Journal of Sports Sciences

ISSN: 0264-0414 (Print) 1466-447X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjsp20

Science and the major racket sports: a review

Adrian Lees

To cite this article: Adrian Lees (2003) Science and the major racket sports: a review, Journal of Sports Sciences, 21:9, 707-732, DOI: 10.1080/0264041031000140275

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0264041031000140275

Published online: 13 Jun 2008.

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Download by: [The University of Northampton] Date: 04 October 2015, At: 15:17 ~oumalof Sports Sciences, 2003, 21, 707-732 iTaylor&Francis healthsciences Science and the major racket sports: a review

ADRIAN LEES* Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Henry Cotton Campus, 15-21 Webster Sweet, Liverpool L3 ZET, UK

Accepted 10 May 2003

The major racket sports include badminton, squash, table tennis and tennis. The growth of sports science and the commercialization of racket sports in recent years have focused attention on improved performance and this has led to a more detailed study and understanding of all aspects of racket sports. The aim here, therefore, is to review recent developments of the application of science to racket sports. The scientific disciplines of sports physiology and nutrition, notational analysis, sports biomechanics, sports medicine, sports engineering, sports psychology and motor skills are briefly considered in turn. It is evident from these reviews that a great deal of scientific endeavour has been applied to racket sports, but this is variable across both the racket sports and the scientific disciplines. A scientific approach has helped to: implement training programmes to improve players' fitness; guide players in nutritional and psychological preparation for play; inform players of the strategy and tactics used by themselves and their opponents; provide insight into the technical performance of skills; understand the effect of equipment on play; and accelerate the recovery from racket-arm injuries. Racket sports have also posed a unique challenge to scientists and have provided vehicles for developing scientific methodology. Racket sports provide a good model for investigating the interplay between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism and the effect of nutrition, heat and fatigue on performance. They have driven the development of mathematical solutions for multi-segment interactions within the racket arm during the performance of shots, which have contributed to our understanding of the mechanisms of both performance and injury. They have provided a unique challenge to sports engineers in relation to equipment performance and interaction with the player. Racket sports have encouraged developments in notational analysis both in terms of analytical procedures and the conceptualization of strategy and tactics. Racket sports have provided a vehicle for investigating fast interceptive actions, hand-eye coordination and perception-action coupling in the field of motor control. In conclusion, science has contributed considerably to our knowledge and understanding of racket sports, and racket sports have contributed to science by providing unique challenges to researchers.

Keywords: badminton, racket sports, squash, table tennis, tennis.

Introduction have evolved to describe the various components and

Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015 aspects of play. The major racket sports include badminton, squash, Racket sports have been played for more than 130 table tennis and tennis. These games are characterized years and in this time there have been many develop- by a hand-held racket that is used to propel a missile ments. The commercialization of racket sports in recent between two (or four) players with the purpose of years has focused attention on improved performance placing the missile in such a position that one player is and this has led to a more scientific approach to the unable to return it successfully. They are also study and understanding of all aspects of racket sports. characterized by an area of play that has a specified This development, coupled with greater numbers of size within which the missile must be contained, and individuals with an interest in applying their scientific some hurdle that the missile must be above on each skills to racket sports, has seen a rapid growth in play. The unique sizes and shapes of the area of play, scientific endeavour. This endeavour has had an outlet the hurdle, missile and racket provide the character to in specialized conferences and scientific publications each variant of the game, and within each game terms and covers a wide variety of scientific disciplines, such as sports physiology and numtion, notational analysis, sports biomechanics, sports medicine, sports engineer- * e-mail: [email protected] ing, sports psychology and motor skills. There has never

Journal of Sports Sciences ISSN 0264-0414 print1ISSN 1466-447X online 0 2003 Taylor & Francis Ltd DOI: lO.l080/026404 lO3lOOOl4O27S Lees

been a comprehensive attempt to ove~ewcurrent durations of 20-90 min are more common across all trends and developments in these areas related to racket racket sports. In addition, the duration of rallies can be sports. The aim here is to review recent developments as short as 1.5 s or as long as 10 min (both in squash; in the application of science to racket sports. Sharp, 1998), although periods of 3-10 s are more common across all racket sports. Since the intensity of effort is greatest during a rally, the length of the rally is Sports physiology and nutrition important to the energy systems utilized. Sharp (1998) has classified the length of rallies into three categories: The activity in racket sports is intermittent and the those that last less than 5 s, those that last 6-20 s physiological demand is determined largely by the and those that last for more than 20 s. These time surface, equipment, missile characteristics, extent to classifications relate to the anaerobic and aerobic energy which the game is contested and by environmental sources available to the player, all of which need to be factors such as temperature and humidity. Players can able to deliver higher rates of energy conversion as the modify the physiological demand by controlling the rest standard of competition improves. The work : rest ratio intervals between rallies and between games and sets. A of rallies determines the demand of the game; these major determinant of the outcome of the game is an have been reported to be around 0.5, but with some individual's physical fitness, which can be influenced by variation between the racket sports and between hydration and nutritional status, and so measuring and standards of play (Reilly, 1990). monitoring these factors have been a major interest to Cardiorespiratory fitness has been traditionally mea- researchers. Research interest has also focused on sured by maximal oxygen uptake and a range of values training regimens to develop fitness to compete at for racket players have been reported by Reilly (1990); specific levels of competition, and the training effect of more recent data from the literature are summarized in recreational play with regard to the health benefits of Table 1. These data confirm that racket sports physical activity. participants possess mainly moderate aerobic capabil- The duration of competition in racket sports can vary ities, suggesting that these sports are aerobic in nature, from as little as 6 min in squash (Sharp, 1998) to 5 h or but the range is large so that it is difficult to reach more more in tennis (McCarthy-Davey, 2000), although specific conclusions. This variation may be due to

Table 1. Maximal oxygen uptake (ml . kg-' . min-') in racket players

Sex n Elite* Regional Club Recreational

Badminton Hughes (1 995) Dias and Gosh (1995)

Tennis Christrnass et al. (1995)

Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015 Reilly and Palmer (1995) Bernardi et al. (1998)

Squash Hansen (1 995) 43.7 Reilly and Halsall (1995) 58.8 49.4 (age 42 years) 33.3 (age 45 years) Mellor et al. (1995)

Mahoney and Sharp (1 995) 52.6 (age 17 years) Todd and Mahoney (1995) 63.3

Table tennis Segun and Toriola (2002)

*Elite represents national and international players and world-ranked professional players. Science and the major racket sports

differences between protocols or equipment used and match are close to the age-related maximum expected, so within-study comparisons are potentially more and the average over the match often exceeds 75% of informative. In this regard, Brown et al. (1998) studied this maximum, indicating a high effort during play (see the transition from elite junior to elite senior squash. Table 2). These data suggest that there is some They reported that elite senior players had a 7-9% variability in heart rate between the racket sports and greater capacity to consume oxygen than elite junior between standards of play, with the highest heart rate players, suggesting that as well as technical and tactical values being in high standards of play in badminton and differences that affect the transition, physiological squash (confirming data presented by Reilly, 1990). factors also play an important role. One unique aspect The relatively high mean heart rates expected for most of this study within the racket sports literature was that standards of play also suggest that racket sports provide the researchers used allometric scaling to normalize a suitable basis for health-related exercise. their oxygen consumption data. They recognized that Physiological stress is also associated with the these data are influenced by body mass, but that a accumulation of lactate in blood. During rest, a blood scaling exponent of 0.67 rather than the normal 1.00 lactate concentration of 1-2 mrnol.1-' is expected should be used. This adjustment did not affect their (Bergeron et al., 1991; Christmass et al., 1995: Reilly general conclusion but did reduce the magnitude of the and Palmer, 1995), while during play it is around 3- difference between elite junior and elite senior squash. 4 mmol .l-' (Sharp, 1998), which reflects the aerobic This may in turn have an influence on the training nature of racket sports. However, during intense programmes elite junior players undertake to ensure competition and particularly towards the end of the their successful transition to the senior game, with match, blood lactate concentrations can exceed perhaps less effort spent on the development of aerobic 10 mmol .lP1 in squash (Sharp, 1998) and in tennis capacity and more effort spent on technical and tactical (Bergeron et al., 1991). At least one author (Mikkleson, developments than would otherwise have been the case. 1979) has suggested that blood lactate concentration This conclusion may be relevant to the optimal training can be affected by hydration, as over 2.5 1.h ' of fluid of potential elite players. may be lost during a match. In tennis, blood lactate Physiological stress is associated with the elevation of concentrations in excess of 7-8 mmol .l-' have been heart rate and reflects the effort expended during short associated with a decline in technical and tactical intense bouts of play. The heart rate generally increases performance (McCarthy-Davey, 2000). In contrast, rapidly at the onset of a match and remains elevated, the highest blood lactate concentrations in competitive with a tendency to increase further as the match badminton have been reported to be no more than progresses (Fig. 1). Maximal heart rates during the 5 mmol-1' . The reason for this is not clear, but may Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Time (min)

