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American Presidents and Their Attitudes, Beliefs, and Actions Surrounding Education and Multiculturalism

A Series of Research Studies in Educational Policy Sixth Installment: Examining Presidents Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and William Jefferson Clinton

By H. Prentice Baptiste, Heidi Orvosh-Kamenski, & Christopher J. Kamenski

Introduction cause of its status in the policy process, relation to the chief executive . . . has the the President’s agenda is the subject of in- power to frame, implement, and transform In our nation’s history all of the presi- tense conflict” (Light, 1999, p.1). government” (Baptiste & Sanchez, 2004, dents have been white males. As West The president’s leadership, actions, p. 34; Schlesinger, 2002). We invite you, if states (1993) in his seminal book, Race and policies have great significance on you haven’t already done so, to look back Matters, the significance of the race factor matters of social justice and matters of at the previous five installments. Reading cannot be overlooked in the selection of our race. “The presidency is the chief engine of those installments will not only put this national leaders and this national value is progress in American history; its leader- current article in context, but it will also reaffirmed in the following quote: “Race still ship and power are central” (Blumenthal, give you a better sense of understanding matters in this country, largely in ways that 2003). The president is involved in each our purpose in writing these articles. are subtle but is no less venomous to the stage of policy making (Shull, 1993). Fur- threadbare proposition that we live in a col- thermore, “Much of the expected policy Ronald Reagan orblind society” (Wickham, 2002, p. 233). change is likely to be attributable to presi- (40th President 1981-1989) Each president must decide through dential influence” (Shull, 1993, p. 26). his agenda to fight for social justice or dis- This article focuses on the recent presi- The country in 1980 was in a profound tance himself from issues of race, class, dencies of Ronald Reagan, George H.W. state of gloom. For more than a year and access to employment, health care, and Bush, and William Jefferson Clinton and Jimmy Carter had struggled unsuccess- other societal needs. The president must is the sixth installment in a series that fully to free a group of fifty-two Ameri- negotiate his agenda through bargaining, can hostages held in Iran. And with the examines how presidents, through their of- economy in trouble and inflation in double debate, and sometimes domination. “Be- fice of power, have impacted U.S. citizens digits, Carter’s repeated calls for sacrifice by their actions and policies. By viewing and lower expectations had left many H. Prentice Baptiste is a professor the presidents through a multicultural Americans pessimistic about the future. of multicultural and science education lense we can more clearly understand the Ronald Reagan saw his job, as president, and Heidi Orvosh-Kamenski impact of their legacies that have been ad- as teaching Americans how to dream and Christopher J. Kamenski vanced and continue to exist today with again. (Kunhardt, Kunhardt, & Kun- are doctoral students in critical pedagogy, respect to issues of social justice. hardt, 1991, p. 294) all with the Department of Curriculum Our reasons for examining the presi- and Instruction dency are apparent, “the president is the Social Currency at New Mexico State University, embodiment of leadership in this coun- Ronald Reagan was born in Tampico, Las Cruces, New Mexico. try…. the ambiguity of the Constitution in Illinois in 1911. He grew up in a lower middle

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 28 Research class environment (www.multied.com). He egy. Unfortunately, the U.S. military spend- had a difficult childhood and attended pub- ing was paid for through budget cuts in eco- lic school. His father was an alcoholic and nomic and social programs. his undiagnosed nearsightedness held him Economic Ignorance. Reagan’s social back in school (Kunhardt, Kunhardt, & policy is best seen as an abdication. Kunhardt, 1999; WorldHistory.com). Reagan’s economic policy was to adjust Reagan graduated in 1932 from Eureka government regulation so that it favored College where he majored in economics and business once again…the coalitions that sociology (www.americanpresident.org). were necessary for election were either In 1932 Reagan began his career in gratified(the elderly) or abandoned (the the spotlight as a radio sportscaster and poor) (Thomas, 1998). The Department of was later cast in more than 50 films Housing and Urban Development was the (Kunhardt, Kunhardt, & Kunhardt, 1999). main government supporter of subsidized When he became the host of the television housing for the poor and Reagan cut the show General Electric Theater, he became budget by three-quarters during his eight one of the “most recognizable men in year term. America” (Kunhardt, Kunhardt, & Kun- Furthermore, under Reagan, the num- hardt, 1991, p. 292). He later became part ber of people living beneath the federal pov- owner of the show and very wealthy. Reagan erty line rose from 24.5 million in 1978 to became General Electric’s spokesperson 32.5 million in 1988 (Gray Panthers, n.d.). and traveled to GE factories around the On Reagan’s policies Roger Wilkins con- United States gaining political capital. cluded, “I think Reagan was such a genial Reagan was an active Democrat, but real- fellow that nobody could conclude that his ized his political beliefs had changed. In policies were as mean spirited as they 1962 he changed political parties. turned out to be” (Wilkins, 2004). It is un- Reagan received strong political sup- Ronald Reagan deniable that under Reagan’s watch his port from the business community in policies subsidized the rich on the backs of southern California which helped him to lieved in whatever he said (Schaller, 1992). the poor. secure his position as California’s gover- “As an actor and simplistic ideologue and Reagan’s goal of paralyzing govern- nor for eight years (Kunhardt, Kunhardt, the supremely homey orator, Reagan was ment was an obvious success, as evidence, & Kunhardt, 1999). During this time he of course a master at manipulating the now Congress enacted the fewest number of ad- established a conservative record. essential media cues of American politi- ministration-proposed bills since Eisen- Looking at the presidency of Reagan cal success” (Krieger, 1986). hower (Blumenthal, 2003; Light, 1991). He one can’t help but notice the contradiction He made politics as theater into an pushed for the passage of his economic and in his uncomplicated yet intricate person- art form by creating a White House of illu- defense programs and ignored other issues, ality. He comforted the comfortable and sion (Walsh, 1997). Reagan came to un- especially domestic policy issues. Reagan’s disarmed the afflicted (Wills, 2000). His derstand his chief function as president neglect of programs and issues had critics vision for the nation was easily understood was essentially to serve as a national sto- describing him as lazy (Schaller, 1992). In by many Americans through his unique ryteller and develop a positive vision of addition, interest payments on the national ability of communication that was compa- America and what it means to the world, debt more than doubled, savings dropped, rable to FDR and Lincoln (Truelsen, 2004). and connect that vision to the past, and the infrastructure was grossly ne- Known as the “Great Communicator,” present, and future (Walsh, 1997). glected due to cutbacks (Wills, 2000). for many Reagan communicated a message Those who were most directly affected that instilled pride and patriotism in Actions, Policies, and Political Decisions by those cutbacks were the poor. This be- Americans. He was able to sell America to Reagan deserves credit for enabling comes apparent when you examine the Americans, something that hadn’t hap- Americans to share in his vision. Under Census Bureau statistics that have been pened during previous presidencies. He his watch the cold war came to an end and compiled over the past forty years which gave conservatism what it had lacked— the world listened as he said those famous show that during the Reagan administra- humanity, optimism, and hope (Wills, words, “Mr. Gorbachov, tear down these tion by 1989 the richest two-fifths of fami- 2000). Reagan was benign and grandfa- walls.” Through these accomplishments he lies had the highest share of national in- therly in style, not harsh, more similar to was able to restore patriotism back to come and the poorest two-fifths had the a democrat like Franklin Roosevelt (Wills, America. But through these same accom- lowest share (Cannon, 1991). Cutbacks in 2000). Reagan embodied the contradiction plishments his spending created a down- food stamps, Medicaid, housing subsidies, of being both a genuinely liked, but a highly ward spiral for the American economy. unemployment compensation, urban mass polarizing political figure, an unusual com- Reagan’s strategy was for the United transit, student loans, and welfare were bination perhaps found in no other mod- States to spend so much money on its mili- part of Reagan’s tax cuts aimed at stimu- ern president (Laham, 1998). tary defense that it would force the Soviet lating the economy (D’Souza, 1999). Reagan’s popularity with the Ameri- Union to do the same, which eventually The reality was the poor got poorer and can people enabled him to pursue his divi- would cause the Soviet’s collapse. The So- the economy never became stimulated sive conservative agenda, yet coming across viet Union’s economy wasn’t the only through the Reaganomics theory (Kun- as sincere and persuasive in large part be- economy that would suffer from this strat- hardt, Kunhardt, & Kunhardt, 1999). Al- cause, like all good salesman, he truly be-

