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ED 018 127 EN 006 182 THE INFLUENCE OF THE CINEMA ON CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS, AN ANNOTATED INTERNATIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. REPORTS AND PAPERS ON MASS COMMUNICATION, NO. 31. UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULT.ORG REPORT NUMBER 669 -B PUB DATE 61 EDRS PRICE MF40.50 HC -$4.36 107P.

DESCRIPTORS- *FILMS, *CHILDREN, *ADOLESCENTS,*ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES, NETHERLANDS "PREVENTIE FONDS" (PREVENTIVE FUND)

THIS IS A COMPREHENSIVE AND INTERNATIONAL ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PUBLICATIONS CONCERNED WITH THEINFLUENCE OF FILMS ON YOUNG PEOPLE. THE ENTRIES ARE ARRANGEDBY SUBJECT AND EACH ENTRY DESCRIBES THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY,THE RESEARCH METHODS EMPLOYED, AND THE MAIN CONCLUSIONSREACHED. THERE IS VIRTUAL UNANIMITY AMONG THE AUTHORS AS TOTHE VALUE OF MAKING AND DISTRIBUTING FILMS SPECIALLY FORCHILDREN. THIS DOCUMENT IS AVAILABLE AS 669-B. FROM NATIONAL DISTRIBUTORSOF UNESCO PUBLICATIONS OR FROM THE MASS COMMUNICATION CLEARING HOUSE, UNESCO, PLACE DE FONTENOY, PARIS..-7E, FRANCE, FOR $1.50. (MF) 41117.7,TrlITR.1.-5,401./.11,11.11MINVISI,.M1.01,47"..9.11MIIP.TIY, ..1741:144.

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4 This series of Reports and Papers on Mass Communication is issued by the Clearing House of the Department of Mass Communication of Unesco. Unless otherwise stated, the re orts may be __renrnducecl in or in part, provided credit is given to Unesco. The following reports ana papers have so far been issued and are obtainable from National Distributors of Unesco Publications or from the Mass CommunicationClearing House, Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, Paris 7e.

REPORTS AND PAPERS ON MASS COMMUNICATION

No 1 Films and Filmstrips about the work of the United Nations and its Specialized Agencies, May 1952 (out of print). Na2 World Film Directory- Agencies concerned with Educational, Scientific and Cultural Film - Section A: Africa : Section 8: America (North, Central and South); Section C: Asia and Oceania; Section D: Europe and Section E : International, July 1952/September 1953 (free on request). No 3 Films and Filmstrips about Education. August 1952 (out of print). No4Unesco Publications on Mass Communication - An Annotated Bibliography. October 1952(out of print) with Supplement 1954 (out of print). NG 5 Television - An Experiment in Community Reception in French villages. August 1952 (out of print). No 6Kerosene Filmstrips and Slide Projectors. November 1952 (free on request). No 7 The Daily Press - A Survey of the World Situation in 1952. December 1953 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF). No 8Education for Journalism - 1953. January 1954 ($0.40 ; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF). No 9Bibliography on Filmology as Related to the Social Sciences. February 1954 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF). No 10Newsprint Trends 1928-1951. February 1954 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF). No11 Paper for Printing (other than Newsprint) and Writing -1929 -1951 Trends. March 1954 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.);1,00 NF). No 12Paper for Printing and Writing - Tentative Forecasts of Demand in 1955, 1960 and 1965. April 1954 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF). No 13Tentative International Bibliography of Works Dealing with Press Problems (1900-1952). September 1954 ($0.50; 3/- (Stg.); 1,50 NF). No 14Catalogues of Short Films and Filmstrips- Selected List. February 1955 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF). No 15Catalogue of French Ethnographical Films. May 1955 ($0,40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF). No 16Television and Tele-Clubs in Rural Communities. July 1955 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 0,50 NF). No 17International Rules for the Cataloguing of Educational, Scientific and Cultural Films and Filmstrips. Preliminary edition, May 1956 ($0.40; (Stg.); 1,00 NF). No 18A Manual for Evaluators of Films and Filmstrips. May 1956 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF). No 19List of Films Recommended for Children and Adolescents up to 16 years Following Selections made in 22 Countries. June 1956 (out of print). No 20Catalogue of 50 Popular Science Films. July 1956 (out of print). No 21Current Mass Communication Research I- Bibliography of Books and Articles on Mass Communication published since 1 January 1955. December 1956 ($1 ; 5/- (Stg.); 2,50 NF). No 22Periodicals for New Literates : Editorial Methods. June 1957 ($0.75; 3/5 (Stg.); 1,50 NF). No 23Cultural Radio Broadcasts. Some Experiences. December 1956 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF). No 24 Periodicals for New Literates. Seven Case Histories. November 1957 ($1; 5/- (Stg.); 3,00 NF). No 25 Adult Education Groups and Audio-Visual Techniques. 1958 ($0.75; 3/6 (Stg.); 2,00 NF). No 26The Kinescope and Adult Education. 1958 ($0.75; 3/6 (Stg.); 2,00 NF). No 27 Visual Aids in Fundamental Education and Community Development.1959 ($0.75; 3/6 (Stg.); 2,50 NF). No 28Film Programmes for the Young. 1959 ($0.75; 3/ 6 (Stg.); 2,50 NF). No 29Film- making on a Low Budget. 1960 ($0.50; 2/ 6 (Stg.); 1,75 NFL No 30Developing Mass Media in Asia. 1960 ($ 1.50; 7/6 (Stg.) ; 5,25 NF).

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MC. 61.XVII.31.A

Printed in the Workshops of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Place de Fontenoy, Paris 7e UNESCO 1961 The influence of the cinema onchildren and adolescents An annotated international bibliography

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE

OFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT.POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS

STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY.

unesco VIONNIIIFIII.NIFIMIMMNIIMIII.21114111.M.1.011

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction: A survey of trends 5

1. General Works 9 (a) Introductory studies, reflexions and assessments 9 (b) Studies on the objectives of research, and methods employed 12 (c) Bibliographies and special periodicals 16

2. The attitude of youth towards the cinema 18 (a) Frequency of cinema attendance: cinema habits; the cinema in relation to other leisure activities 18 (b) Motives for cinema attendance; film preferences; star-worship... 29

3. Analysis of film content 33

4. Dr. process of seeing a film 36 (a) Perception and comprehension of films 36 (b) The psychology of film experience (participation, identification, projection, etc.) 40

5. Influence and after-effects of films 48 (a) The influence of films on general knowledge, ideas, and attitudes.. 48 (b) The influence of films on emotional life and behaviour 50 (c) What do children and young people recollect from films? 61 (d) Films and juvenile delinquency 62

6. Educational as ects and ractical measures 67 (a) The use of films in the development of personality 67 (b) Education towards better appreciation and critical assimilation of films, (cine-clubs; film education) 70 (c) Production and distribution of children's films; selection of suitable programmes for children and adolescents 82 (d) Censorship and legislation 90

7. Miscellaneous 94 (a) Special numbers of general periodicals 94 (b) Conference reports; handbooks of organizations, etc. 98

Index of authors 103 INTRODUCTION

A SURVEY OF TRENDS

Those who want to know what has been discovered the most noticeable of the trends to be detected about the influence of the cinema on children and here. A large number of writers advocate that adolescents will find an answer here.It has been teaching about the cinema should not merely be given by some four hundred writers, from nearly encouraged but that it should be given formal re- thirty different countries, whose work is repre- cognition in the school curriculum. In several sented in the following pages. countries (e .g. the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics The purpose of this bibliography is to list and and the United Kingdom), evenbefore the period to annotate the most important books and articles covered bythis book, this attitude existed. Any at- published throughout the world during the past tempt to classify a collection of data such as this into three decades dealing with the influence of the positive and negative categories would have been cinema on young people. The task has not been an "unscientific "; yet, as against those items which easy one: the field of subject-matter is wide and express viewpoints plainly antagonistictowards has been approached from various points of view - the cinema and its effects on the young, one cannot physiology, psychology, psychiatry, sociology, help being impressed by the volume of opinion in criminology, education - and the results have been favour of the educational aspects and practical published in many languages and places. Indeed, measures which are considered aspositive influ- almost the only completely unassailable conclusion ences of the film. The largestsections in fact that may be drawn from a study of these pages is deal with these, and even censorship, traditionally that great and growing importance is attached to the regarded as essentially negative, is represented problem of film and youth. There is widespread as capable of being a positive factor. agreement that something should be done. The individual opinions expressed by writers What should be done is quite another matter. in most of the other sections are often sharply Few authoritative judgements could be madesimply contradictory, but nowhere more so than in the on the evidence of the bibliographicaldata collected section dealing with "juvenile delinquency". How- here - at least without reference to the full texts ever, although the subject ifi tendentious and con- of the books and articles themselves. Even then, troversial, it was obviously necessary to include the considered opinions and apparently substan- a grouping of items under this heading,if only tiated conclusions of one writer seem, all too because the problem has attracted such widespread often, to cancel out those of another. As one contemporary interest. Two or three assumptions author puts it, if one thing is known with certainty can safely be made after anexamination of these about children and the cinema, it is that very little items. One is that, on the evidence so far avail- is known with certainty about children and the able, it is extremely difficult - indeed, virtually cinema - beyond the obvious fact that they have a impossible - to establish that the cinema has a persistent liking for it. direct influence on juvenile delinquency. While a Yet, whenthis note of caution has been sounded, great deal of research has been carried out to there are nevertheless some broad trends which decide whether or not films corrupt youth, what can be discerned in the present bibliography and has been done is conflicting both as to methods which should not be overlooked. At various points and results. There are a number of psychiatric in this world debate on the cinema's influence it is theories on the subject, but the evidence in sup7 possible, without taking a show of hands, to gauge port of them is inconclusive. At one extreme it "the feeling of the meeting". is claimed that films actively incite young people Studies on the educational film - that is, on to delinquency; at the other that they are safety- the use of the film strictly as a teaching aid -have valves which may help to prevent it; on the one been excluded from this bibliography, in order to hand, that they supply first-hand knowledge of how keep the publication within manageable proportions: to commit criminal acts; on the other that, by but such action does not rule out the topic of film keeping children off the streets, they prevent education ("education cinematographique") or, as juvenile misbehaviour and crime. A "half-way" it is called in several countries, "film apprecia- attitude is that criminal and amoral behaviour is tion". In point of fact, the growing interest in to be imputedto deeper and more subtle influences film education, allied with the development of eine- than the film alone, although much that is shown clubs for the young, the production anddistribution on the screen is unsuitable for children. of special children's entertainment filmsand the There is no doubt that a good many hobby- presentation of special programmes, represents horses are riddenthroughthese pages. Nevertheless 5 while there is no unanimity about the direct in- young - and if so, why. Even the increasing avail- fluence of the cinema, a majority of authors do ability and use of scientific research techniques speak of indirect and unconscious influences. The has not noticeably clarified the situation. In this consensus of their opinion is that such influences context it is justifiable to draw attention to the are rarely the product of a single film or even of wish expressed by one writer that there should be several, but are much more likely to be the out- closer co-operation among the different investi- come of a succession of movies with similar themes gators in the field of film and youth. The publica- and tendencies, causing by reiteration a new state tion of this bibliography should at least go some of mind or change of outlook in the young spectator . way towards helping research workers to avoid To put it another way, it is widely argued that the entering unknowingly on portions of the field which repeated presentation of certain themes and behave already been well cultivated. haviour patterns onthe screen has much more In other sections of the bibliography the issues likelihood of producing a long-term, indirect effect are rather more clear-cut than they are in those than the immediate, overt influence of any indivi- devoted in juvenile delinquency and other cinematic dual film, however specific.The broad generali- after-effects. For instance, in the sections on zation might be made that the film has mainly a cinema attendance (2a) and film preferences (2b), provocative effect but is rarely basically causal. several trends emerge fairly clearly. Some of It would seem to be accepted now as almost these trends may seem obvious: nevertheless it beyond doubt that boys and girls get ideas from the is perhaps useful to find confirmation, from many movies on such superficial and generally harmless quarters, of the view that children in general go matters as dress, hair styles, speech, recreation to the cinema more often than their parents and and games. So far as harmful influences are con- that as they grow older they go less and less in cerned, the factors most frequently cited as re- parental company; that boys tend to go more often sponsible are over-emphasis and distorted pre- than girls; and that the children who are most sentation of crime, cruelty and horror, and of frequent attenders are (to generalize) those who those elements which may be put under the generic are unhappy or lonely, those who want "to escape label of "sex".However, as the evidence of the from daily life" and therefore are seeking distrac- bibliographical entries reveals, considerable con- tion, and those who have least interest in other cern is also felt among parents and educators about activities. Rather more specifically, there is the effects of a number of rather less obvious ele- evidence to show that attendance is affected by ments in cinema entertainment. There is a pre- standards of income, intelligence and education, vailing objection to the artificial conception of life with children at the lower levels in these three in the world of the cinema (where "what is extreme respects going to the movies more frequently than is presented as normal") which is said to endanger children who are well off, of high intelligence, and the sense of values of the immature. Among as- carefully educated. pects in this category that draw critical fire are: In very many works on the influence of the the recurrent portrayal of luxury and of the "easy cinema, the age of the young people concerned life"; the "glorification" of revenge as a motive; assumes first importance, because of its bearing the unrealistic solutions put forward when diffi- on their habits and behaviour as film-goers, on culties arise; and the artificial patterns of the their understanding of the medium and the effects "boy-meets-girl" situation. Several writers draw it has upon them, on measures of censorship and attention to the stereotyped images which the legislation, and on the production and selection of screen creates both of characters (e.g. the cow- what are regarded as suitable programmes. From boy and the gangster) and of modes of behaviour; a perusal of the items in this bibliography, four and the question is raised whether this stereotyp- significant stages or periods in the development ing may give a wrong conception of national life and of young people's film-going can be reasonably customs to young audiences in other countries. clearly distinguished, even though it will be rea- There is some evidence that in the case of racial lized that one should not be arbitrary about age- attitudes or prejudices, these can be influenced - groupings and that one phase will merge into in one direction or the other - by a few striking another. The first stage is that up to the age of films only. 7 years, the so-called "fairy-tale" age in which It might have been expected that the entries in children live in an imaginary world. It may be the section headed "juvenile delinquency" would noted here that a substantial body of opinion in- all be of comparatively recent vintage. But this clines to the view that the movie-theatre is no is not so. Writers in the early part of the period place for infants, and therefore, in general, that under review did not neglect the topic: there were children should not start picture-going before the studies on it in 1933; and the opinion of one writer age of 7, and certainly not without the company of is quoted to the effect that studyinthis field began a parent or some other responsible adult. The soon after 1910 - in other words practically as second age-group covers the period between 7 and soon as the cinema began to have an impact on the 12. This is what is known as the "Robinson age", general public .Here again, writers and theorists when experience of realism comes more and more appear to have been divided from the outset as to to the fore and children are mostly interested in whether the film has any direct influence on the adventure and action. But it is also noticeable

6 that they can already adopt an objective attitude, From a survey of the relevant entriesin Sec- and can follow the main lines of action in a story. tion 6, it seems to be generally agreedthat there This period merges into the third stage, the age is such a thing as "filmlanguage" and that educa- of puberty, between 12 and 16, when the child's tors must take account of its existence,for the personality is markedly developing and tensions reason that films cannot beproperly understood are arising. By this time the average child is without some knowledge of this"language". Simi- strongly attracted towards the cinema, although larly, as regards production, there appearsto be aware of its fictitious nature. He can not only little doubt that simplicity is a prerequisitein the comprehend the film as a whole, but can also form making of films for children, particularly young some interpretation of the screen-play' s internal children, who have difficulty in following"film structure and meaning. This view is supported by language" (camera movement, time symbols, etc.) those writers who claim that "film language" can- which involves a different process from that re- not be understood by children before the advent of quired for reading and understanding a hook. Those puberty. A variation of this is the theory that two writers - and there are many - who favour the en- phases can be distinguished in the development of couragement of "film teaching", especiallythrough the child' s understanding of the cinema, a mental ail-clubs and film discussions ( idler at the club age of 10 years being necessary if he is to keep or in the classroomitself), have a generally con- pace with sequences and with the various techniques sistent idea about the lines along which such of film expression, while a proper grasp of a film's activities should be conducted. Similarly there is real significance demands a mental age of at least virtual unanimity as to the value of making and 12 years. Most writers consider that the fourth distributing films specially for children, just as stage in film comprehension starts at about 16 or there are few divergences of opinion concerning 17 which, in a number of countries, is the age the pitfalls which will be encountered or the ways when young film-goers are legally regarded as in which these might be avoided. having reached adult status and are therefore no longer officially subject to censorship restrictions. Origins and Scope of the Bibliography Their interest in the cinema is largely influenced bythe desire to penetrate the mysteries of the adult The original basis of this work was a selectionof world which they themselves are now entering. abstracts of studies about young people and the But it is the age of 12 or 13 which is seen as cinema which was compiled by Dr. J.M.L. Peters, the crucial dividing line. The problem of the film Director of the Netherlands Film Institute with the begins at 12 years, it is said: and among the aid of a grant from the Netherlands"Preventie writers represented here, it is fairly generally fonds" (Preventive Fund) and facilities made avail- agreed that the reactions of adolescents at the able by the Instituut Film en Jeugd. Unesco sup- cinema are naturally different from those of child- plemented this selection by entries from other ren, the onset of puberty producing notonly a new sources, and then circulated theresulting compila- outlook on film and a better understanding of what tion of items in the form of a Draft Bibliography films are saying, but also sharper impressions to its Member States and to individualauthorities, and stronger effects on imagination and sentiments, inviting them to supply new and supplementary with the consequent appearance of new problems. material and to make comments. More than a It is, for example, in adolescence that the cult of score of Member States and severalorganizations "star-worship" becomes most evident. and individual specialists responded to this re- So far as preferences in screen entertainment quest. As a result the volume of additional mate- are concerned, it is acommonplace to saythattastes rial received not only made the present publication in films mature as the subject himself matures. a great deal morecomprehensive than the draft However, it may safely be adduced from the evid- had indicated, but also had the effect of changing ence available here, that boysprefer films of ad- the nature of the bibliography, so that in its pre- venture, action and violence, while girls like those sent revised form it is no longer essentially a concerned with love, private life, and "glamour". selection by any single individual or group but has These categories may be broken down a little become, in effect, a compendium of selections further, as follows: for lore -war films, westerns, supplied by specialists in the various Member comedies, animal films, musicals, detective and States. This procedure may have led to a certain crime thrillers, sports stories; for girls - musi- lack of proportion and may explain to some extent cals, nature and animal films, comedies, stories why certain countries have more representation about love, everyday life and human relations. than others among the entries - quite apart, of One may sum up these particular trends by saying course, from the fact that the cinema's rateof that, in addition to levels of education, intelli- development has differed widely throughout the gence, age and income, the social milieuand world. It should also be noted in this connexion conditions at home exert an influence on the fre- that different national groups have different atti- quency of children' s visits to thecinema and on tudes towards the medium and different criteria their preferences, tastes, and reactions to films. for judging its importance and influence. But it would be hazardous to make a more precise This publication, then, is not exhaustive or de- statement than we have here attempted. finitive, for no bibliography on a daily-developing 7 subject such as the cinema can ever be that; but the length of each abstract has been determined by allowing for errors and omissions, it is believed the nature of the book or article and in some cases that with the co-operation of many personsit has (in the absence of the original) by the extent of the become acceptably comprehensive andinterna- information available concerning it; but in no case tional in scope. has it been determined by any conclusion regard- In general, only those works whichhave a ing its relative importance. One factor taken into direct bearing on the influence of the cinema on account, however, was the accessibility of the children and adolescents have been listed.The original; among the studies given fuller treatment word "influence" has been usedthroughout, and are some which are not readilyavailable to the especially in the title, in a wide sense, withthe bulk of readers in all countries of the world. result that the bibliography includes studies on The bibliographical entries are arranged by such subjects as "motives" and"cinema habits" subject according to a scheme of classification which, it might be argued, do not comedirectly which was tested and revised considerably under the heading of "influence". Theexclusion before being chosen as the one least likely to cause of studies on the educational film hasalready been dissatisfaction for the present purpose. Because explained. many of the publications listed coverseveral topics, Each entry includes an abstract whichde- cross-references will be found at the end of each scribes - in so far as it has been possible to ascer- section, drawing attention (by mention of the tain these things - the purpose of the study,the appropriate numbers) to items in other sections research methods employed and the mainconclu- containing relevant information. sions reached, sothatthe reader may judgewhether In general the period covered is from 1930 to the publication is relevant to his own fieldof inter- 1959, but a few studies published before the former est. The summaries express the conclusionsand date have been included as being of importanceand opinions, often quite forceful, of the writers of the having a direct bearing on subsequent research. original works, but not(it should be noted)the An index of authors will be found at the endof the opinions ofUnesco. It must also beemphasizedthat bibliography.

