© M.G. Sergeev, 2018

The most notable shared characteristic of the kingdom is the presence of so-called alveolar pellicle with cortical alveoli: flattened vesicles packed into a continuous layer supporting the cell membrane, typically forming a flexible pellicle. This looks like as a cell envelope consisting from 3 membranes.

These alveoli often includes plates from peptides, glycopeptids, calcium carbonate...

Alveolates have (1) mitochondria with tubular cristae (2) usually extrusomes. [http://palaeos.com/eukarya/alveolata/alveolata.html] Kingdom Phyla Metamonada Fornicata Parabasalia Discoba Euglenophyles Heterolobosea Conoza Alveolata Dinoflagellata Apicomplexa Ciliophora Blastocystae Amoebozoa Lobosa Opisthokonta Microspora Choanomonada

Subkingdom Animalia (Metazoa) © M.G. Sergeev, 2018 Phylum Dinoflagellata = Peridiniophyles Usually unicellular, up to 2 mm, sometimes colonial or multicellular.

Phototrophs, or chemotrophs, or photochemotrophs. Free-living or commensalic or parasitic (not associated with humans!).

Alveoli (if present) usually support overlapping cellulose plates. One nucleus, closed mitosis. Prokaryotic ribosomes. Chloroplasts present ot absent, with 3 membranes (resulted from the secondary symbiosis) Flagella - two different (transverse and longitudinal), extremely different.

Mainly haplobionts with sexual reproduction.

About 2 000 species. Pfisteria piscida

Endoparasites

Oodinium

[www.jochemnet.de/fiu/bot4404/BOT4404_5.html] Several species are the intranuclear parasites (!) of other protists

[Coats, Park, 2002] In warm waters of oceans and seas, dinoflagellates sometimes can bloom in concentrations of more than million cells per millilitre. Under such circumstances they can produce toxins (generally called dinotoxins) in quantities capable of killing fish and accumulating in filter feeders such as shellfish, which in turn may be passed on to people who eat them. Toxic dinoflagellates ± dinotoxins, including saxitoxin (paralytic neurotoxin) [Red Tide caused by Dinoflagellates off the Scripps Institution of Oceanography Pier, La Jolla California. Released into the Public Domain, August 2005. P. Alejandro Diaz and Ginny Velasquez (his busbear) Source: English Wikipedia, original upload 13 August 2005 by Intersofia] Kingdom Phyla Metamonada Fornicata Parabasalia Discoba Euglenophyles Heterolobosea Conoza Alveolata Dinoflagellata Apicomplexa Ciliophora Blastocystae Amoebozoa Lobosa Opisthokonta Microspora Choanomonada

Subkingdom Animalia (Metazoa) © M.G. Sergeev, 2018 Phylum Apicomplexa = Sporozoa Usually unicellular. Сhemotrophs. Endoparasites.

With one nucleus, closed or open mitosis. Prokaryotic ribosomes. Mitochondria usually with tubular or ampular cristae.

Flagella - usually absent, may be developed in microgametes. Usually with rather complicated life cycles, often with two host stages and with multiply asexual fissions. Mainly haplobionts with sexual reproduction.

About 5 000 species. An apical complex consists of a set of spirally arranged microtubules (the conoid), a secretory body (the rhoptry = a kind of extrusomes) and one or more polar rings.

"Malaria". Licensed under CC BY 2.5 via Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fil e:Malaria.jpg#/media/File:Malaria.jpg [http://palaeos.com/eukarya/alveolata/alveolata.html] 1 - anterior polar ring, 2 - conoid, 3 - micronemes, 4 - rhoptries, 5 - nucleus, 6 - nucleolus, 7 - mitochondrion, 8 - posterior ring, 9 - alveoli, 10 - Golgi apparatus, 11 - micropore "Apicomplexa structure" by Franciscosp2 - self-made (with xfig in Linux). Licensed under Public Domain via Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Apicomplexa_structure.svg#/media/File:Ap icomplexa_structure.svg Almost all species contain a single ovoid shaped apicoplast. The apicoplast is situated in close proximity to the parasite cell's nucleus and always closely associated with a mitochondrion. It has 4 membranes and its own DNA.

