justifications (Parboteeah, action predictor variables, multiple regres- Hoegl, & Cullen, 2008), moral communities sions were run with Christian God concept, (Graham & Haidt, 2010), and moral decision wrathfulness, intrinsic, extrinsic personal, making (Szekely, Opre, & Miu, 2015). extrinsic social, and certainty of belief in God as independent variables, with the at- The current study expands on past findings titudes, social norms, perceived behavioral by contextualizing the effect of spiritual- control, and moral evaluation toward each ity from the reasoned action approach. The service project as dependent variables. The RAA highlights that behaviors are the prod- results of these regressions are presented uct of intentions, and that intentions are in Table 3. As hypothesized, the regres- dynamically influenced by beliefs about the sions were significant for predicting atti- anticipated experience of engaging in the tudes, social norms, and moral evaluations behavior (i.e., attitudes), perceived evalu- toward both service projects. Additionally, ations of valued social groups (i.e., social the regressions were not significant for the norms), and personal beliefs about the abil- perceived behavioral control toward each ity of the individual to engage in the be- intention, consistent with the hypothesis. havior (i.e., perceived behavioral control). Though conclusions based on these results must be tentative, given that this study is Discussion cross-sectional and specific to a particular The results supported the hypotheses that context, the findings are consistent with spirituality would be associated with atti- the notion that spirituality may shape the tudes, social norms, and moral evaluations, underlying attitudinal and normative per- but not perceived behavioral control, toward ceptions of service projects, but not the engaging in two particular service projects perceptions of behavioral control. available at a university. In the current Vol. 23, No. 2—Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement 30 .149* .066 .038 .078 .049** -.063 Tutoring Moral Evaluations .100 .092 .165* .107 .087*** -.090 Inner City Note. *p < .05. **p .01. ***p .001. .008 .061 .025 .014 -.083 -.064 Tutoring Control .007 .094 .112 .020 Perceived Behavioral -.020 -.041 Inner City .128 .092 .003 .045* -.046 -.015 Tutoring Social Norms .202** .037 .025 .055** -.030 -.070 Inner City .113 .130 .075 .048* -.020 -.049 Tutoring Attitudes Moral Evaluations .119 .016 .229** .004 .103*** -.041 Inner City Predictor Table 3. Standardized Betas and Multiple R2 of Spirituality Variables With Attitudes, Social Norms, Perceived Behavioral Table 3. Standardized Betas and Multiple R2 of Spirituality Variables With Attitudes, Social Norms, Perceived Control, and Moral Evaluations Christian God concept Wrathful God concept Intrinsic Extrinsic personal Extrinsic social Total spirituality (R2) 31 Understanding the Intersection of Spirituality and Service Engagement Among Undergraduates

The intentions to engage in the service detected due to lack of statistical power. project were strongly predicted by perceived behavioral control and attitudes toward the Given that the projects occurred midse- service project. The findings indicate that mester, students may have found that their the perception that one would enjoy the schedules were already full, and they could service and that one had control in regard not make this commitment. If the study to one’s ability to participate were strong had investigated service projects that were determinants. For the tutoring project, less subject to perceived behavioral con- the role of attitudes, although significant, trol—for example, projects available during was surpassed by the effect of behavioral spring break—a small to moderate effect of control, which included the belief that the spirituality on intentions might have been tutoring experience would be easy and that apparent. Other factors may have shaped the individual had “plenty of time” for perceived behavioral control, such as self- the service. To put it tersely, if they be- efficacy in regard to tutoring or parental lieved they “could,” then they most likely restrictions about traveling to an inner-city “would,” at least in intention. setting. From the onset, it was not expected that spirituality would be directly associ- The current study tested an expanded rea- ated with perceived behavioral control, so it soned action approach, including moral was not surprising, given the importance of evaluation as a predictor, but this variable perceived behavioral control for predicting did not improve on the standard RAA model intention to serve, that spirituality would of intention. The findings indicated that not be strongly associated with intention moral evaluations of service projects did not to serve. play a significant role in determining intention to engage in the service project, which The low association between spirituality and is surprising given that service is often service intentions indicated that students perceived to be a moral action. Thus, the were not motivated primarily or strongly participants did not seem to intend to par- by a desire to enact their spirituality in ticipate for overly moralistic reasons, such the context of the service project, such as as a desire to “save the world.” Similarly, a through evangelism or social justice. Thus, variable that often provides a unique effect, students as a whole, despite high levels of social norms, was not a significant predictor intrinsic religious motivation, were not ap- in the model. These findings may have been proaching the service project simply as a a unique factor of the context of the study spiritual mission; rather, they had multiple and the particular service projects involved. motivating factors. Numerous other factors Given that spirituality was associated with likely affect intention to engage, including these underlying RAA variables, except for the university mandate to complete 120 perceived behavioral control, one would hours of service projects, the perceptions expect that spirituality would be associated of alternative options, and the relevance of with intent to engage in the service project. the project for career goals, among many However, the association of the spirituality other influences. variables with the intentions to serve was Moreover, given that past research has found to be not significant. Thus, the hy- theorized (Hesser, 2003; Radecke, 2007; pothesized relationship between spirituality Schaffer, 2004; Welch & Koth, 2013) and and intention to serve was not supported. demonstrated empirically (Park et al., Two interconnected explanations for the 2009) that engagement in service-learning lack of association between spirituality and can have positive effects on spirituality, the intentions seem reasonable. The first is that finding that spirituality may not influence the effect of spirituality on attitudes, social intention to engage in a service project, norms, and moral evaluations ranged in at least in certain circumstances, might effect size from 5% to 10% of the variance actually be perceived as a positive, as explained, which reflects that these vari- this indicates that these opportunities for ables are shaped by numerous other factors. spiritual growth will not be limited only to The second is that intentions were uniquely those who already have a more developed predicted by perceived behavioral control, spirituality. If spirituality is not related to with which spirituality was not associated. volunteering, then all people, regardless Therefore, it seems reasonable that a small, of their level of spirituality, might be able trivial relationship between spirituality and to experience spiritual growth and change intentions may exist but may not have been through service. Vol. 23, No. 2—Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement 32

