sign in sign up
<<
Home , Clarkia dudleyana, Philosophia Botanica, Tree, Type (biology)

for

Jim Downer [email protected] 805-645-1458 http://ceventura.ucdavis.edu LdLandscape NtNotes

Many of the slides in presentation are from Raven, Evert and Eichhorn, 2005. W.H. Freeman and Company, ISBN 0-7167-1007-2, Botany? Arborists? Why???

• Professionalism • Knowledge of how (especially trees) function • This lecture introduces the article series bibeing pu blihdiblished in eac hih issue o fWf Wes tern . Botany is not…

• • pathology • SilSoil sc ience • Entomology • Geology or • Biology Botany is…

• • • AtAnatomy and morph hlology • Physiology • and reproduction How we present information

•“Its big, its green, its bushy! Look at all these sprouts! It’s a healthy tree!”

• Your tree is large it has a dense , retention is above average. Your tree appears healthy! • It comes d own to NOMENCLATURE Nomenclature

• International Code of – A stable method of naming all plants – Avoids useless creation of names – Provides grammatical correctness of names – Establishes starting dates for all names – Always in Latin • : generic name is a noun (singular) • : specific epithet is an adjective

Rules of Nomenclature

• Linnaeus • Fragmenta botanica (1736) • Critica botanic (()1737) • Philosophia botanica (1751) • Priority: the concept that the first validly proposed name has priority over all others • Theorie elementaire de la botanique (1813) • First I nternati onal B otani cal C ongress (186 7 ) • American Code (1892-1910) Genera are named for:

• People: Lewissia, (for Lewis and Clark) • Greek+Latin words: Helianthus from helio, sun; anthos, . • Some without meaning: Alnus- • Based on location: Iberia, Spain; Idahoa, Idaho • Anagrams: Lobivia, Bolivia; Legenere, E.L. GGeeereene specimen of the angiosperm PdPodan drogyne formosa which is found in Costa Rica and western Panama.

This specimen was collected by Theodore S. Cochrane and described bhiiby him in a paper published in the journal Britonnia 30:405-410 in 1978. Terminations GdGenders must agree • Eriogonum polypodum, globulus, Sinningia leucotricha • Gender of the specific eptithet always determined by the gender of the generic name • Trees, no matter the generic termination are always have a feminine ending • Terminations can be for people – Clarkia dudleyana for William Dudley (1849-1911) Scientific Names alildhhilways include authorships • Sanicula marilandica L. • Things can change – EiErigeron cana dens is LtL. to CdiConyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist Division Magnoliophyta Takht., Cronquist & W. Zimm. ex Reveal, 1996 Class Magnoliopsida Brongn., 1843 Subclass MagnoliidaeNovák ex Takht., 1967 Superorder Magnolianae Takht., 1967 Bromhead, 1838 SbSubor der MliiMagnoliineae Engl ., 1898 Magnoliaceae Juss., 1789 Subfamily Magnolioideae (Juss.) Arn., 1832 Genus L., 1753 Species virginiana L., 1753 Type: Clifford 222 Magnolia No. 1 (BM) How do you correctly write a plant name? • Genus and species • Italics, or underline • GitliditGenus capitalized species not • Authorities

Capsicum annuum L. How are trees put together?

• Cells • Tissues (Epidermal, ground, vascular) • Organs – –Stems – – or cones Robert Hooke, ca 1670, first used the simple microscope To discover the cellular nature of . Hooke’s Cork Cell Functions

• A. Serves as the structural building block to form tissues and organs

• B. Each cell is functionally independent- it can live on its own under the right conditions 1. it can de fine its boun dar ies an d pro tec t itse lf from ex terna l changes causing internal changes 2. it can use to derive energy for different processes which keep it alive 3. it con tai ns a ll the in forma tion requ ire d for rep lica ting itse lf and interacting with other cells in order to produce a multicellular 4. It is even possible to reproduce the entire plant from altlmost any s illlfthltingle cell of the plant Plant cells - the basic building blocks.