SPRING 2005 29 Research though Reagan claimed he was conserva- he served I did note what seemed to be his and 1.2 million over the course of a year tive and proclaimed to be against big gov- indifference to the concerns of Black Ameri- (Dreier, 2004). Reagan’s budget cuts and ernment, he gave us the largest govern- cans—Issues ranging from civil rights en- overhaul of tax codes led to the explosion ment debt in history. forcement and attacks on ‘welfare queens’ of homelessness in the U.S. during his eight Reagan’s Policies Concerning Racism. to his refusal to act seriously against the years in office (Gray Panthers, n.d.). Once in office, Reagan fought against affir- apartheid regime in South Africa” (Rasp- Of the homeless, about 25 percent mative action. He named Clarence Thomas berry, 2004). Education professor Phillip were veterans who had endured the atroci- to head the Equal Employment Opportu- Klinkner said, “I don’t know if Reagan was ties and nightmares of Vietnam (Lude- nity Commission and ignored school de- a racist by heart, but by his actions he did scher, 2004). Nearly 300,000 mentally ill segregation efforts (Wickham, 2002). Con- little or nothing to help remove the stain of people were held in U.S. prisons often be- cerning Reagan’s philosophy of the govern- racism” (Klinkner, 2004). cause there was nowhere else for them to ment, Reagan accomplished his own pur- Further claims that Reagan and his go (Campbell, 2003). During the 1980s poses by a malign neglect of governmental policies had racial elements which are ques- Reagan pursued a policy toward the treat- machinery rather than legislative aboli- tionable and suspect include his handling ment of mental illness that satisfied spe- tion of it. Reagan left all of the New Lib- of the Apartheid movement. The Reagan cial interest groups and the demands of eral state intact, but made it almost im- administration’s policy of “constructive en- the business community, but failed to ad- possible for such to function (Wills, 2000). gagement” encouraged discrimination and dress the issue: the treatment of mental By doing this Reagan undermined the in- oppression against the majority of the illness (Thomas, 1998). terests of people of color without actually people of South Africa (International Reagan rescinded the Mental Health appearing to do so. Progress Organization, 1984). Under Systems Act of 1980, enacted under Presi- Reagan’s neglect served to camouflage Reagan’s constructive engagement policy in dent Carter, as a way to reduce federal the real motivation behind his hostility to Angola and Mozambique, the neighboring spending, reduce social programs, and the public sector: the need to dismantle countries, the South African depredations transfer responsibility of many, if not most, programs largely benefiting minorities and killed about a million and a half people and government functions to the individual the poor, especially affirmative action, civil lead to some 60 billion dollars in damage states (Thomas, 1998). The number of rights regulations, and welfare, in order to with U.S. support (Chomsky, 2004). homeless people went from something so appeal to working-class whites, many of In 1981 Reagan explained to CBS small that it wasn’t even written about in whom harbor racial resentments against that he was loyal to the South African re- the late 1970s to more than 2 million when people of color (Laham, 1998). gime because it was “a country that has Reagan left office (Gray Panthers, n.d.). The It is obvious that Reagan’s words and stood by us in every war we fought, a coun- large increase of mentally ill in prisons was actions define where he stood on racial is- try that, strategically, is essential to the exacerbated by the closure of many men- sues and concerns for the needs of others free world in its production of minerals” tal institutions under the “care in the com- regarding social justice. During his cam- (Lapsley, 2004). In an interview Father munity” policy introduced in the 1980s dur- paign Reagan stopped off at Neshoba Michael Lapsley said, “I think that the ing Reagan’s presidency (Campbell, 2003). County fair in Phildelphia, Mississippi, interesting thing about his comment is Reagan appeared to ignore homelessness where three civil rights workers had been that it focuses on profit and not people” and felt people were homeless by choice. murdered in 1964. He declared that he be- (2004). When asked about Reagan’s con- Another example of Reagan’s attitude lieved in states’ rights and promised to structive engagement policy concerning that if one ignores a problem it will even- restore to local and state governments the South Africa, Lapsley said it was con- tually go away, was never more evident powers which properly belonged to them. structive for death (2004). than with the AIDS epidemic of the 1980s. Cornel West said, “Reagan spoke in Desmond Tutu said that the Reagan Reagan had the power to make world- high regard of Jefferson Davis, the Presi- White House saw “blacks as expendable” changing decisions yet when it came to the dent of the Confederacy, as one of his he- in South Africa. The South African white AIDS epidemic he failed to do anything. roes, at Stone Mountain, one of the head- government forced black people from prized Reagan did not utter the word AIDS in quarters of the KKK” (West, 2004). As lands, migratory labor laws split families, public until 1987 (Lazarus, 2004). He did President, Reagan cut funding for civil and education was gutted for black chil- little to stop the spread of HIV and lim- rights enforcement and opposed a Martin dren. Tutu declared “constructive engage- ited the amount of official resources dedi- Luther King holiday (Klinkner, 2004). In ment is an abomination, an unmitigated cated to what was perceived by his admin- 1981 Reagan sided with Bob Jones Uni- disaster” (Jackson, 2004). In 1986 Con- istration as an affliction exclusively of the versity in a lawsuit against the IRS to get gress had finally had enough of the car- gay community. a tax exemption even though there was a nage to vote for limited sanctions. Reagan Rene Durazzo, international program long-standing policy of denying tax exemp- vetoed them but Congress overrode the director for the nonprofit San Francisco tions to private schools that practiced ra- veto. Reagan put no muscle behind the AIDS foundation, said because Reagan cial discrimination. sanctions (2004). Over the remainder of his failed to do anything we lost hundreds of Two years later the U.S. Supreme presidency more than 3000 people died and thousands of people. Now the Center for Court, in an 8 to 1 decision, ruled that 20,000 were arrested under the South Af- Disease Control estimates that nearly one Reagan was dead wrong and reinstated the rican state of emergency decrees (2004). million Americans are now infected with IRS’s power to deny Bob Jones University’s Reagan’s Action: Socially Just? One of HIV and billions of dollars have been spent exemption (Rein, 2002). William Rasp- Reagan’s most enduring legacies is the on it (Lazarus, 2004). berry, a columnist for the Washington Post, steep increase in homeless people. By the Family Values and Education. The regarding Reagan’s legacy on race said, “I late 1980s the number of homeless people agenda which spurned the present contro- don’t accuse Reagan of racism though while had swollen to 600,000 on any given night versial reauthorization of the Elementary