The apicoplast is a product of secondary endosymbiosis, and that the apicoplast may be homologous to the secondary chloroplasts of the closely related dinoflagellates. It has been established that the apicoplast is a vital organelle to the parasite's survival. [Протисты, 2007] General pattern of a life cycle

1- zygote (developing in a cyst), 2 - sporozoites, 3 - merozoites, 4 - gametocytes

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Apicomplexa_life_cycle_v2.svg Oocyst

Sporocysts

Sporozoites

(Looks like a Matryoshka doll) A sporozoite (G. sporos, seed + zōon, animal) [spZrc()0zcwt,1sp]+] is the cell form that infects new hosts. Cells infected with sporozoites eventually burst, releasing merozoites into the bloodstream. Sporozoites are motile and they move by gliding. Oocyst

Sporocysts

Sporozoites A merozoite (G. meros, part [of a series], +zōon, animal) is the result of merogony [mc0rZg c ni] - a kind of multiply fissions that takes place within a host cell. Merozoites form the first phase of the internal life cycle of coccidians.

In the case of Plasmodium and its relatives, merozoites infect red blood cells and then rapidly reproduce asexually. The red blood cell host is destroyed by this process, which releases many new merozoites that go on to find new blood-borne hosts. Merozoites are non-motile. Oocyst

Sporocysts

Sporozoites A trophozoite (G. trophē, nourishment + zōon, animal) is the activated, intracellular feeding stage in the apicomplexan life cycle. After some development inside the host cell, the trophozoite undergoes merogony [mc0rZg c ni] (a kind of multiply fissions) and develops into a meront. The last one divides and releases numerous (usually) merozoites. Oocyst

Sporocysts

Sporozoites A gametocyte (G. gametēs, partner + kytos, cell) [gc0mi tc1sawt] is a name given to a parasite's gamete- forming cells. A male gametocyte divides to give many flagellated microgametes, whereas the female gametocyte differentiates to one macrogamete. Oocyst

Sporocysts

Sporozoites Some coccidians which form tissue cysts, such as Toxoplasma and Sarcocystis, may have two different forms of merozoites.

A tachyzoite (G. tachys, fast + zōon, animal) is charachtezed by rapid growth and replication. Tachyzoites are usual in intestine epithelial cells and are the motile forms.

A bradyzoite (G. bradys, slow + zōon, animal) is a sessile, slow-growing form, among others responsible for parasitic infections. In chronic (latent) toxoplasmosis, bradyzoites microscopically present as clusters enclosed by an irregular crescent-shaped wall (a pseudocyst) (we usually call this structure a tissue cyst) in infected muscle and brain tissues. A next host (definite or intermediate) commonly eat meat with pseudocysts. An oocyst (G. ōon, egg + kystis, bladder) is a hardy, thick-walled cyst, able to survive for lengthy periods outside a host (or - in piroplasms and haemosporidians - without a thick wall per se and in another host). The zygote develops within the cyst, which acts to protect it during transfer to new hosts.

An ookinete (G. ōon, egg + kinētos, motile) is a fertilised zygote capable of moving spontaneously. It penetrates epithelial cells lining the midgut of mosquitoes to form a relatively thick-walled structure known as an oocyst under the mosquito's outer gut lining. Ookinetes are motile and they move by gliding. Oocyst

Sporocysts

Sporozoites Oocyst Sporozoite

Sporozoite Sporocyst

[Lainson et al., 2007] Main classes with human parasites

(1) Coccidea - coccidians (2) Piroplasmorida - piroplasms (3) Haemospororida - haemosporidians Coccidians Coccidians

Coccidians are parasites of vertebrates.

They are commonly parasites of the epithelial cells of the gut, but may infect other tissues, especially in cases of immune system disorders.

The coccidian lifecycle involves merogony, gametogony, and sporogony.