• each cell is approximately 1/10- 1/100th of a millimeter long • cells can specialize in form and function to provide certain specialized functions to the whole plant • Each cell can live on its own under certain conditions- however, byyg working together they provide a way to survive in more varied conditions Types of Cells

• A. Prokaryotic cells- eg. bacteria 1il1. very simple-there are no organell es an d mos t everything functions in the cytoplasm • B. Eukaryotic cells 1lltith1. all contain the organe llthtlles that subcompartmentalize the cell 2. includes unicellular and (e.g. amoeba) that live alone or in colonies 3. includes multicellular - , plants, fungi - where cells work together a. plant cells are unlike cells in that plant cells have and cell walls. Animal cells have neither of these. Plant cells also have relatively large . Escherichia coli

NllNucleolus Nucleus Chromatin DNA + Histones Mitochondria Chloroplasts Tree Cells

• Trees are made of cells • Cells can not be “healed” • Trees produce new cells in new locations to cover over wounds (A. Shigo) Tree growth • Is fundamentally different from animal growth.

•Animal ggyprowth is determinate; an animal develops into a young animal, then an adult. In other words, the overall shape of the adult animal is genetically determined from its earliest developmental stages. Once an animal has become an adult, it may become heavier or fatter, but it will not become larger.

• Tree growth is often indeterminate; even an adult plant retains tiny regions of embryonic called that are capable of developing into new parts of the plant. Although the plant does grow according to a set of rules (similar to a fractal), the tree is growing new and roots for as long as it is alive. Thus the ultimate exact shape of the tree is not determined in advance, and the growth is said to be indeterminate.

• Ultimately growth is made by dividing cells! Mitosis • Four major phases: prophase, metaphase, anappphase and telophase. • Prophase: chromatin condenses into chromosomes. Sister chromatids are joined at thPhdihdilihe centromere. Prophase ends with dissolution of the nuclear membrane and nucleolus. Prophase is the longest phase of mitosis. • Metaphase: development of the mitotic spindle and the kinetochore. Polar microtubules and kinetochore microtubules are clearly formed. Chromosomes line up on the equatorial plane or metaphase plate.

Tree Growth

• Meristems are reggyions of embryonic tissue capable of growing into new plant parts. Meristems are found in both roots and shoots. – Primary meristems make the or grow longer. This kind of growth is called primary growth. • A shoot apical is found within each . • A root apppical meristem is found at the tip of each root, and is protected by the root cap. – Secondary meristems make the stem or root grow larger in diameter. This kind of growth is called secondthNtllkidfltbldary growth. Not all kinds of plants are capable of . Secondary growth gives rise to , and plants that are not capable of secondary growth do not develop wood. Plant tissues

• Unlike animals, the major organs of plants (roots, stems, and leaves) are all composed of the same three tissues (, vascular tissues, and ground tissues). • Each tissue carries out the same fundamental activities throughout the plant. • Three types of tissues – Epidermis - the exchange of matter between the plant and the environment. • the epidermis on aboveground organs (leaves and stems) is involved with gas exchange • the epidermis on belowground organs (roots) is involved with water and ion uptake – Vascular tissues - the transport of water and dissolved substances inside the plant • the carries water and dissolved ions from the roots to stems and leaves • the carries dissolved sugars from the leaves to all other parts of the plant – Ground tissues - metabolism, storage, and support activities • the of the leaf (called mesophyll) uses the energy in sunlight to synthesize sugars in a process known as • the ground tissue of the stem (called and cortex) develops support cells to hold the young plant upright • the ground tissue of the root (also called cortex) often stores energy- rich • • Growth of plant tissues give rise to complicated structure

Tree Structure Tissues give rise to organs that comprise the structure of the tree

• Shoots – Shoots are made of leaves attached to a stem. • Leaves (singular; plural is leaves) – Leaves are often the primary site of photosynthesis. • Stems – Holds leaves, transports and stores water and nutrients, and is sometimes photosynthetic . • Roots

-- Anchorage, supports the stem -- Absorption of water and minerals -- Storage of sugars

Buds can develop into new shoots. Buds are named according t o wh ere th ey occur on the s hoo t. Eac h s hoo t has an apical bud at the tip of the shoot, as well as an axillary bud associated with each leaf. – Apical Bud • The apical bud is found at tip (or "apex") of the shoot. • This is the point from which the shoot will grow. – Axillar y B uds • The angle between the leaf and stem is called the axil. • There is normally a bud in the axil of each leaf • Axillary buds are of elongating into a new shoot (a ). Therefore there will be a leaf (or a leaf scar) below each branch on a stem. In trees the leaf scars disappear over time, but on young of trees the leaf scars are easy to find. Other kinds of buds