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 30 Research and Secondary Education Act (No Child These studies and the propaganda that African aggression against Angola and Left Behind) can be traced back to the followed were aimed at implementing the thus it must share in the responsibility Reagan administration and is closely tied school voucher system that would increase for South Africa’s genocidal acts against to his “anti-child anti-family policies.” privatization of schooling giving busi- the people of Angola. Both the Security Council and the General Assembly should Noam Chomsky’s lecture titled “De- nesses control of education and ensuring also take into account the numerous in- mocracy and Education” illustrated the ab- monetary benefits. terventionist measures taken by the sence of moral consciousness that the Foreign Policy Reagan’s disregard for Reagan Administration, whether direct Reagan administration had with concerns civil rights, the Boland Act, and the Arms or indirect, seeking to impose financial related to the valuing of human lives and Export Control Act created a climate for and economic policies which are contrary civil liberties. Chomsky explains, militarism within the foreign policy of his to the sovereign independence of states, administration. Those assigned to imple- especially in the developing world, and One of the agendas exposed is what ment his policies felt emboldened to cir- which severely damage the quality of life Hewlett, an American economist who for all people. (International Progress cumvent laws previously aimed at re- published a study called, Child Neglect Organization, 1984) in Rich Nations, calls the “anti-child and straining such militarism (Executive Sum- mary n.d.). By analysis of their own spe- anti-family” spirit that existed in America Reagan Conclusion during the 1980s. Examples that she gives cialists, the per capita deaths in Nicara- to support her claims are when 146 coun- gua would be comparable to about 2.5 mil- As president, Reagan pursued policies tries had ratified the international con- lion in the United States. This is greater that were short-sighted, reckless, and, for vention on the rights of the child, but one than the total number of casualties in all many, hurtful. His economic legacy is one had not: the United States, also when the of deplorable disregard for the conse- World Health Organization voted to con- U.S. wars, including the Civil War, and all th demn the Nestle Corporation for aggres- wars in the 20 century, and what’s left of quences of his actions, and the ramifica- sive marketing of infant formula, which the society is a wreck (Chomsky, 2004). tions of Reagan’s decisions remain with us kills plenty of children. The vote was 118 Further evidence that Reagan’s foreign to this day (Lazarus, 2004). The income to 1, the one being the United States. policies were hurtful and unjust are found gap between the rich and everyone else Reagan’s policies were created to benefit in the The Conclusions and Judgment of widened, wages for the working class de- the elite Fortune 500 companies, impov- Brussels Tribunal on Reagan’s Foreign Policy clined, the homeownership rate fell and the erishing others through falling wages, (September 30, 1984) which acknowledges, poverty rate in cities grew under his watch flexibility in labor markets, and (Dreier, 2004). privatization of child rearing which has The Reagan administration’s foreign We are moving toward acknowledge- lead to the destruction of family identity policy constitutes a gross violation of the and values. (Chomsky, 1994) fundamental principles of international ment of the people of the world who suf- law enshrined in the Charter of the fered under Reagan—the unemployed, It was during the Reagan administra- United Nations Organization…The poor, homeless, the powerless, and people tion that in 1983 the report “A Nation at Reagan administration is responsible for of color (Lapsley, 2004). It is quite obvious Risk” came out, based on supposed evi- complicity in the commission of crimes through Reagan’s policies he showed a clear dence, none of which was actually put into against peace, crimes against humanity, lack of compassion for the social justice of the report. It declared that our schools were war crimes and grave breaches of the human beings. Bob Fitrakis summed up Third and Fourth Geneva Conventions in a decline, saying our children were fall- the Reagan presidency by saying, “When I ing when compared to students of other of 1949. The Reagan administration has provided enormous amounts of military think of the Reagan legacy I think of urban countries. The release of “A Nation at Risk” assistance to an oppressive regime that decay, homelessness, racism, rampant created a sense that our American educa- has used it to perpetrate a gross and con- corporatism, and the destruction of the tion system was in a major crisis situa- sistent pattern of violations of the most American dream” (Fitrakis, 2004, ¶9). tion and over the next decade many notori- fundamental human rights of the people Based on such evidence, President Reagan ous governmental documents were re- of El Salvador. The Reagan adminis- ranks very low on criteria drawn from a leased, by the Reagan and Bush adminis- tration’s mining of Nicaraguan harbors multicultural and social justice perspective. trations, criticizing the ways schools were violates the rules of international law set educating America’s children. Berliner and forth in the 1907 Hague Convention. For the part it played in the planning and ini- George H. W. Bush Biddle (1995) in their book The Manufac- tiation of the 1982 Israeli invasion of Leba- (41st President, 1989-1993) tured Crisis said, non, the Reagan administration has com- mitted a crime against peace as defined The Manufactured Crisis (referring to Bush’s thoughts on dual presidency: by the Nuremburg principles. …and is an the hype and criticisms of education) was “People really basically want to support accomplice to the crimes against human- not an accidental event. During this pe- the President on foreign affairs, and par- ity, war crimes…such complicity includes riod studies showing the successes in our tisanship does, in a sense, stop at the the savage massacre of genocidal char- schools were repressed and only the nega- water’s edge. Whereas on domestic policy, acter of hundreds of innocent Palestin- tive studies revealing how poorly our here I am with Democratic majorities in ians and Lebanese civilians. The Reagan’s schools were doing received media atten- the Senate and Democratic majorities in administration’s dispatch of the U.S. Sixth tion. It appeared within a historical con- the House, trying to persuade them to do Fleet into the Gulf of Sidra for the pur- text and was led by identifiable critics what I think is best, It’s complicated.” pose of precipitating armed conflict with whose political goals could be furthered (cited in Kunhardt, Kunhardt, & Kun- the Libyan government constitutes a by scapegoating educators…. Moreover, hardt, 1999, p. 342) it was tied to misguided schemes that breach for the peace under article 39 of the UN Charter. The Reagan adminis- would, if adopted, seriously damage Social Currency American schools. (p. 4) tration’s “linkage” of the presence of the Cuban troops in Angola with the inde- Some historians describe Bush’s per- pendence of Namibia encourages South

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that would benefit his presidency Bush’s appointments included Louis (Greenstein, 2000). Sullivan, Head of the Department of In his acceptance speech to run for the Health and Human Services, Constance Presidency in 1988, Bush called on govern- Newman, Head of the Office of Personnel ment and the private sector to bring about Management, and Colin Powell, Chairman a kinder and gentler nation. This implied of The Joint Chiefs of Staff. Bush also he would reform Reagan’s conservative made a record number of appointments of domestic policies (Greenstein, 2000). There women to federal positions (Klos, 2000). were numerous issues debated during the However, these appointments were over- 1988 election. One issue was how demo- shadowed by his appointment of Clarence cratic nominee Michael Dukakis vetoed a Thomas as a Supreme Court Justice Massachusetts bill that required all pub- (Walton, 1997; Wickham, 2002). Thomas lic school teachers to lead their classes a right-wing conservative, replaced daily in the Pledge of Allegiance. Another Thurgood Marshall. The Black Caucus op- was that Bush considered his opponent soft posed the nomination of Thomas, causing on crime, since Bush supported the death Bush to lose support among women and penalty and Dukakis opposed it. people of color with that appointment Other areas of opposition were that (Barilleaux & Stuckey, 1992; Booker, 2000; Bush supported voluntary school prayer Shull, 1993). George H. W. Bush and an amendment to restrict abortion Bush used the national concern about which Dukakis opposed. Despite the huge drugs and crime to maintain political mo- sonality as a classic Type A, practical, yet deficit, Bush pledged to continue the mentum. He used a Black criminal, Keith pragmatic and religious (Degregorio, 1991). Reagan economic program and vowed not Jackson, to demonstrate the need to fight He grew up in a wealthy family and was to raise taxes saying, “Read my lips, no against drugs (Booker, 2000). Under Bush, raised in privilege (Kelley, 2004; Kun-hardt, new taxes!” (as cited in Degregorio, 1991, William Bennett, the National Drug Policy Kunhardt, & Kunhardt, 1999). His father p. 681; Kelley, 2004; Kolb, 1994). Bush also director, became known as the “drug czar.” served as a Senator from Connecticut and proposed tax incentives, a cut in capital The inequities of the fight against drugs was a partner with the Brown Brothers gains tax, more money for education, and with respect to laws and criminalization Harriman firm (WorldHistory.com). Bush increase in Medicaid system. became more evident. “While African- attended Phillips Academy, a private pre- Americans were only 12 percent of the us- paratory school that has a history of edu- Actions, Policies, and Political Decisions ers of illegal drugs, they represented 41 cating America’s elites, the majority of percent of those arrested on cocaine or Bush’s state of the union address whom go to Yale University (Kelley, 2004; heroin charges” (Booker, 2000, p. 160). seemed to be a reflection of the Reagan WorldHistory.com). Another example of Bush adversely administration’s ideas with a twist on ex- After serving in World War II as a na- impacting African Americans was that isting programs (Light, 1999). His agenda val aviator, Bush attended Yale University during his 1988 campaign he used a fore- failed to declare anything to push or “rock in 1945 and majored in economics (Micro- boding image of Willie Horton, a Black con- the policy boat” (1999, p. 292). His Inau- soft Corporation, 1997-2004). At Yale he victed murderer who raped a White woman, gural Address was uninspiring (Kolb, was inducted into an elite secret society to attack Dukakis for being soft on crime 1994). On February 9, 1989 Bush’s speech called the Skull and Bones where he built (Booker, 2000;Wickham, 2002). Walton to Congress, Building a Better America, was friendships that would aide in his acquisi- (1997) claimed “Bush continued to ‘stroke’ viewed as a significant and comprehensive tion of political power (Kelley, 2004; the white male (and particularly southern) domestic agenda (Kolb, 1994). The domes- WorldHistory.com). Bush ventured into the electorate with his use of the infamous tic themes included education, environ- Texas oil business in 1953. He co-founded Willie Horton ads” (p.22). The commercial ment, drugs, crime, and future investment the Zapata Petroleum Corporation (Micro- outraged many Black leaders. (Kolb, 1994). soft Corporation, 1997-2004). The follow- Bush, like Reagan, also used execu- Bush reneged on his campaign prom- ing year he became president of the Zapata tive orders to diminish regulatory and en- ise of “read my lips, no new taxes.” He Offshore Company and by age 41 he was a forcement support for people of color (Duffy agreed to a series of tax increases aimed millionaire (1997-2004). & Goodgame, 1992; Walton, 1997). Bush’s at the middle class. He increased federal Before becoming President, Bush policies and actions maintained the social taxes on gasoline, cigarettes, beer, and served in the House of Representatives, policy framework that was set by his pre- Medicare premiums. The wealthy would as Chairman of the Republican National decessor (Walter, 2003; Walton, 1997). Al- pay luxury taxes on certain furs, jewels, Committee, as Ambassador to the United though Bush’s 1992 presidential campaign cars, boats, and private aircraft, plus in- Nations, as U.S. Envoy to communist outlined a six-point urban agenda that in- cur an increase in the top income tax rate. China, as Director of Central Intelligence cluded extending the HOPE program, Weed However, interestingly, Bush’s plan to cut Agency, and was a board member of the and Seed program, welfare reform, youth capital gains helped the richest 1% of Committee on the Present Danger. In employment, and 50 enterprise zones, Americans (Walter, 2003). 1980, Ronald Reagan asked Bush to be these ideas failed to become effectively Social Justice Issues in Domestic Policy. his vice presidential running mate. Dur- implemented. Congress did pass the en- Bush did appoint a more diverse staff than ing his eight year vice presidency he fo- terprise zone plan, but Bush vetoed its fi- Reagan. Thirteen percent of Bush’s senior cused on foreign policy. He brought with nal form (Walter, 2003). appointees were Black (Shull, 1993). him a network of international contacts Bush supporters state that his admin-