During gametogony some trophozoites enlarge and become (one) macrogamete, whereas others divide repeatedly to form several microgametes. Coccidians

The fertilized macrogamete forms a zygote that in its turn forms an oocyst with a thick wall that is normally released from the host body.

The oocyst usually produces 2 or 4 sporocysts inside and the sporocyst produces 2 or 4 sporozoites inside. Oocyst Sporozoite

Sporozoite Sporocyst

[Lainson et al., 2007] Isospora and its relatives oocystº2 sporocystsº 8 (4 x 2) sporozoites Isospora belli = Cystoisospora belli cystoisosporiasis (also isosporiasis, isosporosis) (1) An oocyst is released in feces of an infected human.

(2) After the oocyst has been released, the zygote matures further and divides into two so-called sporoblast.

(3) Each of them creates a cyst wall and becomes a sporocyst.

(4) The sporocysts each divide twice, resulting in four sporozoites.

(5) Transmission occurs when these mature oocysts are ingested.

(6) The sporocysts excyst in the small intestine where sporozoites are released.

(7) The sporozoites then invade epithelial cells and merogony is initiated.

(8) When the meronts rupture, merozoites are released and continue to invade more epithelial cells.

(9) Trophozoites develop into meronts, containing many merozoites.

(10) After about one week, development of micro- and macrogametocytes begin in the merozoites

(11) Fertilization results in the development of oocysts, which are released in the feces. Cystoisosporiasis —

Clinical symptoms: (1) mild diarrhea, (2) abdominal discomfort, (3) low grade fever for approximately one week.

Immunocompromised people (for instance, with AIDS) are more severely affected and may experience extreme diarrhea that can lead to weakness, anorexia, and weight loss. Cyclospora cayetanensis — oocystº2 sporocystsº 4 (2 x 2) sporozoites

Causes gastroenteritis, with the extent of the illness varying based on age, condition of the host, and size of the infectious dose. Cyclosporiasis Cyclospora cayetanensis —

Symptoms include

(1) watery diarrhea, (2) loss of appetite, (3) weight loss, (4) abdominal bloating and cramping, (5) increased flatulence, (6) nausea, (7) fatigue, (8) low-grade fever,

In more severe cases: vomiting, substantial weight loss, excessive diarrhea, and muscle aches. The incubation period in the host is typically around a week, and illness can last six weeks before self-limiting. Unless treated, illness may relapse. The more severe forms of the disease can occur in immunocompromised patients, such as those with AIDS.

Risks - to travel in the poorly developed areas, tropics and subtropics may be at an increased risk of acquiring C. cayetanensis as there are identified as its endemic areas (Traveler’s Diarrhea).

[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Egg _Comparison.gifComparing eggs with Cyclospora Date 1 January 2000 Source Own work Author Hmehlers23] https://web.stanford.edu/group/parasites/ParaSites2006/Cyclosp oriasis/Epidemiology.html Cryptosporidium parvum + C. parvum Cryptosporidiosis oocystº (no sporocysts) º 4 sporozoites

Extracytoplasmic position [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Egg _Comparison.gifComparing eggs with Cyclospora Date 1 January 2000 Source Own work Author Hmehlers23]

Cryptosporidiosis is typically an acute, short-term infection, but can become severe and nonresolving in children and immunocompromised individuals. In humans, it remains in the lower intestine and may remain for up to five weeks. Main symptoms (often asymptomatic, but may be recurrent): (1) moderate to severe watery diarrhea (2) low-grade fever (3) abdominal pain (4) weight loss (5) fatigue (6) nausea and vomiting May be some problems with the respiratory tract: (1) inflammation (2) nasal discharge (3) cough (4) shortness of breath (5) fever

May be problematic and fatal in humans with immune system problems http://www.tropicalparasitology.org/articles/2017/7/1/images/TropParasitol_2017_7_1_8 _202290_f1.jpg Toxoplasma gondii Toxoplasmosis oocystº2 sporocystsº 4 (2 x 2) sporozoites

— 30-50 % of the global populations (in some countries may be about 90 %); — definitive hosts — cats (Felidae), including domestic; — intermediate hosts (more than 350 species of reptiles, birds, and mammals including humans; actually all mammals and birds look like possible intermediate hosts) (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/) Toxoplasma gondii Toxoplasmosis oocystº2 sporocystsº 4 (2 x 2) sporozoites

The main sources for humans:

— contaminated water, soil, vegetables etc. — raw or undercooked meat of other intermediate hosts; — unpastereurized goat milk — transplacental transmission (extremely dangerous when T. gondi is contructed during pregnancy); (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/) — blood transfusion/organ transplanation.