A 1. GENERAL WORKS

(a) INTRODUCTORY STUDIES, The fifth chapter deals with adventure films REFLEXIONS AND ASSESSMENTS citing several examples. Their special success with children is attributedto their presentation of uncommon and vivid events, and easily surmounted 1.Begak, B. and Gromov, J. Bo lsoe iskusstvo difficulties, and to the fact that they contain more dl'a malen'kih. /A great art for the young/ "crowded" action than any other ,ape of film. Moscow, State Film Publications, 1949. The authors are also of the opinion that the hero must always win. Problems of films for children are treated in the For the production of films of phantasy based following nine chapters: (1) Specific characteris- on scientific facts, documentation, archives, and tics of films for children; (2) Films for children; works of popular science should be used. (3) Film biographies; (4) Filmed fairy tales; (5) The sixth chapter is devoted to comedy which Adventure films; (6) Film comedies for children; should normally have a place inthe children's him (7) Children's literature and films for children; repertoire. Reference is made to classic comedies, (8) The dialogue in children's films; (9) Perspec- adapted for different age-groups and dealing with tives of children' s films. clearly defined social problems. The method of In chapter one the educational value of the constructing a comic situation for a children's cinema and the particularly powerful influences of film is examined and the educational role of laughter the cinema on children are studied. The concep- is stressed, whether as a reaction to simple good- tion of a children' s film is defined, age limits are heartedness or to satire. established and various opinions of educators on The seventh chapter discusses the close rela- these subjects are discussed. tionship between children's literature and children's The authors define the specific characteristics films and analyses the problems of adaptingliterary of children' s films according to age groups. They works to the screen. The cinema does not always consider that the child's perception is empirical and take the best advantage of experience gained in the final, and that this dictates the particular character field of children's literature. and form of children' s films: situations requiring a In selecting literary works for adaptation to certain maturity ofjudgement bythe spectators the screen, the literary interests of children, and must be treated with discretion; special precision is their reading ability and problems of literary required in the representation of moral values, and studies at school should be considered. there should be a maximum of action. The choice The eighth chapter analyses the characteristics of subjects is not limited; the authors feel that child- of film dialogue for children, the dialogue being one ren's literature differs from general literature in the of the elements inthe constructiou of the character. manner of telling a story and not in what it tells. The authors comment onthe precision and persua- In the second chapter the authors examine the sive force ofthe dialogue inthe best children's films. historical development of children' s films with In the final chapter, the development of children's clearly-defined contemporary subjects, and ana- films accordingto anideological and artistic plan, lyse the best films of the past and the present. and the need to train personnel for future produc- The third chapter is devoted to films concerning tions, are discussed. great men. Their educational value, based on example, is enormous. Different aspects of biogra- 2.Charters, W.W. Motion Pictures and Youth: phical films -biographies of real or fictitious per- A Summary. In one volume with Holaday, P.W. sons, historical or contemporary - are examined. and Stoddard, George D., Getting Ideas from In addition to ideological content, stress is laid on the Movies, New York, Macmillan, 1934, the problem of invention and fiction which bears a 66 p. (Payne Fund Studies). close relation to the recreational qualities and the interest of the spectacle. Gives a summary survey of the "Payne Fund In the fourth chapter the filmed fairy tale is Studies",which are dealt with separately in this defended. This type of entertainment is accessible bibliography. See also under: to all ages; such films differ, of course, as to the Holaday, P.W. and Stoddard, George D. , Getting complexity of conception, plot structure, pictorial Ideas from the Movies (no. 259); realization and the verbal texture of the story. A Peterson, Ruth C. and Thurst one , L. L. , Motion Pic- detailed analysis of a cartoon is given. tures and the Social Attitudes of Children (no .190;

9 Shuttleworth, Frank K., and May, MarkA., The Social towards young people in sever al articles contributed Conduct and Attitudes of Movie Fans (no. 198); to Lumen, examines the different views expressed Dysinger, Wendell S. and Ruckmick, Christian A., on this matter and briefly die cusses the main books The Emotional Responses of Children to the and articles dealing with the question. Motion Picture Situation (no. 214); Peters, Charles C., Motion Pictures and Standards 6.Dolinskij, I.L. Detskoe kino LThe cinema of Morality (no. 123); for children.' Moscow, 1957. (manuscript). Henshaw, Samuel, Miller, Vernon L., and Marquis, Dorothy, Children's Sleep (no. 226); This study is intended for publication in vols. 2 Blumer, Herbert, Movies and Conduct (no. 205); and 3 of "Studies onthe History of Soviet Cinema" , Dale, Edgar, The Content of Motion Pictures in preparation by the Cinema Section of the Institute (no. 116); of History of the Arts of the Academy of Science Dale, Edgar, Children's Attendance at Motion of the USSR. Pictures (no. 59); Describes the development of the cinema for Blumer, Herbert and Hauser, Philip M., Movies, children in the USSR from its beginning before the Delinquency and Crime (no. 266); Revolution up to the present day. Cressey, Paul G. and Thrasher, Frederick M. , The most important part of this work deals Boys, Movies and City Streets (no. 271); with the stages of development of this branch of Dale, Edgar, How to Appreciate Motion Pictures film art. The author also seeks to define the (no. 321). specific character of the form and content of recreational and documentary films for children. 3.Cohen-Seat, Gilbert. Les debats en 1955 sur From the mass of children's films he selects the l' influence du cinema et sur les problemes du most valuable productions for analysis: ("Golden film et de la jeunesse (Debates in 1955 on Honey", "Worn Slippers", "A White Sail on the problems of the cinema and youtW. In: Revue Horizon", "There was a Little Girl", "Cuk and internationale de filrnologie, Paris, VI (20-24), Guek", "Kortik", etc.). 1955, p. 157-173. Touching on the problem of the aesthetic and didactic roles of children's films, the author dis- Although only slight progress was made during cusses the relationship between the cinema as a many discussions, meetings and conferences onthe form of art and education. Artists concerned with cinema and youth held during1955, it can be said the direction of children's films are, in a sense, that the cinema is gradually being taken seriously educators; failing such a relationship with educa- in all circles. To illustrate this a number of texts tion, the development of children's films is are reproduced: a discourse by H.H. the Pope (de- impossible. livered before representatives of the Italian film The role which children's literature and the industry); "Is Culture in Danger? " (a debate on "theatres for young audiences" have played in the communication media -press, film, radio, televi- development of childreri's films is stressed. The sion - held at Geneva); a report of the "Journees de experience of authors of children's books and la sante mondiale" (held in Paris); and a text pro- plays and the traditions of theatre groups have been duced by Unesco on the use of recreational films a valuable aid to the craftsmen of children's films. by cinema-clubs and in adult education. Great attention is given to questions of interpretation(disguise and games for children who are 4 . Commission on Educational and Cultural Films . not professional actors). Throughout the essay, The Film in National Life. London, Allen & the author insists onthe necessity for a special Unwin, 1932, n. p. production studio for children's films, which he considers vital to the satisfactory development of A report on the position of the cinema in England, children's films . its cultural influence, its instructional potenti- The parts played by the Komsomols, and the alities and its social significance as a recreational educational and social organizations, in the history activity; principles applicable to the production of the Soviet cinema for children are also described . and distribution of documentary and educational films, and various information on the technical 7.Federation of Children' s Welfare Organizations aspects of the use of films in education. A detailed of Yugoalavia. Film i dete: clanci, doku- bibliography. menti i informacije LThe cinema and children: 5.Corradini, Umberto. Contributo allo studio Articles, documents andinformatioil. Com- dei rapporti tra cinema e gioventA contribu- mission on the Cinema and Children, of the tion to the study of the relations between the Federation of Children's Welfare Organiza- cinema and young people/In: Lumen, Brescia, tions of Yugoslavia, Belgrade, 1957, 88 p. May 1955, p. 83-88; August 1955, p. 114-116; (stencilled). January 1956, p. 149-160. An internal bulletin containing mainly texts already The author, after assessingthe influence of the cine- published in foreign works and periodicals, in ma on child development and itsresponsibilities particular:

10 Field, Mary: "Children's Film Taste"; education in the Federal Republic of Germany Badawczy, Zaspol: "Researches into the Problems are reproduced. of Entertainment Films for the Children in Includes a survey of organizations and insti- Poland"; tutions dealing with problems of the cinema and Brinkmann, Donald: How to Make Good Films for youth, and an extensive bibliography. Children and Youth. Reviews of certainforeign books, notably: Film und Jugend (Cinema and 11. Keilhacker, Martin. Neuere psychologische youth), published by the Deutsches Institut und padagogische Forschungsergebnisse auf Filmkunde; Agel, Henri and Genevieve: dem Gebiet "Jugendschutz und Film _A:Jrmilts Precis d' initiation au cinema (A brief intro- of recent psychological and pedagogical re- duction to the cinema); OCIC, Revue Inter- search on the protection of youth and the nationale du cinema, nos. 13 and 18. A cinema/. Jugend und Film, Munich, (1)91958, detailed bibliography. p. 13-30. 8.Ford, Richard. Children in the Cinema. A resume of investigations, particularly inGermany, London, Allen & Unwin, 1939, 240 p. into films suitable for young audiences and into the influence of the cinema on young persons. In the Taking cognizance of the fact that in normal times first part, the author refers to the studies of nearly five million children attend the cinema each Sierstedt, Gratiot-Alphandery and Gerhartz- week in England, the writer presents a survey of Franck (the last named studied especially the and a tentative answer a great many problems younger child up to the age of about 8 years) and of social and psychological interest arising in this summarizes his own theories and those of Stuckrath context. regarding children aged 8-12 and those over 12 years. In the second part, he discusses research 9.Goncalves, S.Consideracoes sobre a carried out on the influence of the cinema on young crianga e o cinema. /Considerations concern- persons; this he arranges in three sections, ac- ing the child and the cinema) In: Crianga, cording to the objective effects of the film during Rio de Janeiro (2), 1943, p. 137-146. and immediately after screening, long-term influence, nature of cinematographic experience. A A resume of various studies and problemsconcern- succinct analysis of the studies of Zazzo, ing the influence of the cinema on children. In Bellingroth, Sicker, Wall and Simson, Dale, general, a marked preference for comic films is Stuckrath, Welker and Keilhacker. found at all ages. Such pictures are suitable for children from the age of 7 on into adolescence; 12. Lacis, A. and Kejlina, I.Deti i kino. children under 7 should be prevented from attend- /Children and the cinema/. Moscow, ing the cinema. General Directorate of Social Education, Peoples' Commissariat of Instruction of the 10. Heinrich, Karl. Film und Erziehung. Mate- RSFSR, Moscow, 1928, 85 p. rial zur Jugend-Film-Frage./ Films and education, material on the problem of the Chapter 1 presents information about collective cinema and young peoplej Darmstadt, infatuation or "cinematomania" of children collected Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutscher Lehrerver- by the Institute of Curricular Methods through an bande, April 1957, 128 p. (Material-und examination of 2,000 children in Moscow. Data Nachrichten-Dienst Mund, 80). are included on the dangerous influence on children of films which are not appropriate to their age. Excerpts from reports of meetings on problems of Chapter 2 describes the adaptation of film the cinema and youth, giving the fundamental prin- services for child audiences, the opening of a ciples involved, theses, work programmes and cinema for children, and the arrangements made conclusions reached. for special children's matinees. For the sake of Texts are quoted from the reports of: the comparison, information is also given about a departmental committee on children and the cinema children's cinema in Germany during the same (May 1950); the international congress on press, period. radio and film for young people (Milan, 1952); the Various practices adopted at the first children's international meeting on the psychological, tech- cinema (800 seats) in Moscow are outlined: in the nical and social aspects of films for children foyer was a "cinema corner" with a mural news- (Luxembourg, 1955). paper and publicity material; a co-operative snack Ideas and findings discussed during meetings, bar was opened and group games were organized; about the educational influence of film, the pro- in the cinema hall proper, the services of an edu- duction of suitable recreational films for young cational expert were made available. people, and the tasks of scientific research in this Other subjects treated are the equipment sphere, are reviewed. needed for children's cinemas and liaison between The texts of regulations concerning film cen- the children's cinema and other children's organi- sorship, the protection of young people, and film zations. A report on the work of a children's

11 -141,Mr1=,,,IFTOM11.111111,7,..111,1WW1,1,,...

cinema and notes on several children's films 16. Mizutani, Tokuo. Eiga Ni Kansuru Shomondai are included. / Various problems of thecinemal, Tokyo, A diagram of educational work in connexion Shakai-Kyoiku Kyokai /Social Education with the screening of three films before child Associationj, 1933, 40 p. (Shakai-Kyoiku audiences is given in the annex.Illustrated with Panfuretto /Social Education/ Series, 178). six scenes from Soviet children's films. Contents: 13. Lunders, Leo. Introduction aux problbmes du 1. Foreword cinema et de la jeunesse. /An introduction to 2. The educational film movement and its the problems of the cinema and young people/ history Paris-Brussels, Editions universitaires CIDALC, 3. Problems of youth and the cinema 1953, 221 p. Dutch edition: Inleiding tot de pro- 4. Problems of school education and the blemen van film en jeugd, Purmerend, Muusses, cinema 1955. 5. Problems of cinema amusement for the public A discussion of the influence of films on children, 6. Problems of social education and the film education for the young, and the selection and cinema production of children's films. Analyses film 7. Problems of educational films and national language, the influence of the cinema on children counter-measures. at different ages, the processes of identification and imitation, the role of the cinema in juvenile 17. Perlman, William J. The Movies on Trial: The delinquency. It is considered that film education Views and Opinions of Outstanding Personali- is necessary for young people of all ages, and that ties anent Screen Entertainment Past and teachers must be specially trained for this task. Present. Compiled and edited by William Universities should therefore provide courses in J. Perlman, New York, Macmillan, 1936, 254 p. filmology and youth groups, film clubs, and study circles should promote group discussion of various Nineteen reports on the artistic significance of the aspects of the film. Discusses the need for more film, its dangers for young people and society, scientific research and the various tools of re- film censorship, educational possibilities, etc. search. See under: The economic aspects of producing, distributing, and exhibiting children's films are dealt with, Lindsey, Ben B.,The Movies and Juvenile Delin- as well as the work undertaken in this field by quency (no. 280); Children's Entertainment Films (United Kingdom), Blats, W.E., What do the Children Think of the the Children's Film Library (United States of Movies? (no. 54). America),the Instituut Film en Jeugd (Netherlands), See also: no. 491. and the Conseil superieur du cinema (Belgium). A plan is proposed for the establishment of international criteria for the selection of films suitable (b) STUDIES ON THE OBJECTIVES OF for children and for the banning of unsuitable films. RESEARCH, AND METHODS EMPLOYED 14. Marzi, Alberto and Canestrari, Renzo. Re- cherches sur les problbmes du cinema /Re- 18. Adler, Mortimer J. Art and Prudence. A search on problems of films and youtW. In: Study in Practical Philosophy; The Moral, Revue internationale de filmologie, Paris, the Political and the Aesthetic Aspects of the III (II), July-December 1952, p. 179-192. Motion Picture. New York & Toronto, Longmans, Green & Co., 1937, 686 p. A survey of the studies published in Italy during the last five years on aspects of filmology and the A study in practical philosophy, containing criticism problem of the cinema and youth; with a bibliography. of the Payne Fund Studies on "Motion Pictures and Youth" (see no. 2). 15. Mirams, Gordon. Speaking Candidly: Films and People. Hamilton, New Zealand, 19. Feldman, Erich and Hagemann, Walter. Der Blackwood Paul, 1945, 240 p. Film als Beeinflussungsmittel, Vortrage and Berichte der 2. Jahrestagung der deutschen A critical survey of the cinema and its social im- Gesellschaft far Filmwissenschaft. /The portance, with special reference to New Zealand cinema as a means of influence. Papers and conditions. Contains chapters on the educational Reports of the second annual meeting of the influence of the entertainment film, the picture- German Filmological Society/. Emsdetten, going habits of children and what should be done Verlag Lechte, 1955, 118 p. about them, and also probes into the questions of censorship, film criticism and the possibilities of Several of these papers touch upon the subject community control of the cinema. "cinema and youth", in particular:

12 Keilhacker, Martin (Die Filmeinflfisse bei 22. Giraud, Jean.II cinema e l'adolescenza Kindern und Jugend lichen und die Problema- / The cinema and adolescence/. Rome, tik Hirer Feststellung; pp. 49-66; cf. infra Editrice Avio, 1958, 519 p. Keilhacker); Feldman, Erich (Der Film als Kulturfaktor: Aninquiry carried out among young apprentices at pp. 23-48; cf. infra Feldman); Italian and French trade schools into the subject Ei land, Karl (Der westdeutsche Schulfilm; "cinema and youth". Separate chapters are devoted pp. 101-103). to research methods; relations between adolescents and the cinema today; adolescents on the screen 20. Field, Mary.Children and Films .A and before the screen; immediate reaction and Study of Boys and Girls in the Cinema. delayed reaction of adolescents to the cinema; Edinburgh, Carnegie United Kingdom Trust, various educational problems. 1954, 56 p. App. 40still pictures, 390 photos. 23. Glogauer, Werner. Sozialpsychologische Aspekte der Filmwirkung Aocio-psychological A series of infra-red photographs show behaviour, aspects of the influence of +he cinema,/. In: facial expressions and gestures of children dur- Jugend und Film, Munich, (2), 1957, pp.1-16. ing a children' s film performance. The frame of the particular film scene and the photograph The socio-psychological aspects of the cinema and taken at the same time are reproduced side by its influence has not received sufficient attention side. Scenes were selected for their "emotion- so far. The author suggests possible subjects for provoking" content.The social background of such a study: public taste, influence of adults on the children photographed is described and the adolescents and vice versa regardingthe choice of necessity for co-operation with psychologists in films they see, socio-psychological behaviour of the interpretation of the photographs is children and adolescents before, during and after emphasized. screening, influence of the cinema on the behaviour or "attitudes" of a group (fashion, tourism, leisure 21. Gel'mont, A.M. IzuEenie detskogo kinozritelja. activities, etc.), influence of film stars on /The young spectator' s reactions studied/. adolescents' views of life, fluctuations in the in- Moscow, Roskino, 1933, 64 p. fluence of the cinema according to the milieu to which the spectator belongs, contributions by the Different methods of research on the reactions of cinema towards the betterment or worsening of young spectators. social relations, etc . Chapter 1 explains the importance of this work. 24. Irgens, Hans Rutger. Filmseende och mognad Chapter 2, "What we know and what we /Reactions to films and maturity/. G5teborg, should know of the young spectator" , gives a 1958, 89 p. (M.A. thesis, with resume in rapid outline of research undertaken in the Soviet French). Union and abroad during the years 1920-1930, concerning children's interest in the cinema, A "pilot inquiry" , undertaken with the aid of new their reactions to different types of films, the methods, into the reactions of adolescents to the influence of the cinema on children, etc.Con- French film "Avant le deluge" and their recollec- clusions are drawn concerning methods to be tions of it. The inquiry was carried out among adopted in future studies of the young spectator. forty-two high-school children whose age and Chapter 3 describes the methods of statistical family circumstances corresponded to those of the evaluation of children's cinema-going habits and principal characters. the use made of the information thus obtained in The questions asked were designed to deter- studying the young spectator. mine the extent to which the affective reactions of Chapter 4 describes procedures and methods the subjects and, more particularly, their re- of research concerning the interests and wishes of actions toward the parents portrayed in the film, young spectators: debates, talks by young people, varied with age and personality. The reactions surveys, etc . were measured by reference to the ability of the Chapter 5 describes methods of studying subjects - who were shown a series of pictures the reactions of children to films:notes on representing scenes from the film with extracts of individual reactions during projection, photo- the dialogue (in Swedish) - to locate the dialogue in graphic records of their expressions at different the film. Other questions: sympathetic characters, moments during the presentation of the films, unsympathetic characters, their nature, their debates, compositions, drawings, etc . responsibility for the incidents, justice of the sen- The object of this work is to stimulate the tences passed, etc . Most of the children ascribed initiative of educators in applying different the responsibilityforthe incidents to the spirit of methods of research into the reactions of young the age. The more intelligent were critical of the people during extra-curricular activities with undue severity of the sentences.With a children. bibliography of 112 titles .