Fig. 1. The oxygen uptake (@) and heart rate (0)of a baseline tennis player while playing against another baseline player illustrating how these change as play progresses (adapted from Bernardi et al., 1998, with permission). Lees

Table 2. Heart rates as a percentage of age-related maximum heart rate in racket players

Sex n

Badminton Hughes (1 995) (over 85% of duration of play) Mikkleson (1979) (elite players) Dias and Gosh (1995) (elite junior players)

Tennis Chrisunass et al. (1995) (regional players) Reilly and Palmer (1995) (club standard) Bernardi et al. (1998) (86% for baseline play, 63% for attacking play) Ferrauti et al. (1998) (seniors - mean age 59 years) Therrninarias et al. (1995) (hot environment)

Squash Reilly and Halsall (1995) (young club players - mean age 22 years) (older club players - mean age 42 years) (older recreational players - mean age 45 years) Graydon et al. (1998) (young club players)

well simply reflect the fewer data available in this game. squash players (Sharp, 1998), although lower values of During a training session, Hughes (1 995) manipulated around 500 N have been reported by Todd and the work:rest ratio and found that for a work time of Mahoney (1995). Sharp suggested that a range of 20 s and a work: rest ratio of 0.5, blood lactate 400450 N for men and 300-350 N for women is increased to 7.2 mrnol.1-'. The association between required to ensure that the racket is held firmly during intensity of effort and blood lactate concentration has play. In elite junior male squash players, Mahoney and been reported by Sharp (1998). He observed blood Sharp (1 995) reported an asymmetry in grip strength lactate concentrations during a highly contested game with the dominant limb being 13% stronger than the of squash. At one point during the fourth game, one non-dominant limb. In elite tennis players, Kibler and player was close to winning the match and made a great Chandler (1989) reported a hand grip strength of effort to win. His blood lactate concentration at the end 600 N and a greater grip endurance than for non-tennis of the game increased to 9.2 mmol - 1-' (preceding that players. They also found that grip strength and grip it did not exceed 4 mmol-lp' ), but the effort was not endurance did not correlate well and suggested that enough to win the game. In the final game, the player both should be measured. Kramer and Knudson (1992) was observed to slow the pace to give himself a chance reported that the mean grip strength of junior college to recover; at the end of the game, his blood lactate male and female tennis players was 467 N and 300 N, Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015 concentration dropped to 5.7 mmol . 1-', an indication respectively, and that these values did not change of the physiological success of his strategy. However, he significantly over 30 maximal trials, which led the was too fatigued to win the final game and lost the authors to consider these tennis players to be resistant match. Sharp (1998) commented on the adage that one to fatigue. The greater grip strength and grip endurance should not be merciful to a tiring opponent who may of elite tennis players (males 509 Nj females 377 N) recover given time, with lower blood lactate and over non-tennis players has recently been confirmed by renewed vigour and confidence. Davey (2002), although not all of these differences were Muscle strength and endurance, joint range of significant. Other measures of strength have been motion and flexibility have been identified by Chandler reported. Using a back and leg dynamometer, Reilly (1998) as other important elements of fitness for the and Benton (1995) reported that female regional tennis racket player. Data on grip strength have been more players had 40% greater back strength and 15% greater widely reported than these other characteristics, possi- leg strength than club players. Todd and Mahoney bly due to its ease of measurement and its obvious (1995) reported data on muscle endurance, as indicated importance for holding and controlling the racket. Grip by the number of sit-ups completed in one minute, but strength is evaluated using a hand grip dynamometer again no comparative data are available. Laboratory and values as high as 600 N have been reported in elite studies have also been conducted to evaluate muscle Science and the major racket sports

strength using a muscle function dynamometer. (1995) reported data on female tennis players who Chandler et al. (1992) reported that female college were asked to play a hard tennis match under hot tennis players produced a significantly higher strength conditions (28°C) with limited fluid intake. They during internal rotation in the dominant arm than the reported elevations in heart rate, rectal temperature non-dominant arm and this difference was attributed to and fluid loss. Some of their participants suffered from the stretch-shorten muscle action required in the tennis cramps and heat stroke, which were thought to be also serve (see 'Biomechanics' section below). Although related to their biological status (low plasma magne- considered an important aspect of fimess, it is surpris- sium and calcium concentrations, decreased ability to ing that there are such limited laboratory-based data on utilize blood glucose) before the match. It is clear that racket players' strength. Flexibility is often measured by heat is an important factor affecting play, but no data a simple sit-and-reach test, with Reilly and Benton are available on the tolerance and adaptations of (1995) reporting greater flexibility in regional female players. This is particularly important as players move tennis players than club tennis players. However, in from one thermal environment to another for compe- elite junior tennis players, Kibler et al. (1988), using titive purposes. both sit-and-reach and goniometric measurements, Dehydration is one of the more direct consequences reported a high incidence of poor flexibility in the of playing in the heat and there has been much interest trunk, lower limb and upper limb. Chandler et al. in the effects of hydration status on performance in (1990) reported tennis players were less flexible than racket games, particularly as fluid intake is one of the non-tennis athletes in the shoulder and arm joints. main strategies for coping with performance in the Chandler (1995) suggested that the reduced flexibility heat and delaying the onset of fatigue (Kay and in the upper limb is a reflection of the adaptations that Marino, 2000). Kavasis (1995) tried to determine the players make to the repetitive, short-duration, high- fluid needs of young children playing practice and velocity musculoskeletal demands of tennis and one competitive tennis in a warm environment and might expect similar characteristics in other racket sport reported that when fluid was freely available, children players. In squash, Todd and Mahoney (1995) reported drank an average of 0.43 of a litre over a 90 min sit-and-reach data for elite male players but no match. This was generally sufficient for their needs, comparisons were made. Locke et al. (1997) stated that but during competitive play there was a tendency to the precise requirements for strength and flexibility in drink less and fluid intake was below the calculated squash have not been documented and no further data replacement needs, suggesting a danger of dehydra- appear to be available in the subsequent literature for tion. McCarthy et al. (1 998) also investigated the fluid squash players or, indeed, badminton and table tennis losses and intakes for young tennis players. They players. reported a fluid intake of 1.09 litres over an average of Environmental temperature plays a large part in the 86 min of play, although the temperature and humid- physiological stress that a player experiences. While ity were greater than in the study of Kavasis (1 995). In indoors games can be played in an air-conditioned tennis, players are able to drink fluids frequently environment, this is generally only available at the because of the breaks in play as they change ends, but highest standards of play. Furthermore, games such as the same is not true in the other racket sports and so tennis are mostly played out of doors in the summer hypohydration may become more of a problem. In and court surface temperatures during a tournament squash, Brown et al. (1998) investigated the fluid loss Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015 can exceed surrounding air temperatures because of the of elite players during international competition in a enclosed nature of the stadium and reflection of radiant hot and humid environment. Although players were energy. Despite this, there has been little reported able to drink freely during the match, they still lost an research into the direct effects of temperature. One average of 2.37 1 . h-l, with a fluid deficit (after having exception is the study of Hansen (1995), who examined ingested fluid) of 1.5 1- hpl. They also found that fluid the change in physiological responses over a squash loss was directly dependent on the duration and playing season where temperatures ranged from an intensity of play and by the environmental conditions average of 16 to 27°C. He computed a 'discomfort within the court. These data were used to inform pre-, index' based on dry and wet bulb temperatures to take intra- and post-match hydration strategies. account of both temperature and humidity. He found Fatigue develops as the duration and intensity of that as the discomfort index increased, so did average physical exertion increase during racket play and is heart rate, post-exercise rectal temperature and sweat affected by environmental temperature and hydration loss. The rating of perceived exertion increased, but not status, as already discussed, as well as initial core significantly, suggesting that players adjusted their temperature and degree of acclimatization (Kay and intensity of play to cope with the increasingly demand- Marino, 2000). Fatigue affects the performance of ing environmental conditions. Therminarias et al. racket skills and is manifest by poor positional play and 712 Lees

