© Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, Volume 23, Number 2, p. 20, (2019) Copyright © 2019 by the University of Georgia. All rights reserved. ISSN 1534-6104, eISSN 2164-8212 Understanding the Intersection of Spirituality and Service Engagement Among Undergraduates From a Reasoned Action Approach Curtis Lehmann Abstract Service engagement is critical to many higher education institutions. Past research has looked at spiritual change as a result of service engagement, but few studies have looked at how spirituality might contribute to engagement in service projects, particularly from a reasoned action approach. This quantitative study looked at God concept and religious motivation as predictors of intention to serve with two particular projects being offered at a faith-based university, an inner- city experience and a tutoring service. Participants were 305 ethnically diverse undergraduates. Data were analyzed using multiple regressions. The spirituality variables were associated with attitudes, social norms, and moral evaluations toward both service projects, as hypothesized. However, the spirituality variables were not significantly related with intention to serve for either service project. The findings suggest that spirituality may shape beliefs about service projects but may have little effect on intention to engage in service projects, at least in certain cases. Keywords: service projects, community engagement, attitudes, religion, spirituality tudent engagement in prosocial To introduce the significance of service for service has emerged as an es- higher education, a review of the service- sential feature of the university learning literature is provided to elaborate experience. Many universities have the context of the current study. Although indicated that developing civic- this study examined intention to engage in Sminded students is part of their mission service projects required at the university, (Jongbloed, Enders, & Salerno, 2008). not service-learning within a classroom Community service projects have even setting, this review may help the reader un- become embedded within the classroom derstand the purpose of engaging students setting in a phenomenon known as ser- in service. vice-learning, which has been studied extensively with well-known positive out- University-Based Service-Learning comes (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011; Conway, Amel, & Gerwien, 2009; Yorio & Service-learning has emerged as an ef- fective means of connecting course Ye, 2012). Alternatively, service engagement material with real-world experiences in can be organized outside the classroom with higher education. Unlike typical community university-level policies, such as a service service volunteering, service-learning proj- hour requirement, that uphold service proj- ects are part of a college course’s curriculum ect participation as a prerequisite for gradu- and learning objectives (Zlotkowski, 1998). ation. The current study is an investigation Service-learning provides reciprocal ben- of how spirituality may influence engage- efits for both the academic institution and ment in community service projects among for the community being served (Bringle undergraduates at a Christian university. & Hatcher, 1996). The academic institu- 21 Understanding the Intersection of Spirituality and Service Engagement Among Undergraduates tion benefits by an improved image in the ships may actually be unidirectional, with community (Eyler, Giles, Stenson, & Gray, students serving and then “moving on” 2001) and improved student learning out- without building infrastructure for the comes across several domains (Conway et agency and the population being served al., 2009). (Brown, 2001; Cuban & Anderson, 2007). Another concern is that students may In regard to academic outcomes from ser- remain oblivious to certain types of privi- vice-learning, three meta-analyses have lege, such as race and sexual orientation, found positive impact on academic out- even if they come to appreciate their eco- comes, including GPA, academic motivation, nomic privilege (Jones & Abes, 2004). Other and cognitive development, regardless of downsides have included poor preparation whether the meta-analysis included only by the agency, scheduling difficulties, controlled outcome studies (Celio et al., and poor selection of sites (Rosing, Reed, 2011) or included less methodologically rig- Ferrari, & Bothne, 2010). orous studies (Conway et al., 2009; Yorio & Ye, 2012). An illustrative example is that of a longitudinal study by Astin, Vogelgesang, Spirituality and Service-Learning Ikeda, and Yee (2000), who found that stu- dents who participated in service-learning An additional outcome of service-learning projects had better GPAs, writing skills, to consider is the deepening of spirituality. critical thinking skills, and leadership skills Here we consider spirituality to be broadly than students who did not participate in inclusive of religious beliefs and practices, service-learning courses. ethical integrity, sense of purpose, mysti- cism, and transcendence (see Welch & Koth, Academic gains are not the only benefit 2013). Evidence on spiritual outcomes of of service-learning. Service-learning has service-learning is primarily theoretical, also been shown, in a meta-analysis, to but one quantitative study of undergraduate deepen understanding of social issues students that utilized structural equation and increase personal insight (Conway et modeling found that service activities were al., 2009; Yorio & Ye, 2012). Participation predictive of “vocational calling,” which in service-learning can foster a strongly was operationalized as a sense of purpose- prosocial identity in students. Moreover, ful and meaningful involvement (Phillips, participation can improve attitudes toward 2011). This finding indicates that service self, including positive self-esteem, can produce effects on students’ perceptions evaluation of one’s own abilities, sense of of career and work, including seeing work control, and self-efficacy (Celio et al., 2011). through a spiritual lens. Students who engage in service typically become involved with individuals from eco- Other analyses of service-learning have nomic and ethnic backgrounds other than discussed various other possible benefits their own, allowing greater exposure to that may be included as a spiritual out- diversity and building awareness of one’s come. Service-learning has been seen as own privilege (Jones & Abes, 2004). The re- an opportunity for moral growth and for lationships that formed between students appreciating the connections between civic and the community members whom they engagement and spirituality (Dalton, 2006). served gave the students a sense of personal Louie-Badua and Wolf (2008) emphasized responsibility to strive to make conditions that service-learning provides an oppor- more equitable for those people and others tunity to experience interconnectedness, a like them (Mitchell, 2015). Among alumni chance for “opening your heart,” and ex- interviewed about their participation in pansion of self-inquiry and self-knowledge. service-learning courses, some reported Service-learning projects have been per- that the experience instilled a moral obliga- ceived as good opportunities for Christian tion to serve that remained even years later students to practice acting out their beliefs (Jones & Abes, 2004). at their university, rather than merely con- templating or pondering them (Schaffer, Despite the many benefits of service- 2004). Welch and Koth (2013) argued for a learning, some researchers have pointed out metatheory of spiritual formation through potential downsides. Grusky (2000) argued service, indicating that transformation and that, without reflection and intentional transcendence can occur through encounters action, service-learning can potentially with the unknown other. Koth (2003) has reenact historical and cultural injustices. argued that failure to include spirituality in One concern is that community partner- service-learning is a missed opportunity for Vol. 23, No. 2—Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement 22 deepening contemplative practices among in outcomes, spirituality ought to be stud- students and strengthening the long-term ied further for its role in motivations for commitment to serve. service. Of course, another important consideration regarding service-learning is how spiri- Service and the Faith-Based University tuality may impact initial engagement in Considering the possible motivating effects service. Praetorius and Machtmes (2005) of spirituality on service, as well as the found in a qualitative study that spirituality academic, institutional, altruistic, and spir- was an important motivator for volunteers itual outcomes of service-learning, it is not at a 24-hour crisis hotline. Volunteers in surprising that service-learning programs that study noted their desire to “give back,” would be instituted at faith-based univer- to achieve a new perspective of the per- sities. The research literature includes a ceived challenges and difficulties in one’s number of theoretical arguments on the rel- own life, and to recognize the intercon- evance of service-learning for faith-based nectedness among us all as part of social institutions (Hesser, 2003; Radecke, 2007; fabric. Hunsberger and Platonow (1986) Schaffer, 2004). However, it is important similarly found that volunteering was more to note that students’ spirituality can vary likely among those with intrinsic religious