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 32 Research istration has two undeniable domestic vic- bill” which had mostly racial connotations Hitler, was an aggressor who must be tories (Green, 2000). These were the Clean (Shull, 1993, p. 57). Bush also criticized stopped, at times warning that Saddam Air Act and the Americans with Disabili- Democrats for trying to make that bill into was dangerously close to possessing ties Act (ADA) (Green, 2000). Bush, in an a gender issue. nuclear weapons, at others arguing that attempt to bring about a kinder and gen- On December 8, 1989, Bush stated “I American jobs were at stake” (Degregorio, tler nation, acknowledged that discrimi- think we have existing laws to protect the 1991, p. 692). Bush responded with Op- nation existed and stated “…I will work to rights of women…and I don’t think that eration Desert Shield which consisted of a knock down the barriers left by past dis- it’s particularly needed at this point at all” diplomatic campaign, economic embargo crimination and to build a more tolerant (as cited Shull, 1993, p. 58). Bush later against Iraq, and a defensive military op- society that will stop such barriers from agreed to a weakened version of the civil eration. When Iraq failed to meet the Janu- ever being built again” (as cited Barilleaux rights bill (Walton, 1997). The Bush ad- ary 15, 1991 deadline, Operation Desert & Stuckey, 1992, p. 179). ministration succeeded in capping dam- Storm was launched. American with Disabilities Act of 1990. ages on discrimination awards to $50,000 Education. In a speech in New Hamp- On July 26, 1990, Public Law 101-336 was per person for employers with 100 or fewer shire on January 6, 1988, Bush declared signed by President Bush. The act prohib- employees, employers with 101 to 200 he wanted to be the “education president.” its discrimination based on disability and employees a cap of $100,000, 201 to 500 a Bush failed to explain during his campaign affords similar protections for the disabled cap of $200,000, and for employers with what he meant by the phrase “education as the Civil Rights Act of 1964. It was con- 501 or more workers a limit of $300,000 president” (Barilleaux & Stuckey, 1992; sidered one of the most extensive pieces of for compensatory and punitive damages Kolb, 1994). Bush assembled governors civil-rights legislation in a decade (Micro- (United States Equal Employment Com- from each state. He and the governors set soft Corporation, 1997-2004). The five mission, 1991). four educational goals for the nation which titles under the act include: Employment, Due only to political pressure, on No- included: a process for setting national Public Services (and public transporta- vember 21, 1991, Bush signed the Civil education goals, greater flexibility and ac- tion), Public Accommodations, Telecom- Right Act of 1991(Shull, 1993). This was countability in using federal resources (use munications, and Miscellaneous. his way to take a middle of the road stance, of regulatory and legislative change), a There appears to be mixed reactions to but instead he managed to anger both state-by-state effort to restructure educa- the effectiveness of this legislation. It re- sides (Shull, 1993). The Act altered all tional system, and reporting annually on quired businesses to make their buildings prior federal legislation regarding employ- progress toward goals (Kolb, 1994). accessible and since its passage numerous ment discrimination, which included Title Bush called for educational excellence. societal changes have been made. However, VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, the Civil Bush and the governors announced America many people complain that the Americans War Reconstruction-Era Civil Rights Act, 2000, to inspire a bottom-up, not top-down with Disabilities Act ( ADA), is complaint the Americans with Disabilities Act of effort for improving schools (Kolb, 1994). driven. This means that individuals have 1990 (ADA) and The Age Discrimination This created the National Education Goals to file a complaint with the agency in charge in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA) Panel (three Democrats, three Republi- of handling the complaint in order to pro- (United States Equal Employment Com- cans, and four administration officials) tect their rights (WorldHistory.com). mission, 1991). that would oversee the progress of six na- Civil Rights. Bush continued Reagan’s Foreign Affairs Bush served as the U. tional goals to be met by 2000. These six pattern of not enforcing civil rights legisla- S. ambassador to the U.N. and used this goals were: Every child would start school tion (Walter, 2003; Walton, 1997). He also experience to direct his presidency. He built ready to learn; high school graduation rate followed Reagan in the thrust to end affir- relationships with top world leaders which would increase to 90 percent; in critical mative action. During Bush’s term five key took presidential diplomacy in a new di- subjects at the 4th, 8th, and 12th grades stu- Supreme Court decisions in 1989 led to rection and meant being committed to the dents’ performance must be assessed; U. the weakening of Title VII of the Federal “new world order” (Kunhardt, Kunhardt, S. students would be first in the world in Equal Employment Opportunity Law & Kunhardt, 1999, p.305). “Bush’s foreign math and science achievement; each adult (Walton, 1997). For example, one of the policy interests and emerging events in must be a skilled, literate worker and citi- Supreme Court decisions made it very dif- Europe, Asia, Latin America, and particu- zen; every school must be drug free and of- ficult for women and people of color to prove larly, the Middle East, moved the admin- fer a disciplined environment for kids to discrimination in the workplace (Duffy & istration to focus on international con- learn (Kolb, 1994). Goodgame, 1992). cerns” (Shull, 1993, p. 41). Bush was more Bush proposed public school choice. He Congress responded with the Civil active on foreign affairs than he was on also proposed a small spending increase Rights Restoration Act of 1991 (Walton, domestic affairs. for Head Start (Light, 1999). Bush advo- 1997). Bush opposed the new Civil Rights The most notable foreign events dur- cated for the creation of a nongovernmen- Act and vetoed it in October of 1990 (Duffy ing Bush’s term were Nicaragua and the tal entity called the New American Schools & Goodgame, 1992; LegalArchiver.org; fall of the Sandinistas, the invasion of Development Corporation (NASDC). Walton, 1997). He became the second presi- Panama and the capture of Noriega dur- NASDC consisted mostly of Fortune 500 dent, Reagan being the first, to veto a civil ing 1989-1990, the Cold War yielding to companies that would donate money, $200 rights measure (Walter, 2003). Although the New World Order, and the Persian Gulf million, to new school designs that would Congress refused to concur with Bush’s War of 1990-1991. On August 2, 1990, the “break-the-mold” (Kolb, 1994, p. 16). In- plans on civil rights, the debate revealed Iraqi military invaded Kuwait. After the stead of meeting with populist masses, his stance. Bush called for a civil rights Iraqi invasion, “the Bush administration Bush socialized himself with the elitist bill that would not call for quotas. He called gave various reasons for going to war. The views on education. When he met with the previous civil rights legislation a “quota primary reason was that Saddam, like nonelite groups or teachers, it often re-