A part of the life cycle with sexual reproduction occurs only within cats (felids, wild or domestic).

Toxoplasma gondi survives passage through the stomach (of cats), eventually infecting epithelial cells of the cat's small intestine. Inside these intestinal cells, the parasites undergo sexual development and reproduction, producing millions of thick-walled, zygote- containing oocysts.

They are shed in the cat's feces. Oocysts can survive and remain infective for many months in cold and dry climates. ["Toxoplasmosis life cycle en" by LadyofHats - Made by myself using this information as source: [1], [2], [3],[4], as well as the article in wikipedia between others. Licensed under Public Domain via Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Toxoplasmosis_life_cycle_en.svg#/media/File:Toxoplasmosis_life_cycle_en.svg] Parts of the life cycle with asexual reproductions occur within virtually all warm-blooded animals and also in some reptiles.

When an oocyst or tissue cyst is ingested by a human or other warm-blooded animal, the resilient cyst wall is dissolved by proteolytic enzymes in the stomach and small intestine, freeing sporozoites from within the oocyst. The parasites first invade cells in and surrounding the intestinal epithelium, and inside these cells, the parasites differentiate into tachyzoites, the motile and quickly multiplying cellular stage of T. gondii.

Tissue cysts in tissues such as a brain and muscle tissue form approximately 7–10 days after initial infection. ["Toxoplasmosis life cycle en" by LadyofHats - Made by myself using this information as source: [1], [2], [3],[4], as well as the article in wikipedia between others. Licensed under Public Domain via Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Toxoplasmosis_life_cycle_en.svg#/media/File:Toxoplasmosis_life_cycle_en.svg] Pressure from the host's immune system causes Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites to convert into bradyzoites, the semidormant, slowly dividing cellular stage of the parasite. Inside host cells, clusters of these bradyzoites are known as tissue cysts. The tissue cyst wall is formed by the parasitophorous vacuole membrane. Although the bradyzoite-containing tissue cysts can form in virtually any organ, they predominantly are and persist in the brain, in the eyes, and in striated muscles (including the heart). The tissue cysts can be maintained in host tissue for the lifetime of the animal. Infection with Toxoplasma gondii produces no readily observable symptoms in healthy human adults.

However, mild, flu-like symptoms may occur during the first few weeks.

This asymptomatic state of infection is referred to as a latent infection and has recently been associated with numerous subtle adverse or pathological behavioral alterations in humans (e.g., schizophrenia).

In infants, HIV/AIDS patients, and others with weakened immunity, infection can cause serious and occasionally fatal illness. ["Toxoplasmosis life cycle en" by LadyofHats - Made by myself using this information as source: [1], [2], [3],[4], as well as the article in wikipedia between others. Licensed under Public Domain via Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Toxoplasmosis_life_cycle_en.svg#/media/File:Toxoplasmosis_life_cycle_en.svg] Toxoplasma gondii in a bar-shouldered dove, lung. Two tachyzoites enclosed in a parasitophorous vacuolar membrane (pvm). Note conoid (co), micronemes (mn), rhoptries (ro) with honey-combed contents, and a nucleus (nu) in each tachyzoite. The parasitophorous vacuole has membranous tubules. Transmission electron microscopy. Date 20 November 2014 Source Rigoulet, J., Hennache, A., Lagourette, P., George, C., Longeart, L., Le Net, J.-L. & Dubey, J. P. 2014: Toxoplasmosis in a bar-shouldered dove (Geopelia humeralis) from the Zoo of Clères, France. Parasite, 21, 62. doi:10.1051/parasite/2014062 Author Jacques Rigoulet, Alain Hennache, Pierre Lagourette, Catherine George, Loïc Longeart, Jean-Loïc Le Net and Jitender P. Dubey Toxoplasma gondii has been shown to alter the behavior of infected rodents in ways thought to increase the rodents' chances of being preyed upon by cats. (Из Догеля, 1981, по Лейкарту) Sarcocystis hominis + S. suihominis Sarcosporidiosis oocystº2 sporocystsº 4 (2 x 2) sporozoites

A human (in general - predators) is the definitive host, and a cattle is the common intermediate host.