13 25. Keilhacker, Martin. Die Filmeinfliisse bei 28. Lunders, Leo. Comment evaluer l'influence Kindern und Jugend lichen und die Problematik du cinema sur les enfants? /How to evaluate ihrer Feststellung /The influence of the cinema the influence of the cinema on children?. j In: on children and adolescents, and how to assess Revue internationale du cinema, Brussels, it/. In: Feldman, Erich and Hagemann,Walter: 4 (12), 1952, p. 50-55. Der Film ale Beeinflussungsmittel Vortrage und Berichte der 2. Jahrestagung der deutschen Several quantitative and qualitative methods which Gesellschaft fur Filmwissenschaft. (Seeno. 19) often result in incorrect conclusions are critically Emsdetten, Verlag Lechte, 1955, 118 p. reviewed. Is it not desirable and possible to have closer co-operation between the different investi- The word "influence" is considered under three gators in the field of film and youth? A work plan different aspects: the force of attraction exerted should be developed, and several suggestions in by the cinema, the impression produced (intensity this direction are offered. and duration), the effect of these two factors on the views and behaviour of the spectator. The in- 29. Muth, Heinrich. Land-Jugend und Kino /The quiries into cinema attendance among children and cinema and rural youth]. In: Planck, Ulrich: adolescents help to supply an answer to the first Die Lebenslage der westdeutschen Landjugend, question. The study of the second meets with Munich, Juventa-Verlag, 1956 (Part I: 409 p.; certain methodological difficulties. The author Part II: 558 p.). describes in detail observations he has himself made with the aid of methods relating to the psy- A critical survey of the methods and results of chology of expression. The third question is the past research into the influence of the cinema on most difficult as it assumes a thorough and pre- youth. This research can be divided into three vious analysis of the cinematographic experience categories: psycho-pedagogic studies; pedagogic of young persons. studies which merely increase public anxiety about the deleterious influence of the cinema; and socio- 26. Keir, Gertrude. Psychology and the Film. logical investigations, which have been neglected In: Penguin Film Review, London, (9), 1949, so far.If studies in individual psychology are to p. 67-72. be fruitful, they must be based on sufficient sociological data which can be supplied by an investiga- The circumstances in which the viewer sees a tion of the attitude of rural youth towards the cinema. film, and the technique and content of the film it- The author studies cinema attendance among the self are the two factors usually taken into account young rural population and quotes various correla- in explaining the emotional impact of a film. In tions which show that cinema lovers (who go to the order to understand this better, an attempt should cinema at least twice a month) differ from less keen be made to learn more about the states of sugges- spectators also in other respects: a preference for tibility engendered by visits to the cinema as leisure activities outside the family circle, absence compared with those brought about by the other of certain prejudices; for instance against make-up. mass media; the extent to which ideas, attitudes The cinema in no way makes young persons dis- and sentiments are influenced by films, and the satisfied with their life, as censorious people suggest. consequent modification of behaviour. The results should then be correlated, allowing for differences 30. Nozet, Hugues. L 'Influence du cinema sur in age, sex and socio-economic background. la leunesse. Etudes experimentales. influence of the cinema on young people. 27. Klapper, Joseph T.Studying Effects of Mass Experimental studies j In: Atti del congresso Communication. In: Communication and the internazionale organizzato dal CIDALC, Firenze, Communication Arts, edited by Francis 6-11 Giugno 1950 " ll cinema nei problemi della Shoemaker, New York, 57 (2),November cultura"ecords of the International Congress 1955, p. 95-103. organized by CIDALC, Florence, 6-11 June 1950 "Film and cultural problems. Rome, Bianco What is "communication research"? The different e Nero, 1951, p. 79-83. factors as given in Lasswell's formula "who says A short explanation of methodological difficulties what to whom with what effects", are interacting. encountered in research on the influence of the The content of communication influences the cinema on young people. When studying reactions effect; hence the importance of content analysis to the feature film, the investigator is confronted research. But content analyses alone cannot with the problem of not being able to vary the prove influence in a given direction, it provides composition of the film itself. Special films should only valuable working hypotheses. The effect is be produced for such investigations. The fact that largely determined by the public and its socio- a film provokes a whole complex of reactions in psychological characteristics, such as sex, age, children and adolescents - motor, physiological, domicile, profession and political orientation. emotional, and intellectual - makes such studies The public's predisposition concerning the source very complicated. A brief expose of the method of communication can also influence the effect. used by Professor Wallon is included. 14 31. Reymaker, J. de. Methodesvoor het onder- Until now, studies (e.g. Field, W1cIde) have been zoek van de invloed van de film op de Jeugd. concerned mainly with the immediate reaction of ZResearch methods used in examining the in- children screening, whereas, from the fluence of films on young people/. Louvain, pedagogic point of view, they should, save in ex- University, 1950, unpublished thesis. ceptional cases, concentrate on the immediate reaction after screening. The aim is to ensure A critical survey of several investigations which not only a kind of prophylaxis, but also a moral have been carried out on the influence of films on and cultural training through cinematographic ex- young people, with special reference to the meth- perience. Hence the need to investigate and control ods of investigation. For the study of film pre- "delayed" reactions with the aid of free discussions ferences the method of Heuyer, Lebovici and of the films and especially by drawings, for a child Amado (Recherches au Centre de neuro-psychiatrie possesses, up to the age of 12 to 13, a special infantile/Research at the Children's Neuro- kind of visual memory whereby images are re- psychiatric Centre) seems to be the best, as it tained by the retina more or less long according interprets preferences for certain films withinthe to their emotional quality. Examnles of the first framework of clinical investigation. The investi- results of this methodological te,anique, and con- gations on the influence of the cinema on mental clusions to be drawn from them. life (Holaday and Stoddard; Zazzo) seem to offer hopeful prospects. The author considers, how- 34. Tarroni, Evelina and Paderni, Sandro. Film ever, that research into the influence of films on per ragazzi e pericoli del semplicismo Nlins "attitudes" (Petersen and Thurstone) is not likely for adolescents and dangers of over - simplicity to yield great results. Many investigations point In: Cinema, Rome, V (57),March 1951, to the suggestive (unconscious) influence of films pp. 99-101, (new series). (Rosen). Wiese and Cole have shown that films are assimilated differently, according to social The author recommends the use of the question- and educational levels. Thus, the most fruitful naire, which he considers, especially if it is on a point of departure for further research is the sufficiently large scale, the ideal method for in- dynamic life of the child or adolescent. Objective vestigating a problem and discovering a solution, techniques (Biumer, Funk, Mayer) can be used however approximate. A section of the question- for the investigation of both groups and individuals. naire is reserved for free statements. It is true In research into group reactions, these techniques that the objective of this method is pedagogical should be concentrated on certain aspects and not rather than filmological. on the entire problem. A thorough study of identification is of great importance, but the author 35. Trager, Walter. Methoden der Jugendfilm- considers that the psychoanalytical interpretation forschung. Ein Ueberblick LA resume of is too biased to be of value. A detailed biblio- methods suitable for research on alma for graphy completes the study. young persons/. In: Jugend, Film, Fernsehen, Munich, 3 (1), 1959, pp. 1-13. 32. Stfickrath, Fritz. Das Filmspiel, erster Bericht Ober eine neue Methode zur Unter- Research on the subject "Children and the cinema" suchung des Filmerlebens in Kindheit and is mainly concerned with the cinematographic ex- Jugend Lrhe film play. First report on a new perience and the influence of the cinema. But method for investigating film experience in other aspects should also be examined, notably childhood and adolescence;In: Film-Bild- cinema attendance habits of young people, their Ton, Munich, VI (9), December 1956, p. 22-25; psychological reaction to the cinema and their 44-47. manner of assimilating films. A resume of the different methods which can be used during, after, As the child's oral expression does not always or both before and after the screening of a film. provide a satisfactory basis for gaining an insight During the screening one may resort, for instance, into his film experience, a "film play" was de- to direct observation or the more subtle "Wiggle signed in the form of a miniature puppet film Test". The behaviour of the spectators may also studio where children can produce their own films. be recorded in photographs, on film or on tape. They can imitate a film they have recently seen or Psychological measurements, in particular the make a new one. Very useful data can be obtained use of electro-encephalography, are mainly com- from the way in which the child manages decor, plementary aids. After the screening, recourse props and puppets and from his "conversations" may be had to oral, written or non-verbal expres- with the puppets. (See also nos. 179, 180.) sion (for instance, drawing); finally, the immediate impact of a film may be assessed with the 33. Tarroni, Evelina. L 'apporto dell, esperienza help of depth analysis tests, questionnaires, etc., filmica alla vita psichica del fanciullo 157e-- before and after screening. influence of cinematographic experience on the mental life of children].In: Ragazzi 36. Wasem, 'Erich.Der "Wiggle Test" ale d'Oggi, Rome,(1), January1953, pp. 17-20. Anhaltspunkt fir die Jugendeignung eines

15 Filmes.eihe "Wiggle Test"as an indication_ (c) BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND of the suitability of a film for young audiences/. SPECIAL PERIODICALL In: Jugend und Film, Munich, December 1955, pp. 9-12. 38. Beeldcultuur en opvoeding [Visual Culture A study of the usefulness of the "Wiggle Test" in and Education/. Documentation bulletinson determining whether a film is suitable for certain visual culture and education, Instituut Film age-groups. A detailed analysis, with diagrams, en Jeugd, Parkstraat 85a, The Hague. Every of "Smoky, Hero of the Prairie". two months. 37. Wasem, Erich. Jugend und Filmerleben. 39. Cine-Gioventt. Mensile di cultura cinemato- Beitrage zur Psychologie und Padagogik der grafica(Monthly review ofcinematographic Wirkung des Films auf Kinder und Jugend- culturej Rome 1954. liche.Youthand cinema experience. Contri- butions to the psychology and pedagogy of the 40. Cinema educatif et culture'. Quarterly review influence of films on children and adolescents./ of the Centre international du cinema educatif Munich/Basel, Ernst Reinhardt Verlag, 1957, et cultural, CIDALC, via Santa Susanna, 17, 140 p. Rome. 1952- The methods which have been used to investigate 41. Dale, Edgar and Morrison, John. Motion the influence of films on children and young people Picture Discrimination. An Annotated Biblio- are examined, and the risk run by the observer of graphy. Columbus, Ohio, Bureau of Educa- children's behaviour of projecting his own ideas tional Research, Ohio State University, I (7), and experiences is discussed. The observer of s. d. , 41 p. (Series I - Modern Media of children's reactions and comments must possess Education). considerable intuition, since spontaneous reactions and comments are far more indicative of real feel- Following a short introduction on the meaning of ing than responses to questionnaires, which are film education, the bibliography lists sixty books inevitably superficial. The difficulties of establish- and periodical articles on this subject, mostly ing a useful questionnaire are emphasized. The published in the United States of America. merits and demerits of the individual interview and group discussion for the study of the cinema and 42. Education et cinema. Quarterly review of youth are considered, as well as the importance of cinematographic techniques in popular educa- the discussion leader's psychological intuition and tion. Paris. 1950-1956. experience. The technique of holding competition for the best piece of writing or drawing on themes 43. Film-Bild-Ton. (Published by: Institut fur from films, several projective tests, and certain Film und Bild in Wissenschaft und Unterricht, kinds of psycho-technical and medical apparatus Munich) Seebruck am Chiemsee, Heering- are also discussed. The second chapter deals with Verlag. 1951- Monthly, 36 p. the benefits and dangers of films for children and young people, including the theory of discharge of 44. Film, Jugend, Schule. Zeitschrift Filmer- tension, the film star cult, and the possible in- ziehung und Filmkunde. (Review of film edu- direct incitement to crime through the undermining cation and filmology/. (Published by: Landes- of moral standards. In the third chapter, the bildstelle Westfalen und Westdeutsche Schul- criteria for judging the suitability of films for film,Gelsenkirchen) 1952- Quarterly. young people are reviewed. Fairy-tale films, information films, westerns and war films are con- 45. &he/ Film Teacher. Journal of the Society sidered, from ethical, psychological, and socio- of Film Teachers. London.1952- initially logical points of view. The value of various tests printed, now stencilled. Quarterly. is discussed. The last chapter deals with the desirability of film education, the influence of the 46. Heinrich, Karl. Bibliografie Film und Jugend cinema on the vocabulary of young people and their /Bibliography on the cinema and youth) ability to express themselves, the r8le of films in Frankfurt am Main, Hochschule fur Inter- social education, art appreciation and religious nationale padagogische Forschung, 1959, education. 269 p.(stencilled). See also: nos. 53, 85, 120, 166, 170, 244, 246, Two thousand eight hundred and sixty-five biblio- 423, 459, 475, 282, 491. graphical notices on some 2,500 books and articles in periodicals (many titles are quoted more than once under different headings). These publications deal not only with the relations between the cinema and youth, but also with the cinema as a means of expression and communication, the use of films in

16 teaching, etc. The preface and tableof contents 48. Jugend und Film: since 1958, Jugend, are given in German, English and French. The Film, Fernsehen. Mitteilungen des Arbeit- items are divided into the followingcategories: skreises Jugend und Film e.V. (Bulletin of A. The film asa means of expression and the Jugend und Film study group) Munich, 1950- communication. B.Social and economic aspects of the cinema. 49. Vincent, Carl, (et at) Bibliografia _generale del C.General comments on the relations between cinema (General bibliography ontne cinema/ the cinema and children and adolescents. Rome, Edizioni dell'Ateneo, 1953, 252 p. D.The influence of the cinemaon youth. E.Films for children and adolescents. A general bibliography of film literature, divided in- F.Films and education. to the following categories: General works; Histo- G. The cinema as a pedagogic and educational riography; Aesthetics and criticism; Technique; medium. Social and moral problems; Legal and economic H. The cinema as a school subject (knowledge problems; Film and science; Sub-standard and and appreciation of the cinema). amateurstilm; Documentation and anthologies; I.Out-of-school film education. Scenarios and shooting scripts; r n-classified J.Materials for use in schools and youth clubs works. Each sectionis introduced by a short de- (this does not, of course,mean documentation scription of the nature of the works listed in A on filmology, but teaching aids: films, film- number of publications relatingto film and youth strips, works on the cinema). are included in the s ection "Social and moral K.Protection of youth and censorship. problems". L.Novels (especially those dealing with film stars) - written for young readers. 50. Wir Blenden Auf M. Reference books - collections. N.Catalogues - supplements on the cinema. Published by Landesjugendreferat, Vienna for O. Viennese school teachers engaged in film educa- Bibliographies. tion. Weekly (stencilled). 47. Image et son. Review of the Union frangaise des oeuvres lafques de Peducationpar ',image For bibliographical references see also:nos. 7, et le son -Ligue frangaise de Penseignement. 10, 14, 24, 31, 65, 96, 158, 203, 213, 294, 322, Paris. 1946- 335, 364, 368, 383, 423, 477, 479, 490.

17 2. THE ATTITUDE OF YOUTH TOWARDS THE CINEMA

(a) FREQUENCY OF CINEMA ATTENDANCE; used in the study of the specific influence of mass CINEMA HABITS; THE CINEMA IN RELA- media on children, and summarizes the results TION TO OTHER LEISURE ACTIVITIES obtained. 51. Bailyn, Lotte. Mass Media and Children: 52. Behringer, Gertrude. Welche Rolle spielt A Study of Exposure Habits and Cognitive der Film tatsachlich im Leben unserer Jugend? Effects.Cambridge, Mass., Centre for 16,000 Wiener Jugendliche geben Antwort. Intemational Studies, Massachusetts Institute What is the role of the cinema in the life of of Technology, 1958. 41 p. (stencilled). our young people?16,000 Viennese young people give their answers In: Oester- A critical and analytical survey of American publi- reichischer Jugend-nformationsdienst, Vienna cations dealing with the influence of mass commu- 7 (9-10), June-July 1954, p.4-6. nication media on youth. The author examines successively the time devoted by young persons to An inquiry carried out by means of questionnaires mass media (cinema attendance, listening to the among 16,000 Viennese schoolchildren, to find radio, reading of strip cartoons, etc.); the con- out how often they attend the cinema, for what tents of mass media; young persons' preferences; reasons, with whom, how they select the films to their recollections of what they have heard, seen see, what kinds of films they prefer. or read; the role of mass mediain the lives of The frequency of cinema attendance was found young persons and specific influence they exercise. to vary greatly among the age-groups studied; the The general impression is that, on the whole, 10-14 year-olds went to the cinema an average of children devote to mass media a considerable part 2.2 times monthly; the 15-18 year-olds, nearly of their leisure time, which, however varies in five times monthly. "Recreation" and "instruc- extent with age, level of development, and sex, as tion" are the reasons most frequently given for well as various social and economic factors. Two going to the cinema. Film titles, publicity photo- methods in particular may be used to study the graphs, anticipation of the film contents, and the contents of mass media: their various elements names of the actors were cited as the maindecid- may be analysed by classification, or they maybe ing factors in the choice of films. The preference considered in relation to the cultural level and for certain kinds of film was found to vary greatly standards of morality of the public (this method with age and type of school. was used, in particular, by CharlesC. Peters, Motion Pictures and Standards of Morality, Payne 53. Bianco e Nero. Chi va al cinema e perche? Fund Studies no. 123, and by Wolfenstein and LWho goes to the cinema and why l/ Rome, Leites,. Movies, A Psychological Study).It appears XIX (2), February 1958. that the preferences of young persons for certain- programmes are not determined entirelyby supply, A number devote'd entirely to a discussion of the but are also influenced by other factors: age, level methods and results of a survey of cinema au- of development, sex, social and economic circum- diences by Malcolm MacLean, Jr., Luca Pinna stances, etc. The relations between these prefer- and Margherita Guidacci.It contains various ences and the influence of mass media on young references to the reactions of young audiences. persons are still insufficientlyknown. Various inquiries have been undertaken with a view to assess- 54 .Blats, W.E . What do the Children Think of the ing the influence of certain character traits (for Movies? In: Perlman, William J.: The Movies instance, aggressiveness) or certain mental apti- on Trial, New York, MacMillan, 1936 p. tudes on a child's recollections of a film, a radio 232-248, (see no. 17). programme, etc. Mass media mayplay a multiple rale in the lives of children: the latter find inthem An interim account of an investigation carried out compensation for their frustrations, an escape, a in Toronto in 1934-1935 among more than 2,000 solution to their personal problems, a broadening children between 9 and 19 years of age. The follow- of their horizon, etc. The author endeavours to ing were the main results. More than 50 per cent relate these various attitudes to the studies of the of the boys and 60 per cent of the girls did not go contents of mass media and the preferences of the to the cinema more than once every two weeks in public. Finally, she analyses the different methods winter. Only 7 per cent of the boys and 3 per cent

18 of the girls went more than once a week. These new series, 37b). Also in: Mayer, Jacob P., children generally went to thecinema wial other British Cinemas and their Audiences. persons (mainly with their parents). Up to theage London,Dennis Dobson Ltd.,1948, p. 250- of 13 years the film comedy is first choice,followed 275,(see no. 104). by the "mystery" film and themusical comedy. Musical comedy is the first choice with older An investigation of the composition of the cinema children. Gangster and love filmswere liked public and cinema attendances in the United least bythe youngest children. Whenyoung people Kingdom during the war. Of 5,639 persons inter- are asked to show their preference for various forms viewed, 304 belonged to the 14-17 age-group, of amusement including the cinema, thelatter (young people who had left school). The second usually just makes second place. age-group between 18-40 years (2,368 persons) was not further subdivided. 43 per cent of the 55. Bosio, Luigi.Inchiesta sul cinematografo 14-17 year-olds went to the cinema twiceor more /Inquiry on the cinemaj In: Stampa, cinema, per week. 759 mothers whose children were be- radio per ragazzi, Rome, n.d., p. 84-92. tween 5 and 14 years old were questionedon the frequency of their children's cinema attendances. An inquiry, carried out in Turin in April and May Information obtained showed that children 1952, intothe cinema attendance habits and prefer- visited the cinema more than twice as oftenas ences of 1,500 schoolchildren. adults. Children from lower economic levels went more often than those from more comfortable 56. Bossard, Robert. Film and Familie /The homes and children whose mothers had gone toa cinema and the family/ In: Pro Juventute, secondary school went less frequently than child- Zurich, XXXVIII (1), January 1957, p. 3-11. ren whose mothers had primary education only. Children with working mothers visited cinemas A child's early visits tothe cinemaare normally more often than other children. made inthe company of his family and he gradually adopts the habits of his parents and elder brothers 58. Chresta, Hans. Moderne Formen der Jugend- and sisters inthis respect. Witha view to determin- bildung: Literatur, Film, Radio, Fernsehen. ingthe influence of the cinemaon a child and the /Modern methods of adolescent education: effect of this influence onfamilylife, the author in literature, film, radio, television/. Zurich- turn examines the following questions: (1) how does Stuttgart, Artemis-Verlag, 1958, 199 p. a film affect a child? (2) what role does cinema attendance playinthe life of our children? (3) what This work, prepared under the auspices of the arethe advantages and dangers of cinema attend- Swiss National Commission for Unesco, contains, ance? (4) what steps should be taken toensure that in the section devoted to the cinema (pp. 75-120), the influence of the cinema is as beneficialas a detailed documentation on the cinema attendance possible? habits of young persons, Swiss legislationon films He reaches the following conclusions: (1) Until for young persons, the influence of the cinemaon the end of the period of compulsory schooling parents youth and the development of a taste in films. The and teachers are responsible forthe cinema attend- author discusses the principal inquiries and confer- ance of the children. It would be advisable not to ences which have been held in Switzerland, the allow the latter to visit the cinema more thanonce a legislative provisions in force, and various books fortnight; (2) in order to prevent children, as faras and articles in periodicals. possible, from seeing films not meant forthem, the number of performances arranged for children be- 59. Dale, Edgar. Children's Attendance at Motion tweenthe ages often and fourteen, at suitable times Pictures. New York, MacMillan, 1935, 81 p. and reduced prices and showing a specially se- (Payne Fund Studies). lected programme should be increased; (3) special performances could similarly be arranged for An examination of cinema habits and the frequency children of fourteento sixteen, with programmes of children's cinema attendances in the United chosen by a committee of teachers and educatio- States of America. Children between 5 and 8years nists; (4) children above the age of sixteen should went to the cinema 0.42 times per week. 22per be permitted to go freely to the cinema, but this cent of this age-group had never visited the cinema. does not mean that the educator should relinquish Boys between 5 and 8 years saw an average of 24 all responsibility; (5) debates should be arranged programmes per year, but girls of the same age at school and in youth clubs designed to trainyoung only 19. In the 8-19 year age-group, theaverage people to form their own judgement of films they frequency of cinema attendance was nearlyonce have seen. a week and only 5 per cent had never visited the cinema. In this age-group, boys saw an average 57. Box, Kathleen and Moss, Louis. The Cinema of 57 programmes per year and girls 16. 27per Audience. An inquiry made by Wartime Social cent of the boys and 21 per cent of the girls of this Survey for the Ministry of Information. London, age-group went to the cinema at least twice a week. Wartime Social Survey, 1943, n.p. ,(Report Village children saw fewer films than town children.