by mistimed or mis-hit shots, which lead to a decline in from 4.3 to 2.7 mmol - 1-'. The lower blood lactate the accuracy of shots played. Vergauwen et al. (1998) concentration would have beneficial effects on fatigue found that after a strenuous training match over 2 h, and the performance of skilled shots as noted above. errors in playing both ground strokes and first serves Chandler (1995) recommended that a training pro- increased. Davey et al. (2002) reported that during an gramme should include strength and conditioning as exhaustive tennis simulation test, tennis players' hitting well as aerobic and anaerobic components. He outlined accuracy of ground strokes decreased gradually to end the detail of such a programme that contains activity up 69% lower than at the start, while service accuracy to designed to improve muscle strength, endurance, the right court declined by 30% at the end of the test flexibility and aspects of aerobic fitness and agility. (although, interestingly, service accuracy to the left Conditioning programmes have been designed specifi- court was unaffected). The tennis test used induced cally for the development of speed, quickness and agility volitional fatigue in just 35 min and yielded a blood for senior tennis players (Miller et nl., 2001) and for lactate concentration of 9.6 mmol - 1-', an average heart improving the ability to lunge in tennis (McClellan and rate of nearly 100% maximum and a rating of perceived Buggy 1999). exertion of a maximum of 20. Clearly under this Nutritional status is important for success in racket regimen of testing, players were required to perform at play, as it affects a player's ability to train, play and levels that would not be sustained during a game. This recover from exercise. The total energy requirements of research led the authors to propose guidelines for racket sports are similar, apart from squash, for which players in training to not exceed a blood lactate they are higher than the others (Reilly, 1990; Mach- concentration of 8 mmol.ll, a heart rate of 180 ren, 1998). The energy expended must be replaced by beats - min-' and a rating of perceived exertion of 16. food intake to prevent loss in body mass, so an In contrast, Ferrauti et al. (2001) found that in a 30 shot additional energy intake of up to 9000 kJ. day-' may intermittent tennis speed and accuracy test, as the be required (MacLaren, 1998). The extra energy intake duration of recovery decreased from 15 to 10 s, blood is best in the form of carbohydrate, as the nature of lactate reached 9.0 mmol I-' but the number of target racket play (intermittent bursts of intense activity lasting hits increased and the number of errors decreased, for many minutes) is such that the main source of suggesting that even under this amount of fatigue energy is muscle glycogen. Nutritional strategies such players were still able to perform skilfully. Nevertheless, as glycogen loading in the few days leading up to a this retention of skill is not likely to remain for longer competition have been of value in a range of sports and periods of play and the effect of progressive fatigue is are likely to have the same benefits in racket sports, that tennis skills will deteriorate. It may be supposed although this does not appear to have been specifically that the same effect would be evident in other racket demonstrated. MacLaren cautioned against ingesting sports. carbohydrates too close to the start of a game, but Training regimens have been designed on the basis of carbohydrate supplementation during play is consid- the physiological data reported above, which place ered beneficial. Several studies have shown that players under similar physiological demands to those consuming drinks with the correct content of water, which they would experience during the game, so that carbohydrate and electrolytes, for optimal absorption by they will improve their aerobic and anaerobic fitness in the gut, can lengthen the duration of exercise con- a context appropriate to the game. Davey (2002) siderably. McCarthy-Davey (2000) summarized the Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015 described an intermittent test used for tennis. This test small number of studies on tennis in which the effect is unusual as it is designed to elicit exhaustion quite of carbohydrate supplementation during play has been rapidly and uses a work time of 40 s and a work:rest investigated. The findings are mainly positive, with ratio of 6. Sharp (1998) described the practice of reports of improved alertness, concentration and 'shadow training' in squash in which a player has to coordination and reduced errors through play. Graydon follow an imaginary opponent around the court. Several et al. (1998) investigated the effect of a carbohydrate work times (30-60 s) and work : rest ratios (0.5 : 2) were drink on shot accuracy in squash. They tested shot used that produced similar blood lactate concentrations accuracy before and after a simulated game in which and heart rates as would be found in a competitive players had access to a carbohydrate drink or placebo. match, thereby confirming that the training modality Those players who used the carbohydrate drink main- was a suitable training stimulus for competitive play. tained their accuracy at the end of the third game and Hughes and Fullerton (1995) described an aerobic test were 19% better than those who had taken the placebo for badminton that used a work time of 3 min and a drink. Similar results have been reported by Davey work: rest ratio of just under 0.4. They reported that (2001) for the performance of tennis skills. Carbohy- after training using this protocol, blood lactate con- drates should also form the basis of post -match meals, centration following the test procedure was reduced which helps in the restoration of muscle and liver Science and the major racket sports

glycogen. Other nutritional requirements, such as Notational analysis protein, vitamins and minerals, are capable of being met through a varied diet (MacLaren, 1998). Notational analysis is the process of recording and Specific substances may affect metabolic and neuro- analysing the movements made by players during play muscular functioning. One such substance is caffeine and has been widely applied to racket sports. The data and its effect on female tennis players has been collected are related to the position, action, time and investigated by Ferrauti and Weber (1 998). The effect outcome of an event in the game; consequently, of caffeine has been reported as equivocal across a range notational analysis is characterized by an extraordinarily of sports and in this study the authors also reported that large amount of data. Recent developments in technol- a dose of 364 mg for men and 260 mg for women ogy have had a major influence on the way in which during a tennis match had no major effects on their these data are collected, analysed and fed back to the performance. They did suggest that caffeine may have coach and player. Early attempts at notational analysis some small effect on the regulation of blood glucose at used a hand notation system (in squash; Sanderson and the start of play, which may benefit players who Way, 1977), but the introduction of computers and frequently complain of hypoglycaemic symptoms early graphical user interfaces in the last decade has in the game, and that the stimulating effect of caffeine transformed the process. The development of generic may have a positive effect on players' perceptions of computer packages has enabled customized notation their competitiveness at the end of a long match. systems to be designed. Consequently, researchers have Concern about the misuse of other substances has led tended to develop and use systems for their own international governing bodies to instigate anti-doping requirements, which has led to a range of systems programmes. Kahn (2002) described the programme in being used to analyse racket sports. The reliability of operation by the International Table Tennis Federation customized notation systems is generally high, particu- (ITTF), with an average of 50 samples being taken at larly if a single researcher who has a good knowledge each major World or Olympic championship since and understanding of the game operates the system 1990. (Wilson and Barnes, 1998; O'Donoghue and Ingram, In summary, although much is known about the 2001). Hughes (1 998) identified five main functions of general physiological demands of racket play and the notational analysis: (i) analysis of movement, (ii) physiological characteristics of players, there are many tactical evaluation, (iii) technical evaluation, (iv) data- gaps in the literature, particularly in connection with base development and modelling, and (v) educational table tennis. This may be because the physiological use for player and coach, all of which have some role in requirements are less in table tennis, which uses the improvement of performance in racket sports. lightweight equipment, a small court area and typically Notational analysis has become a sophisticated tool has matches of shorter duration. It is clear that activity for data collection and racket sports are highly suitable in racket sports is intermittent in nature and games are for its use. contested in a way that allows players to adjust the The analysis of movement has led to a better duration of rest to suit their physical fitness. Players understanding of the demands players are exposed to need good aerobic fitness because the duration of the in the performance of racket sports. Information of this game is relatively long, but also good anaerobic fitness type has been reported earlier in terms of work times because of the short periods of high-intensity play. The and work: rest ratios in tennis, squash and badminton. Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015 available physiological data can be used to formulate This information has had a direct impact on the design training programmes to provide an appropriate train- of training regimens for improved fitness. In badmin- ing stimulus whether it be for health or competitive ton, Liddle and O'Donoghue (1998) used a computer- benefits. Fatigue develops as the game progresses and ized notation system to establish the general shot errors increase. As in most sports - other things being characteristics of the men's and ladies' events during equal - the greater the sport-specific fitness, the more the 1996 season. They found that average rally lengths likely it is that a player will win. Players may develop ranged fkom 6.35 to 9.15 s and rest periods fkom 11.O3 strategies of play to exploit the inferior fitness or to 15.01 s, with the longer rally associated with the greater fatigue of their opponent, or in turn may shorter rest period. The differences they noted between develop strategies to defend against their own fitness the men's and ladies' game led them to suggest that or fatigue. It appears that the effects of fatigue are there should be different training regimens for men and increased as environmental temperature and humidity women. An analysis of the same tournament a year later increase, but can be delayed by appropriate nutritional (O'Donoghue, 2000) showed some important differ- planning, which includes pre-, intra- and post-match ences between the two seasons. Of particular note is the strategies based around the ingestion of carbohydrates average duration of men's single rallies, which was and fluids. reduced from 9.15 s to 6.70 s. More recently, Pritchard Lees

