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Universidad Ceu-San Pablo UNIVERSIDAD CEU-SAN PABLO FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS ECONÓMICAS Y EMPRESARIALES El papel de la liberalización comercial en la formación de la Unión Europea TESIS DOCTORAL JOSÉ MANUEL MUÑOZ PUIGCERVER Directores: Dr. Pedro Schwartz Girón Dr. Javier Morillas Gómez Madrid, 2015 AGRADECIMIENTOS Como amante de las relaciones internacionales -y, particularmente, de la economía-, además de europeísta convencido, la realización de esta tesis ha supuesto una síntesis completa de mis principales inquietudes académicas las cuales, lejos de quedar colmadas, no han hecho más que ratificarme en el propósito de continuar explorando este campo de investigación. Es, por este motivo, que quisiera agradecer a todas y cada una de las personas que, directa o indirectamente, y más o menos cercanas en el tiempo o en la distancia, me han ayudado, animado, motivado e incluso permitido finalizar este proyecto. En primer lugar, quisiera dar las gracias a todos los profesores de los que he tenido el honor de ser alumno a lo largo de toda mi vida, desde aquellos que con suma paciencia contribuyeron a mi educación cuando sólo era un niño -probablemente ningún profesor habrá hecho más por nosotros como aquel que nos enseñó a leer y a escribir, aunque la mayor parte del tiempo ni siquiera seamos conscientes de ello- hasta los directores que me han orientado, asesorado y, por supuesto, corregido -sólo así se aprende- en la elaboración de la presente tesis. A todos ellos, mi más profunda admiración y sincero agradecimiento, pues les debo una inmensa parte de todo lo que sido capaz de aprender hasta ahora. Espero, algún día, ser capaz de transmitir esa misma pasión por la docencia que ellos me han transmitido a mí. Mi experiencia universitaria en el CEU me permitió corroborar lo acertado de mi elección de la Licenciatura en Economía para emprender mi andadura académica, teniendo la enorme suerte de contar con profesores que desde el primer momento contribuyeron en gran manera a reafirmarme en mi convicción de que la decisión había sido la adecuada. Es, también por ello, por lo que querría dar las gracias particularmente a todos aquellos profesores que, por uno u otro motivo, más han marcado mi estancia en el CEU y de quienes guardo un extraordinario recuerdo. Mi gratitud a los doctores Milagros Beltrán, Montserrat Cabello, Antonio Miguel Carmona, Antonio Franco, 3 Rafael Pampillón, Gonzalo Sanz-Magallón, Pedro Ruiz y a la profesora Sagrario de Benito. Por supuesto, mención especial merecen mis dos directores de tesis. Por un lado, el profesor Pedro Schwartz, con quien he tenido ocasión de participar en diferentes investigaciones aparte de esta -entre ellas, el Proyecto Fin de Máster y el Diploma de Estudios Avanzados- y con quien me ha unido una fructífera relación académica y personal desde 2003. Por otro lado, el profesor Javier Morillas quien, a pesar de haberse incorporado al proyecto en los últimos meses, ha mostrado un gran interés y una excepcional dedicación por el mismo. Mi experiencia en el CEU no concluyó con la Licenciatura en Economía y su posterior Especialidad en Economía Internacional sino que, con el propósito de obtener una visión más global de los fenómenos internacionales que la que la ciencia económica permite, opté por cursar el Máster en Relaciones Internacionales impartido por el Instituto de Estudios Europeos. Al Instituto, le querría dar también las gracias por haberme permitido, a través del Máster, conseguir una visión multidisciplinar de la realidad internacional -y, concretamente, de la europea- que he pretendido incorporar - en la medida de lo posible-, a esta tesis, ya que la investigación, aun siendo de naturaleza económica, bebe también de otras disciplinas como el derecho, las ciencias políticas, la historia, la sociología e incluso la filosofía. Mi agradecimiento al Instituto de Estudios Europeos se hace también extensible a los profesores del Máster, todos ellos reputados profesionales en sus respectivos campos y a su presidente, D. Marcelino Oreja Aguirre, con quien tuve la ocasión de entrevistarme para elaborar esta tesis. Quisiera, además, referirme de manera muy particular al profesor Raimundo Bassols, de quien siempre recordaré las palabras que nos dirigió en su último día de clase: “Sé que todos ustedes llegarán muy lejos, ni más ni menos que allá donde se propongan. Y tengan en cuenta que, esté donde yo esté, siempre podré verles y decir con orgullo que ustedes fueron alumnos míos”. Esa pasión es, precisamente, la que aspiro a transmitir como docente. Por último, sin olvidarme tampoco de cuantos amigos y conocidos hayan participado, de manera indirecta aunque considerable, en esta tesis, quisiera aludir de manera más que destacada a mi familia y, muy especialmente, a mis padres, sin