SPRING 2005 33 Research sulted in not doing anything that sup- childhood influences, teaching, and politi- ported a populist idea (Kolb, 1994). cal involvement (Clinton, 2004). Clinton (2004) in his biography, My Bush Conclusion Life, tells a story about how his grandpar- ents ran a grocery store and how all the George Bush made a decision during customers were treated the same. “Occa- his term in office to focus on foreign policy sionally, black kids would come into the and affairs. He showed great leadership in store and we would play. It took me years foreign affairs which enabled him to keep to learn about segregation and prejudice his popularity. However, he did not use his and the meaning of poverty, years to learn leadership to promote domestic issues and that most white people weren’t like my social policy. He left little evidence of a grandfather and grandmother…” (Clinton, legacy in regards to his accomplishments 2004, p. 12). Clinton (2004) also discusses in domestic capacities (Greenstein, 2000). how his grandfather advanced credit for One reason may be that because of his fa- purchases to people regardless of their mous quote “read my lips, no new taxes” color, and regardless of how diminutive he was unable to pursue a domestic policy their personal finances were. agenda (Light, 1999). Bush was able to only During his presidential campaign, increase employment by 4 percent, when Clinton stressed domestic issues and ac- you consider the growing inflation; it re- cused Bush of neglecting problems at sulted in a reduction of funding (Walter, home (Kessler, 1995). The second presi- 2003). His presidency preserved the sta- dential debate on October 15, 1992, in- tus quo (Duffy & Goodgame, 1992). cluded questions from the audience. Near- Bush failed to articulate his plans for ing the end of the debate an African education and domestic policy issues. American woman asked a question, “How Choice and flexibility became the code words has the national debt personally affected William Jefferson Clinton for deregulating education (Kolb, 1994). each of your lives? And if it hasn’t how can Bush proclaimed he would be the education you honestly find a cure for the economic president, but he gave it very little consid- He spent his transition period select- problems of the common people if you eration (Duffy & Goodman; Shull, 1993). ing a diverse staff and selecting an array have no experience in what’s ailing them?” Education goals were set, but there was no of issues for his agenda (Light, 1999). (as cited, Klein, 2002, p. 42). plan to achieve them. Bush, like Reagan, Clinton cared about race relations and Bush responded “I’m sure it has. I love continued to disadvantage others by using appointed people of color and women to my grandchildren. I’m not sure I get…help rhetoric, executive orders, Supreme Court high positions in his administration me with the question” (as cited, 2002, p. decisions, fiscal cutbacks, and program re- (Kunhardt, Kunhardt, & Kunhardt, 1999). 42). Bush continued to struggle and failed ductions. His leadership facilitated changes Penny (2001) felt that Clinton had insti- to answer the question. When Clinton got in federal rules and regulations that nega- tutionalized affirmative action at the cabi- his turn to respond, it was not his words, tively impacted people of color (Duffy & net level and his cabinet was the longest- but his body language—he took three steps Goodman; Walton, 1997). serving of any modern president. Clinton toward the woman and asked her, “Tell me “opened up so many questions about gov- how it’s affected you again” (as cited p. 43). ernment, social equality, race, class, gen- William Jefferson Clinton Clinton was able to show concern and a der, the common good, and the America nd (42 President, 1993-2001) desire to respond to needs, whereas Bush identity, he seemed to be associated with Clinton on the presidency said “I think that was hoping the moment would pass as he the movements and causes of the 1960s” the presidency can still be a place of great looked at his watch (Klein, 2002). (Blumenthal, 2003, p. 51). influence and power; it’s still the central Passage of Crime Bill. In 1994 Clinton office in the country, particularly in times Actions, Policies, and Political Decisions signed into law the Violent Crime Control of adversity or crisis.” (as cited Kunhardt, and Law Enforcement Act (Blood & Kunhardt & Kunhardt, 1999, p. 437) On, November 3, 1992, Clinton won the presidential election with 43 percent of the Henderson, 1996). An important legisla- tive piece was the Violence Against Women Social Currency popular vote to Bush’s 38 percent and Ross Perot’s 19 percent. Clinton became the first Act. This act tripled funding for battered Only two other presidents prior to President of the United States to be born women shelters, improved police and court Clinton had come from such modest back- after World War II (Blood & Henderson, enforcement, added lighting in public grounds (Blumenthal, 2003). He was the 1996). After taking the office as president, places, and required sex offenders to pay first member of his family to go to college rather than focusing on a few major social restitution (Blood & Henderson, 1996). The (Blood & Henderson, 1996) and graduated issues, Clinton instead attempted to ad- Crime Bill package also added other com- from Yale Law School. Clinton was a teacher dress an array of issues. His first year in prehensive measures such as allowing for at the University of Arkansas from 1974 to office he sent 17 legislative proposals to the death penalty for federal offenses. It 1976 (Pearson Education, 2000-2004). He congress, which included an economic stimu- also instituted the “three strikes” law that was elected Arkansas attorney general in lus package, a plan to cut the deficit, cam- meant a mandatory life sentence for people 1976 and Governor in 1979. Clinton said paign finance reform, health care reform and convicted for three felonies. his progressive views were shaped by his NSFTA (Light, 1999). Unfortunately some conclude the bill had a negative impact on the African Ameri-

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 34 Research can population. Between 1993 and 1997 the level (Fact Sheet on Civil Rights Enforce- be denied credit. He also reported that the number of African Americans in prison went ment, 2000). The funding increase facili- federal government received more than from 2,011,600 million to 2, 149,900 (2002). tated the Justice Department’s investiga- 90,000 complaints of employment dis- However, nationwide the number of mur- tions and prosecutions of civil rights cases. crimination based on race, ethnicity, or gen- ders fell 8 percent which is one of the larg- The increased funding also assisted Hous- der, but less than 3 percent were reverse est decreases in 30 years (Blood & ing and Urban Development (HUD) to re- discrimination. He recommended not to Henderson, 1996). Other features of the bill duce and investigate housing and lending end, but to fix some of the practices of af- included authorization of prison construc- discrimination (Fact Sheet on African firmative action. tion, 100,00 new police officers, community Americans, 2000). Today, I am directing all our agencies to policing, creation of the national domestic In June of 1995, the Supreme Court comply with the Supreme Court’s violence hotline and assault weapons ban, ruled that the use of race, ethnicity, or gen- Adarand decision, and also to apply the creation of the National Police Corps, treat- der needed to be eliminated or reformed if four standards of fairness to all our affir- ment, prevention and rehabilitation pro- it created a quota or preferences for un- mative action programs that I have al- grams (Blood & Henderson, 1996). qualified individuals (Blood & Henderson, ready articulated: No quotas in theory or National Voter Registration Act. In May 1996). Clinton ordered an assessment of practice; no illegal discrimination of any of 1993, Clinton signed what has become Affirmative Action programs and directed kind, including reverse discrimination; no preference for people who are not quali- known as the Motor Voter Act that he had Cabinet agencies to collect data on racial fied for any job or other opportunity; and promised in his 1992 campaign. This law profiling. He supported increased ethics as soon as a program has succeeded it permits citizens to register to vote at the training and improved the diversity of po- must be retired. Any program that doesn’t same time they apply or renew their driver’s lice forces (Fact Sheet on African Ameri- meet these four principles must be elimi- license. The act resulted in the largest in- cans, 2000). nated or reformed to meet them. (as cited crease of voter registration since the 19th On July 19, 1995 Clinton gave a defin- Wickham, 2002, p. 258) century with an estimated 11 million new ing speech to which he discussed landmark The Clinton administration strongly registered voters (Blood & Henderson, 1996). events and actions by the people and gov- opposed all local initiatives to eliminate Welfare Reform Act of 1996 This bill ernment that opened doors to opportuni- affirmative action programs (Office of Com- was signed three months after Clinton was ties. He asserted that people cannot be de- munications, 1998). As evidence of this he elected to a second term. The nation’s wel- nied the opportunity to use their full hu- opposed California Proposition 209 and fare rolls have been cut from 12 to 6 mil- man potential. Clinton’s remarks show his similar measures in Houston. Clinton con- lion people (Penny, 2001; Wickham, 2002). undeniable support for Affirmative Action: tinued to increase the funding of civil rights In 2000 the percentage of Americans on …let us remember always that finding enforcement and in 2000 he allocated $82 welfare reached its lowest level since 1961. common ground as we move toward the million toward the enforcement of civil Clinton ignored the studies which sug- st 21 century depends fundamentally on rights (Fact Sheet on Human Rights, 2000). gested many women receiving public as- our shared commitment to equal oppor- Early in his Presidency, Clinton got in- sistance would suffer under his initiative tunity for all Americans. It is a moral im- volved in a controversy of allowing gays in (Booker, 2000). Through this initiative perative, a constitutional mandate, and a the military. This issue had never before Clinton created new methods to help move legal necessity… our whole history can been a matter of national concern (Blumen- people from welfare to work. The Welfare- be seen first as an effort to preserve these rights, and then as an effort to make thal, 2003). Light (1999) stated that due to-Work Tax Credit encouraged businesses them real in the lives of all our citizens.… to his naiveté of Washington this was one to hire people from The Access to Jobs ini- Emancipation, women’s suffrage, civil of the issues that gave him an early repu- tiative which provided such services as rights, voting rights, equal rights, the tation for being indecisive. He attempted transportation, and housing vouchers (Fact struggle for the rights of the disabled— to make gay rights equal to other rights Sheet on African Americans, 2000). all these and other struggles are mile- movements. He placed the issue in his presi- Empowerment Zones. In order to meet stones on America’s often rocky, but fun- dential speech on November 8, 1997. He the needs of underserved communities, damentally righteous journey to close the made an executive order banning discrimi- Clinton created Empowerment Zones to gap between the ideals enshrined… nation against gays in the federal govern- serve urban and rural areas. The intent was Clinton further gave evidence to support ment. He proposed new laws that would to encourage investment, economic devel- why Affirmative Action was still impor- make violence against a person on the ba- opment and renewal to communities which tant. Clinton provided the results of the sis of gender, disabilities, or sexual prefer- would revive distressed communities (Fact Glass Ceiling Report, which reported that ence hate crimes, but the legislation did Sheet on African Americans, 2000). white males made up 43 percent of the not pass (Blood & Henderson, 1996). He Civil Rights. President Clinton in- workforce, but held 95 percent of the se- also spoke at the Human Rights Campaign, creased the budget to $37 million (15 per- nior management positions. African one of the largest gay events. “No presi- cent) for the Equal Employment Opportu- Americans consisted of only six-tenths of dent had ever appeared at a gay event.…” nity Commission (EEOC). This assisted one percent of senior management, His- (Blumenthal, 2004, p. 275). the EEOC with mediation, improved tech- panics held four-tenths of a percent, Asian William Jefferson Clinton has been nology, and extended staff. The average Americans held three-tenths of a percent, called the nation’s first black president time for resolving private-sector com- and women held between three and five because of his social actions and programs plaints was reduced from 9.4 months to 6 percent of these positions. Clinton also (Wickham, 2002). Under the Clinton ad- months (Office of Communications, 1998). stated how Black home loan applicants ministration the largest four-year drop in The Department of Justice’s Civil Rights with the same qualification requirements African American poverty in 25 years was Division received a significant budget in- as whites are more than twice as likely to obtained (Office of Communications, crease of 86 percent over the 1993 funding