et al. (2001) reported average men's rally times at the Tactical evaluation of play is a major area of interest 1999 and 2000 Welsh Open (a similar standard of play) to notational analysts. In tennis, it is thought that the as 7.27 and 8.11 s, respectively. An analysis of world- serve has a major influence on the outcome of the game class performances (Carbello and Gonzalez-Badillo, and Furlong (1995) investigated differences between 2003) reported a mean rally length of 6.40 s. These male and female players in singles and doubles events. data indicate that there is some variability in play The serve was more dominant in the men's than the between tournaments even at the same standard of ladies' game and in doubles than singles. Furthermore, play. In tennis, particularly on slower surfaces (ITF he analysed the men's singles from 1979 to 1992 and category 1 surface such as clay and synthetic), players found little change in the importance of the serve over often 'run around a shot' to play a shot on their this period. Furlong concluded that the advance of forehand rather than backhand (an inside out forehand) equipment technology and improved player fitness and and it would be expected that this would have an effect strength had little effect on the effectiveness of the on the recovery of a player back to the central position. serve. World championship tennis is characterized by Hughes and Moore (1998) examined whether this play on different surfaces and it is well known in the movement influenced the end of rally result. There game that the grass surface is 'fast' while the clay and were few occasions (less than 4%) when the player did synthetic surfaces are 'slow'. Consequently, there has not regain the ready position. However, the more steps been much interest in the effect of surface on tennis a player had to take to play a shot, the less likely he or play. Surprisingly, Furlong (1995) found that there was she was to win the rally. Not surprisingly, positional no significant difference in the speed of the court (grass inadequacies place the player under greater stress, vs clay) on the dominance of the serve. Hughes and which results in reduced success. O'Donoghue and Clarke (1995) examined the difference in patterns of Ingram (2000) examined the strategies used by elite play between grass and synthetic surfaces as used in the male and female players on different surfaces in Grand Wimbledon and Australian Open tournaments. There Slam tournaments. Women's rallies were significantly were fewer shots per rally and shorter rally lengths on longer than men's rallies and rallies on a clay surface grass. The time of play was similar between the two were significantly longer than those on hardcourt or surfaces, which meant that the rest time between rallies grass, with the longer rally duration being associated was longer on grass, perhaps reflecting the shorter but with a greater proportion of baseline rallies. In squash, more intense play on grass. The success of the serve was Hughes and Knight (1995) examined the effect of two not influenced by the surface, in agreement with different scoring systems on the playing patterns of elite Furlong (1995), but 11% more returns were produced players. The English system of scoring only allows a on the synthetic surface. There were more winners and player to gain a point when he or she holds service, fewer errors hit on grass than on the synthetic surfaces while the point-per-rally scoring, introduced in 1988, and play was closer to the net on grass but closer to the allows the player who wins a rally to gain a point baseline on the synthetic surface, both findings reflect- regardless of whether serving or not. This change was ing the more attacking game associated with the faster introduced to make the game more attractive to grass surface. These results were supported by O'Do- television audiences and it was expected that rallies noghue and Liddle (1998b), who reported that in would be shorter and there would be less defensive ladies' singles tennis, more points were won at the net play. The length of rallies remained unchanged, but and there were fewer baseline rallies when playing on Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015 there was an increase in attacking play and a reduction grass compared with clay. In a later study, O'Donoghue in 1etJstroke appeals, which would support the idea that and Ingram (2000) found that players were more point-per-rally scoring would lead to a more appealing successful when they moved to the net as a part of an game for television audiences. In table tennis, Dria- attacking ploy, and were less successful when drawn to novski and Otcheva (2002) reported on the shots used the net by their opponent. In 1996, two new types of and shot reliability (the number of a shot type played ball were introduced so as to slow down the 'fast' grass that was successful as a percentage) at the 1998 World surface at Wirnbledon and speed up the 'slow' clay Championships and found that this ranged from 78% surface at Roland Garros. O'Donoghue and Liddle for the top spin shot to 34% for the drop shot. Takeuchi (1998a) reported that despite the performance char- et al. (2002) used notational analysis to investigate the acteristics of these new types of ball, the rally length on effect of the newly introduced 40 mm ball (compared clay was still significantly longer than on grass (Fig. 2). with the previous 38 mrn ball), which increased the However, the mean rally length at Wimbledon in 1996 number of shots in a rally by 10-32% within the various was significantly longer (3.69 s) than that reported in events. This finding would support the rationale for the 1992 (2.52 s; Hughes and Clarke, 1995), suggesting introduction of the larger ball, which was to produce a that the new types of ball did have some effect on better experience for spectators. playing characteristics on grass. Science and the major racket sports

% Points Rallies <= 6 s duration Clay: 47.31% 50 - Grass: 61.42% 0 Clay

40 -

30 -

20 - -I-

TL.n --.,-, , , , , . , I......

Rally Length (s)

% Points Rallies <= 6 s duration Clay: 65.57% Grass: 87.78%

Rally Length (s)

Fig. 2. (a) Distribution of rally lengths in ladies' singles tennis. (b) Distribution of rally lengths in men's singles tennis (reproduced with permission from O'Donoghue and Liddle, 1998a). Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015

The technical proficiency of players can be evaluated volume of data available from notational analysis. using notational analysis, although there have been Using data from squash, Hughes and Robertson fewer studies of this area of application. Taylor and (1998) tried to define a template for the men's game Hughes (1998) compared the patterns of play of elite (Fig. 3). Their goals were to define the general junior squash players from Britain, Europe and North characteristics of play of elite players in competition America. They were able to establish that British players and to provide data on: patterns of play (rally length, had technical deficiencies on their backhand when number of shots, shots per rally, time of rally and so playing ground strokes. They were better than the on); distribution of serves, long and short shots, and Europeans when volleying but less skilled than the volleys; positional information on players when specific Americans, who had a better all-round technical ability shots were played; and the tactical response of a player and were able to adapt easily to different surfaces and to shots played into the back and front corners. Recent different tactics. There would seem to be scope for reports (e.g. Lynch et al., 2001; Wells and Hughes, more application in this area. 2001) have extended these tactical models to cover Database development and the modelling and elite female senior and junior squash play, respectively, prediction of performance are practical due to the and provide a database for future comparisons. The Lees

Drop 28%

Boast Boast Drive 7% 12% Drive

Cross

18%

Fig. 3. Patterns of shots played by elite squash players from the comers of the court (reproduced with permission from Hughes and Robertson, 1998).

stability of tactical play over time was investigated by quantitative feedback from a notation system, while the 0'Donoghue (200 I), who compared several character- other received qualitative feedback from a video replay. istics of Grand Slam tennis play from one season to The quantitative analysis of some preliminary matches another (1997-98 to 1998-99) and found that, for enabled the researchers to provide specific information most variables studied, there was little difference on areas of weakness to each group, but they noted no between the two seasons. He concluded that the difference between the groups in their subsequent play process of notational analysis was sufficiently robust to as a result of the intervention process. Murray et al. be used as a research tool. With this in mind, Hughes (1998) also investigated the effect of detailed quantita- (1998) noted that the models defined for elite men's tive feedback on the performance of elite and sub-elite squash have changed over time as players have become squash players and found evidence of an improvement fitter and the equipment has improved. He reported in performance as a result of the feedback intervention. that over a period of 15 years, the number of shots per They suggested that this is an important research area rally has decreased from 20 to 14. A model that would for which a larger controlled study should be con- predict the outcome of competition squash was ducted. developed by McGarry and Franks (1995). They used In summary, notational analysis is a tool that has a stochastic model of squash play to decide the been widely applied to study a variety of aspects of outcome of each shot played in a rally and applied racket sports. As a tool it is generally considered reliable this from the quarter finals stage of a national Open if applied by experienced operators who have some Tournament. The decision regarding the outcome of understanding of the game they are notating. Nota-

Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015 each shot was based on the outcome data of actual tional analysis has helped to establish a range of game shots played by each player, which allowed a prob- characteristics that have been useful in defining training ability matrix to be outlined for each player depicting practices and strategic aspects of play. It has been the likely shot response to each preceding condition. applied for a sufficiently long time to enable evolu- The results of the modelling were remarkably success- tionary features within the racket sports to be detected. ful, suggesting that a player's playing profile from past Research effort has been devoted to defining tactical performances can be used to predict the outcome of models of play for different levels of the game. While future events. The authors suggested that this type of this is mainly evident in squash, it is clearly a significant model may be used to identifl optimal tactical role for notational analysis and future effort should be strategies for adoption against a particular opponent. devoted to widening this approach to cover different Despite its attractiveness, the idea does not appear to standards of play and all racket sports. Although have been developed further. notational analysis has promise in many directions, Intervention to improve players' knowledge and one - its use to provide feedback to players and coaches understanding of the game has been used in squash to - has received less attention. This reflects the con- determine whether this type of feedback can influence ceptual and practical difficulty associated with this task, their performance. Brown and Hughes (1995) studied but is a worthy goal for future notational analysis two small groups of players, one of which received research. Science and the major racket sports