19 Fathers took their sons (between 8 and 19 years of frequently on Sundays and holidays; children from age) in only 2.63 per cent of all cases to the cinema; working-class homes prefer evening and holiday mothers 3.65 per cent. Boys of 8 were accom- performances. Children go more often to the panied in 23 per cent of all cases by both parents cinema with their parents in large towns than in on each occasion. Boys and girls prefer to be ac- smaller towns. companied by friends, brother or sister, rathcr than parents. Of all persons visiting the cinema 62. Gibson, Harold J. (Mrs .) and Nahabedian, in the United States of America, 3.1 per cent were Vaskey (Mrs.). A Survey of the Reading, under 7 years of age; 13.7 per cent between 7 and Radio and Motion Picture Habits of Royal Oak 13; 20.8 per cent between 14 and 20; and 62.4 Public School Students and their Parents. per cent 20 and over. Eleven million children in Royal Oak, Michigan, Royal Oak Public School, the United States of America under the age of 14 1949, 21 p. and 28 million under the age of 21 visited the cinema each week. The average pupil in the school surveyed attends the cinema much more frequently than his parents. 60. Department of Social Welfare and Community At the age of 8, he goes to the cinema once a week; Development in Accra and Kumasi. Children until the age of 12 he attends the Saturday afternoon and the Cinema: a Report of an Inquiry into performance. When he reaches junior high school Cinema-going among Juveniles Undertaken by he goes to the cinema on Friday evening, generally the Department of Social Welfare and Com- with a friend. His parents help him in the selection munitz Development in Accra and Kumasi. of films, and he generally appreciates the films 1954, 14 p. (stencilled). his parents consider suitable for him. Comedies, westerns, cartoons and animal films are his A report on a small-scale inquiry into the cinema favourites; later his interest in westerns wanes attendance of juveniles between the ages of eight and his interest in musicals grows. He now and sixteen, in Accra and Kumasi (Ghana), carried chooses films on the basis of cast and publicity. out mainly in response to the frequent complaints When he reaches high school, he will be more in- concerning the influence of the cinema on juvenile fluenced in his choice by official film criticism, delinquency.It appears that juveniles attend, for and he tends to have the same criteria as his the most part, performances between mid-day and parents. three o'clock and sometimes miss school for this purpose. To procure the necessary money they 63. Giraud, Jean.Il cinema e l'adolescenza have recourse to several expedients; if they have /The cinema and adolescents/ Rome, Ed. not earned or saved it, they beg, steal or persuade Avio, 1958, 519 p. someone else to pay for their seats. The children do not understand the dialogue, so that only the On pages 175-287 the author discusses the cinema visual part of the film is intelligible to them. They attendance habits of adolescents and their prefer- entirely fail to grasp the subject and any moral the ences, and analyses, by a method of his own, the story may contain. A short resume of the different results of the inquiry conducted in France and reactions of juveniles and their preferences for Italy. He outlines certain problems, the solution certain films. The chief danger of the cinema lies of which calls for further study and experiment. in the circumstances in which children visit it (secretly, against the wish of their parents, with- 64. Giraud, Jean. Quelques aspects du rapport out possessing the necessary money). entre le cinema et un type d' adolescents: l'eleve du centre d' apprentissage. /Some 61. Feo, G. de. Quand et comment les jeunes aspects of the relationship between the cinema frequentent le cinema. /When and how young and a certain type of adolescent: the trade- people go to the cinemaj In: Revue inter- school pupil/. Paper read at the Second nationale du cinema educateur, Rome, IV International Congress of Filmology, Paris, (10 -11),October - November 1932, p. 865-874; 1955. 944-955. An account of investigations into the frequency of A statistical inquiry carried out in 742 schools in cinema attendance, cinema "habits", and prefer- Italy into the frequency and circumstances of ences for certain films of a large number of pupils. young people's cinema attendance. Answers were received from 18,757 pupils (70.3 per cent boys, 65. Gray, Barbara. Enfants et adolescents devant 29.7 per cent girls).It was discovered that child- les films. (-Children and adolescents in a ren and adolescents were inclined tovisit cinemas world of films/. In: Revue internationale de of a higher level as they grew older and therefore filmologie, Paris,III (11), July-December viewed films of a correspondingly higher quality. 1952, p. 193-210. They also go more frequently to the cinema as they get older, and boys go more frequently than girls. A survey of research on the influence of the cinema Children generally attend the cinema more carried out in the United Kingdom since the war

20 with particular regard to (1) cinema-going habits examination of the questionnaire used, of the scope of children; (2) regional differences observed in of the study and of the requirements of sociological this respect; and (3) influences on individual sampling, the findings are described and cor- children.Special film performances for children, related with other sociological factors. and cinema clubs receive special attention and the Approximately 68 per cent of the young people work of Mary Field in this direction is cited. In- investigated went to the cinema once a week or cludes a detailed bibliography. less, 30 per cent went more often. Cinema attendance was most frequent during the week-end; 66. Gray, Barbara. The Social Effects of the boys went alone to the cinema more often than Film.In: The Sociological Review, London, girls; 23 per cent went with a member of the XLII (7), 1950, p.12. opposite sex. Girls preferred the following kinds of film: A survey carried out among 300 children in West musicals, comedies, films about everyday life, Bromwich (Birmingham) under the auspices of the nature and animal films, films about love and University of Birmingham, of cinema attendance sports. Boys preferred war films, comedies, habits and the influence of film.It was found that cowboy films, musicals, detective stories, films cinema attendance takes up as much time as home about sports and Tarzan. Film selection appzzared work, but less than radio listening, playing out of to be guided mainly by other people's opinions. doors and reading. Asked which r8le they themselves would like to The children attended the cinema between once play, 30 per cent of the girls said they would like and twice a week on the average, mainly with to appear in a musical, 16 per cent of the boys friends or parents.10 per cent preferred to go would like to play cowboys. Preferred leisure- along. 8 per cent of the children visited the time occupations were reading and sports 20 per cinema "to excess". cent each, music 16 per cent, handicrafts 12 per There is no relationship between cinema at- cent, and dancing 10 per cent. tendance and juvenile delinquency, in spite of the The survey is then compared with otherE which popularity of crime films. In general, films do have been carried out in the Netherlands. not appear to bring about diminished respect for parents; in fact the children's respect for their 68, Hart, W.A. 't. Een inleidend onderzoek tot parents tends to increase after they see sentimen- het probleem film en jeugd. LA preliminary tal films dealing with parent-child relationships. investigation of the problem of film and youth The recurrent portrayal of idealized luxury and In: Nederlands tijdschrift voor de psychologie the representation of love as physical attraction en haar grensgebieden, Amsterdam, VIII (2), and passion only, rather than as a more complex 1953, p. 163-200, (new series). emotion, endangers the sense of values of all but the emotionally mature. Results of a preliminary investigation conducted The author considers that, as a means of among 1,000 schoolchildren in Dutch primary and counteracting the harmful influence of films, film secondary schools (age 11-18 years), and a study education should be introduced in the schools, age of the frequency of the children's cinema attend- limits for cinema attendance should be more ance, their preference for certain types of films, strictly enforced, and a government body should etc. be created to deal with the production of suitable In the 11-16 year age-group, the frequency of films for children and the showing of such films in attendance rises with the age of the children going special children's cinemas. to a lower secondary school, whereas the frequency diminishes with children who attend grammar 67. Hart, W.A. 't.Bioscoopbezoek door school. The type of school attended seems to play jongeren. Een bijdrage$ tot de verkenning a part in the frequency of cinema attendance. Pre- van het vraagstuk film en jeugd aan de hand ferences for certain films depended also on the van een enquete, in oporacht van het Inetituut type of school; these preferences underwent a Film en Jeugd uitgevoerd door het Isonevo. change as the children became older. ZVisitstothe cinema by young people. A contribution to the study of 'the problem of the 69. Helier, Daniel. Kind en bioscoop. De Juiste cinema and youth, based on a survey carried verhoudingiChildren and the cinema- the out by Isonevo on behalf of the Instituut Film golden mea .In: Het kind, Brussels, (1), en Jeugg, Rotterdam, Brusse, 1955, 45 p. January-February 1952, p. 31-44. A ehz;ri stmAztary of an extensive sociological After quoting figures relative to cinema attendance 'survey of the cinema attendance :tabits of boys and by children, the author summarizes in non- girls, 14-19 years old, in a number of towns in technical language the results of certain scientific the Netherlands, The survey was carried out dur- inquiries into the influence of the cinema on the ing 1901-1953: the subjects were secondary school emotional life of young persons, the cinema and studertts and young workers, of various social and delinquency, etc. He then examines certain cultural backgrounds. Following a critical experiments in arranging film performances for

21 children in England and France and concludes with criminal behaviour and 112 cases of moral mis- some comments on the conditions to be fulfilled by behaviour where a direct relationship could be a good children's film. established with films which these children had seen. The Committee came to the conclusion that 70. Hiroshima Association of Juvenile Correction. criminal and amoral behaviour are to be imputed Cinema Habits and Film Preferences. Seito- to deeper and more subtle influences than film jido no Eiga-Kanran ni Kansuru Taisaku ni alone. Nevertheless, the Committee considered tsuite "Principles for the showing of films to that many scenes shown on the screen are un- childreW ed. by Kumataro Hirakawa, suitable for children. Positive action, particu- Hiroshima, 1937, 73 p. larly in the field of film education was strongly recommended by the Committee. Contents: 72. Itkyal, N.L. Report on Cinema and the 1. Introduction Public: A Pilot Survey of Audience Reaction 2. Survey of pupils' attendance atcinemas in Greater Bombay. Bombay, India, Central 3. Comments of various groups onfilm-viewing Board of Film Censors, 1958, 89 p. (stencilled). by pupils 4. The use of films at school, inpractice and in This pilot survey of audience reaction was carried principle out in 1956-1957, by the random sampling method, 5. A committee for studying measures on the among 3,107 citizens (193 children and adolescents cinema. and 2,194 adults) constituting 0.15 per cent of the population of Greater Bombay, the survey was 71. Home Office.Report ofthe Departmental conducted by the Central Board of Film Censors Committee onChildrenand the Cinema. with the assistance of the Tata Institute of Social London, H.M. Stationery Office, May 1950, Sciences, Chembur. The data collected consisted 109 p. of the results of personal interviews based on questionnaires drawn up separately, but containing This Committee was set up in 1947 to investigate a number of common items, for the three age- the effects of cinema attendance by children under groups 10-14, 15-20 and 21 and over. the age of 16 and especially in children's film Some of the findings classified according to clubs, and in the light of results to see whether the junior (10-20) and senior (21 and above) age-groups existing system of film classification, existing are given below. 88.6 per cent of the junior age- regulations concerning the admission of children group and 62 per cent of the senior age-group go to the cinema, or the leadership and management to the cinema with the following frequency: of children' s film clubs, should be modified. The Committee interviewed 270 persons among whom Junior age- Senior age- were government officials, educators, specialists group group in children' s film,doctors, psychologists, psychiatrists, social and religious leaders. Data was Once or more than once also obtained from police files and tribunals and a week 12.11 8.1 from discussions with children and mothers. Once to three times a 88 per cent of the children from 5 to 15 years month 50.0 26.6 of age (a total of 7 million children in England, Once in two, four or six months 27.0 27.0 Wales and Scotland) visit the cinema from time to Eleven per cent of the junior age-group and 37.1 time. Parents as well as children regard weekly per cent of the senior age-group do not go or have cinema visits as a normal form of recreation. The stopped going to the cinema. The classification of Committee recommended that children under 7 cinema-goers by income groups shows that 18 per years should not be allowed to enter a cinema un- cent of the junior age-group and 49 per cent of the less accompanied by their parents or other bona senior age-group belong to the income group of fide adults. The existing regulations allowing children under the age of 16 years to be admitted Rs.120 or less a month; 45.5 per cent and 37 per to films if accompanied by parents or other adults cent respectivelyto the income group Rs.121-300 were considered unsatisfactory by the Committee. a month and 36.5 per cent and 14 per cent respective- The Committee found in 1948 that approximately ly to the income group Rs. 301 or more a month. 896,000 children attended a performance each week If finances allowed, 31.7 per cent of the junior in children' s film clubs and expressed its dissatis- age-group and 38.8 per cent of the senior age- faction with programmes shown. In this connexion group would have liked to go to the cinema more it recommended the establishment of a national frequently as against 12.1 and 8.1 per cent shown body for children' s films. Concerning the rela- above for these two groups respectively in the tionship between film visits and juvenile delinquency highest frequency category (' once or more than it was stated that of 38,000 children under the age once a week') .In both age-groups females ex- f 16 who appeared before a juvenile court over a pressed a greater desire for more frequent cinema period of 6 months, there were only 141 cases of attendance (5 or 6 times more than at present) than did males (3 times more than at present). 40.9 per 22 cent of the junior age-group and 56.9 per cent of Supplement: Counter-measures taken by schools the senior age-group feel that films exert an un- against the influences of commercial cinema; and healthy influence. facilities for educational films Other findings relate to preferences of cinema- goers and answer questions on such topics as: 75. Japan, Ministry of Education. Seishonen no which type of films are liked/disliked?are music/ Eiga-kogyo Kanran-jokyo Chosa Gaiyo, Ge dances in Indian films liked? comparative pre- `Summary of surveys on film-viewing by ference for Indian and foreign films; views of children and adolescents, vol. 2/. Tokyo, cinema-goers on documentary films and newsreels, Ministry of Education, Social Education length of films, censorship of films. Bureau, 1932, 85 p. (Kyoiku Eiga Kenkyu ShiryoJ Data for Research on Educational 73. Japan, Ministry of Education. Seishonen no Films/ series, 8). Eiga-kogyo Kanran-jokyo Chosa Gaiyo, jo. (Summary of surveyson film-viewing by Following volumes 1 and 2 (see nos. 73 and 74 children and adolescents, vol. g, Tokyo, Minis- above), vol. 3 presents statistics and analysis of try of Education, Social Education Bureau. findings of the 1927 surveys carr out in Tokyo 1929, 79 p. (Kyoiku Eiga Kenkyu ShiryoLData and Osaka. for Research on Educational Films/series, 3). Chapter 1. Children in labouring districts, and the cinema. This volume is a summary of data collected on the Chapter 2. Children in districts of small-scale cinema attendance of boys and girls of primary shopkeepers and handicraftsmen and the cinema. and secondary schools in Tokyo and Osaka. The Chapter 3. Children in districts of low-salaried surveys which produced the data were made in workers and the cinema. October 1927 in Tokyo, and in December 1927, in Each chapter has sections on the sorts of film- Osaka. theatres which children attend, the children's Part 1. Survey on primary schoolchildren preferences in films, and in actors and actresses. (1) Film-viewing by primary schoolchildren, Chapter 4. Comparison of findings according according to sex, to districts in which children live. (2) Film-viewing by primary schoolchildren, Chapter 5. Children who do not go to film- according to zones of industry, theatres . Part 2. Survey on middle school pupils. Part 3. Survey on pupils of girls' high schools. 76. Japan, Ministry of Education. Seishonen no Part 4. Comparison of Parts 1, 2 and 3, and Eiga-kogyo Kanran-jokyo Chosa Gaiyo conclusions. (Summary of surveys on film-viewing by Supplement. Observations of school authorities childi en and adolescentY. Tokyo, Ministry on the films shown and on the influence of film- of Education, Social Education Bureau, 1935, viewing . 65 p. (Kyoiku Eiga Kenkyo Shiryo /Data for Research on Educational Films/ series,11). 74. Japan, Ministry of Education. Seishonen no Eiga-kogyo Kanran-jokyo Chosa Gaiyo, Chu. This is a report of a survey on film-viewing by (Summary of surveys on film-viewing by primary schoolchildren and pupils of middle children and adolescents, vol. 2/. Tokyo, schools and girls' high schools in the cities of Ministry of Education, Social Education Tokyo, Osaka, Kyoto, Nagoya, Kobe, Yokohama, Bureau, 1930, 87 p. (Kyoiku Eiga Kenkyu Fukuoka, Hiroshima, Niigata and Sendai, in June Shiryo / Data for Research on Educational 1934. Film" series, 4). Chapter 1. Survey of primary schools. Chapter 2. Survey of middle schools. This second volume (for volume 1 see no. 73 Chapter 3. Survey of girls' high schools. above) presents further statistical data obtained Chapter 4. Comparisons of film-viewing by from the 1927 surveys carried out in Tokyo and primary schoolchildren, middle school boys, and Osaka. high school girls. Chapter 1. Frequency of children's and pupil's Chapter 5. Film-viewing by children from visits to the cinema. various industrial zones. Chapter 2. Film-going by children and pupils : Supplement: Policy of schools on film-viewing by (1) Types of film-theatres visited by children and schoolchildren; and the use of films for education pupils. in school. (2) Films preferred by children and pupils. (3) Actors and actresses preferred by children 77. Jessel, Oskar R. Munchner Vorstadtkinder and pupils. und Film /Suburban children of Munich and Chapter 3. Children and pupils who do not go the cinema/. In: Jugend und Film, Munich, to the cinema: November 1956, p. 1-12. (1) Number not going to the cin.ema. (2) Reasons for not going to the cinema. An inquiry carried out among 695 boys and girls