Infection occurs when undercooked meat is ingested. The incubation period is 9–39 days. A sarcospirodopsis has rarely occurred in Europe and in some other regions.

The pathology is of two types:

º an intestinal form that presents with (1) nausea, (2) abdominal pain, (3) diarrhea. While normally mild and lasting under 48 hours, the intestinal form may occasionally be severe or even life-threatening. º a rare invasive form with (1) vasculitis and (2) myositis The invasive form may involve a wide variety of tissues including lymph nodes, muscles and the larynx. Piroplasms Piroplasmorida

They are relatives of coccidians, but without some stages in host environment.

Piroplasms are parasites with two hosts: a vertebrate and a blood-sucking ticks (ixodid mites) or a leech.

They are commonly parasites of the red blood cells (erythrocytes) and/or circulating or endothelial cells.

The piroplasmoridian life cycle involves (1) merogony, (2) gametogony, (3) sporogony. Piroplasmorida

The fertilized macrogamete forms a motile zygote (ookinete) that penetrates through digestive system epithelium and forms an oocyst. The oocyst usually produces a lot of sporozoites penetrating into salivary glands. Piroplasmids are parasites with two hosts: a vertebrate and a blood- sucking tick (in case of human parasites).

No conoid. No parasitiphorous vacuole.

Piroplasmosis (in humans - usually babesiosis and theileriosis)

Species of the genus Babesia Also Theileria microti

Babesia bigemina (из Хаусмана, по Шолтизеку) Babesia and Theileria Often asymptomatic

Main symptoms (after several weeks): (1) fever (2) anemia (3) fatigue (4) chills (5) sweats

Often associated with immune system problems Babesia microti º Theileria microti http://www.nejm.org/na101/home/literatum/publisher/mms/journals/content/nejm/201 2/nejm_2012.366.issue-25/nejmra1202018/production/images/large/nejmra1202018 _f1.jpeg

Human piroplasmosis is mainly associated with the ticks of the genus Ixodes and often presents with other tick-borne diseases (including encephalites and Lyme) Haemosporidians Haemosporida

Haemosporids are parasites with two hosts: a vertebrate and a blood-sucking insect.

They are commonly parasites of the red blood cells (erythrocytes), but may infect other tissues (e.g., a liver, mainly hepatocytes).

The haemosproidian life cycle involves (1) merogony, (2) gametogony, (3) sporogony. Haemosporida

During gametogony some trophozoites enlarge and become macrogamete, whereas others divide repeatedly to form microgametes.

The fertilized macrogamete forms a motile zygote (ookinete) that penetrates through digestive system epithelium and forms an oocyst. The oocyst usually produces a lot of sporozoites penetrating into salivary glands. Plasmodium MALARIA!!!

The parasite always has two hosts in its life cycle: a Dipteran insect host (mainly mosquitoes) and a vertebrate (mainly mammals, including humans, birds, and reptiles). Sporozoite

Merozoite

(Из Кусакина, Дроздова, по Бейер, 1989) Malaria

Annual death levels - about 1 100 000 (2002) - about 900 000 (~2010), - about 600 000-700 000 (now) (WHO and other sources)

(TDR/WHO/Wellcome Trust)

Merozoites Trophozoite Hypnozoites Meront Merozoites Gametocytes Sporozoites

Gametogenesis Copulation Zygote (ookinete)