SPRING 2005 35 Research

1998). President Clinton helped to create twenty-first century community that was Tuskegee, Clinton apologized for the un- programs that assisted economic develop- truly diverse and committed to excellence, ethical tragedy they were made a part of ment in distressed communities. Clinton to me that was a very important part of and asked for forgiveness. Clinton said in signed the Transportation Equity Act on the job of being president” (Wickham, his speech of apology “…today America June 9, 1998 that ensures that minority 2002, p. 163). He further states that this does remember the hundreds of men used business owners have an opportunity to set a precedent for future Presidents. in research without their knowledge and compete for transportation projects. This Clinton stated recently referring, to George consent.” He then set forth five initiatives resulted in thousands of minority-owned W. Bush, “he’s got the most diverse Repub- to strengthen the ethical conduct and pro- businesses to compete more effectively for lican administration in history” (p. 163). tection of human subjects, have research- government contracts (Office of Communi- Furthermore, Clinton appointed more than ers work more closely with communities, cations, 1998). sixty African American federal judges and provide people of color postgraduate Clinton, for most of his eight year term, (Wickham, 2002). fellowships. retained a high approval rating of 90 per- African Americans weren’t the only In order to commemorate the 40th an- cent with African Americans (Wickham, people of color who benefited from Clinton’s niversary of the desegregation of Little 2002). During Clinton’s administration, desire to include and embrace diversity. Rock, Arkansas, Central High School African Americans achieved great economic Clinton created the most diverse cabinet, Clinton walked up the steps with the nine gains and unemployment rate went down administration, and judiciary appoint- black students who first walked the steps. to record lows (Wickham, 2002). The un- ments in history which also included His- President Clinton addressed the nation, employment rate of African Americans panic American appointments (Fact Sheet “Like so many Americans, I can never fully went from double digits to 9 percent in on Latinos, 2000). Nine percent of Presi- repay my debt to these nine people, for with 1998 which is one of the lowest unemploy- dential appointments and six percent of their innocence, they purchased more free- ment rates for African Americans (Office judicial appointments were Hispanic dom, for me, too, and for all white people” of Communications, 1998). In 2000 the Americans (Fact Sheet on Latinos, 2000). (as cited Blumenthal, 2004, p.274-275). unemployment rate averaged 7.7 percent There were also other actions and poli- Education. Clinton made the largest and median household incomes were up cies made by President Clinton that sup- investment in Education in 30 years (Fact 15.1 percent since 1993 (Fact Sheet on Af- ported Hispanic Americans. Clinton put Sheet on Hispanic Community II, 1998). rican Americans, 2000). forward a Hispanic Education Action Plan, He signed and passed the Head Start Between 1993 and 1999 the Small increased funding for Hispanic-serving col- Amendment of 1994, Goals 2000: Educate Business Administration (SBA) approved leges, established a Hispanic Advisory America, Improving American’s Schools over 13, 000 loans to African Americans Commission, and implemented the Student Act, School-to-Work Opportunities Act, (Fact Sheet on African Americans, 2000). Diversity Partnership Program (Fact Sheet National and Community Service Trust Record enrollment figures were recorded on Hispanic Community I, 1998). Clinton Act and Direct Lending and Pay-as-You for African American high school graduates opposed English-Only legislation which Can Loans. To ensure student access to going on to college. In 1983 there were only would have jeopardized services and pro- higher education Clinton established the 39 percent of African Americans going on grams for non-English speakers (Fact Sheet first African American Advisory Board and to college in 1997 there were 60 percent on Hispanic Community I, 1998). He also increased the funding for Historically (Fact Sheet on African Americans, 2000). opposed propositions which would have Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) African Americans also supported made illegal immigrants ineligible to at- to over $250 million (Fact Sheet on Afri- Clinton’s stance on the death penalty and tend public schools and receive public health can Americans, 2000). welfare reform. care services (Fact Sheet on Hispanic Com- The Clinton administration also cre- DeWayne Wickham (2002) asserts munity I, 1998). Furthermore the National ated the Technology Literacy Challenge that Clinton had a connection with Afri- Voter Registration Act made voting easier Fund which expanded the access to educa- can Americans. Clinton was also the first for millions of Hispanic voters. tional technology (Fact Sheet on Education President to visit sub-Saharan Africa Significant gains were made by His- Hispanic Americans, 2000). This increased (Wickham, 2002). Clinton thought there panic Americans during Clinton’s term. overall investment for educational technol- was a hole in America’s foreign policy. Due The unemployment rate dropped from 11.3 ogy from $23 million to $769 million. The to the whole history of slavery, he felt it percent to 7.5 percent for Latinos (Fact Clinton administration also secured the was important to establish African policy Sheet on Latinos, 1998). Hispanic Ameri- E-Rate program. The Telecommunications (Wickham, 2002). cans’ median household incomes increased Act discounted the cost of internet services During Clinton’s eight-year term over and the largest Hispanic poverty drop in for schools and libraries (Office of Com- two dozen African Americans were ap- two decades occurred (Fact Sheet on His- munications, 1998). In 1994 only 35 per- pointed to positions within the White panic Community I, 1998). cent of public schools were connected to the House and hundreds to other jobs through- Actions Involving Race. On May 16, Internet. Clinton’s programs were able to out the executive branch of government 1997, Clinton publicly recognized the so- increase internet access to 95 percent of (Wickham, 2002). No president has ap- cial injustice done to African Americans in public schools (Fact Sheet on Education pointed so many African Americans to a study conducted by the United States Hispanic Americans, 2000). prominent positions (Booker, 2000). Public Health Service. Clinton made the Clinton recognized the need for super- Clinton had seven African Americans in long awaited apology after forty years stat- vision and enrichment for “latch-key” kids. his cabinet. In an interview he was asked ing, “The United States government did He created 21st century community learn- why he opened the door so widely to Afri- something that was wrong—deeply, pro- ing centers. The after-school programs not can Americans in his administration, to foundly, morally wrong.” To the eight men only helped student achievement, but which he stated “to prove we could build a who were survivors of the syphilis study at helped to reduce juvenile crime and victim-