23 between 8-14 years of age, attending Catholic and It frequently happens that .11ildren of kinder- Protestant elementary schools in Freimann (a garten age go to a cinema once a month, usually suburb of Munich). A questionnaire was used to in the company of their parents, sisters, brothers determine how often these children went to the or friends. When the children reach school age cinema, for what reasons, with whom, which they go less often to cinemas with their parents; cinemas they preferred, which films they had liked the company of sisters and brothers or friends and disliked, which films they preferred most of seems to become more important. One boy in all, which actors and actresses they preferred, four, but only one girl in nine, goes alone to the whether their parents went frequently to the cinema. cinema. Some of the findings are given below. About The children were asked which films they pre- 30 per cent of the children attended the cinema ferred. Films about animals were the most each week; about 50 per cent went once or twice a popular: 71 per cent answered that they preferred month. This includes attendance at the bi-weekly these .The following categories of film seem to "Children's film hour" in which there is great be almost as popular: cartoon films 69.9 per cent, interest. The order of preference for various serial films 65.6 per cent and fairy tale films 64.7 types of film is as follows: per cent. Then 37.4 per cent preferred adventure films and 18.8 per cent historical films, followed Boys: by musical films (16 per cent), war films (5.8 per 1. Animal films 84% cent), and love stories (1.8 per cent). A large 2. Adventure films 73% number of the films belonging to the last-mentioned 3. Cartoons 59% categories were "for adults only". The preference 4. Wild West films 41% for films about animals was apparently due to the 5. Fairy tale films 39% successful screening in Helsinki of "The Living 6. Romantic films 23% Desert" at the time the study was made. Girls 79. Keilhacker, Margarete. Zum Filmbesuch der 1. Animal films 58% 15-18j. Jugendlichen und seiner Methodischen 2. Fairy tale films 55% Erfassung. /A study of cinema attendance by 3. Adventure films 52% 15-18 year-olds and the methods use.Y. In: 4. Cartoons 47% Jugend und Film, Munich, September 1956, 5. Romantic films 38% p. 1-20. 6. Wild West films 12% This study, which is part of an inquiry carried out 78. Karsten, Anitra. Lasten elokuvissa all over Germany by the Wissenschaftliches Insti- kayminen. /Cinema habits of Finnish childre.O. tut fur Jugendfilmfragen (Scientific Institute for In: Lapsi ja Nuoriso, Helsinki, (7), 1955. Questions concerning Children's Films) in Munich, was made in three schools for girls in Munich - In the spring of 1955 the Central Union for Child two industrial trade schools (375 girls) and one Welfare in Finland undertook a study of the cinema high school (144 girls). 88 per cent of the girls habits of children of school age in Helsinki. It were between 15-17 years of age, the remainder appears from this study that one child in ten in were between 14 and 15 or 18 and 20. Helsinki went to a cinema for the first time when Asked to name their favourite films, the girls only 2-3 years old.In general, however, children mentioned 4,500 titles in all (700 different titles). go to a cinema the first time when five years old 42 per cent of the trade school students and 27 per (for 34.6 per cent the first visit took place at the cent of the high school students named "Sissi" as age of 5 years). Children in those parts of the their favourite film. There was generally a notable town where workers live go far more often to contrast between the selections of the trade school cinemas than children from quarters where the students and the higher school students. majority of the inhabitants are officials and professional people. In quarters where workers are 80. Lanz-Stuparich, Maria. Les adolescents et in a majority, 50.8 per cent of the elementary le cinema, recherches preliminaires. /Ado- school boys went to the cinema at least once a week, lescents and the cinema: preliminary the corresponding figure for girls being 38.5 per research. In: Baumgarten, Franziska. cent. In the schools situated in the centre of the Compte rendu du IXe Congres international de town the figures were: boys 33.3 per cent and psychotechnique, Berne, 12-17 septembre girls 21.1 per cent and in the "official and profes- 1949. La psychotechnique dans le monde sional" quarters: boys 24.6 per cent and girls moderne. Paris, Presses universitaires de 9.3 per cent. France, 1952. p. 557-561. Of the boys and girls in all schools, 45-55 per cent went to a cinema 1-3 times a month. Only A study of cinema attendance, film preferences, two children of elementary school age among those and reactions to film, of 400 adolescents (200 boys included in the study had not been once to a cinema and 200 girls from 13-16 years of age) of similar during the school year. social and cultural backgrounds in Trieste, carried

24 out by means of individual interviews, clinical age. As they get older, fewer boys go to the analysis, and questionnaires. 90 per cent of the cinema with their parents. The percentage of boys attended the cinema at least once a week, the "solitary" cinema attenders (approximately 10 per remainder 2, 3 or 4 times. Girls went more often; cent) remains constant at all ages. 60 per cent went once, 22 per cent from 3 to 6 times a week. 6 per cent of the boys stated that 82. McIntosh, Douglas M. Attendance of School- they went to the cinema with friends, 10 per cent children at the Cinema. Glasgow, Scottish with parents; 40 per cent of the girls went with Educational Film Association, 1949, 15 p. family members (often their mother) and 30 per (Research Publication, 1.) cent with girl friends. A large proportion preferred to go alone. An account of an investigation into the frequency With regard to film preference, 30 per cent of of cinema attendance by Scottish schoolchildren. the boys preferred war films, and 25 per cent Eight out of 10 schoolchildren go to the cinema gangster films; 25 per cent of the girls preferred regularly every week; a surprisingly large number love films, 20 per cent musicals .With regard to go even more often; the type of film screened has film selection, 45 per cent of the girls were at- little influence on frequency of ci..ama attendance. tracted by the appearance of the stars; 20 per Even children between 5 and 7 years go to the cent of both boys and girls were guided by the film cinema almost as often as older Children. The title, and 5 per cent by the name of the director. frequency does not decrease with secondary school- After seeing a film, 60 per cent of the boys and children although older pupils in a secondary school 55 per cent of the girls found emotional relief in go less often. Films appeal more to children from discussing it;10 per cent identified themselves a poor home than to those from better surroundings, with the film hero. 50 per cent of the boys enjoyed and rural children go much less often to the cinema films that have a sports background, 20 per cent of than town children. the girls liked an artistic background, and 25 per cent enjoyed luxurious surroundings. 60 per cent 83. Osaka Prefecture Association of Juvenile of the boys said they particularly liked fight scenes, Correction. Chuto-gakusei no Kogyo-eiga 50 per cent of the girls liked love scenes. 2 per Kanran ni Kansuru Chosa. ZSurvey.on film- cent of both groups were interested in comedies. viewing by secondary school pupils/ Osaka, 1935, Boys were aware of the moral danger of gangster 38 p. (Kyogo Panfuretto rJuvenile Correction films, and girls of love films. But the processes Pamphlet/ series, 51.) of identification and projection in relation to these types of film should be further investigated. This is a report on the survey made in May 1935, at the request of the Social Education Bureau of the 81. Le Moal, P. and Faugere, M.M. Le cinema Ministry of Education on film-viewing by secondary et 1' enfant. /The cinema and the childj. In: school pupils. The survey was made at 7 middle La sauvegarde de l'enfance, Paris, (15-16), schools, 4 vocational schools, and 6 girls' high November-December 1947, p. 66-77. schools. An investigation carried out by means of question- 1. Foreword. naires concerning 1,163 primary and secondary 2. Subjects of the survey. schoolchildren of both sexes between 10-16 years 3. Summary of the survey. of age (two-thirds were between 12 and 14), from 4. Policy of school authorities concerning film- religious and non-religious backgrounds. 91 per viewing by pupils. cent of the boys and 71 per cent of the girls liked 5. Use of films at school and equipment required. to go to the cinema. Girls preferred sentimental 6. Conclusion. films and boys patriotic and adventure films. 51 per cent of the boys and 59 per cent of the girls 84. Patel, A.S. Attitudes of Adolescent Pupils had dreams about films seen. Differences between towards Cinema Films.In: Journal of Educa- children from religious and non-religious back- tion and Psychology, Baroda, Bombay, 1952, grounds were greater than differences between p 225 -230 . children from differing social backgrounds. 72 per cent of the "religious" children and 28 per cent of In this investigation, the attitudes of school- the "non-religious" children were affected by im- children in the eleventh. grade in Baroda, India moral scenes (which they described as having to (100 boys and 47 girls between 15 and 18 years of do with sex), frightening, violent, war and murder age) were recorded. E was found that the boys scenes, and those involving wild animals. As the were more favourably impressed with the cinema children get older, fright during screening de- than the girls. The author concludes: "We have creases (more rapidly with boys than with girls); not yet realized that in expert hands the film is interest in historical and sentimental films and capable of doing great service and in raw hands it documentaries increases whereas the interest in may do great harm". adventure, comic and crime films diminishes. Frequency of cinema attendance decreases with

25 85. Rebeillard, Monique. Etat actuel de la re- the lives of New Zealand ado' ents leF ^ than it cherche filmologique en neuro-psychiatrie does those of British and Amt. ican adoltscents. infantile /Present state of filmological research in infantile neuro-psychiatryl, Paris, 87, Sekerak, Robert M. Mass Communication La Productrice, 1955,45 p. Media, Reading Comprehension and Intelli- gence. In: Audio-Visual Communication Re- A doctoral thesis giving a resume of the research view, Washington, 5 (2), Spring 1957, p.468-475. carried out over several years by the Children's Neuro-psychiatric Centre directed by Professor A study of the relationship between readingcom- Heuyer, in collaboration with the Institute of prehension, intelligence, and mass mediacon- Filmology, onthe influence of the cinema on juve sumption among high school students in the United Hiles, and of the results of these investigations. States of America. It is generally concluded that The sociological study investigated the frequency the mass media consumption of pupils of higher- of cinema attendance among juvenile delinquents; than-average intelligence is greater than that of as this was considerable, the investigators natu- pupils of lower-than-average intelligence. rally wished to examine the influence of the cinema on delinquency. The psychological study was 88. Skoleinspektoren I Hamar. /The Inspector of undertaken in two parts; in the first, the com- Schools, Hama"Barn og film - Resultater prehension and recollection of films by normal av en film-unders6kelse blant barn i Hamar. and maladjusted children were studied with the aid /Children and film - results ofa film survey of the "Wartegg" and Catell's F Factor tests. It among children in Hamar? Published by would appear that intelligent and well adjusted Skoleinspektaren in Hamar, Stubstad, Brede, children are stimulated by pictures: their vocabu- 1958, n.p. (stencilled). lary is enriched and their imaginative faculty in- tensified by it. On the other hand, some children A report, resulting from a questionnaire to which feel tired and their intellectual activity is reduced replies were given by 421 children, aged 8-15, in after the performance, especially in the case of 1955. The report gives an interesting picture of very moving films in which identification with cer- the cinema habits and preferences of children in tain unhappy heroes leaves behind an impression a medium-sized Norwegian provincial town. The of sadness. The second part of this study was great lack of real "children's films" is confirmed concerned with the affective reactions, especially by this report. with manifestations of empathy.It was very evident that the young spectators projected their 89. Tarroni, Evelina and Paderni, Sandro. personal conflicts into the situations shown in the Cinema e Gioventti: Studio degli aspetti film. The psycho-physiological investigations sociali e dei motivi di interesse (Cinema consisted mainly of electro-encephalographic ex- and youth: a study.of the social aspects and periments, the results of which have already been causes of interest/.In: Istituto di Pedagogia, published in the "Revue Internationale de filmo- Quaderni, Rome, 1952, p. 163. logie".In view of the inadequacy of the instruments and methods used it is not yet possible to The authors limit their research to average fre- draw any definite conclusions from these results, quency of attendance, to the measurement of or from those of other experiments carried out interest by comparison with other activities, to with the aid of haematologic examinations. the "responsibility of choice" and to the interest shown in different types of films. They assert 86. Scott, W.J.Reading, Film and Radio Tastes that interest in the cinema, although considerable, of High School Boys and Girls. Wellington, is not sufficient to supplant other activities in the New Zealand, Council for Educational Research, case of a child exercising a free choice, especially 194'l, p. 112 -145. upon his emergence from adolescence. The curves showing the degree of interest in different types of This report gives a survey of the films seen (and films in relation to age and sex present fluctuations of the books read and the radio programmes lis- and common points which are to form the subject tened to) by 4,000 high school boys and girls in of a later, detailed examination which should yield New Zealand in 1942. The author discusses the important new results. social and educational implications of the material, sets out the standards of judgement he uses as a 90. T/Snnessen, H.A. Ungdom og kino - en under- basis of criticism of contemporary popular culture, stSking over kinovaner of filminteresser hos and shows the relationship between the information Oslo ungdom i alderen 12 til 18 Ai.. LYouth he has gathered and the teaching of English in and the cinema - an investigation into the high schools.Tables showing the frequency of cinema habits and film preferences of young cinema attendance by the two sexes at different people in Oslo between 12 and 18 years/. ages disclose that the boys were more frequent Oslo, Universitetets Pedagogiske Forsknings- film-goers than the girls. The evidence collected institutt, /Pedagoecal Research Institute, suggests that the cinema on the whole influences University of 0s12/(10), 1952, 138 p. (Report).

26 The survey shows how often young people go to the The change in interest is related to the physical cinema, when, with whom, what films they prefer and psychological development of the children and and what differences exist between children with also to their social background. Those belonging different social backgrounds and of different age to the lower income groups prefer jungle, hunting levels.The survey was carried out between the and Tarzan films, gangster, cowboy and love films. end of March and the middle of June 1948 and con- Such films are also preferred by young people from cerned 744 youths (394 boys and 350 girls) from the higher income groups but not to the same ex- 13 different Oslo schools - 6 public schools from tent; they are relatively more interested in worth- West, East and Central Oslo, 2 continuation- while films dealing with cultural and historical schools, one for boys and one for girls, 3 high subjects and in problem films. schools, 1 vocational training school and 1 domes- Of the 438 films shown in Oslo between 1 July tic science school. One weekly visit seems to be 1947 and 30 June 1948, almost one in five was a the normal routine. But many go more frequently, thriller, one in six a comedy and one in seven a some as often as 3-4 times a week. Boys go more problem film.It appears that nearly half of all often than girls. Both girls and boys go most films mentioned by the 14 year-olds were classed often to the cinema at the age of 17-18: Autumn as unsuitable for children. Of the "unsuitable" and the first months of the year are the times films mentioned by children under 16, most were when most visits are paid to the cinema. Saturdays thrillers, war films and problem films. and Sundays are the favourite days except during the summer months when the beginning of the week 91. Traversa, Carlo. Psicologia del cinema. is preferred. /Psychology of the cinema/. In: Stampa, Pupils of continuation and vocational schools cinema, radio per ragazzi, Rome, 1952, seem to go more frequently to the cinema than do p. 69-75. pupils in high schools. It may be that high schools stimulate other interests, but the milieu is pro- An analysis of the most significant aspects of the bably a more important factor. Children whose behaviour of a child who visits cinemas showing mothers are widows, divorced or unmarried go ordinary programmes, with a study of the most most often to the cinema. Many of these children important stimuli to which he is subjected. Reac- go very frequently indeed. Next come children of tions and consequences. unskilled labourers. Children whose parents have an academic background or who are artists go 92. Volpicellit_Luigi. Bambini e bambino al least frequently to see films.It thus seems that cinema. /Young children at the cinema/. children whose families are least well off go to In: Cinedidattica, Rome, November-December the cinema most frequently. Bad living conditions 1952; January, July, August 1953. and difficult family relations also seem to be a reason for visits to cinemas. Most of the young An inquiry conducted in elementary schools in people questioned during this survey go to the Rome into the r8le played by the cinema in the cinema to enjoy themselves. But about every third recreational activities of children. child says he goes to instruct himself, although this is not the direct reason for the visit to the 93. Wall, William D. and Smith, E.M. Les cinema. Some go just because they have nothing adolescents et le cinema /Adolescents and better to do. Those who do not go to the cinema the cinema/. In: Revue internationale de very often say that they either don't feel like it, filmologie, Paris, II (6), 1951, p. 153-158. have no money or no time. Some girls give religious reasons. Those who go infrequently to the A brief resume of the principal results of the re- movies use their spare time for many other things search carried out by the authors and their col- which interest them more than films. leagues in Birmingham into the influence of films Boys like to see war, cowboy, jungle, hunting on adolescents. The investigations extended to and Tarzan films and also gangster films and more than 5,000 persons. It appears that in comedies. Girls prefer musicals, historical 1946-1947 secondary school pupils visited the films, jungle, hunting and Tarzan films as well cinema on an average of once or twice a month as films about love and children. During ado- (grammar school pupils somewhat less frequently lescence interests change, particularly as regards than those in secondary modern schools; girls a cowboy, jungle, hunting, Tarzan and gangster little less frequently than boys) .Only one fifth of films. Up to the age of 14-15, most children all the films shown during the period in question adore such films, but then the interest wanes, had been passed by the censor for screening to first among girls, then among boys. At this age adolescents. 47.5 per cent of the subjects had interest in problem films, films with a cultural seen films not intended for them. The choice ap- subject and musicals increases, the change of in- pears to be determined chiefly 7J y the publicity terest being noted first among girls. The interest photographs, but there is, strictly speaking, no in films follows the same characteristic develop conscious choice. The girls prefer on the whole ment as the interest in reading and seems to ex- films dealing with human relationships, the boys press the young person's individual needs. (particularly pupils of other than grammar schools)

27 adventure and war films. Grammar school pupils that children who visit the cinema most frequently greatly enjoy films portraying animal life. Above (and they come from the lower income groups)give all films are expected to be rich in action and preference to a "romantic" occupationover a rea- excitement. Boys and girls frequently expressed listic one. They find their own lives uninteresting their admiration for certain actors and declared and look to films for adventure. themselves to be particularly appreciative of truth- fulness, the triumph of justice and realism in 95. Zazzo, Bianka and Rene. La jeunesseet le films. Their reactions to love scenes depend very cinema: etude exnerimentale du Centreinter- much on the level of their affective development. national de 1' enfance effectuee au laboratoire Their enthusiasm for certain films frequently de psychobiologie de 1' enfant./Youth and the appears to be determined by the ease with which cinema: an experimental study carriedout by they can identify themselves with the principal the Centre international de l' enfance at the characters. Scenes of violence, crueltyto animals, Laboratory for Child Psycho-Biology./. In: excessively dangerous or tragic situationsseem to Centre international de l' enfance, Courrier, shock or frighten children. Boys and girls believe Paris, VIII (4), April 1958, p. 185-197. their friends to be influenced by the cinema in several respects: clothes, games and otherre- A resume of investigations carried out in 1955-1956 creational activities. at the Laboratory of Child Psycho-Biology of the Centre international de l'enfance. The first inquiry 94. Ward, J.C. Children and the Cinema. An in- was conducted, with the aid of a questionnaire, quiry made by the Social Survey in October among 15,000 boys and girls aged 14-18, drawn from 1948 for a Departmental Committee appointed different social and cultural milieus. It was con- by the Home Secretary, the Secretary ofState cerned with cinema attendance, the choice of films for Scotland and the Minister of Education. and preferences for certain films, the attitude of London, Central Office of Information, April juveniles towards censorship and the correlation 1949, 100 p. (stencilled). between cinema attendance and reading. Cinema attendance appears to be less frequent among school- How often do English schoolchildren visit the cine- children than among young workers, andamong ma? How many children belong to the Saturday girls than among boys. As the childrengrow up, morning film clubs? To what extent do children they visit the cinema less frequently with their see "A" films (films which children may see only family. The films which adolescents most frequently if accompanied by an adult)? see do not always appear to be those which they en- ' Of the children under 10 years of age included joy most. Many children under 16 see films banned in the survey, 47 per cent of the boys and bythe censor for children of their age. Cinema 34 per cent of the girls visited the cinema at least attendance appears to encourage reading. once a week. In the 5-10 age-group, 16 per cent The second investigation, which belonged to the of the boys and 8 per cent of the girls wentto the field of experimental psychology, was concerned cinema. The level of education, the social milieu with the attitude of adolescents towards their and the home had an influence on the frequency of parents, friendship, love, the social relations be- visits to the cinema. Three out of fouryounger tween the sexes, occupation and freedom to choose children went to the cinema incompany; more one' s occupation, etc. It was conducted with the than half of the 14-year-olds went alone. Saturday aid of 50 films chosen as likely to provoke affective and Monday are favourite days. The habit of regu- reactions among 900 boys and girls aged 14-18, lar attendance is, by a slight majority, the most divided into several categories according to age, frequent factor determining visits to the cinema. level of development and social background. The Of the mothers questioned, 84 per cent declared reactions of the subjects were studied bymeans of that they knew which films their childrensaw. 20 questionnaires and interviews.In analysing the per cent of all the children covered by the inquiry reactions provoked by three of the films, the authors belonged to the Saturday morning film clubs, but indicate what the adolescents thought: of their 25 per cent of club members went to the cinema parents as educators (in connexion with the film more than once a week. 47 per cent of all the children "Domani P troppo tarde"); onthe right of parents had seen "A" films, often because theprogramme to interfere in the emotional experiences of their showed also a "U" ("universal" exhibition) film. children (film: "She Only Danced One Summer"); 25 per cent of boys liked Wild West, detective and of the right of parents to interfere in their child- gangster films best, which only 8 per cent of the ren's choice of a profession (film: "Le point du girls preferred, but 22 per cent of the girls pre- Jour"). ferred musicals. The children who go most often to the cinema are those who have the least interest See also: nos. 15, 22, 29, 189, 192, 246, 249, in other activities. There are some indications 344, 345, 385.