Biomechanics drive (Elliott et al., 1989a), the tennis forehand drive (Elliott et al., 1989b) and the tennis volley (Elliott et al., Biomechanics is that branch of sports science that tries 1988). An extension of the basic three-dimensional to identify the mechanical characteristics that affect approach has been made by Bahamonde (2000), who performance and cause injury. It is concerned with the computed the angular momentum of body segments technique used to perform various skills. The advance during the tennis serve. Angular momentum was built of technology in recent years has enabled detailed three- up in the trunk and transferred to the racket arm so that dimensional kinematic analyses of racket skills to be at impact the arm and racket had 75% of the total undertaken. It has also allowed selected kinetic char- angular momentum generated. There appear to be no acteristics of racket skills to be established. These basic three-dimensional data on skills in any of the other methods of investigation have enabled biomechanists to racket sports. There has, however, been substantial investigate the underlying mechanisms used in per- research interest in the detailed way in which fast shots forming racket skills. (like the serve in tennis and the smash in badminton) Qualitative technique analysis has been used fre- are made, especially in relation to the importance of quently to study the skills of racket players, aided by the wrist flexion, pronation of the forearm and endorotation use of high-speed cine film to observe the detail of fast of the upper arm. To examine these characteristics of shots. The most notable early research was by movement, a specialized marker system and analysis Plagenhoef (1971), who reported on the patterns of method are required. The first attempt to do this was movement in tennis slulls. This enabled players and reported by van Gheluwe et al. (1987), who investigated coaches for the first time to understand the complexity the tennis serve. They attached several markers to the of movement associated with fast powerful actions like wrist, elbow and upper arm and fiom the reconstructed the serve. Subsequently, there was substantial research three-dimensional location of these markers during the effort into badminton by Gowitzke and Waddle (1979, performance of the tennis serve they were able to 1986), who used cine film at 400 Hz to analyse quantify the magnitude of pronation of the forearm and qualitatively fast overhead and underarm strokes. By endorotation of the upper arm, both of which were placing tape along the length of the forearm, they were considered important to the production of a high-speed able to establish that racket-head speed in the power racket head. Using a similar approach, Tang et al. strokes was derived substantially fiom rotation of the (1995) examined the kinematics of the badminton forearm about its longitudinal axis. Furthermore, their forehand smash. They reported on forearm pronation, qualitative analyses were able to establish the specific wrist flexion-extension and ulnar and radial deviation, technique used in many badminton strokes and in and found that although there is considerable wrist joint several cases they were able to show that the way in motion about its two axes of rotation, the most which players actually performed contradicted coaching important was pronation of the forearm. They further descriptions found in the literature. Specifically, these suggested that the increased supination of the forearm were to do with the importance of wrist flexion, just before its rapid pronation constituted a stretch- pronation of the forearm and endorotation of the upper shorten cycle, which served to enhance the speed of the arm. The qualitative analysis method described above, movement as referred to below. when combined with a good knowledge of underlying A mathematical analysis method for obtaining all biomechanical principles, can be a powerful tool and rotations of the arm segment was presented by Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015 Lees (2001) has illustrated how this may be applied to Sprigings et al. (1994). A series of markers was used badminton using the slower but more affordable video to define segment positions and orientations (Fig. 4), recordings. A three-dimensional qualitative analysis for which allowed a full three-dimensional description of the forehand stroke in table tennis has been described segment rotations, including flexion-extension, abduc- by Kasai and Mori (1998), illustrating the specific and tion-adduction and internal-external rotation of the basic techniques used by players, while some general upper arm, lower arm and hand. This method allowed descriptions and principles of movement for striking the relative importance of individual segment motion to skills in general have been outlined by Elliott (2000). end-point velocity to be determined and, when applied Quantitative technique analysis has developed as a to the tennis serve, showed that the greatest contribu- result of technological advances and in particular has tion to final speed of the racket head was upper arm allowed three-dimensional analysis to be undertaken. internal rotation (29%), followed by wrist flexion Basic three-dimensional analyses of racket skills have (25%), upper arm horizontal adduction (23%), forearm established some data for joint angles, linear and pronation (14%) and forward movement of the angular velocities and ball speeds for the tennis serve shoulder (9%). These results contradict earlier reports (van Gheluwe and Hebbelinck, 1985; Elliott et al., about the importance of forearm pronation, but one 1986; Papadopoulis et al., 2000), the tennis backhand might expect the more detailed analysis of Sprigings et Lees

Fig. 4. Location of the markers on the upper limb and racket of the tennis player (reproduced with permission from Sprigings et al., 1994).

al. to be the more accurate. This method was used by velocity, including the role of forearm pronation, means Elliott et al. (1995) to examine the tennis serve in more that these should be taken into account when coaching detail. They reported the same order of importance as racket skills and developing training or injury preven- above, although the percentages differed slightly. They tion programmes. A second mechanism underpinning also reported that the elbow extension played a negative performance is the stretch-shorten cycle. When a role (-14%) by reducing the forward velocity of the muscle and tendon complex is pre-loaded and then centre of the racket at impact. A similar approach by stretched, it can generate a greater force at the start of Wang et al. (2000) led to a rather different conclusion. the forward movement than if it were not pre-loaded. For the flat serve in tennis, they concluded that the Enhancement of performance in arm movements can power of the serve (presumably racket head velocity) be as high as 22% (Elliott et al., 1999) but is reduced as comes from the rotation and bending of the trunk and the time interval between the stretch and the shortening elbow extension and is in partial agreement with the motions increases beyond 1 s. This has wide applica- findings of Bahamonde (2000). Clearly, there are some tion to many skills and although no specific research issues of interpretation that need further attention. The appears to have been conducted on racket shots, Elliott method of Sprigings et al. has been used to examine the (2000) commented on the likely role that this has effects of upper limb contributions to velocity of the during the tennis serve backswing, where the muscles racket head in the forehand drive in squash (Elliott et that cross the elbow and shoulder joints are stretched. It al., 1996) and the effect of the forehand grip on upper may also be used in the rapid forearm supination- Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015 limb contributions to racket head velocity in a tennis pronation movement referred to by Tang et al. (1995) forehand shot (Elliott et al., 1997), but appears to date above. not to have been applied to other shots in tennis or The kinetic analysis of racket skills has received less squash or other racket sports. attention. In relation to performance, there has been an The mechanisms underlying performance have been interest in the effect of grip forces on the interaction investigated using kinematic methods. One is the between tennis racket and ball, but Elliott (1995) sequence of movements made in a multi-segment concluded that a high grip force is not the major factor action, the proximal-to-distal sequence, widely applic- in controlling post-impact ball velocity for centrally hit able to actions that require high end-point velocity such balls, although it is important if balls are hit off-centre. as shots in racket sports. The data referred to above In relation to injury, the way a racket is gripped is have enabled Marshall and Elliott (2000) to reflect on thought to be one factor influencing the onset of tennis the adequacy of this principle. They commented that elbow. Knudson (1 99 1) measured the contact forces the traditional concepts of proximal-to-distal sequen- between the hand and the racket as players performed cing are inadequate to describe the complexity of racket backhand drives. The less experienced players held the shots and that our better understanding of the racket with a lower grip force so at impact the racket contribution that specific segments make to end-point would undergo a greater acceleration and thus dis- Science and the major racket sports

placement. Such a forced displacement of the wrist number of racket skills. It is evident that there needs to extensor muscles would place additional stress on their be further application of these methods to a range of attachment points and Knudson suggested that this racket skills and also across all of the racket sports. could be a causative factor in 'tennis elbow'. Also in There has been little investigation of the effect of fatigue relation to injury, Elliott et al. (2003) reported on the on racket skills. There has been little development of shoulder and joint torques in the tennis serve and kinetic analysis methods to quantify joint torques and commented on the high stress imposed on the elbow power production and only a small interest in the during the stretch phase of the backswing. Further evaluation of the player-racket interface. These areas work on these topics in racket sports does not appear to are ripe for further research interest, particularly as they have been conducted, although Fleisig et al. (1996) have some relation to injury. reported on a range of shoulder and elbow kinetic data for throwing and baseball pitching skills. Lees and Hurley (1995) measured the ground reaction forces Sports medicine and estimated lower limb muscle forces during the badminton lunge. They reported vertical and horizon- The detail of injury in racket sports is not well tal forces of 1.47 and 0.92 body weight, respectively, documented, largely because of the few epidemiological and noted that there was some difference between studies in this area and differences between them with players of varying skill, with the less skilled players regard to definitions and methods used to collect and generating the higher forces. Less skilled players may report data. Nevertheless, racket sports are generally well lack the movement skills to reduce the load they considered to be less likely to lead to injury than many experience and, as a result, would be more susceptible other sports, with the incidence of injury being reported to injury. as 0.01 or less per 1000 h of exposure in racket sports Electromyography (EMG) has been used to detect compared with over 10 per 1000 h in soccer (Larson et patterns of muscle activation but there have been very al., 1996). Specifically, in badminton (Kroner et al., few applications in racket sports. Recently, Sakurai and 1990) and in squash (Locke et al., 1997), the frequency Ohtsuki (2000) reported EMG data on the muscles that of injury has been found to be less than 5% of sports control wrist actions (the extensor carpi radialis and injuries presenting at hospital casualty clinics. Com- flexor carpi radialis) in the 50 ms before impact. They pared with other sports, it would appear that racket showed an extension-flexion-extension sequence of sports are relatively safe. muscle activity that relates to the preparatory 'cocking' Injuries mostly involve the musculoskeletal system, movements of forearm supination-wrist extension- with the incidence of both acute and overuse injuries radial flexion, followed by the action movements of being reported as similar in some studies (e.g. Mohtadi forearm pronation-wrist flexion-ulnar flexion that and Poole, 1996), while overuse injuries have been provide the power at impact and then, finally, a burst reported to be more common in others (e.g. Safran, of muscle activity immediately after impact to slow the 2000). Specific risk factors appear to be important, action during the follow-through. In a comparison of notably age, skill, sex, equipment and surfaces. Differ- skill, they found that this sequence of muscle activity ences in prevalence of injury between the sexes appear was well defined and consistent in skilled players, but small in relation to the location of injury, with females small and inconsistent in unskilled players. Their appearing to receive more wrist injuries and males to Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015 results suggested that the unskilled players had not receive more elbow, knee and hip injuries (Safran, been able to control the important final motions of the 2000). Injuries are located more frequently in the lower stroke before impact adequately, so lost power in their extremity in tennis, badminton and squash (Kroner et shot. al., 1990; Locke et al., 1997; Bylak and Hutchinson, In summary, biomechanical methods have been used 1998), although trunk and spinal injuries are also to investigate a range of racket skills qualitatively and common in tennis (Chard and Lachman, 1987). The quantitatively. The general characteristics of racket latter finding has been related to the rapid twisting and skills and some underlying mechanisms of performance tilting movements of the trunk during serving and are well understood. Recent developments of suitable playing ground strokes and has led to a high incidence quantitative kinematic analysis methods have enabled of low-back pain in professional tennis players (Marks et researchers to quantify the relative contribution that al., l988), while the former finding has been related to segments make to performance, although there is not the large forces created during the performance of full agreement about the way in which these complex lunging movements and rapid changes of direction. three-dimensional data are interpreted. To date, the Upper limb injuries are important and, because they are application of these methods has been dominated by a often uniquely related to racket sports, attract more small number of research groups and applied to a small interest. Of particular relevance in this category are 720 Lees