Oocyst Trophozoites and meronts Model of merozoite invasion

Weak interaction

(Из Cowman, Crabb, 2002 // Science. 2002. Vol. 298) Model of merozoite invasion

Reorientation and interactions between the merozoite and erythrocytic membrane receptors

(Из Cowman, Crabb, 2002 // Science. 2002. Vol. 298) Model of merozoite invasion

Merozoite peptides associate with the actin-myosin complex of the erythrocyte membrane

(Из Cowman, Crabb, 2002 // Science. 2002. Vol. 298) (Из Wirth, 2002 // Nature. 2002. Vol. 419.) Oocyst Microgametocyte producing microgametes [http://www.bio.ic.ac.uk/research/res/sinden.htm] Oocyst producing sporozoites Some common general symptoms of malarias:

(1) fever (2) shivering (3) convulsions (4) headache (5) vomiting (6) jaundice (7) hemolytic anemia (8) hemoglobin in the urine

[By Mikael Häggström.When using this image in external works, it may be cited as follows:Häggström, Mikael. "Medical gallery of Mikael Häggström 2014". Wikiversity Journal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.008. ISSN 20018762. Public Domain. - All used images are in public domain., Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=65 57991] Human parasites (including rare and accidental):

Plasmodium (Laverania) falciparum Plasmodium (Plasmodium) vivax Plasmodium (Plasmodium) ovale Plasmodium (Plasmodium) malariae Plasmodium (Plasmodium) knowlesi (the cause of severe quotidian malaria in South East Asia since 1965)

Plasmodium (Plasmodium) brasilianum Plasmodium (Plasmodium) cynomolgi Plasmodium (Plasmodium) eylesi Plasmodium (Plasmodium) inui Plasmodium (Plasmodium) rhodiani Plasmodium (Plasmodium) schweitzi Plasmodium (Plasmodium) semiovale Plasmodium (Plasmodium) simium Plasmodium (Plasmodium) tenue Plasmodium (Laverania) falciparum malignant, or falciparum, or tropical malaria the most dangerous hepatocytic (liver) stage - about 14 days erythrocytic stage - about 48 hours, may be irregular may be several merozoites in one erythrocyte one meront produces 12-16 (up to 32) merozoites parasitemia - 20 000-500 000 parasites per 1 microliter The clinical manifestations of malaria (fever, chills) are associated with the synchronous rupture of the infected erythrocytes. Ring-form trophozoites of P. falciparum [CDC- DPD http://www.cdc.gov/mala ria/about/biology/parasit es.html] Seasonal temperature suitability for transmission of P. falciparum (movie). The Z(T) normalized index of temperature suitability for P. falciparum displayed by week across an average year. See text for a full explanation of this metric. Date 2011 Source Gething P, Van Boeckel T, Smith D, Guerra C, Patil A, Snow R, Hay S (2011). "Modelling the global constraints of temperature on transmission of Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax". Parasites & Vectors. DOI:10.1186/1756-3305-4-92. PMID 21615906. PMC: 3115897. Author Gething P, Van Boeckel T, Smith D, Guerra C, Patil A, Snow R, Hay S Plasmodium falciparum causes severe malaria via sequestration. Within the 48-hour asexual blood stage cycle, the mature forms change the surface properties of infected red blood cells, causing them to stick to blood vessels. This leads to obstruction of the microcirculation and results in dysfunction of multiple organs, typically the brain in cerebral malaria. P. falciparum can also cause severe blood loss (anemia). Complicated malaria occurs more commonly in children under the age of 5 and sometimes in pregnant women. Women become susceptible to severe complicated malaria if infected by P. falciparum during their first pregnancy even if they live in hyperendemic areas. Susceptibility to severe malaria is reduced in subsequent pregnancies due to increased antibody levels against variant surface antigens that appear on infected erythrocytes. Plasmodium (Plasmodium) vivax recurring or benign tertian malaria the most widely distributed hepatocytic (liver) stage - from 12 days till several years erythrocytic stage - about 48 hours one meront produces 14-20 (up to 24) merozoites parasitemia - 20 000 per 1 microliter Pathogenesis results from rupture of infected red blood cells, leading to fever. Infected red blood cells may also stick to each other and to walls of capillaries (relatively rare). Vessels plug up and deprive tissues of oxygen. Infection may also cause the spleen to enlarge.