28 (b)MOTIVES FOR CINEMA ATTENDANCE; America. A comparison is made between children's FILM PREFERENCES; STAR WORSHIP and adult's appreciation and between tastes of persons from higher and lower social levels. Prefer- ences by age -group are as follows: 96. Agel, Henri. Le cinema. /The cinema]. 12-1617-2930 -44 Over Tournai-Paris, Casterman, 1954, 352 p. yearsyears44 years Musical comedy11.3%13.1%13.8% 9.4% The chapter dealing with "Film and Society" dis- War films 13.1%10.5%10.5% 11.8% cusses the following questions. Why do people go Westerns 5.7% 3.6% 3.6% 4.2% to the cinema? What factors inhibit people's Gangster films 4.9% 3.6% 2.8% 4 . 2% mental activity in the cinema? Whatare the Drama 5.1% 10.3%10.8% 12.2% public's tastes, and how can they be improved? Love films 10.9%12.6%12.8% 9.9% Chapters II to IX are devoted to film language, film technique and film aesthetics. Chapter X The highest income group seems to prefer deals with the improvement of young people's dramatic films; lower groups prefer Westerns appreciation and understanding of films. and gangster films. A large number of examples, from the author's own experience, are cited concerning the selection 100 .Havem Tonko T. ten. Speelfilms in de belevings- of suitable films, introduction of the film prior to wereld van jeugdigen. ,Feature films as ex- screening, and debates after the performance. perienced by young peoplej, Purmerend, During lessons at school some preliminary study Muusses, 1956, 246 p. of films can profitably be made in language and literature classes. Report of a socio-psychological investigation of An annex includes an outline for leading dis- the reactions to three films of 120 boys (some cussions, a survey of the principal organizations from a secondary school, some from young concerned with film education, etc.,and a biblio- people's "club-houses") and girls aged 14 to 16 graphy. years. Through visits and conversations with parents and children, case histories were obtained 97. Descamps, J. Pourquoi les jeunes vont-ils on most of the persons investigated. After the au cinema? /Why do adolescents go to the screening of three films ("Meet John Doe", "The cinema ?J In: La nouvelle revue pedagogique, Barclays of Broadway", and "This Happy Breed") Tournai-Paris, (6), March 1951, p. 326-352. the boys and girls were questioned. A number of the secondary school pupils wrote in additiona An inquiry carried out in 1950 among more than composition concerning each of the three films. 2,000 Belgian students above the age of sixteen. Furthermore, data was obtained concerning the cinema habits of these children. The boys' reac- 98. Grail, Xavier. James Dean et notre jeunesse tions were noticeably different from the girls'. Liames Dean andour adolescents?, Paris, This held good for secondary schoolchildren and Editions du Cerf, 1958, 107 p. ("Tout le the "club-house" children. "Meet John Doe" was monde en parle" series). rated higher than the other films. The boys appreciated this film more than the girls and the An account of James Dean's childhood and an secondary schoolchildren more than the "club- analysis of the three chief films in which he ap- house" children. The oppositewas true for "The peared and of the parts he played; a study of the Barclays of Broadway" which was most appre- cult which developed around him after his death: ciated by the "club-house" children. "This Happy at the end of 1956 the many fan clubs into which Breed", a film dealing with family life, wasmore his admirers had formed themselves numbered appreciated by the girls than by the boys. Several 3,800, 000 members. During the summer holi- examples of these differences in reactions are days of 1956, one year after his death, 154,000 given. The reactions recorded are related to psy- "pilgrims" visited his grave. The author attri- chological factors and to the maturity, intelligence, butes this admiration to the physical qualities and temperament and the emotional life of the test to the character of James Dean, with whom ado- persons. Extensive case studies of three test lescents sought to identify themselves. Theysee persons are included. in him the typical representative of the "difficult" adolescents of our day and call him "the American 101.Keilhacker, Margarete. Zwei Hauptmotive Arthur Rimbaud". des Filmbesuchs der Filnfzehn - bis Achtzehn- ihrigen. /The two main reasons for cinema 99. Handel, Leo A. Hollywood Looks at its attendance of adolescents between the ages of Audience. Urbana, Ill., Urbana University fifteen and eighteen].In: Jugend, Film, Press, 1950, 240 p. Fernsehen, Munich, II (4), 1958, p. 1-14. Information on the public's tastes and preferences The numerous investigations carried out among for certain types of film in the United States of adolescents during the last five years and the

29 results of a written inquiry undertaken among cinema-going on crime, the distortion of basic 3,000 pupils (boys and girls) in schools of all types moral values in certain films, film stars, children's indicate clearly the two main reasons why ado- films, film censorship and State control of films, lescents go to the cinema: (1) the desire to escape and various other related matters. The author from everyday life; (2) the desire to get to know does not examine the problem of films and juvenile real life better. These two motives are very delinquency, but confines himself in the main to closely related to the way of life and the psycholo- reproducing quotations from other authors (for gical make-up of adolescents of that age-group. instance Mayer - see no. 104). Contrary to appearances, these motives are not identical with those of adults; the first -the desire 104.Mayer, Jacob, P. British Cinemas and their to escape from everyday life -presupposes, in the Audiences. SQdological Studies. London, case of adults, a certain degree of neutrality, of Dennis Dobson Ltd. ,1948, 280 p. passivity and renunciation of one's personality. One wishes to be entertained, without becoming The first part of this bock comprises 60 statements personally involved. Adolescents, on the contrary, from persons of different professions and age- expect a film to excite and grip them; they must groups (40 per cent under 20 years of age, and feel personally affected by the incidents shown on 38.3 per cent between 20 and 25) who recount the the screen. But a film must also give them the reasons for their interest in films , their initial impression of reflecting life as it really is, their preferences, the extent of the influence of films ideas in this respect differing considerably at over them, the films which had frightened them, times from those held by adults. For adolescents, adulation of the film hero or heroine, etc. Nearly real life is the life conjured up for them by their 66 per cent of the total stated that a film had caused conception of the world, their dreams of the future fright and nightmares, others that they had gone and their ideals. through a film as a personal experience. The The author then examines the types of films public's tastes seem to be entirely dependent on capable of "liberating adolescents from everyday their education. life" (such are, in particular, comedies) and those The second part deals with film preferences. capable of presenting to them a picture of a "better Data were obtained through competitions (with life" (to use their own w rds). The films which offers of prizes for the best contribution) organized are enjoyed by adolescents because they portrayfor by the periodical "Picture-goer". 23 of the 50 them what they believe to be real life, must have replies published came from people under 20, and man himself for their main theme. Such films are 13 from those between 20-25. According to the those which present human destinies and problems. author, the answers show that the cinemas do not supply the kind of entertainment desired by the 102.Lyness, Pauli.Patterns inthe Mass Communi- public. Details of an investigation by Louis Moss cation Tastes of the YoungAudience . In: Journal and Kathleen Box (" The Cinema Audience" see of Educational Psychology, Philadelphia (Pa.), No. 57) carried out by the Wartime Social Survey 42, 1951, p. 449-467. for the Ministry of Information are published in an annex. The "pattern interest" in reading, radio listening ow and movie-going of five different age-groups of 105.Morin, Edgar. Les stars.Film starsj, boys and girls were studied by a questionnaire Paris, Editions du Seuil, 1957, 192 p. , ("Le survey of 1,418 Iowa schoolchildren. The prefer- temps qui court" series). ence scores for specific subject contentin each of the media were calculated by weighing first, se- A sociological study of the importance of film stars cond, third and fourth choices, and the results in the world of films. Their outstanding import- reported for each sex in grades 5, 7, 9 and 11. ance at the production stage and theirinfluence on Boys preferred an "adventure and violence" the public .The main conditions which they must pattern while the older girls preferred "love, fulfil to achieve such a success, and different types private life and glamour". Neither sex showed of stars. The development of the "star", of the much interest in "educational" content, except that "pin-up", into a public idol and factors determining boys liked magazines dealing with popular science this development. The "star" is not only a subject and mechanics. Tests of children in grade 3, ana- for adoration, cinema fans create a veritable cult lysed separately, emphasized adventure, humour around them (examples taken from the copious "fan- and fantasy, with little interest in love, privatelife mail").The Charlie Chaplin "mystery" and the or glamour, and still less ineducational themes. James Dean "case". The exploitation of stars for publicity purposes. The star is also an actor or 103 .Manvell, Roger. The Film and the Public. actress: the rale of the star as a film-actor, and London, Pelican Books, 1955, 352 p. a comparison between his rale and that of the actor in the theatre. The rale played by the star in the Chapter 4 of this book ("The Cinema andSociety") life of the spectator. contains a succinct exposition of the reasonswhich induce the public to see films, of theinfluence of

30 106.Nagaki, Teiichi. Jido Eiga to Jido Geki. An inquiry carried out among 1,214 boys and girls Films for children and dramas for childre, aged 10-15. Since the subjects had not been warned Tokyo, Senshin-Sha, 1931, p. 165-214 previously, the answers show considerable spon- (Kodomo Kenkyu Koza /Study of Children/ taneity and consequently reflect faithfully the psy- series, 8). chological make-up of children today. The section on films for children deals with: 109.Tarroni, Evelina.11 divismo e gli adolescenti 1. Reasons why the cinema has developed. /Film-star worship and adolescent. In: 2. Reasons for preference in films. Ragazzi d'Oggi, Rome, IV (7-8), July-August 3. General films for children. 1953, p. 13-16. 4. Value of the film in terms of social education. 5. Relations between content and form. A differentiation between "worship" as a phenomenon 6. Relations between the cinema and crime. related to the rise of the film industry and "worship" 7. Countries prohibiting children from entering as a psychological tendency in adolescents to choose movie-theatres. film actors and actresses as the heroes and heroines 8. Various methods of censorship. on whom to model their lives. An analysis of the 9. Film-showing outside movie-theatres. negative and positive aspects of this phenomenon. 10. Film-showing at schools. 11. Educational effects. 110. Wall, Williams, D. and Smith, E.M. The Film Choices of Adolescents.In: British 107.Parrot, Philippe, Spinat, P. , Guitton, R., Journal of Educational Psychology, London. and Corbal, F .Une identification herofue XIX (1), June 1949, p. 121-136. de 1, adolescent delinquent: Eddie Constantine. /A heroic personification of juvenile delin- A study of film preferences in adolescents based quency: Eddie Constantine/. In: Redducation, on (a) interviews of 2,069 boys and girls between Paris, II, January-February 1957, p. 23-33. 13-17 years of age, following 808 screenings of nearly 300 films, and (b) compositions by 979 ado- Twenty-four boys aged 16-18, who were under lescents of the same group on the theme "The best observation at the Reception and Observation film I have ever seen". The main conclusions Centre at Macanan, were asked to write an essay reached were: (1) There is a tendency, mainly on the following subject: "Who is your favourite among girls, to base the selection of suitable films film actor or actress? Give reasons for your on their own preferences. However, the order of choice." Out of 17 boys who expressed a prefer- preference expressed in the compositions differs ence for heroes of adventure films, 13 chose Eddie substantially from that which is indicated by their Constantine. The reasons for this preference actual visits to the cinema. (2) Children's prefer- were, in particular, that "he fights", " knows ences vary little according to sex or educational how to treat women" and "overcomes allobstacles". level.(3) Films about animals were found to be The authors analyse in greater detail the un- more popular than had been anticipated in view of conscious motives for this preference. They note, the small number of such films. Girls have a in particular, that the type of character portrayed greater preference for films about human relations by Eddie Constantine is not especially intelligent, than have boys, who prefer adventure, war and but that his intelligence is always of a practical horror films.(4) Factors which determine boys' nature and that he knows how to take swift, clear- preferences are: exciting action, star appeal, cut and effective decisions. He is free, indepen- realism. Those which determine girls' prefer- dant, egocentric, not tied to anything or any ences are: star appeal, realism, colour, senti- person in particular. His love relations are slight ment and pathos.(5) Films provide an opportunity and superficial; his love-life is neither specially for identification with film stars and with the film intense nor very subtle. His dominant quality is characters in given situations. Comments by his instinct. He consumes large quantities of children on love scenes and the moral values whisky without showing any ill effects. The authors implicit in films reveal their level of emotional are of the opinion that the type of character he development. portrays is particularly dangerous for juvenile delinquents, because he respects no moral code 111.Wyeth, Ezra, R. Children andthe Cinema. and frequently plays an ambiguous role; one can A summary of a survey, 1949.In: Visual never tell whether he is on the side of the police Aids Review, Melbourne, I (1) ,August 1950, or on the side of the gangsters. p . 20-22 . 108 . Pitta, A. and Capriolo, E. I ragazzi votano A summary report of research carried out in1949 per"Domani P troppotarde" ZChildren,s poll by the School of Education in the University of on "Domani L troppo tardelY. In: Cinema, Melbourne. Children from primary and secondary Rome, V (60), 15 April 1951, p. 198-202 schools who were tested were asked to reply to a (new series). questionnaire by way of a school exercise.

31 A total of 1,401 answers were received from previous knowledge of a film encourage reading of children and adolescents between 7 and 19 years the book and vice versa? of age. Their order of preference for different types of film was as follows: comedies, detective 114.Z6chbauer, Franz. Von neuen G6ttern. Zur films, cowboy films, war films, cartoons, musi- Problematik des Starkultes. /New gods. cals, ghost films, newsreels, historical films, Problems of film-star worship/. In: Jugend gangster films, educational films, love films, and Film, Munich, (1), 1958, p. 1-12. serial films and documentary films. The children concerned generally saw only films intended for A report on an investigation into film-star worship adults. carried out inSalzburg amongfour thousand children and adolescents.With the aid of a questionnaire, the influence of some particular star on the cinema 112. Zanotti, Mi lena.Cinema per ragazzi: attendance habits of young persons and the role Premesse ad un problema attuale /Films for played by that star in their lives were assessed. children: preamble to a topical question/. In: For 40 per cent of adolescents aged 15-18, the Rivista del Cinematografo, Rome, (5), 1951, star personifies a moral ideal, 70 per cent of p. 21-22. young persons between the ages of 10 and 18 model their manners and attitudes on those of the star's; A child's choice of films depends nearly always on the film-star furnishes standards of economic be- the level of his intellectual maturity and imagina- haviour (preference for certain consumer goods; tion; it is influenced by the faces and names of the 79 per cent of the subjects replied in the affirma- actors, even if the latter are little known, and by tive to the question: "Has the cinema taught you posters, especially where these suggest fights and to dress better? "); the star furnishes standards scantily-dressed scenes. The author condemns the of behaviour towards the other sex (51 per cent of cinema from the moral point of view since it inten- the 14 year-olds replied that they had learnt from sifies erotic tendencies and warps comprehension films "how to act when in love"; etc.). The author and judgement. considers that star worship among juveniles is all the more significant since the influence of parents, 113 . Zazzo, Rene and Bianka. Une enquete sur le pastors and masters is waning. cinema et la lecture chez les adolescents . /An inquiry into film and reading habits among See also: nos. 9, 29, 31, 37, 51, 52, 54, 55, 62, adolescents/. In: Enfance, Paris, (3), May- 63,64, 67, 68,70,71, 74,75,77, 78, 79, 80, June 1957. 81,86, 88, 89,90,93, 94,95,127, 169, 183, 184,189, 237,239,240, 268, 271, 345, 385, 407, Adolescents' preferences between reading and 432,450, 465,482,483. films.Is one detrimental to the other?Does

I 3. ANALYSIS OF FILM CONTENT

115 .Are,Amedge. L 'enfant personnage du film. as adults in economically comfortable circum- /The child in films/. In: Vieenseignante, stances, free from parental control; suitably Paris, (91), November 1954. Italian edition: married, and with limited social and economic Il bambino protagonista di film.In: Maestri, responsibilities.Nearly half were wealthy or Rome, September 1955. well-to-do, 17 per cent were poor or needy, 80 per cent belonged to the middle-class; only 8 per The author of this article studies from concrete cent were titled and 11 per cent had distinctly examples taken from various films, the rdle of come down in the world. Two out of five were childhood in the making of films and various Americans and seven out of ten unmarried. The producers' concepts of how to portray children; main behavioural motives were: love (68per cent); the child evoking nostalgic memories of the past, fame, reputation or prestige (26 per cent); security, as an active moral protagonist, or as portrayed health and economic independence (16per cent); in neo-realist film. the fulfilment of vague needs, describedas "way of life" (14 per cent); money and material goods 116 .Dale, Edgar. The Content of Motion Pictures, (10 per cent); "to do one's duty" (9per cent). New York, MacMillan, 1935, 234 p. These percentages overlap as some characters had expressed more than one predominant wish. A content analysis of 1,500 feature films (500from 60 per cent saw their wishes realized at the end of each of the years 1920, 1925 and 1930). Ten cate- the film.10 per cent did not reach their goal and gories were made: crime, sex, love, the comic 14 per cent had their wishes only partly fulfilled. element, mystery, war, children, history, travel and social propaganda. In 1930, love (29.6per 118.Mirams, Gordon. Boy meets Girl- on the cent), crime (27.2 per cent) andsex (15 per cent) Screen. In: New Zealand Listener, Wellington, were the most important subjects, i.e. a total of 31 (788), 27 August 1954, p. 6-7. 72 per cent of all subjects. 16 per centwere taken up by comedy, and 8.6 per cent jointly by mystery A survey of the pattern of romantic behaviour and war. Only one out of 500 filmswas a child- among young people portrayed on the screen, based ren's film; in 1930 there were 7 historical and 9 on a detailed analysis of 300 feature-length films travel films, but not one social propaganda film. from the United States of America and Great An average of one crime film wasseen each month Britain.It was found that 73 per cent of these 300 by those who visited the cinemaonce a week. In films dealt specifically with the topic of boy meet- nearly two-thirds of all cases, adolescents find ing girl and "falling in love". In 68per cent of the crime films unattractive. Of 115 crime films films in tht4 category, it was a case of "love at shown in Columbus (Ohio) cinemas, murder tech- first sight", if not at first glimpse. Analysis of niques are shown in nearly every Alm, actual the circumstances in which romantic first meet- murder in 45, attempted murder in 21, and re- ings are shown taking place reveals that 69per volvers were used in 22 films. Sex films show: cent of them depend on an unusual situation- such extra-marital relations, seduction, adultery, as the boy rescuing the girl from danger -which procuring, illegitimacy, prostitution and bedroom the average young person would have little chance jokes. Romantic love films have for subject: of encountering in real life. Only 31per cent arise melodrama, courtship, love, flirting, difficulties from meetings in normal or probable circumstances. in marriage, historical romances. 119.1Viixams, Gordon. Drop that Gun. In: The 117.Jones, Dorothy, B. Quantitative Analysis of Quarterly of Film, Radio and Television, Motion Picture Content. In: Public Opinion Berkeley, Ca., VI (1), Fall 1951, 19 p. Quarterly, Princeton University, N.J.,(6), 1942, p. 411-428. A preliminary investigation of theoccurrence of crime and violence in 100 feature films. These An analysis of 100 grade "A" and "B" films, dis- contained a total of 659 cases of crime and violence, tributed in the United States of America in 1941- i.e. an average of 6.6 per film. Only 14 films 1942. 188 actors and actresses portrayed leading were entirely free from these two faetors. Among characters in these films (126 men and 62 women). the crimes were 168 murders or attempted murders, Three out of five leading characters were shown of which 73 happened in 17 Westerns (notevery