elbow and shoulder injuries. Head and neck injuries are head) during elbow extension. These actions would significant and unique in racket sports because of the elongate the extensor muscles, placing them under contact of racket or ball with the head, although not greater stress, and causing the extensor carpi radialis generally high in prevalence. These injuries are of brevis to rub and roll over the lateral epicondyle of the particular concern in squash where players compete in humerus. A combination of stress causing microtears close proximity to each other, swinging their rackets at and friction from rubbing and rolling begins the process head height, and where the ball is similar in size to the of deterioration, which, if unrecognized and untreated, eye socket. The latter types of injuries are easily will lead to an injury. Equipment has also been controlled with the use of a protective eye guard. implicated in tennis elbow due to its contribution to Some injuries are dealt with in more detail in the faulty stroke production (racket weight and grip size) literature and reflect the interest in racket-specific and factors that cause excessive vibration (racket injuries, especially elbow and shoulder injuries. Because flexibility, head size, composition, balance, string of the relevance of these injuries to racket sports, they characteristics). It is thought that the vibration induced will be considered rather than the more numerous in the racket due to impact is transmitted through the lower joint injuries. The common term 'tennis elbow' is arm and muscle to produce an additional load on the mostly used to describe lateral humeral epicondylitis tendons at the lateral epicondyle. Pluim (2000) (Renstrom, 1995), but can also be used to describe provides specific advice on the selection of rackets to medial and posterior humeral epicondylitis (Mohtadi minimize the chance that poor racket characteristics will and Poole, 1996; Ellenbecker and Mattalino, 1997). lead to or aggravate tennis elbow. Tennis elbow is also The structures implicated in tennis elbow are primarily evident in squash and badminton, but a detailed the tendon of the extensor carpi radialis brevis and investigation into causative factors in these games has secondarily the tendon of the extensor carpi radialis not taken place. longus and extensor digitorurn (Ellenbecker and Injuries to the shoulder joint are related to inflamma- Mattalino, 1997; Pluim, 2000). While both an inflam- tion and impingement of the rotator cuff muscles and mation response and degeneration can occur in the tendons. Inflammation is due to repetitive microtrauma tendon, the latter appears to be the more accepted received from the stresses imposed by hitting and mechanism causing 'tennis elbow' pain and so the term overhead serving, while impingement is the direct 'tendinosis' is preferred to tendinitis (Renstrom, 1995). compression of soft tissue between the harder (boney) The incidence of tennis elbow over a playing career is parts of the joint, and both are usually associated with high, with an incidence of 31-57% having been instability of the glenohumeral joint (Blevins, 1997). As reported in adult tennis players (Renstrom, 1995; this injury is usually associated with loss of strength in Ellenbecker and Mattalino, 1997; Pluim, 2000). Age the external rotators and loss of flexibility in internal is an important risk factor in tennis elbow, with players rotation of the upper arm, evaluation of both strength over 35 years being more susceptible. Sex does not and flexibility is recommended (Bylak and Hutchinson, appear to be a factor, with the weight of evidence 1998). There are many causes of rotator cuff injury, but suggesting no significant differences between males and in racket sports a player's improper technique and females (Renstrom, 1995; Ellenbecker and Mattalino, imbalance in the strength of shoulder internal and 1997). Frequency of play is thought to be a risk factor, external rotator muscles are factors. During fast over- with those playing more frequently being more likely to head shot~,rapid speeds of movement and rotation and Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015 suffer from tennis elbow. Most of the interest in tennis high forces are produced (Fleisig et al., 1996). At the elbow has been within the sport of tennis and, as a time of maximum external rotation where the arm is consequence, risk factors associated with tennis have primed to make the shot, the shoulder's internal rotator been suggested. These are related to style of play or muscles contract eccentrically, generating a high force. equipment (Renstrom, 1995). Studies of styles of play The resultant forward movement produces high accel- have focused on the backhand drive in which faulty erations that must be decelerated at the end of the range backhand stroke has been implicated, although the of movement. Shoulder muscles are susceptible to serve has also been identified as a problematic stroke. injury at these two extreme positions in the movement. During the accelerating forward phase of the backhand Other causes are related to the anatomical structure of ground stroke, there is a lot of activity in the wrist the glenoid cavity, defined by the shape of the (carpal) extensor muscles and these have been found to acromion, which can precipitate impingement (Blevins, be more highly active in players with tennis elbow 1997). Instability of the shoulder joint is due to (Kelley et al., 1994). It is thought that in these players inadequacies in the ligamentous stabilizers resulting the stroke is performed with a leading elbow and more from inherent laxity and/or gradual stretching from open racket face. This is also associated with an ulnar repetitive stress and dislocation. Laxity will cause deviation of the wrist (producing a dropped racket unusual deformation of the shoulder joint during Science and the major racket sports 721

external rotation of the upper arm and can increase the players to enjoy the game more (Brody, 2000). The likelihood of impingement. Poor muscle strength or testing of tennis rackets remains a popular area for balance can also be factors preventing sound motion of research and recent reports have detailed the perfor- the shoulder joint. Thus, technique, flexibility and mance of various racket designs on, for example, post- strength are extrinsic factors, while joint laxity and impact ball speed [wide body and oversized rackets anatomical structure are intrinsic factors, in shoulder allow greater speeds, Kawazoe (1995); low inertia rotator cuff injury. rackets allow greater serve speeds, Mitchell et al. In summary, the detailed pattern of injury in racket (2000); super-light rackets produce lower ball speed sports is not well established, but injury risk is for off-centre impacts, Kawazoe and Tomosue (2000)], considered low compared with many other sports. vibration [super-light rackets produce more vibration, Information is more widely available for tennis and Kawazoe and Yoshinari (2000); vibration damping can badminton, but sparse for squash and non-existent for be customized to reduce vibration, Iwatsuba et al. table tennis. There is a large body of literature regarding (2000)l and string characteristics [elastic and fi-ictional the treatment of specific injuries, although most of this properties affect speed and spin, Cross (2000)l. These is related to upper limb injuries, especially tennis elbow. findings have implications for both performance and There is a good clinical understanding of the medical injury. Brody (2000) provides a good ove~ewof factors associated with tendinitis and tendinosis in- contemporary tennis racket technology. juries, and the aetiology, treatment and rehabilitation Missile characteristics have also changed in recent for these injuries are well documented. The causative years. There are now three types of tennis ball designed mechanisms of tennis elbow and rotator cuff injuries for use on specific surfaces with the object of speeding have been speculated upon in the literature and relate to up play on slow surfaces and slowing down play on fast a combination of intrinsic factors such as age and surfaces (Coe, 2000, p. 33). The specification of tennis anatomical structure, and extrinsic factors such as ball characteristics is controlled by the International training errors (fkequency of play), technique (stroke Tennis Federation (ITF), but in random testing of production) and equipment (racket properties). There 1500 newly manufactured and unused balls during the has been little effort devoted to a similar understanding 1998 season, only 56% were found to conform to the of acute injuries to the lower limb in the literature on rules of tennis (Coe, 2000), and included balls used at rackets sports medicine, although these may well have the Grand Slam competitions! This has led to a been subsumed within other sports for which lower research interest in the performance of tennis balls, limb injuries are more prevalent (such as running and which is determined by their flight and bounce field games). characteristics. The flight path of the ball is determined by the aerodynamic drag and lift coefficients. Pallis and Mehta (2000) reported the drag coefficient for tennis Sports engineering balls to range fiom 0.48 to 0.63 depending on size (regular ITF type 1 or oversized ITF type 3) and state There are four items of equipment that are important to of use. Chadwick and Haake (2000) reported similar all racket sports: the racket, the missile (ball or shuttle), values of 0.5-0.6 for various tennis balls, but when spin the surface and footwear. These are controlled to a at 1600 rev. min-' was applied this increased to 0.8. A Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015 greater or lesser extent by the international governing lift coefficient of 0.2 was reported under this circum- bodies and may change from time to time as a result of stance. Bounce is defined by the coefficient of restitu- advances in technology or attempts to control the tion, with Caffi and Casolo (1995) reporting values for evolution of the game. Research on tennis and table pressurized balls between 0.7 and 0.4 as impact speed tennis has been stimulated by recent or proposed increased from 15 to 40 m - s-'. These values were changes in ball, racket and surface regulations. Also of about 0.2 greater than over the speed range for interest to player and scientist are the interactions pressureless tennis balls. Rose et al. (2000) studied the between racket and ball, ball and surface, and player variation in coefficient of restitution with temperature, and surface. which changed little (range 0.37-0.42 for an impact Racket characteristics have changed markedly in velocity of 35 m . s-') over the range 040°C. Again, recent years, largely as a result of the development of pressurized balls had a coefficient of restitution about new materials and improved manufacturing processes 0.2 greater over the range of temperatures than the using computer-aided design solutions (Sol, 1995). pressureless balls. In table tennis, the effect of increas- The modern racket can be made lighter, stronger, stiffer ing the diameter of the ball has been a major topic of and yield greater power than one manufactured 20 research interest. The International Table Tennis years ago, and modern rackets can be produced that Federation (ITTF) was concerned that the ball speed make it easier for beginners to learn and for recreational was becoming too fast for spectators and wished to 722 Lees