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 36 Research ization in neighborhoods (Office of the Press cans, 2000). He also advocated for preven- It is important to point out that the Secretary, 2000). The Clinton administra- tion efforts and expanded access to HIV huge federal budget deficits severely hin- tion also acknowledged that students in- treatments to high-risk communities (Fact dered the ability of the federal government volved in these after-school programs are Sheet on African Americans, 2000). Fur- to invest in domestic policy in order to re- less likely to use drugs and become preg- ther evidence of wanting to serve the poor lieve social ills. nant (Office of the Press Secretary, 2000). and elderly, Clinton was able to expand On September 27, 1994, the Republi- These after school learning communities Medicare through the Medicare Select pro- can candidates on the steps of the Capital served rural and inner city communities. gram. The program went from 15 states to signed the “Contract with America” After seeing the programs’ benefits, 50 (Blood & Henderson, 1996). The pro- (Walters, 2003). The vision outlined in this Clinton proposed 1 billion toward the pro- gram allows qualified recipients to buy contract was “to renew the American grams, but Congress only approved $600 discounted policies that cover the differ- Dream by promoting individual liberty, eco- million toward after-school programs (Of- ence between what Medicare pays and what nomic opportunity and personal responsi- fice of the Press Secretary, 2000). health care costs. bility, through limited and effective govern- Clinton also recognized the benefits ment, high standards of performance, and of Head Start. Throughout his administra- Clinton Conclusion an America strong enough to defend all her citizens against violence at home or tion he expanded Head Start and increased Overall Clinton emerged with actions abroad” (as cited Walters, 2003 p. 79-79). annual funding (Fact Sheet on Education, that assisted social justice issues of race, Ten bills were proposed to accomplish 1995). Clinton proposed the largest Head class, and access to employment and health this vision. They included Fiscal Responsi- Start expansion in history. He helped to care rather than taking a position of ne- bility Act, Taking Back our Streets Act, Per- increase funding for Head Start by 90 per- glect. Clinton attempted to pass an array sonal Responsibility Act, Family Reinforce- cent (Fact Sheet on African Americans, of legislation rather than focus on a few ment Act, American Dream Restoration 2000; Fact Sheet on Education Hispanic powerful issues. This may have hindered Act, National Security Restoration Act, Americans, 2000). his ability to pass legislation that would Senior Citizen Fairness Act, Job Creation In order to place quality teachers in have benefited those he hoped to help. act, Wage Enhancement Act, Common underserved areas he funded several ini- In matters of social justice issues such Sense Legal Reform Act and Citizen Legis- tiatives to address this need. One initia- as issues of affirmative action, gay rights lature Act. Most of these bills favor Whites tive was called Hometown Teacher Recruit- and access to healthcare he took a stance and half of them have a negative and puni- ment. The program would allow these dis- to combat these issues. Unfortunately, he tive impact on Blacks (Walters, 2003). tricts to assist in recruiting and training was unsuccessful at using his political When our political leaders do not sup- members from their community to become leadership to address the issue he seemed port or relieve social ills they are sending a teachers for the school district (Fact Sheet to be most passionate about, health care. message such as: the poor are poor because on African Americans, 2000). Another ini- However, his leadership actions tended to they choose to be poor. In order to redirect tiative is called GEAR-UP, a mentoring promote rather than hinder closing the eco- resources our society blames Blacks, His- program for middle school children. The nomic and education gap that previously panics, women, the poor and immigrants program offers intervention services and divided our society. helps middle school students to finish for their failure to achieve (Walters, 2003). school and prepare for college (Fact Sheet “This new individualism mischievously ig- on Education Hispanic Americans, 2000). Comparative Legacies nored—and continues to ignore—the per- The initiative in 2000 served over 750,000 of Reagan, Bush, and Clinton vasive phenomenon of White group rights low-income students (Fact Sheet on Afri- that are legitimately exercised every day in can Americans, 2000). Impact of Deficit many different ways” (Walters, 2003, p. 79). National Health Care Clinton’s most Is it possible that the deficit played a When the Republicans became the ma- significant agenda item was providing na- major part in what was included in the jority in the House of Representatives for tional health care, but unfortunately he agenda and social policy initiatives set by the first time in forty years Newt Gingrich, was unable to get it passed through Con- each president? From George Washington as Speaker of the House, declared that he gress. The bill was 1,342 pages and con- through Jimmy Carter the accumulated would continue the Reagan revolution sisted of a new federal system for health national debt was $908 billion. In the (Walton, 1997). President Clinton an- care costs and increased benefits. Clinton’s 1980s the American people were told if swered; he used his power to veto legisla- health care package was viewed by Con- they cut domestic spending, increased de- tion that would have severely cut funds for gress as, “cumbersome, over-designed, and fense spending and gave tax cuts the bud- Medicare, education, and the environment poorly explained” (Light, 1999, p. 291). get would be balanced (Walton, 1997). (Blumenthal, 2004). Unable to get Congress to act on the Reagan and Bush’s economic policies In November of 1995, President total package, Clinton proposed small left a national debt of nearly $4 trillion Clinton had to decide what he was willing scale changes. These ideas included the (Walton, 1997). Reagan left a legacy of a to risk. Clinton was willing to shut down Family and Medical Leave Act, which guar- huge deficit that hindered the choices that the federal government. After three days anteed portability of health insurance from could be made by future presidents. Bush Clinton and the Congress agreed to a tem- job to job, and the Children’s Health In- and Clinton had to consider the deficit when porary spending bill and the federal gov- surance Program (CHIP). The Clinton ad- planning their agendas. Reducing the defi- ernment reopened. “A month later Clinton ministration also tried to provide health cit was a prominent theme for Bush and received another budget that was unac- care through other avenues. In 1997 Clinton Clinton. The costs associated with reforms ceptable and resulted in the federal gov- helped to provide $24 billion toward health and cutting the deficit seemed to be a ma- ernment to be shut down for two weeks” care coverage (Fact Sheet on African Ameri- jor factor in the agenda-setting process. (Blumenthal, 2004). Clinton emerged as a