33 homicide in a Western was considered as murder). to work, criminals, or variety artists. Other Types and motives of these misdeeds and acts of professions are evidently much less esteemed. violence, as well as the techniques applied, are examined and films of American and British origin 122.Muller, H.S .,Driel, A .A.E. van, Peters, are compared. J.M.L .,Sijmons, A H. and Wieringen, H. van. Sociografie van de tweede wereld. Wat 120.Mirams, Gordon. The Face of the Film. In: krijgt onze jeugd in de bioscoop to zien? The British Film Academy, Journal, London, /Sociography of the second world: what are Spring 1955, p. 10-13. our children offered in the cinema ?J Purmerend, Muusses ,1958, 80 p. An introduction to a general survey of the subject- matter of motion pictures, with a discussion about A content analysis of 60 films which children under the primary importance, for investigators, of es- 18 may see in the Netherlands. 30 Westerns, tablishing clearly the extent to which various pat- adventure, and war films (preferred by boys) and terns of screen behaviour are created by reitera- 30 "show-world" films, operettas, and romantic tion before going on to consider the possible in- love films (preferred by girls) were analysed. fluence which such patterns may have on the After an introduction on the methodology, the standards of value accepted among audiences, principal milieus shown by these films are inves- particularly juvenile ones. These repeated tigated, as well as the film story, the appearance, behaviour patterns and false standards of value character and social status of the principal actors, are likely to be much more serious in their effect, and the ideological and cultural-sociological inter- it is argued, than the overt influence of any indi- pretation of typical elements found in the content vidual films. For the general run of picture-goers of these 60 films .The authors conclude that the as well as for children, it is necessary to discover film content seems to be completely adjusted to and pinpoint what the basic patterns are; the the "teenage mentality" of the public, i.e. to the article includes a discussion on methodology in needs and motives of persons still mentally im- this connexion, and gives some of the general find- mature. Attention is drawn to the lack of every- ings on the incidence of certain themes and situa- day things and normal family conditions; to the tions (e.g. violence, crime and punishment, many situations in which the principal actor's role romantic attitudes, economic status of screen is found "glamourized" and is not elaborated to a characters) revealed by an examination of 300 greater extent than an immature mind can cope films over several years. with; to the dualityinthe presentation of the principal characters, who lead decent ordinary lives in 121.Mirams, Gordon. The Ideas in Films. the film whereas their behaviour (e.g. in dance Wellington, New Zealand, Department of scenes) often becomes questionable; to the naivety Education, 1953, 36 p. (Post Primary School and superficiality of the action; and to the stereo- Bulletin, 7 (9)). typed solutions adopted when difficulties arioe. Content analysis of 300 recreational films distributed in New Zealand. The following conclusions 123.Peters, Charles, C. Motion Pictures and were drawn from this survey: 40 per cent of Standards of Morality. New York, MacMillan, American films have crime as principal theme; 1933, 285 p.Payne Fund Studies. only 25 per cent are entirely free of crime. The second most frequently encountered type of film is In his study, the author distinguishes between films comedy (about 15 per cent of the British and with a content which conforms to existing morals , American films studied) .Love occurred as the religious ideas and conventional standards and main theme in only 8 per cent of the films studied, films which are in conflict with these values. though it appeared as a topic in 84 per cent. The Samples selected from six social groups were most neglected subjects are biographies, history, asked to give their opinion on four types of film religion, sport, and social problems. scenes for moral evaluation. The results seemed Among the goals motivating the film characters to show that the cinema may "legalize" patterns were personal ambition ("getting on in theworld") of behaviour which deviate from standards that are and earning more money, in 67 per cent of the normally accepted and observed. The cinema not films. Crime was used as a means to achieve these only reflects current morals but also changes them. ends in 63 per cent c: the films. Love occurred as a principal motivational force in 45 per cent of the films; 124.Vandromme, Pol. Le cinema et 1' enfance. parsonal revenge in 35 per cent. / Cinema and children/. Paris, Editions du Of 2,400 characters appearing in the films Cerf, 1955, 120 p. (" 7e Art" series). analysed, 34 per cent were very wealthy, 45 per cent were in good financial circumstances, and A review of films about children reveals that their only 16 per cent were poor. With regard to the scenario writers are more attracted to the exte- professions portrayed, most of the characters old rior aspects of childhood than to the inner world enough to work appeared to be rich without having of the child, with its peculiar myths and personal 34 interpretation of life. A largenumber of films, consciously serious art forms are increasingly categorized according to thestage of emotional complex, uncertain and ill-defined". development of the child whois the principal character of the film,are discussed. 126. Wasem, Erich. Das Bi ld des Erziehers und Zoglings in Spielfilmen. /Teacher and pupil 125 .Warshow,Robert.Movie Chronicle: The in recreational films/. In: Jugend und Film, Westerner. In: Partisan Review,New York, Munich, (1), 1957, p. 23-32. 21 (2), March-April 1954, p. 190-203. A critical study, illustrated by numerous examples taken from well-known films, of the portrayal of The Westerner and the gangster,as "the two most teacher, child and adolescent in recent films. successful creations of American movies",are com- The manner in which various American, Italian, pared. They are important in thepresent context as French, German and Soviet films portray the representing the characters widely regardedas young child and the adolescent in their relations having most influence ontheyoung male film-goer, with adults - parents or teachers- or with and as being the figures with whom hemost often animals (a dog or a horse, for example), and identifies himself and in whoseadventures he ima- the teacher in his efforts to mate contact with ginatively participates. The authorsays that while modern youth. the gangster is engaged in" unceasingnervous ac - tivity... outside the field of utility",the "Western 127. Witty, Paul and Bricker, Harry. Your Child hero... is a figure of repose... lonely... melancholy", and Radio, TV, Comics and Movies, Chicago, not like the gangster "who has put himself in a posi- ,Science Research Associates Inc., tion where everybody wants to kill himand even- 1952, 49 p. tually somebody will"; but because "lifeis unavoid- ably serious... his loneliness is organic ... testifying to his completeness" The booklet discusses the following topics: the . The Westerner, a man of things children are exposed to in comic books,mov- leisure who doesn't need to goany place because he ing pictures, radio and television; thereasons "is already there", is placedin a setting of land and children are attracted to them; the way parents horses - symbols of physical freedomand "moral and teachers can help children make the bestuse openness". Justice and orderare nothis real mo- of these forms of entertainment; methods which tives. They offer hint his "calling" andas such parents and teachers can use to help boys and girls present us with an image of honour circa1870 that to improve their judgement so that they will choose is still real for us. The moral dilemma stems from what is good and reject what is bad; and the need the fact that, whatever the justification, he still kills. for community action which will give the children There may be variationinthe content, but ifthere a better chance to see and hear and read more is too much variationinthe art form, thewestern wholesome and worth-while material. ceases to exist as such. The new type of western may present a figure more like a gang type (i.e. 128.Wolfenstein, Martha and Leites, Nathan. "The Gunfighter") but not in hisprime. He is his Plot and Character in Selected French Films: only judge. He sees his life clearlyas waste but AnAnalysis of Fantasy. In: Metraux, R. and plays out the patternto its predestinedconclusion - Mead, Margaret, Themes in French Culture, killing until it is his turnto be killed, continuously preface to a study of French community, looking the part of a hero. If the individualdoes not Stanford University, Ca., Stanford University stand out above the problems of the socialorder Press, 1953, n.p. "the Western setting becomesa mere back-drop of beautiful scenery" ("The Ox-Bow Incident"). Why Forty French films were examined for recurrent does the western film still hold the popularimagina- patterns of plot and character whichappear to re- tion? Its orientationtowards violence isserious. flect feelings and attitudes typical of the culture. The Westerner... "lives in a world of violence,but A four-part analysis is offered: (1) the fatherin the drama is one of self-restraint". Heoffers us "fantasies of irresponsible freedom", the role of the suffering hero; (2) the vicissitudes to be denied to which the hazards of human impulseexpose ue; only because they are dangerous. "He isthere to (3) the accidents and unreliability of remind us of the possibility of style... inthe justice; and midst (4) the major disappointing experienceswith which of our anxieties over the problem of violenceLpre- French films are preoccupied. serving/ for us the pleasure ofa complete and self- contained drama... in a time when other,more See also: nos. 51, 192, 240, 343,389.

35 4. THE PROCESS OF SEEING A FILM

(a) PERCEPTION AND COMPREHENSION following results for children: real difficulties in OF FILMS making accurate comparisons as to sizes and like- nesses, in recognizing regular geometric forms, in establishing the position of persons in relation 129 .Aibauer, Rosa. Zur Sittlichen Beurteilung to a known object, and in interpreting some of von Filmen. Test mit 10-14 JahrigenMad- their movements and attitudes. Such difficulties chen fiber Teufelskerle. /The moral evalua- as these do not seem to lessen proportionately as tion of films. A test with 10-14 year-old the child grows older. Further research is re- girls concerning the film "Teufelskerle" commended to study the choice of motion-pictures (Boys' Town)]. In: Film, Jugend, Schule, for children of different age groups. Gelsenkirchen, (45), July 1954, 6 p. 131.Brandt, Herman, P. The Psychology of See- An investigation of the moral evaluation of a film ing Motion Pictures. In:Elliott, Godfrey M.: by a group of 32 girls between 10 and 14 years of Film and Education, New York, Philosophical age, parallel to and comparable with the investi- Library, 1948, p. 39-54. gation concerning a similar group of boys reported by Roessler, E. and W., (see no. 140). After the Deals with "seeing" film as physical, physiological screening of the film "Teufelskerle" (Boys' Town), and psychological process and the similarities and the girls were asked to relate or draw events from differences between the action of the human eye and the film. They were then asked a number of ques- the film camera; the sensorial and motor processes tions on how they had liked the film, which role which play a role during the viewing of a film; per- they would have liked to play themselves, if they ception as an activity of attention; selection and would like to take part in the film, which scenes arrangement of impressions, and of the most import- they had found especially exciting or boring, etc . ant movements of the eye during the viewing of a film All 32 girls gave a detailed answer to the question: and the general rules appertaining to them. A "What does the film mean to convey to the spec- comparison is then made between the reaction tator?", and most girls had completely understood (orientation, concentration, relaxation and active the sense of the film. In many points, the girls' participation) to a still and a moving picture. A moral evaluation of the principal actors and their number of conditions concerning film performances behaviour was found to differ from that of boys. are formulated, so that greatest possiblepartici- pation by the spectator can be attained. 130.Albertini, Laura and Caruso, Ada, P. Per- cezione e interpretazione di imagini cinema 132.Brinkmann, Donald. Jugend and Film. tografiche nei ragazzi. (Perception and inter- /Youth and Film j In: Reformierte Schweiz, pretation of film images by childrenj In: Pfaffikon-Ziirich, (11), November 1956, Bianco e Nero, Rome, (X), 5 May1949, p. 9-27. p. 400-403. Also in: Baumgarten, Franziska, Compte rendu du 1 le Congres international de psycho- Develops several ideas for discussion at a study technique, Berne, 12-1? September 1949. La week on youth and film, held in Zurich in 1956. psychotechnique dans le monde moderne. Arising from numerous observations in Switzerland Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, and other countries, four stages have been distin- 1952, p. 557-561. guished in young people' s development which are significant for an understanding of their reactions A study of the reactions of 576 children, aged 8 to to film:(1) Up to 7 years of age (called the fairy- 14, to Flaherty's film "Nanook". Four hundred tale age) children live in an imaginary world in and ninety children were questioned: 86 made un- which they do not clearly distinguish between sub- solicited comments. Particularly apparent were ject and object, self and surroundings, dream and the many errors in observation and the discre- reality.(2) Between ? and 12 realistic experience pancy between what actually occurred inthe film makes its appearance. This is the so-called and what the children thought they had seen. The "Robinson" age, in which interest is mainly in rapid succession of images, the inability to under- adventure. (3) Between 12 and 16 (age of puberty) stand clearly, to compare precisely and to inter- the child' s personality develops and he learns to pret exactly when drawing up a report has the distinguish "self" from his surroundings. Conflicts

36 often arise at this time which determine the course children, carried out by the author and his colla- of his adult life.(4) After the age of 16, tensionsof- borators in a psychiatric clinic. These investiga- ten arise owing to the fact that young people at this tions, which were particularly concerned with stage are expected to behave like adults, but are children's understanding of films, show that a frequently not taken as seriously as they feel they child must have reached a mental age of 12 to be should be. The vividness of children's life up to the capable of understanding the full content of a film. age of puberty, and the results of the analysis of An inquiry into the reactions of maladjusted child- children's drawings, which can deepen insight into ren to film comedies reveals that the children's the four stages of film experience, are further reactions during screening are often in contradic- investigated. tion with their ultimate assessment of the films. Cartoons are not generally enjoyed. The emotion- 133. Fulchignoni, Enrico. Cinema et psychologie. al reactions of children are often and to a great (Cinema and psychology:fin:Revue de psy- extent conditioned by their personal problems; chologie appliquée, Paris, I (2), January 1951, aggressive, perverse or paranoic tendencies would p. 61-68. appear to encourage a preference for certaintypes of film or for certain scenes.Ir. estigations were The perception of film images is very different from also carried out with entirely normal subjects, so the perception of objects and persons in reality or that a comparison could be made. The conclusions onthe stage, mainly because of the particular from these various inquiries are summarized rhythm of film images andthe space relationships under ten headings. in cinematography. Difficulties in the interpretation of objects, movement, dimensions and scale in 136.Heuyer, Georges. Influence immddiatement films are experienced by children. Infilms for decelable du film a partir de 10 ans. Ren- children, therefore, photography should be simpler contre internationale d' experts sur les and movement slower than in films for adults. aspects psychologiques, techniques et sociaux

110 des problemes du cinema et de la jeunesse, 134 .Gerhartz -Franck,Ingrid. 1Ther Geschehens - Luxembourg, 31 May-4 June 1955. (The gestaltungen in der Auffrassung von Filmen immediately discernible influence of the durch Kinder. (Perception psychology applied cinema from the age of 10 upwards. Inter- to the comprehension of films by children.] national meeting of experts to consider the Leipzig, Johann Ambrosius Barth Verlag, psychological, technical and social aspects 1955, 124 p. of problems concerning the cinema and young people, Luxembourg) Geneva, Fraternite An investigation to test how children assimilate and Mondiale, 1955, 12 p. (stencilled) understand educational and fairy-tale films at different ages. Comprehension of the film story as From the age of 10 years the influence of a film "gestalt" was tested using a puppet film, "The Town on the child is immediately discernible, with re- Mouse and the Country Mouse", made by the Diel gard to his perception, understanding and emotion. brothers. Six-year olds do not seem to be able to The study of perception in children requires ac- understand film action as "gestalt". They do not see curate and comprehensive experiments in both the relations between particular scenes, and cannot visual and auditive fields. There are two stages identify the principal characters throughout. They that can be distinguished in understanding a film: only sum up a number of separate parts of a film story. a mental age of 10 years is required for the child Children 7-8 years old can place the separate scenes to keep pace with the sequences; for an under- in a series but cannot yet be said to understand the standing of the entire significance of the film a relations between the scenes depicting a given phase mental age of 12 years is required. of action. These children do not know how to distin- Only the simple comic element is understood guish between the important and unimportant scenes. by children under the age of 12. Above this age With 9- and 10-year-olds, the action is under- the child's understanding of the comic element is stood as a whole. These children can alreadytake on a level with that of adults. For the understand- an objective view of film action and detach it coming of a commercial cartoon, a mental age of at pletely from their own life and surroundings. But least 12 years is essential. Emotional reactions a clear understanding of the internal structure to a film yield valuable evidence for the investiga- of the action is not yet present. Here and there a tion of the child's individual tendencies. These start is made with a kind of interpretation of the reactions are of an individual nature, and differ film story. Only with 11- to 14-year-olds is this according to sex. internal structure understood. The role of the cinema in developing criminal tendencies has not been conclusively demonstrated, 135 .Heuyer, Georges.Cinema et affectivite. but it appears that the gangster film does play a part (Cinema and emotion.] In: L'ecole des in "teaching" the techniques of crime. The film also parents, Paris, (3), January 1956, p. 15-27. influences factors which remain in the infialhal.°4. after a film performance, and thus affects the child's A report on investigations with maladjusted conduct. Electro-encephalographic and biological

37 investigations must be encouraged to give a phy- 140. Roessler, E. and W. Sithe Film' urteilung siological basis to psychological observations of Zehn-bis Vierzehnjahriger. Eine psychologisch- emotional reactions. padagogische Studie zu dem Film "Teufelskerle". LMoral evaluation of films by 10-14 year-olds. 137.Mialaret, G. and Me lies, M.G. Exgrieses A psychological-pedagogic study concerning the sur la comprehension du langage cinemato- film "Teufelskerle" (Boys' Town)J. In: Film, graphique par 1' enfant .(Experiments on the Jugend, Schule, Gelsenkirchen, 44 (6), September understanding of film language by the childj 1955, 8 p. In: Revue internationale de filmologie, Paris, V (18-19), July-December 1954. An investigation of the ability of thirty 10 to 14 year-old boys to judge the moral value of the film An interim report of an investigation of the under- "Teufelskerle" (Boys' Town). Immediately after standing of a film by children between 4 and 12 the screening the boys were asked to write or draw years. Three specially made short films repro- something about the film. Later, they completed duced three different versions of the same simple a written questionnaire in which they stated which story, each using different "film language".It role they would have liked to play themselves, could be seen which techniques (close-up, dis- their appreciation of certain scenes, their judge- solve, etc.) presented problems to children of ment of the behaviour of the principal actors, and different ages. the meaning of the film taken as a whole.It appeared that only a third of the boys identified 138.Ponzo, Ezio. Temoignages de pre-adolescents themselves with a given film character.It is felt et d' adolescents sur un film. Statements by that the boys were capable of making a moral young people about a film, In: Revue inter- judgement and that it is therefore not useless to nationale de filmologie, Paris, V(17), April- discuss these matters with children. Even 10 June 1954, p. 147-159. Also in: Scuola year-olds are capable of an objective judgement Positiva, Milan, (4), 1952, p. 521-525. with regard to things which interest them. (See also: Aibauer, Rosa, no. 129.) A film sequence showing a simple incident during a gymnastic exercise was shown to 115 boys be- 141.gnejder, M. Hudaestvennoe kinov tween 11 and 19 years of age in an orphanage. vospitatel' noj rabote skoly. LThe film and Following the screening the boys were questioned education at school2 Moscow, Academy of in accordance with the method developed by Stern. Pedagogic Sciences of the R.S.F.S.R., 1950, Several boys were unable to relate accurately what 32 p. they had seen in the film, and the reasons for this are discussed. Films can be a useful instrument Contains useful information for the study of the for research into the accuracy and validity of understanding of films by children, compiled from young people's testimony.It is furthermore con- observations of the attitudes of children during the cluded that a study of the personality, social screening of films and analyses of discussions with surroundings and past experience of the young children after performances. The experiment people concerned is essential if the reactions related to children between 9 and 10 years of age reported are to be correctly understood and and was spread over several years. evaluated. A comparison of the information thus obtained at the beginning of the school year with that obtained 139.Rey, Andre. Laperception d' un ensemble at the end of the same year shows that the children's de deplacements - donnees sur 1' evolution de understanding of the films and the subject becomes la perception.,_gIernati ue. (Perception of more complete and extensive as they grow older. movement as a whole - data on the develop- Records of experimental data concerning the ment of cinematic perception2 In: Revue presentation of the same film to classes of children internationale de filmologie, Paris, V(17), aged 10 to 12 years provide concrete evidence of April-June 1954, p. 75-92. the differences in the understanding of a film according to the age group of the children. An investigation of the manner in which children and adults perceive different simultaneous move- 142.Soriano, Marc. Lire, assister. (Reading and ments in the film image. Most people, and espe- participationj In: Revue internationale de cially children, cannot record analytically the filmologie, Paris, (3 -4),1948, p. 299-304. different movements which take place in a scene projected on the screen. They perceive the move- The understanding of the film language and the per- ments as a whole. The movements of a film scene ception of the message which the film seeks to must not be complex if they are to be followed convey, is an entirely different process from that accurately by children. of reading and understanding a book. The understanding of a book is an intellectual process, whereas the film is a direct sensory experience.