investigate the effect that an increase in ball diameter dependent on the mass, inertia, dimensions and (fiom 38 to 40 mm) and mass (2.5 vs 2.8 g) would have velocity of the racket and ball. Goodwill and Haake on the game. Xiaopeng (1998) reported that the larger (2000) used these relationships to model the interaction diameter and lighter ball produced a forehand smash between tennis racket and ball and found good speed (1 5.4 m . s-') that was 13% lower than that agreement between theoretical and practical rebound produced with the standard ball, and a spin (105 velocities. In table tennis, Iimoto et al. (2002) have rev - s -') that was 2 1% lower than that produced with documented the effect of ball size (38 and 40 mm the standard ball. The larger heavier ball showed a diameter) on the interaction between tennis ball and reduction in both speed and spin but not as great as the racket. larger lighter ball. More recent reports (Tang et al., The missile-surface interaction has been modelled 2002; Zhang, 2002) have confirmed the earlier general for tennis balls to consider oblique impacts where the findings on the effect of speed and spin. The larger ball deforms and friction affects the interaction with the heavier ball was officially adopted fiom 2000. While surface (Dignall and Haake, 2000). The particular different types of badminton shuttlecock and squash combination of ball and surface mechanical properties ball exist, there appears to be no recent literature determines the rebound speed, angle and spin rate and investigating their characteristics. Dignall and Haake included all of these in their Surfaces used in tennis are of many different types simulation experiments. These factors define the tennis and it has already been noted that, even at the highest ball as type 1, 2 or 3, or determine the variable standard of competition, the characteristics of the performance of the table tennis surface as noted above. surfaces vary considerably, ranging from fast grass to Pratt (2000) undertook a similar investigation and slow clay. In addition, new manufacturing techniques showed that, when in contact with the ground, the have made available a wide selection of carpet surfaces tennis ball never rolls without slipping and the sliding that are attractive to clubs. Surfaces have their own friction reduced the horizontal velocity of the ball inherent properties which can be established by travelling at 5 5 m . s -' by almost 30%. mechanical testing of surface pace, slip resistance, The interaction between player and surface is traction and shock absorbency; Cox (2000) described determined by the friction and impact absorption tests used to quantify the effects of wear on these properties of the surface and footwear. Smith and Lees characteristics. The ITF has recently characterized (1995) reported data for the horizontal friction forces surfaces as type 1, 2 or 3 depending on their 'pace' applied to the shoe during lunging movements in and this is coordinated with the designation of three ball badminton. The number and type of lunges made in types (1, 2 or 3) so that the correct ball may be used on a game of badminton were quantified and the typical the appropriate surface (Coe, 2000). In table tennis, forces for each type of movement established to although the surface used is essentially the same, quantify the stress applied to different parts of the shoe. variability in surface performance has been noted The authors reported fiiction forces of 0.5-0.7 body (Harrison, 2002) and has been attributed to the effects weight, which were directed along the front and front of paint, temperature and humidity on its fiction lateral parts of the shoe for the racket side of the body, properties. but the rear lateral direction for the non-racket side. Footwear requirements for racket sports are similar to Thus there is an asymmetry in shoe use and wear. many other sports in terms of cushioning, rear foot and Dixon et al. (2000) reported on the impact-absorbing Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015 fore foot control and comfort. In addition, there is a characteristics of three tennis playing surfaces (acrylic, need for footwear to withstand the sideways forces asphalt and rubber-modified asphalt) when players were produced during side skipping and lunging movements. asked to run over a sample placed over a force platform. Research into court shoes has been conducted over There were no differences in vertical impact force but several years and with much of our basic understanding there was a small delay to peak force in the rubber- about footwear performance established, there have modified asphalt, leading to a reduction in the rate of been few recent developments in court shoe design. loading. Furthermore, there were also some systematic Recently, Hreljac (1998) reported that individuals changes in the kinematic characteristics of players' respond uniquely to different tennis shoes with varying ankle joint as they ran over the surface. Dixon et al. midsole hardness during a sidestep landing and lateral suggested that the reduced rate of loading improved the drive-off. He recommended that single-subject designs cushioning associated with that particular surface, but are needed when evaluating variations between sports the change in joint kinematics may be a factor in shoes. inducing injuries in players. The interaction between missile and racket has been In summary, there has been much research on the mathematically defined for tennis balls by Brody (1 997) mechanical properties of tennis rackets and tennis and and the equations which govern this interaction are table tennis balls and their interaction with racket and Science and the major racket sports

surface. Research interest in this topic has been what is important to the athlete. Jones (1995) described generated by the recent or proposed changes by the this process as one where a player is asked to identify ITF and ITTF. The experimental and analytical the qualities or characteristics that an ideal player methods now available to researchers are sophisticated possesses. In this example, the player is then asked to and much detailed knowledge has been generated about rate the importance of each of these to an ideal these items of equipment, their interaction with each performer and then to rate his or her own skill on each. other and their effect on playing performance. In The difference between the ideal and the self-assess- contrast, there has been little or no equivalent research ment provides the basis for the psychological skills into the other racket sports, even though similar intervention, with the biggest discrepancy indicating the changes in racket and missile equipment have taken area of most perceived need. Jones described an place. The interaction between player and surface application to a world-ranked tennis player that con- remains an under-developed area of research. While sisted of a baseline assessment using performance surfaces and shoes are amenable to mechanical testing profiling and psychometric testing. From this, an in isolation, their combined effect on player perfor- intervention was devised based on imagery, cognitive mance and potential injury remains poorly understood. restructuring, relaxation and simulation training. Jones reported the positive effect that 6 months of this programme had on the player, who subsequently won Sports psychology a major world tournament for the first time. Performance profiling can be used in groups as well During racket play, many psychological characteristics as with individuals, and with coaches involved in the are important. The notion of mental toughness is, not process as well as players. Potter and Anderson (1998) surprisingly, of great importance in racket sports, due to described how they applied this process to groups of the individual nature of competition and the speed, regional junior table tennis players (Fig. 5). The group intensity and intermittent nature of play. Mental was asked to identify a list of qualities or characteristics toughness is underpinned by several psychological skills of the ideal player from previously pooled individual and can be developed in players. This process is reliant performance profiles. The agreed list contained 13 on the appropriate evaluation of the psychological characteristics and players were asked to complete the capacities and needs of a player, as well as an performance profile for themselves and the coaches for appropriate programme of intervention. Psychological their player. The outcome of this exercise formed the characteristics related to anticipation and decision basis for determining the psychological skills interven- making have been investigated within the context of tion, which, with limitations on time and finance, visual search skills. The development of racket skills has occurred in group workshop sessions. It is apparent been the interest of research in motor control and from the nature of the assessment process that the learning, and applications to motor skill training regi- intervention [comprising an educational and an im-

mens have followed. plementation process - Terry's (1 995) second and third Psychological skills training involves several stages. stages] is tailored to the needs of the individual or group Terry (1 995) has identified five: assessment, education, and so this tends not to be the subject of reported implementation, problem solving and evaluation. There research. Limited information is also available regard-

Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015 is much documentation on the first of these steps, ing the problem-solving and evaluation stages of the which can use one or more methods, including programme. These tend to be reported as the outcome psychometric testing, performance profiling, interviews of case studies (Jones, 1995) and subjective evidence and performance observation. In squash, Mahoney and reported through qualitative research (such as that on Todd (1998) described the use of a Psychological Skills burnout in tennis players; Gould et al., 1996). This Inventory for Sports that enabled them to establish latter source of evaluation has recently become more baseline data for male and female junior squash players extensive, with methodological issues associated with on six cognitive characteristics (anxiety, concentration, qualitative research being addressed by Biddle et al. confidence, mental preparation, motivation and team (2001). Terry (1995) provided data from a Consultant focus). Jones (1995) reported the use of the Sport- Evaluation Form for tennis players and reported very Related Psychological Skills Questionnaire with an elite high player satisfaction with the psychological skills racket player. Terry (1995) referred to a tennis-specific training programme. Moran (1 995) described the views questionnaire (Tennis Test of Attentional and Inter- of international tennis coaches and reported that these personal Style) as well as other more generic psycho- coaches were keenly aware of the role that psychological metric tests for personality and imagery. Another skills training could play in the successful performance approach to baseline assessment is 'performance profil- of tennis players. Moran also commented that the ing'. This is an athlete-driven procedure and focuses on specific effect that psychological skills training has had Lees

