The South African Short Story by Black Writers
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View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Stellenbosch University SUNScholar Repository WRITING BLACK: THE SOUTH AFRICAN SHORT STORY BY BLACK WRITERS Rob Gaylard Dissertation presented for the degree of Doctor of Literature at the University of Stellenbosch Promotor: Professor Annie Gagiano March 2008 ii DECLARATION I, the undersigned, hereby declare that the work contained in this dissertation is my own original work and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it to any university for a degree. Signature:……………………………………. Date:………………………. iii ABSTRACT This study attempts a re-reading and re-evaluation of the work of black South African short story writers from R.R.R. Dhlomo (circa 1930) to Zoë Wicomb (at the end of the 1980s). The short story, along with the autobiography, was the dominant genre of black writing during this period, and the reasons for this are examined, as well as the ways in which black writers adapt or transform this familiar literary genre. The title – “Writing Black” – alludes to well-known works by Richard Rive (Writing Black) and J.M. Coetzee (White Writing), and foregrounds the issue of race and racialised identities. While one would not want to neglect other factors (class, gender), it is hardly possible to underestimate the impact of racial classification during the apartheid era. However, the difficulty of asserting the unproblematic existence of a homogeneous “black” identity also becomes evident. The approach adopted here reflects the need to recognise both the singularity of particular texts (their “literariness”) as well as their embeddedness in their particular place and time (their “worldliness” or their “circumstantiality”). Literary texts are complex verbal artefacts of an unusual kind, but they cannot be separated from their contexts of production and reception; black writing in this country would be largely incomprehensible if this were not taken into account. Close attention is given to the obvious spatial, temporal and ideological shifts in South African cultural production during this period, and to the two major phases of black writing (the Sophiatown and District Six writers of the 50s, and the Staffrider writers of the 70s and 80s). The work of these writers is not, however, subsumed into a political meta- narrative. In particular, this study resists the tendency to lump the work of black writers into one large, undifferentiated category (“protest writing” or “spectacular” representation). This approach has had the effect of flattening out or homogenising a body of work that is much more varied and interesting than many critical accounts would suggest. Finally, the contribution of three writers of the “interregnum” (Ndebele, Matlou, Wicomb) is explored. What is of particular interest is their break from established conventions of representation: their work reveals a willingness to resist over-simplification, to experiment, and to explore issues of identity and gender. By examining these texts from the vantage point of the post-apartheid present, one is able to arrive at an enhanced understanding of the form that black writing took under apartheid, and the pressures to which it was responding. iv OPSOMMING Hierdie studie onderneem ‘n her-lesing en herevaluering van die werk van swart Suid-Afrikaanse kortverhaalskrywers – vanaf R.R.R.Dhlomo (circa 1930) tot Zoë Wicomb (aan die einde van die 1980s). Die kortverhaal, tesame met die outobiografie, was die dominante genre van swart skryfkuns gedurende hierdie tydperk. Die redes hiervoor word in die tesis ondersoek, sowel as die maniere waarop swart skrywers hierdie familiêre literêre genre aangepas of hervorm het. Die titel – “Writing Black” – verwys na welbekende werke deur Richard Rive (Writing Black) en J.M. Coetzee (White Writing) – en stel die kwessies van ras en ras-beïnvloede identiteit voorop. Terwyl ‘n navorser nie ander faktore (bv. klas; geslag) wil afskeep nie, is dit skaars moontlik om die impak van rasseklassifikasie gedurende die apartheid-era te oorskat. Desnieteenstaande is dit duidelik dat die idee van ‘n ongedifferensieerde “swart” identiteit nie ‘n akademies haalbare aanspraak is nie. Die vertrekpunt wat hier gebruik word reflekteer die vereistes om die individualiteit van sekere tekste (hul “letterkundigheid”) sowel as hul verbondenheid tot ‘n spesifieke plek en tyd (d.w.s. hul “wêreldsheid” of “omstandigheidsoorsprong”) te erken. Literêre tekste is komplekse verbale artefakte van ‘n ongewone aard, maar kan nogtans nie losgemaak word van hul kontekste van produksie en ontvangs nie; swart skrywers van Suid-Afrika se werk sou grotendeels onverstaanbaar gewees het indien hierdie faktore nie in ag geneem sou word nie. Versigtige aandag word in die studie gegee aan die herkenbare ruimtelike, temporale en ideologiese verskuiwings in Suid-Afrikaanse kulturele produksie gedurende hierdie tydperk, asook aan die belangrikste fases van swart skryfwerk (die Sophiatown- en Distrik Ses-skrywers van vyftigerjare en die