• Adventitious buds • Latent Buds – Lead to epicormic shoots Bud Anatomy

• Apical Meristem • Leaf primordia • procambium Leaves organs of photosynthesis • Relate anatomy of leaf to its primary function of photosynthesis – dioxide + water ------> + oxygen

• Major tissues of the leaf – Epidermis • Transparent- light goes right through (a) Main function - protects against drying out (cuticle) (b) Stomata with guard cells • Function- gas exchange, especially common on lower epidermis – Mesophyll • Site of photosynthesis • Air spaces between cells for gas exchange to each cell – Veins • Xylem- water conduction • Phloem- food conduction • Bundle sheath- one or more layers of fiber cells surrounding a vein; strengthens vein to support leaf • Branching extensive in veins- no mesophyll cell is far from a vein • - loss of water vapor Abscission- leaf fall Leaf Anatomy

• Blade or lamina • • Stipule • Leaf Arrangement • Leaf phyllotaxy • Leaf types Compound Leaves

• Pinnate • Palmate • OtithiOnce, twice thrice Ginko

Leaf Arrangement or Phyllotaxy Inside the leaf Stomata

• Stomata a site of transpiration (water vapor loss) • Generally more on the bottom of the leaf than the top Mineral Nutrition

• Leaves are the window into a plant’ s mineral nutrient status • Macro:NPKSCaMacro:N,P,K,S,Ca, Mg • MiFZBMMicro:Fe,Zn,B,Mn, Ni,Cl, Cu, Mo, Stems and Branches

• Buds lead to the development of branches and main stems • Health and vigor can be determined by the amount of growth observed between buds • Twigs lead to branches and branches lead to the need for Stems

• Functions of Stems – Support leaves and – Conduction of water and sugars throughout plant – Storage of sugars or Tissues of stem

• Epidermis – PtProtecti on – Cuticle to conserve moisture

•Cortex – Store food – Photosynthesis (when stem is green) – Some support cells – pith to store food •Xylem – Conduction of water and minerals – Second function - has stronggppg supporting cells (fibers ) • Phloem – Conduction of sugars, hormones, phytochemicals – Second function - storage Stems with secondary growth

• Devleopment of the is unique to woody plants • The pith gets crushed • It all starts with the Shoot Apical MiMeristem Buds give rise to all the cells that will eventlldtually deve lop woo d wood

• If for no other reason a tree is a tree because of its wood. Wood Phloem<> ---XYLEM------ Wood Sections

Pine

xs rs ts

Carob Quercus , Oak, , basswood

• MajorcelltypeintheMajor cell type in the xylem is the vessel element • They are huge, round, thin walled, hundreds of times larger than trachieds.

Conifers, , cedar etc

• MajorcelltypeintheMajor cell type in the xylem is the trachied. • These are narrow thick walled and long • Trachieds can wood intergrade into fiber trachi e ds an d fibers. (basswood) a riding porous wood Basswood: ring porous The strategy for palms monocots! Reaction Wood

Bottom of tree

Compression wood (Shigo) Wood Reacts

• To internal defects • To pruning wounds • To insects • To forces that pull or push on stems • To gravity Natural Target Pruning

35o

32o ~35o Not So Good Cuts

25o Bad cuts flus h cuts

>35o 44o Included Dealing with codominance A philosophy of pruning

• Pruning should accomplish predetermined goals while striving to limit the formation of decay co lumns w ithin the tree’s major branches and stems. Root

• The root anchors the plant in the soil, absorbs water and mineral nutrients from the soil, and often serves for storage. • Roots are underground, so people don't think very much about them, but they are very important. • Branch Roots – Roots do not have leaves or axillary buds – Branch roots emerge from the inside of the root • Root Hairs – Absorp tion – Found just behind growing tip of root • Root Cap – Protects the delicate tip of the root as it grows through the soil. – Found in front of the root apical meristem. Roots