Deal with pressure Positive Will to win Determination Enthusiasm Composed Concentration Focused Good tactical play Footwork Stamina Good reflexes Fit

0 2 4 6 8 10 1~ Performance Profile score

Fig. 5. The performance profile showing the self-assessment for a table tennis player, where all ideal assessments were scored as 10 (reproduced with permission from Potter and Anderson, 1998).

on players' performance, and when and how the skills used and in this regard the authors suggested that the are used, all need to be established. This clearly gives direction of anxiety could be an indicator of the much scope for future investigations. effectiveness of their coping strategies. Although the The nature of, and the interaction between, certain studies reported above were concerned with developing psychological states has also been of interest within a better understanding of the nature of the psycholo- racket sports. Smith and Jones (1998) investigated the gical constructs, they would provide a useful basis for relationship between anxiety and performance for psychological skills training also. tennis players of differing skill. In skilled players at Mental quickness is another important aspect of the least, a certain amount of anxiety can be facilitative to psychological process and Singer (1 998) distinguished performance. They distinguished between the magni- this characteristic from physical quickness, which tude of anxiety and its directionality, the latter referring relates to the movements that a player makes. Mental Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015 to whether players were more or less anxious than they quickness is associated with several information-proces- thought they should be. The authors used only sing abilities. The player must be able to attend to the qualitative methods based on individual interviews with most salient aspects of the opponent's performance, be players, which were then transcribed into themes able to pick up cues about the opponent's shot relating to aspects of anxiety. They reported that there selection, have an ability to anticipate and to make were both facilitative and debilitative themes. These decisions quickly and then to react. As noted above, had an impact on players' self-confidence and in many of these skills can be trained, and Singer (1998) practical terms was reported to affect their performance recommended some off-court preparation, which in- on skills, particularly the first serve. Eubank and Collins cluded imagery or visualization strategies, as well as (2000) investigated the changes in anxiety before and some on-court training drills. Falby (1 998) described during competition in national and regional standard the use of imagery for enhancing the performance of youth tennis players. Anxiety intensity changed little table tennis players. This was incorporated within a from pre-match to competition in those players who general psychological skills training programme that regarded their anxiety as being facilitative, whereas in included relaxation, video observation of top players those whose anxiety was debilitative it reduced mark- performing selected skills, imagery and then physical edly from pre-match to competition. This interaction practice of these skills followed by feedback. The also appears to mediate the coping strategies each group programme was evaluated within a series of three case Science and the major racket sports

studies, and although the findings were equivocal, they racket-shoulder and then tracked the ball as it was were sufficiently promising to lead Falby to suggest that tossed into the air. Lower-ranked players focused on this process should be investigated in more detail. the expected ball toss area or followed the ball from Lapszo (1998) constructed a device to develop the toss to apex. The skilled players were able to follow anticipatory, decision-making and movement skills the flight of the ball more smoothly than the less appropriate to table tennis. Play in table tennis was skilled players. The authors also suggested that these simulated using a series of lights that came on at pre- skills can be improved after specific training. In determined times and locations to simulate the passage another study, Williams et al. (2002) showed that less of the ball from one point of the table to another. The skilled tennis players who received perceptual training player had to move to strike the imaginary ball and the based on the visual search behaviours of more expert times of the stimulus and movement were recorded. In tennis players, improved their performance in both contrast to what Lapszo expected from the literature, laboratory and field-based tests of anticipation. More the reaction and movement times and anticipation recently, for junior tennis players, Farrow and differed between players of differing ability. He Abernathy (2002) examined whether anticipatory concluded that the device has both a diagnostic as well skills can be learnt using implicit video-based as a training function. perceptual training. This consisted of a scheme One ability that has received attention in racket whereby players (in the place of the receiver) were sports research is the way in which players pick up given film of a tennis server to watch but no specific cues from their opponent. The use of visual search instructions as to what they should attend to, and had strategies in tennis was described by Williams et al. to estimate the serve speed, implicitly establishing (1998). They were able to identify the real time relationships between the service kinematics and the direction of gaze from an eye movement tracking service outcome. Comparison was made with a group system when a player was receiving a serve (Fig. 6). that was given explicit instruction as to what they They also identified which parts of the opponent's should attend to. The results showed that the implicit movements were attended to as the serve took place. learning group members significantly improved their The more skilled players focused initially on the arm- prediction accuracy after the training intervention Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015

Fig. 6. The scene observed using the split-screen approach. The right side of the screen shows the image from the external scene camera highlighting the participant's movements during the return of serve, while the left side of the screen illustrates the typical image obtained from the head-mounted scene camera with visual point-of-gaze highlighted by the cross-hairs (reproduced with permission from Williams et al., 1998). Lees

compared with the explicitly instructed group, but Concluding remarks this dissipated about 4 weeks later. The authors concluded that video-based perceptual training does There has been a great deal of endeavour in the have the capacity to improve perceptual performance application of science to racket sports, but this has and transfer into the game environment, while the been variable across both the racket sports and the implicit nature of the training minimizes the instruc- scientific disciplines. Perhaps unsurprisingly, most tional complexity of the training. The durability of the attention has been paid to tennis, the most popular effect, though, requires further investigation. and commercial of the racket sports. Also unsurpris- Shots played in racket sports are interceptive tasks ingly, research has been largely discipline-based with and successful performance in these types of task little interdisciplinary study. Much is known about depends on the visual information about the ap- the nature and unique characteristics of racket sports, proaching ball and an ability to predict the accuracy but there is still tremendous scope for further of its flight path and time of arrival. Players predict research effort, not least because of the changing the interception point between racket and ball using a nature of the games. combination of tracking the ball's early flight before Racket sports require a unique combination of any movement of the racket arm is made to stabilize aerobic and anaerobic fitness, of speed, power, agility, the ball's image in early flight, followed by eye-head flexibility and strength, of perception and action, of stabilization during the final period of flight to technical skill, and of awareness and control, and stabilize the scene image immediately before contact. scientists have been able to comment on these Rodrigues et al. (2002) conducted an experiment with qualities. In particular, science has been helpful in: table tennis players in which the cue time - the time defining training programmes to improve players' players were given to make a shot to the right- or left- fitness; guiding players nutritionally and psychologi-

hand side of the table - progressively reduced. When cally in their preparation for play; informing players of cue time was 520 ms, shots made were accurate, but the strategy and tactics used by themselves and their for the shorter cue times (327 ms), one or other of opponents; providing insight into the technical per- the two stabilizing methods was absent and accuracy formance of skills; understanding the effects of of shot deteriorated. A minimum amount of time equipment on play; and accelerating the recovery of (these and other data suggest at least 300 ms) is players frorn injury. required to predict ball flight and to initiate move- Racket sports also pose a unique challenge to ment to intercept it. As predictability about future scientists and have provided a vehicle for investigating position decreases (due to ball spin and/or drag) and certain phenomena. For example, racket sports the time for decision making reduces (due to ball provide a good model for investigating the interplay speed), it is evident that the success rate of between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism and the interception will reduce, thus emphasizing two of effect of nutrition, heat and fatigue on performance. the key features of racket sport play and providing a They also have driven the development of mathema- mechanism for the trade-off between speed and tical solutions for multi-segment interactions within accuracy. the racket arm during the performance of shots, and In summary, psychological issues cover a vast array this has contributed to our understanding of the of human behavioural, cognitive and motor abilities. mechanisms of both performance and injury. They Downloaded by [The University of Northampton] at 15:17 04 October 2015 Racket sports have provided a vehicle for exploring have provided a unique challenge to sports engineers their characteristics and interrelationships. In some in relation to equipment design and interactions. cases, this has been for interest but in others Racket sports have encouraged developments in (especially those related to anticipation and intercep- notational analysis both in terms of analytical tion) it has been because racket sports place a unique procedures and the conceptualization of strategy and demand on the individual player for speed and tactics. Racket sports have also provided a vehicle for accuracy within a rapidly repeating sequence of similar investigating fast interceptive actions, hand-eye co- movements. This has provided a suitable vehicle for ordination and perception-action coupling in the field investigating fundamental characteristics of human of motor control. performance and that understanding has been trans- Scientific research has contributed to a developing lated into improved training programmes. It is understanding of racket sports; racket sports have apparent frorn the brief review above that it is firmly contributed to the development of scientific metho- believed that most, if not all, psychological abilities can dology. This review has attempted to draw together benefit from training, and the development of suitable the threads of this interplay with the hope that it training programmes for the unique demands of racket provides a platform and stimulus for further endea- sports is an ongoing task. vour. Science and the major racket sports

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