Staffrider skrywers van die sewentigs en tagtigs). Die werk van hierdie skrywers word nogtans nie onderwep aan ‘n politieke meta-narratief nie. Die neiging om die werk van swart skrywers as een groot, ongedifferensieerde kategorie (bv. protes-skrywing of spektakulêre uitbeelding) saam te gooi, word spesifiek teengestaan in hierdie tesis. So ‘n benadering het die effek van verplatting of homogenisering van ‘n skryfgebied wat veel meer gedifferensieerd en interessant is as wat menige kritici se beskrywings suggereer. Laastens word die bydraes van die skrywers van die “oorgangstydperk” (Ndebele, Matlou, Wicomb) ondersoek. Wat veral interessant is, is hoe hulle wegbreek van konvensies van uitbeelding: hul werk v vertoon hul bereidwilligheid om oorvereenvoudiging te weerstaan, te eksperimenteer, en om identiteits- en gender-kwessies te ondersoek. Deur hierdie tekste vanuit die perspektief van die post-apartheid hede te benader, kan die studie ‘n beter begrip vorm van die vorme wat swart skryfwerk onder apartheid aangeneem het, sowel as van die kragte waarteen dit gereageer het. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my promotor, Professor Annie Gagiano for her professionalism, expertise and support. Her promptness and attention to detail are much appreciated. I would also like to thank the University of Stellenbosch for granting two periods of study leave. This enabled me to give this thesis my sustained attention and bring it to a conclusion. This study is a product of my work over a number of years in this research field. I offer an Honours course, entitled “From Sophiatown to Soweto”, and the responses and input of postgraduate students to this course have also been a valuable stimulus. Finally, I would like to thank Miki for her unstinting support, and my children for putting up with “it” (and me). vii CONTENTS Abstract iii Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Chapter 2: R.R.R. Dhlomo and Early Black Writing in English 36 Chapter 3: Drum, Sophiatown and the Fifties 58 Chapter 4: Drum: the Stories 80 Chapter 5: The District Six Writers – the “Protest School”? 133 Chapter 6: Post-Sharpeville 179 Chapter 7: The Rise of Black Consciousness 196 Chapter 8: Staffrider and the 1970s 220 Chapter 9: Writing in the Interregnum 272 Chapter 10: Conclusion 306 Appendix: “Mhlutshwa Comes to Johannesburg” 320 Bibliography 322 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION This study seeks to explore the achievements of a number of black writers whose work has contributed significantly to the recent (post-1948) literature of this country. One of the strongest genres of black writing is the short story (for reasons that will be explored) and by viewing these texts from the vantage point of the post-apartheid present, one may able to arrive at a better understanding of the form that black writing took under apartheid, and the kinds of pressures to which it was responding. The study will explore the way social, political and ideological as well as literary factors have helped shape the form, content and style of the short story. While other critics have studied particular phases of the development of the short story genre, or have discussed black (South African) writing across the various genres, none has attempted a study of the kind and scope envisaged here. 1948 marks the date of the election of the National Party government under Dr D.F. Malan with a mandate to implement the policy of apartheid, while February 1990 marks President de Klerk’s historic decision to release Nelson Mandela and the other political prisoners, unban the ANC, the PAC and the SACP, and enter into negotiations. It thus marks the point of no return, the date at which a transition to democracy became inevitable. These two dates therefore define the parameters of the apartheid era: inevitably, then, a central focus of this study is the impact of apartheid on black culture and writing in South Africa.1 Given the virtual implosion of “English studies” over the last thirty or so years, anyone embarking on a project such as this can take little for granted. In particular, one cannot assume agreement even on such a fundamental matter as the meaning or appropriate use of the terms “literary” or “literature”. Nor can one assume any self-evident justification for a study which selects literary texts as its focus. As Wade points out, The category of literature has in recent decades been vigorously disrupted by a host of literary theories more concerned with retrieving 1 Once the study was underway I decided (for reasons that will become clear) to include a chapter on the work of R.R.R. Dhlomo, whose short stories date from about 1930, and who is the most important precursor of the Drum writers of the 1950s. 2 its denigrated exclusions – popular culture, marginal writings of many kinds, orature and so on – and with revealing the ideological assumptions implicated in the formations of literary canons. (6) One must acknowledge at the outset the impossibility of arriving at any single or generally agreed definition for the terms “literary” or “literature”.