cuyo tesón, esfuerzo, paciencia, comprensión y aliento habría sido absolutamente imposible 4 estar escribiendo estas líneas que culminan -por el momento- todo el trabajo realizado hasta ahora. Gracias, además, por cuidar hasta el último detalle de mi formación y por haberme permitido crecer en un ambiente tan estimulante intelectualmente, velando por mi educación siempre con gran esmero. A ellos, sin duda, les corresponde un porcentaje muy elevado de esta investigación. En definitiva, gracias a todos por permitirme realizar esta tesis, elaborada con la esperanza y, al mismo tiempo, convicción de que las próximas generaciones de europeos -pienso sobre todo en mis sobrinos- puedan crecer y convivir en un continente en el que la ignorancia y los exacerbados sentimientos identitarios derivados de nacionalismos irracionales no tengan cabida. 5 RESUMEN A lo largo de toda la historia de la humanidad, los diferentes pueblos y civilizaciones han utilizado el comercio como una fuente inagotable de prosperidad, progreso y desarrollo. El intercambio de bienes que en un lugar eran abundantes por otros que resultaban escasos permitía satisfacer a ambas partes, alcanzando éstas un estado correspondiente al óptimo de Pareto. Sin embargo, el establecimiento de ese óptimo desaparece cuando existen barreras al comercio, de manera que los potenciales beneficios derivados del intercambio disminuyen drásticamente e, incluso, pueden llegar a ser negativos. La actual UE se ha conformado siguiendo los principios comerciales basados en el librecambio, consciente de que las naciones que la componen pueden hallar en el comercio una manera de beneficiarse mutuamente. Así, comenzando por la integración de los mercados, el proceso de unificación resultará más sencillo cuando se traten otras cuestiones más sensibles como la defensa o la seguridad nacionales -modelo funcionalista-. El mercado interior y el euro se han convertido, de esta manera, en los máximos exponentes del grado de integración alcanzado hasta la fecha -a pesar de permanecer aún incompleto el primero y de presentar graves deficiencias el segundo-. Aun así, existe una grave contradicción entre los principios librecambistas que la UE aplica en el interior de sus fronteras y el proteccionismo que ejerce con terceros países, evidencia que, aunque se ha tratado de ir paliando con el paso del tiempo, ha continuado siendo patente ronda tras ronda de negociaciones, bien en el seno del GATT como de la ya actual OMC. Cierto es que la UE es una creadora de comercio neta a nivel mundial pero la desviación de comercio provocada por la ejecución de políticas como la PAC evita que la UE contribuya a un crecimiento aún mayor de los intercambios comerciales a nivel global. En épocas de crisis como la actual es cuando, más que nunca, se debe aprender de los errores históricos que nos han conducido a situaciones agravadas por políticas proteccionistas y apelaciones a inflamados sentimientos identitarios -los nacionalismos económicos e, incluso, aquellos de otra índole con un marcado componente demagógico y tintes extremistas no deberían ser más que fantasmas del pasado- y seguir avanzando en la construcción europea. 7 EL PAPEL DE LA LIBERALIZACIÓN COMERCIAL EN LA FORMACIÓN DE LA UNIÓN EUROPEA ÍNDICE Objeto y metodología de la investigación ................................................................... 11 CAPÍTULO I. EL COMERCIO INTERNACIONAL EN LA FORMACIÓN DE LA UNIÓN EUROPEA. SU EVOLUCIÓN 1. Introducción. Fundamentos teóricos....................................................................... 19 2. Antecedentes y evolución del mercado común europeo ........................................ 34 3. El mercado interior y el euro como instrumentos de integración económica ..... 56 3.1 La creación del mercado interior .............................................................................. 57 3.2 La Comisaría de Mercado Interior .......................................................................... 83 3.3 La aportación del euro al mercado único .................................................................. 92 4. La Unión Europea y la OMC ................................................................................. 102 4.1 La Comisaría de Comercio ..................................................................................... 102 4.2 Las rondas: importaciones agrícolas y exportación de servicios ............................ 119 4.3 El Tratado de Libre Comercio UE-EE. UU. (TTIP) ............................................... 125 4.4 Los Acuerdos de Yaundé, de Lomé y de Cotonú ................................................... 139 4.5 El proteccionismo en tiempos de crisis ................................................................... 158 CAPÍTULO II. EXAMEN CRÍTICO DEL MODELO COMERCIAL DE
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