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President who was willing to protect pro- Clinton announced in his “One much-touted education reforms were grams that impacted the poor and people America” speech, shaped primarily with elites in mind, of color. rarely with the desires of real people taken Consider this: We were born with a into consideration” (Kolb, 1994, p. 16). Like Declaration of Independence which as- Legacy on Social Justice serted that we were all created equal his other domestic policies it was not a matter of investing more, but in spending For Reagan the American Way was de- and a Constitution that enshrined better (Kolb, 1994). His six national goals fined by “his belief in individual effort and slavery. We fought a bloody civil war to hardly went beyond words on paper and in American capitalism” (Kunhardt, abolish slavery and preserve the union, there was limited action taken to promote Kunhardt, & Kunhardt, 1999, p. 261). It but we remained a house divided and or implement them. They failed to make a appeared Reagan didn’t have the knowl- unequal by law for another century. (as difference in education. edge and understanding to deal with these cited Wickham, 2002, p. 238) However, Bush did select Lauro issues or he simply just didn’t care. Reagan President Clinton’s One American initia- Cavazos to the Secretary of Education. said, “For eight years somebody handed me tive was a stepping stone to social justice Cavazos became the first Hispanic cabi- a piece of paper every night that told me for all. He used his executive leadership to net member (Kolb, 1994). Was this a po- what I was going to be doing the next day” promote human rights and social justice litical move to win Hispanic votes? After (Wills, 2000 p. 371). Michael Deavor said which has contributed to closing the eco- serving a year, Cavazo’s was fired on De- that the president often slept through Cabi- nomic and political gap that divides cember 12, 1990 (Kolb, 1994). net meetings because to him they were ir- Americans. In America’s history there has been relevant and boring (Schaller, 1992). President Clinton was very vocal in limited federal involvement in educational In a similar way, George H. Bush failed matters of race (Booker, 2000). No presi- issues such as curriculum content and qual- to provide his administration with direc- dent has “made as many statements af- ity (Kolb, 1994). Under Reagan the media tion. Bush’s White House Deputy Assis- firming the principles of racial equality and propaganda that was created to undermine tant for Domestic Policy said, “…early justice” (Booker, 2000, p. 163).Clinton pub- public education through the infamous re- morning meetings, late nights, lots of press licly addressed the “nation’s race problems port, A Nation at Risk, was the means to briefings, and countless fact sheets an- with a candor and insight that far sur- legislate school vouchers and the corporate nouncing the details of one policy proposal passed that of any of the forty-one men who privatization of public education. Bush after another. What was lacking, however, preceded him into the Oval Office” continued the Reagan legacy by bringing was a sense of purpose and direction. There (Wickham, 2002, p. 155). the idea of national standards to the fore- was no focus” (Kolb, 1994, p. 9). Bush had The impact of policy measures are dif- ground which Clinton extended and which great rhetoric regarding civil rights, but very ficult to judge under the Reagan and Bush the current President Bush has expanded little meaningful action. Bush favored the administrations because of reduced data into the No Child Left Behind Legislation status quo in many aspects of his domes- dissemination of government documents that we have today. tic policy (Kolb, 1994). “The fiscal cutbacks, (Shull, 1993). We found the data under the National standards are now being reductions in force, and eliminations of Clinton administration to be more access- touted as necessary, but who benefits? Can antipoverty and social welfare programs able. This led us to question, why don’t we we standardize a curriculum and value di- during the Reagan and Bush years virtu- have access to this data? What is being versity? It seems we are headed toward fur- ally ensured that the goal of the African kept from the American public? ther conformity rather than addressing the American community for economic stabil- Legacy on Education. In the past, few issues of diversity. Do our national stan- ity and progress would crumble and fade” presidents have convened meetings with dards address the issues of diversity? Is the (Walton, 1997, p. 25). governors. Theodore Roosevelt in 1908 con- public aware of the hidden agenda of No Reagan and Bush’s Supreme Court vened the first summit with governors to Child Left Behind led by the Business Round judge appointments had conservative address environmental concerns, and Table’s involvement in that legislation? records on civil rights issues (Shull, 1993). Franklin Roosevelt in 1933 discussed the (Emory & Ohanian, 2004). Two-thirds of all federal judiciary appoint- Great Depression (Kolb, 1994). In an at- ments were made by Reagan and Bush tempt to show he was fulfilling his cam- (Shull, 1993). The power to make appoint- Conclusion paign pledge, Bush met with the governors ments even influences independent agen- to discuss education. Many members of The public’s perception of the president cies such as the Civil Rights Commission Congress resented the fact that they were has to a large extent been shaped by the (CRC). Reagan and Bush used their ap- not invited to attend the colorful degree to which he has fulfilled his re- pointments to move the agency to a more sponsibility to protect the civil rights of Charlottesville Education Summit (Kolb, conservative direction (Shull, 1993). all individuals. A president who fails in 1994). Bill Clinton at the time was the Clinton appointed the most diverse this responsibility is likely to be judged head of the National Governors’ Associa- Cabinet in history (Fact Sheet on African very harshly by historians. The United tion’s education committee. Clinton con- Americans, 2000). He supported and in- States is a racially diverse nation; and the tinued to convene with governors. If gover- stability of this country requires that all cluded people of color at every level in our nors and politicians are in charge of as- individuals be treated fairly, regardless society. Concerning people of color, “Clinton sessing their national goals don’t they have of their race or ethnic origin. Americans not only opened his mind, but also his ad- an interest in showing improvement un- entrust the president, as the nation’s chief ministration” (Wickham, 2002, p. 234). No law enforcer, with ultimate responsibil- der their watch? other president before or after has empow- ity to assure that the United States lives Bush may have placed education on ered so many people of color. He placed up to its noble constitutional ideal of guar- his agenda, but there was a failure to ben- more African Americans in the executive anteeing every individual equality under efit the majority of students. “Even his branch of government than any other. the law. (Laham, 1998, p. 213)

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 38 Research As educators we must continue to chal- Note House. Retrieved September 22, 2004 from lenge our students to think critically about http://www.clintonpresidentialcenter.org/ our past and current president’s actions Desegregation is used rather than inte- legacy/071200-fact-sheet-on-african- americans.htm and policies. Students need to create their gration. Desegregation speaks to the law and integration speaks to a social policy that was Fact Sheet on Education (July 25, 1995). Presi- own meanings and understandings of how dent Clinton’s commitment to education not ever met. our past presidents have influenced poli- and training. The White House. Retrieved cies and notions of social justice. Students September 22, 2004 from http:// need to be given the opportunity to learn References www.clintonpresidentialcenter.org/legacy/ different perspectives so that they can fully 072595-fact-sheet-on-education.htm. Baptiste, H. P. & Sanchez, R. (2004). Ameri- Fact Sheet on Education Hispanic Americans participate in democratic decision making can Presidents and their attitudes, beliefs, and take a political stance for issues that (June 15, 2000). President Clinton and vice and actions surrounding multicultural edu- president Gore: Expanding education op- impact them. cation: A series of research studies in edu- portunities for Hispanic Americans. The “Unless the system is more respon- cational policy. (Fourth Installment). White House. Retrieved September 22, sive to the real human needs that have Multicultural Education12(1), 33-40. 2004 from http://www.clintonpresidential been neglected and often compounded by Berliner, D. C. & Biddle, B. J. (1995). The center.org/legacy/071200-fact-sheet-on- American presidents, the future of America manufactured crisis. Reading, MA: education-hispanic-americans.htm is not very promising” (Steinfield, 1972). Addison-Wesley Publishing. Fact Sheet on Hispanic Americans (October Blood, T. and Henderson, B. (1996). State of 12, 2000). President Clinton takes action Conclusive evidence based on these three the union: A report on President Clinton’s presidents, Ronald Reagan, George H. W. to increase opportunities for Hispanic first four years in office. Los Angeles: Gen- Americans in the federal workforce. The Bush, and William Jefferson Clinton eral Publishing Group. White House. Retrieved September 22, through there actions and policies describe Blumenthal, S. (2003). The Clinton wars. New 2004 from http://www.clintonpresidential their responsiveness to the needs of our York: Plume. center.org/legacy/101200-fact-sheet-on- multicultural diverse nation in very differ- Booker, C. B. (2000). African-Americans and hispanic-americans.htm ent ways. the presidency. New York: Franklin Watts. Fact Sheet on Hispanic American Community Looking at the presidencies of Ronald Campbell, D. 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President Clinton and issue of race, and that such a shift most pl?sid=04/06/07/1927239 vice president Gore: Working on behalf of Clinton, W. (2004). My Life. New York: Alfred the Hispanic community. The White often results in the loss of rights, liberties, A. Knopf. and freedoms for African Americans” House. Retrieved September 22, 2004 from Degregorio, W. A. (1946, 1991). The complete http://www.clintonpresidentialcenter.org/ (Walton, 1997, p.371). Reagan and Bush book of U. S. presidents. New York: Barri- legacy/092998-fact-sheet-on-hispanic- appointed conservative justices that have cade Books. community.htm similar beliefs to their own to be the fed- Dreier, P. (2004). Urban suffering grew under Fact Sheet on Human Rights (December 6, eral courts chief decision-making figures. Reagan. Retrieved July 28, 2004 from http:/ 2000). The Clinton Administration. 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Previous installments in this series of articles on Presidents of the United States and multicultural education appeared in the following issues of Multicultural Education: Winter 2003 issue: Presidents James Madison, Rutherford B. Hayes, and John F. Kennedy. Spring 2004 issue: Presidents Andrew Jackson, Woodrow Wilson, and Dwight D. Eisenhower. Summer 2004 issue: Presidents John Quincy Adams, Theodore Roosevelt, and Harry S. Truman. Fall 2004 issue: Presidents George Washington, James K. Polk, and Franklin D. Roosevelt Winter 2004 issue: Presidents Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, and Lyndon B. Johnson Look for a concluding article in this series in a future issue of Multicultural Education.

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