The parasite can go dormant in the liver for days to years, causing no symptoms and remaining undetectable in blood tests. They form what are called hypnozoites, a small form that nestles inside an individual liver cell. The hypnozoites allow the parasite to survive in more temperate zones, where mosquitoes bite only part of the year.

(Из Sachs, 2002 // Science. 2002. Vol. 298) Plasmodium (Plasmodium) ovale benign tertian malaria less common, less dangerous hepatocytic (liver) stage - from 16 days till 4 years erythrocytic stage - about 49 hours one meront produces 6-12 (up to 18) merozoites parasitemia - 9 000 per 1 microliter

(Из Sachs, 2002 // Science. 2002. Vol. 298)

Plasmodium (Plasmodium) malariae benign quartan malaria less common, less dangerous hepatocytic (liver) stage - 16-59 days erythrocytic stage - about 72 hours one meront produces 8-10 (up to 12) merozoites parasitemia - 6 000 per 1 microliter

It can be maintained at very low infection rates among a sparse and mobile population because unlike the other Plasmodium parasites, it can remain in a human host for decades and still remain infectious to mosquitoes Plasmodium malariae causes a chronic infection that in some cases can last a lifetime.

The fever manifestations of the parasite are more moderate relative to those of P. falciparum and P. vivax.

May be very serious problems with kidneys

May be manifestation of anemia, low birth rate and reduced resistance to other infections.

(Из Sachs, 2002 // Science. 2002. Vol. 298) Plasmodium (Plasmodium) knowlesi severe quatidian malaria relatively dangerous (originally related to other primates, for instance,the long-tailed macaques). hepatocytic (liver) stage - 10-12 days erythrocytic stage - about 24 hours one meront produces 8-10 merozoites parasitemia - may be very high non-relapsing malaria due to lack of hypnozoites

Symptoms of P. knowlesi include headache, fever, chills and cold sweats (Из Sachs, 2002 // Science. 2002. Vol. 298) [Vogel, 2010] Malaria: Actual Problems

P Management of vector populations < Swamps and lakes draining < Insecticides/ resistance evolution < Population management (e.g. male sterilisation) P Development of vaccines < ? P Treatments for parasites in vectors < Bacteria of mosquito digestive systems preventing parasite’s penetration through epithelium. < Development of transgenic parasitic fungi (e.g., Metarhizium anisopliae) P Antimalarial medications < Difference between species and areas < Quinine, chloroquine etc., also sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine - resistance evolution < New (relatively) medication - artemisinisn (Artemisia annua) — resistance evolution!

[By No machine-readable author provided. Soman assumed (based on copyright claims). - No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims)., CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid= 690992]

[By The Field Museum Library - originally posted to Flickr as Man spraying kerosene oil, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.p hp?curid=11331679] By Unknown or not provided - U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org /w/index.php?curid=16701376 [Vogel, 2010] Malaria: Actual Problems

P Management of vector populations < Swamps and lakes draining < Mosquto nets distribution (!!!) < Insecticides/ resistance evolution < Population management (e.g. male sterilisation) P Development of vaccines < ? P Treatments for parasites in vectors < Bacteria of mosquito digestive systems preventing parasite’s penetration through epithelium. < Development of transgenic parasitic fungi (e.g., Metarhizium anisopliae) P Antimalarial medications < Difference between species and areas < Quinine, chloroquine etc., also sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine - resistance evolution < New (relatively) medication - artemisinisn (Artemisia annua) — resistance evolution! By http://wellcomeimages.org/indexplus/ obf_images/ce/b0/96e5a4b06e6d1cc 67e4237b4f872.jpgGallery: http://wellcomeimages.org/indexplus/ image/L0022443.html, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/ind ex.php?curid=35997577 [Vogel, 2010] [Roberts, 2016] Ю-ю Ту -Нобелевская премия 2015 г. [Vogel, 2010]