Limitations and Future Directions Finally, the study did not give clarity in regard to the specific dimensions of The primary limitation of the study is religiousness that are associated with the the uncertainty of whether its findings particular constructs of the RAA. The selec- are generalizable to other service projects tion of God concept and religious motivation and university contexts. The study was as predictors was conceived in the notion conducted with particular existing service that beliefs about God would shape percep- projects, rather than generic descriptions tions of actions, including both attitudes of volunteering opportunities. This meth- and moral evaluations, and that religious odology served to ground the project in a motivation would shape social norms and real context and to possibly reduce social moral evaluations. However, the inconsis- desirability bias due to vague notions of tency in the significance of the predictors volunteering. Moreover, the university did not bring clarity in regard to the role where the research took place has a man- of these variables. Future research would date for students to participate in service benefit from utilizing measures of spiritu- projects. This university also has strong ality that are more proximal to the service commitments to the Christian faith, hold- projects, such as religious support, funda- ing chapel three times per week, though it mentalism, and daily spiritual experiences. remains open to students of any religious tradition. Thus, the findings apply to students at Christian universities and may Conclusion not be generalizable to students of other religious backgrounds. Nevertheless, this This research study advances the un- study demonstrates that spirituality may derstanding of the role of spirituality in play some role in influencing perceptions forming the beliefs that underlie the in- of service projects. Researchers should tention, and subsequently the behavior, continue to investigate this topic, utilizing to engage in a service project. Although various other study designs to investigate spirituality was weakly associated with the role of spirituality and religion in influ- beliefs about service engagement and not encing willingness to volunteer for service associated with the intention to serve, this projects. In particular, it is important to surprising finding actually indicates that investigate the effect that certain spiritual lower spirituality might not be an obstacle perspectives, such as fundamentalism or to service participation. In fact, this re- wrathful God concept, might have on the search suggests that the benefits of service outcomes for the agencies and those being engagement on spiritual development may served, including the possibility of reinforc- be available to spiritually diverse students. ing hierarchies. As a result, universities should focus more on decreasing practical barriers to par- A secondary limitation is the use of inten- ticipation, such as conflicts with school tions as a proxy for actual engagement. schedules, rather than being concerned Although the author initially had hoped to about appealing to the spirituality of the assess actual engagement, doing so proved potential participants. It is the author’s too cumbersome to accomplish in this hope, given the substantial benefits of ser- study, given challenges in obtaining par- vice engagement for students, faculty, the ticipation records from the relevant campus university, and the community, that this department. Future research should attempt research encourages ongoing attempts to to study actual service engagement, to in- include service within the university, either vestigate whether spirituality is associated as a part of the curriculum (i.e., service- with this volunteering and rule out the pos- learning) or as a mandate for graduation sibility that spirituality may be related to (i.e., service requirement). the underlying RAA variables solely due to social desirability.

About the Author Curtis Lehmann is associate professor at Azusa Pacific University and is a licensed psychologist in California. His primary research interests include spirituality and mental health, including suicide, posttraumatic stress, and stigma toward mental illness and addiction. He obtained his Ph.D. in clinical psychology from Fuller Theological Seminary in Pasadena, California. 33 Understanding the Intersection of Spirituality and Service Engagement Among Undergraduates

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