• Functions – Anchorage – Absorption of water and dissolved minerals – Storagg(e (sur plus su gars trans ported from leaves ) – Conduction • Epidermis – Single layer of cells for protection (from disease organisms) and absorption (water and dissolved minerals)

– Root hairs- tubular extensions of epidermal cells • short lived • greatly increase surface area of root, in contact with soil • confined largely to the region of maturation of the root Roots

•Cortex – Store starch and other substances

– Contain numerous intercellular spaces - air spaces essential for aeration of the root cells (for cellular respiration) • Xylem – Conducts water and dissolved minerals – composed of • a) vessels: tube -like structures composed of hollow elongate cells (vessel members) placed end-to-end and connected by perforations

•a))ggppg tracheids: elongated conducting and supporting cells with tapering and pitted walls without perforations – Upward movement caused by transpiration from the leaves aided by the properties of water: polarity of water molecules, cohesion of water molecules to each other, adhesion to xylem cell walls – VidVery rapid- 2f2 feet/ mi e Roots

• Phloem – Conducts food (dissolved sugar) – Phloem composed of sieve elements (sieve tube members, companion cells) • Sieve tube is a series of sieve tube members arranged end-to-end and interconnected by sieve plates • Movement of sugars up or down through plasmodesmata of sieve elements • One inch/ minute Roots and Root systems Root Anatomy

• There are many kinds of root systems • Some root systems have no hair roots • Ecto and Endomycorrhizae change the root appearance

Mycorrhizae Root Development Roots have some unique structures

• Pericycle – Endodermis • Cortex

• Root showing secondary growth • Pith is gone and crushed.

Secondary STEM, note annual rings phloem differentiation.

• Plants are ppyhotosynthetic -- theyyg gather their food ener gy directly from sunlight • To perform photosynthesis, plants need to have a supply of: – Sunlight – gas from the atmosphere – Water – Mineral nutrients • During photosynthesis, plants release Oxygen, but they need to use oxygen at night and in parts of the plant (like the roots) that do not perform photosynthesis . • The structure of a plant is adapted to gathering the things that the plant needs. Phyygysiology • Photosynthesis

–(6C02 +24H20 + light  C6H12O6 +6O2+18H20) – 3CO2 +6H2OlihtO + light C3H6O3 + 3O2 +3H2O • Respiration

–C6H12O6 + 6O2  6C02 +6H20 +Chem E + Heat • TitiTranspiration – Water loss from plant surfaces due to Ps • Guttation – Water loss from plant surfaces due to Rs • Hormonal regulation of plant growth – , , gibberelin, ethylene, abscisic acid – http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookPLANTH ORM.html Uptake Solute movement

• Symplastic • Apoplastic movement movement ChCohes ion tension theory of water movement Driving force for water movement is at thlhe lea f!

• Asexual Reproduction • BlhiidihiBecause plant growth is indeterminate, each meristem can potentially develop into a complete plant. This means that it is very easy to clone plants, and many plants can grow from cuttings or broken plant parts. This is asexual reproduction (also called vegettitative reprod uc ti)tion). • Sexual Reproduction • Alternation of Generations - plant sexual reproduction is unusual, and involves an alternation between two partially independent life stages. We will discuss this later in the course. • Flowers are special reproductive structures found in the Flowering Plants (=Angiosperms) • AflA flower i s a spec ilidhtdtdfialized shoot, adapted for sexual reprod dtiuction. • A develops from a flower following fertilization. • Other plants perform sexual reproduction, but do not use flowers, and do not form fruit . Flowers

• Zygomorphic – One line of symmetry • Actinomorphic – Radial symmetry • Perfect vs imperfect •Hypo gynous, Peri genous, E pi genous

Lychee flowers

Male female both hermaphrodidic Fruit

• Four types – Simple (, Drupe) • Dehiscent (legume , follicle) • Indehiscent (achene caryopsis, nut) – Aggregate (multiple drupes/drupelets) from a single flower (blackberry) – Multiple ((y)ypineapple, mullberry) many flowers per fruit – Accessory (pome, pepo, bannana) contain tissues derived from parts other than the

http://www.leubner.ch/anatomy.html Seeds cont .

• Are sensitive to attack by fungi, insects , bacteria etc. • May require breakage of dormancy How a germinates Germinated