38 143 .Tarroni, Evelina. U filmper 1, infanzia e it showing movement, but taken witha fixed camera, probiema del livello di comprensione .LChild- and shots taken with a moving camera. Shots show- ren' s films and the problem of the level of ing movements and long shots aremore likely to understandingj In: Rivista delcinematografo, provoke reactions than those showingno movement Rome, X (4), 1952. and close-ups. The continuous change in camera angle and An analysis of various investigations carriedout movement of objects keep the spectator ina state by psychologists in this field; itsconclusions indi- of expectation ( "attente "), andone should therefore cate that it is necessaryon the one hand to lead not regard film viewing as a passive occupation. children gradually towards mastering thediffi- culties of interpreting the modern film, andon te 146.Zazzo, Bianka and Rene. Une experiencesur other hand to produce films particularly addressed la comprehension du film. LAn experiment in to young people and which take account of these film understanding./ In: Revue internationale difficulties. de filmologie, Paris, II (6), 1951,p. 159-170. 144 .Zazzo, Bianka. Analyse des difficultes d'une An investigation of the understanding of two short sequence cinematographique par la conduite film sequences carried out among 42young people du recit chez 1' enfant. LAn analysis of the between 6 and 25 years of age, with mentalages difficulties of a cinematographic sequence ranging from 4.7 to 14 years. The test subjects based on the child's narrationj In: Revue were backward children, maladjusted children, internationale de filmologie, Paris, III (9), and children with more or less serious character January-March 1952, p. 25-36. disturbances, under treatment in the psychological laboratory of the 118pital Henri Roussel in Paris. In order to investigate the types of difficultyexpe- A psychological and medical case historywas rienced by children in understanding films,a available for each child. simple film sequence specially selected for the After the first screening the children were asked purpose was shown to a group of 53 girls between to recount what they had seen in order to determine 6 and 12 years of age. The childrenwere asked to their comprehension of the action, the chronology recount the story of the film sequence after the of the events shown, the r8le played by different screening. They were also asked to place incor- actors, the technique of "reverse angle shooting" rect order a number of photographs showing the (in which people in conversationare shown from most important events of the film. Thepurpose of different angles), their ability to recount thecon- the latter exercise was to counteracterrors which tent as a whole logically and spontaneously. The might have resulted from imperfect verbalexpres- r8les played by the actors and the technique of sion. "reverse angle shooting"were least well understood. The following conclusions were drawn: (1) The The object of the second screeningwas to deter- course of action is understood very early, from mine to what extent the audience understood the seven years onwards .The dynamic reproduction "dissolve" technique. Nineteen of thosetested of the action, the visual and concrete element of failed completely (they were children whosemental film reproduction and the strong structural quality age was under 8 years 3 months). Two cases were of film were considered responsible for this.(2) doubtful (mental age about 7 years), 10 children The difficulties which the child experiences in passed the test (mental age 8 to 10 years) and 3 did understanding a film are due to theuse of "film excellently (mental age over 12). grammar" (e.g. time symbols). (3) Thelonger the film, the greater the difficulties for the child. The 147. Zazzo, Rene. L'influence du cinemasur le de- child can generally follow the action of the film and veloppement de la pensee de l'enfant. Lille in- participate in it intensively, but theway in which fluence of the cinema on the development of the film relates this action is largely lost to him. the thought-processes of the child./ In: L 'ecole des parents, Paris, January 1956, 145.Zazzo, Bianka. Effets de la grosseur et de la p. 1-14. mobilite des plans sur les reactions des spectateurs-enfants. LEffects of size and move- The author distinguishes two problems: firstly, ment of shots on the reactions of juvenile the influence of the cinema on the development of spectat rs...7 Paper read atthe Second Inter- the child's intelligence; secondly, its influenceon national Congress of Filmology, Paris, 1955. the opinions, tastes, attitudes and "thoughts" of the child. An investigation to find out how shooting techniques The author has examined difficulties which the affect the intensity of film experience in children. child encounters in grasping the language of the The reactions of four groups of boys and girls (7to cinema. Until about the age ofseven, the child 9, and 9 to 11 years of age, of each sex) to different understands almost nothing of a film, whilst taking shots from four films were recorded. They in- an interest in the content of its images.But cluded: (1) shots ranging from close-ups to long when the threshold of understanding isreached, shots, and (2) shots showing no movement, shots the experience of the cinemamay exercise a

39 favourable influence on his intellectual growth. (1) General study of the nature of the spectacle; Opinions of research workers and theorists are (2) study of the character of the cinemaas a spec- frequently contradictory, particularlyin connexion tacle and as a factor in the development andexpe- with the problem of sex and eroticism in films and rience of young people; (3) the cinema reaches the prime responsibility of the cinema in cases of the child more easily than any other spectacle; juvenile delinquency. The author is of the opinion warning against the falsification of reality; the that the real problems lie elsewhere, and that one cinema for children should enrich, deepen and should examine, for example, whether the view of penetrate the reality of daily life. life presented to young people by films is a true or a distorted one. 150.Beley, Andre. Cinema entre enfants et cinema d'adultes. (Children's film shows and cinema- 148.Zazzo, Rene. Niveau mental et comprehen- going with adults] In: L ' &Ole des parents, sion du cinema. /Mental level and the under- Paris, (4), February 1958, p. 25-30; (6), April standing of the cinemaiIn: Revue internatio- 1958, p. 25-30. nale de filmologie, Paris, II(5), 1951, p. 29-36. The reactions of the child are by no means the A lecture given at the Institut de filmologie of the same when he goes to the cinema with adults University of Paris concerning the importance, (parents or other members of his family, for the difficulties and the methods of investigating example), as when he attends a children's film children's understanding of film language.This show. As a result of the constraint imposed by the lecture introduces a report of several experiments presence of adults, he no longer participates which were later published in nos. 6 and 9, vol. II, spontaneously in the spectacle, and his impres- of the Revue internationale de filmologie. sions differ from those which he would have if The gradual development of the child's mind surrounded by other children. and his capacity, at different ages, to understand With the aid of various examples drawn from film language are studied. Piaget speaks of the the study of film clubs, the author shows that the child's inability to "decentre" himself. A model solution of the problem of "films for children" of a landscape with a typical village is shown to should not be sought in the production of special the child, after which a number of photos of this films, but rather in the organization of special landscape, taken from various angles, are shown sessions for children, with the screening of suit- to him. The child is then asked to point out on the able "adult films". model the points from which the photos were taken. But the task of film clubs is not limited to the Under 8 years of age the child does not understand presentation of good films for children; they that the view of the landscape depends on the should also organize film discussions and enable spectator' s point of observation. At the age of children to :reach a joint appreciation of the 10 to 12 these difficulties are barely overcome. message of the film. How then can children understand the quick changes in point of observation in a film?For 151 .Bouman, J. C. , Heuyer, G. and Lebovici, S. example, the understanding of a typical cinema- Une experience d' etude de groupes. Processus tographic process, the shooting at reverse angle, de 1' identification et P importance de la wherein two persons in conversation are shown suggestibilite dans la situation cinematogra- from each other's point of view, was investigated phique. (An experiment in group study. The first. The extent to which film dynamics corre- process of identification and the importance spond with the movement of subconscious thought, of suggestion inthe cinematographic situation/. and whether frequent contact with film language In: Revue Internationale de filmologie, Paris, can result in modifications of normal perception IV (13), April-June 1953, p. 111-141. and thought, are questions also considered. See also: nos. 60, 85, 155, 228, 233, 319, 353, A description is given of an investigation among 409, 470, 483, 490. 150 students of medicine, psychology and law, concerning identification and the various forms in which it occurs. Identification is considerably influenced by suggestive explanations given to the (b) THE PSYCHOLOGY OF FILM EXPERIENCE test person prior to the screening of the film. (PARTICIPATION, IDENTIFICATION, PROJECTION, ETC.) 152.Brudny, Wolfgang. Arne Sucksdorff's das grosse Abenteuer: ein Erfahrungsbericht aus Jugendvorstellungen. LArne Sucksdorff's 149.Banfi, Antonio. L'aspect social du cinema en 'The Great Adventure': the record of a film tant que spectacle . LThe social aspect of the show for young peoplej In: Jugend and Film, cinema as a spectacle/In: Actes du Congres Munich, 1955. international sur la presse periodique, cinematographique et radio pour enfants, 19-23 March The author has studied the intensity of cinema 1952. Milan, A. Giuffre, 1953, p. 133-138. experience by observing (by means df tape recordings

40 and photographs) numerous children during the affirms that the film should help the child screening of the film "The Great Adventure". He develop its personality. describes the reactions of the audience as a whole, and particularly of four children aged between 9 156.Debesse, Maurice. L 'enfant au cinema .Eihe and 10, to the main scenes. He concludes that this child at the cinema." In: Revue internationale film had an unexpectedly deep effect on the child- de filmologie, Paris, VII (26), April-June ren, this being confirmed later when, on two se- 1956, p. 99-109. parate occasions, they were asked to write essays on the subject of the film. Summary of a lecture given at the Institut de filmologie in Paris on the film-theatre as a leisure-time 153 .Cahn, Paulette. Remarques sur les reactions milieu for children. The University of Strasbourg de 1' enfant a son image filmigue et a celle de having started some investigation in this field, the ses freres. borne remarks on the child's possible results of such research are discussed, reactions to his filmic image and to that of his e.g. the atmosphere of the film-theatre itself; the brothers." Paper read at the second Inter- proportion of seats occupied; the presence (or national Congress of Filmology, Paris, 1955. absence) of parents and other adults, which may influence the child' s behaviour in the theatre and Tentative results of an experiment on the reactions hence his reaction to the films seen therein. of several very young and several older childrento their own filmic image. A distinction can be made 157.Deprun, Jean. Cinema et transfert. /inema between different phases in the child's attitude and transferencej In: Revue internationale vis-à-vis his own filmic image. The child cannot de filmologie, Paris, I(2), 1947, p. 204-207. make an initial distinction between his own "self" and his filmic image. Later on he learns to re- Does "transference" occur in film experience as cognize it as an image, and to distinguish it from in a psycho-analytical situation? Two conditions the actual "self". In the third phase, the child is must be satisfied if complexes are to be "trans- able to establish a link between the filmic image ferred"; they must be symbolically represented, 'and his own experience. and they must be projected outside the spectator without danger of return. The film satisfies both 154 .Canestrari, Renzo. La psicologia differen- these requirements. ziale ed il cinema. (Differential psychology and the cinema." In: Infanzia anormale, Rome, 158 .Eiserer, Paul E. The relative effectiveness (24), 1953, p. 284-293. of motion and still pictures as stimuli for eliciting fantasy stories about adolescent- The relationship between audience and motion pic- parent relationships.In: Genetic Psychology ture is conceived as a dynamic and projective Monographs, Worcester, Mass., Clark Uni- situation in which the individual's emotions find versity, (39), 1949, p. 205-278. release and his intellectual faculties are stimulated. Because the individual reacts as in a situation of Fifteen motion pictures (10 to 21 seconds in length) reality, his whole personality is involved in the were compared with 15 still pictures (selected from process. Experiments have shown the varying in- the motion pictures) to determine their relative fluences of the motion picture upon the personality effectiveness as projective instruments. Both proof the mentally retarded, the child, and the ado- jective tests were administered to 50 tenth-grade lescent. In a case of re-education a film expe- boys with a median S-B IQ of 134.5. The following rience has even been used as the starting point for are some of the conclusions drawn: (1) the motion group therapy. picture can be used as an effective projective instrument for personality study; (2) motion pictures 155 .Canestrelli, Luigi. Psicologia e films - tend to elicit more material of psychological signi- roblemi sicolici, etico- sicoloci e ficance; (3) it is uncertain whether the superiority psicopedagogici. sychology and films - of the motion picture is of sufficient magnitude to psychological, ethico-psychological and warrant its development for immediate use; (4) psycho-pedagogical problems." In: La Difesa considerable evidence indicates that structuring del Ragazzo, Rome, (5), September-October the stimulus situation (e.g. intra-family relation- 1956, p. 219-238. ships) produces more data than are otherwise obtainable. A paper presented to the First Congress of the There is a bibliography listing 44 items. International Centre of Films for. Children. The author deals with general questions of psychology 159.Flores d'Arcais, Giuseppe.11 cinema, il film and the cinema, the process of identification in nell' esperienza giovanile(Cinema. The film cinema experience, the conditions of cinemato- in juvenile experience." Padua, Ed. Liviana, graphic perception and specific problems of films 1953, p. 295. for children (legislation, censorship, content and psychological reactions).In conclusion, he The problem of educational films and films for use

41 in schools, and their relationship from a pedagogic miterleben" (participate in everything),"sich point of view. The work is composed as follows: selbst ale Held des StOckes Millen" (to consider (1) phenomenology of the cinema; problems con- oneself as the hero of the piece) occur repeatedly cerning the cinema's power of expression; (2) in the young people's responses. The photographic cinema experience: an analysis of the cinema as character of film, the character of movement, the a means of entertainment, relaxation and escape, mobility of the camera etc., are largely responsible and from the point of view of content and of form; for the power of the film. (3) the cinema as art: the possibility of increasing the significance of the cinema for young spectators; 162.Galletto, Albino. Cinema e ragazzi ginema (4) the didactic cinema: relationships between the and children./ In: Ragazzi Aspiranti, Rome, cinema and education. (3), 1949, p. 105-109. 160 . Fulchignoni, Enrico. Filmologie et psycho- An analysis of young people's reactions to the logie infantile. ZFilmology and child psycho- cinema, and suggestions as to appropriate attitudes logyzi In: Revue internationale du cinema, and action on the part of teachers. Brussels, I(4), 1949, p. 38-41. 163 .Gemelli, Agostino. Cinema e psicologia. The attitude of the spectator towards events as repre- LCinema and psychologyd In: Vitae Pensiero, sented bythe film differs in several respects from his Milan, (11), 1949, p. 591-596. attitude towards reality itself or towards a stage play. The spectator does not keephis distance from the A resume, intended for the general public, of film, nor does he protect himself; in fact, he often theories already expressed in earlier experiments frees himself from inhibitions which normally domi- in cinematographic realism and the psychological nate his conscience. The difficulties which the child reactions of young spectators. experiences in observing a film, and the results of research with children and film are discussed. The 164.Gemelli, Agostino.II cinema per i ragazzi. child' s perception is quite different from that of LCinema for children./ In: Vita e Pensiero, adults. The film language can be appreciated by Milan, XXXIV, June 1951, p. 315-321. children only with the advent of puberty. With regard to the child s emotional reactions to films, the In the opinion of the author, "the realism of the cinema situation resembles the hypnotic state in that film resembles that of a dream": sentiments, reactions are much stronger therein than is the case trends of character, strong emotions and the under normal conditions. Research carried out at deepest elements of the individual personality are the Psychological Institute of the University of Rome projected on to the screen. The critical sense of has shown that the rhythm of film images exerts an the adult permits him to judge not only the film but influence on the spectator' s rhythm of respiration, also his own reaction to it, but this is not so in the indicating that the spectator quickly becomes in- case of the child. From the age of 6 to 10, and volved emotionally during the screening of a film. even 11, the influence of the film is slight: either the film belongs to the realm of fantasy, so that 161. Funk, Alois. Film and Jugend. Eine Unter- its action forms a part of the "play-world" in suchung fiber die psychischen Wirkungen des which, up to this age, the child spends much of Films im Leben der Jugendlichen. LThe his time; or, if it does not belong to this realm, cinema and youth. An examination of the it is of no interest to him. The problem of the psychological effect of the cinema on the life film arises from the age of 12 onwards when the of young peopled Munich, Ernst Reinhardt, adolescent, with the strong emotions characteristic 1934, 174 p. of his age, re-enacts the adventure and abandons himself to it, as well as to the ideas behind it. A study by Alois Funk of the psychological effects of recreational films on working youths between 165.Glogauer, Werner. Die psychische Verar- 14 and 18 years of age. The survey was carried beitung des Filmerlebens 1m Jugendalter. out by means of three questionnaires: one designed (Mental assimilation by young people of to obtain from educators their opinions on the in- cinematographic experienced In: Film- fluence of the cinema; one to obtain information Bild - Ton, Munich, (9), December 1958, from young people aged 14 to 18 on their film p. 41 -46. experience; a third to find out how boys over 18 felt the cinema had influenced them when they were On the basis of impressions made upon boys and younger. Replies were obtained from 235 of the girls, the author establishes that at the age of 1,000 educators who received the questionnaire; puberty, when emotional receptivity is already from 2,625 of the 3,000 young people between 14 strong, a film may so heighten sentiments that the and 18; and from 425 of the 1,000 boys over 10. adolescent is obliged to direct them towards some The writer concludes that the r8le of identification object. At this age, cinematographic experience in film experience is very important. The terms has such an impact on the young personality as a "znitgezogen werden" (to be carried along), "alles whole that the reality of the film becomes confused

IVO with the reality of daily life, to which the adolescent 168 .Keilhacker, Martin. Der Wirklichkeitscharakter then has difficulty in adapting himself. Why do the des Filmerlebens bei Kindern und Jugend lichen. impressions of a film last so long? Mainly because LThe character of reality in the film experience the spectator often related the action of the film to of children and adolescents .:1 In: Jugend und his own life and above all to his own future, and Film, Munich, (1), 1957, p. 9-22. because the film nourishes those moods of depres- sion or melancholy to which adolescentsare The adult experiences film mostly as a "play" and subject. not as a reality, and he can generally say whether The cinema stirs their imagination to suchan the film content is a representation of real events extent that they are left powerless to meet the de- or simply fantasy. Children's film experience mands of everyday reality. Young workers in differs in both respects. Play and reality often particular have in their daily life so few opportu- coincide and the film contents are largely seen as nities for giving free rein to their imagination that a reproduction of reality. Three forms of reality they seek in the cinema fictional satisfactions from experienced by the child can be distinguished: which they cannot then break free. (1) Small children aged 6-7 years often take film For adolescents, cinematographic experience images for objective reality; only later do they extends even to their dreams; desire forsuccess make a difference between objective reality and and other aspirations especially eroticones, un- the filmic image. (2) A form of reality is experi- consciously awakened by a film, find repeated enced in active participation in the film action. expression. In the end adolescents also transform (3) The third form consists of emotional participa- cinematographic experience by a process ofcon- tion in the action, and with the film "hero". scious thought: examples provided by filmssome- In pre-puberty, the children may believe in the times help them to resolve their personal problems. genuineness of the film action, even if it isrepre- sented by trick photography. The only exceptions 166 .Keilhacker, Martin. Le cinema et lee reac- are fairy-tale films. The child become. critical tions des enfants et des adolescents. In: with regard to trick photographs only at the begin- Colliers de pedagogic de l'universite de ning of puberty.If older children are asked to Liege, (14), 1955, p. 67-75. (From: Psycho- state their preferences (films on "real life"or logical Abstracts, Washington, 31 (2), April films with a "fantastic" story), they generally 1957.) choose the first type. But on closer examination, the films of their choice often appear to be those It is not possible for an adult,on the basis of his considered by adults as a product of the "dream own reactions, to predict the reactions of children factory".Young people willingly see reality in and adolescents to movies. Only objectivesre- films. They generally make a negative appraisal search can solve the problem. This shows that of films which represent unreality. the reactions of adolescents are different from those of children. For children, the movie isan 169.Keilhacker, Martin and Margarete. Jugend imaginary world. For adolescents it is alsoa and S ielfilm. Erlebnisweisen und Einflilase. field in which they can work out their own future. Youth and the fiction film. How young people experience films and are influenced by theme./ 16?.Keilhacker, Martin. Grundzfige des Filmer- Stuttgart, Ernst Klett Verlag, 1953, 128 p. lebens der Kinder und Jugend lichen in der ausgehenden Kindheit und beginnenden A study of the psychological and educational aspects Pubertit. LFundamentals of the reaction of of the cinema as related to young people. The children and young adolescents to films,.] In: chapters on psychological aspects are concerned Filmkunst, Vienna, 1956, p. 5-16. (Special with the way in which young people of differentages number "Jugend und Film" .) experience films; e.g. how they relate the film story to their own life, how they identify themselves Children are not so much spectators ofa film show with the characters, what standards they apply in as "co-actors" .They "live" a film in an intro- judging films, how boys and girls react differently, verted way and see in it their own story. Child what difficulties they experience in understanding characters and animals in films, when they play the film language, how much interest they show in leading r8les, evoke the greatest sympathy from the film's human element. The chapteron educa- the young audience. Films about animals give tional aspects summarizes the conclusions of re children an interest in books about animals. A search in this field and deals with the influence of special form is required for children's films. The the cinema on the "inner life" of young people. interests of the 14-18 age-group are very varied; A chapter is devoted to preferences in film sub- and children in this group have a preference for jects and their educational significance;a com- films which are about real life but which also have parison is also made between children's films and an idealistic tendency. At the end the author children' s books. The chapter deals with the describes the work and research methods of the organization and programming of children's film Munich Arbeitskreises (Work circle), "Jugend und performances. Film". 10

43 170.Keilhacker, Martin; Brudny, Wolfgang; An account of an investigation carried out in Lammers, Paul. Kinder sehen Fume a Marseilles of the emotional reactions to a comic (Children see films Munich, Ehrenwirth film of three groups of children between 4 and 8, Verlag, 1957, 168 p. 9 and 10, 11 and 14 years respectively, making a total of 222 children. The difference in the reac- Martin Keilhacker explains the value of the ex- tions ("laugh" reactions were mainly registered) pression-psychological method in the study of the appeared first of all to be linked with age: as the effect of films on the child, this method being children grew older they laughed more. The second particularly adapted to the child. He examines the differentiating factor was the sex: laugh frequency nature of children's film experience, as well as increases evenly with boys and girls, but older its special qualities at different age levels parti- boys reached the "laugh ceiling" sooner than girls cularly with regard to the degree to which children of the same age. It goes without saying that a experience film as reality. By comparison with more mature child understands comic film situa- film experience, hearing a fairy tale, listening to tions more readily, but the "laugh" frequency does the radio, reading a book, or looking at a puppet not run parallel with the intellectual level, because show is much less an experience of reality. many other factors (temperament, shyness, family Wolfgang Brudny reports on research on the circumstances) can influence the tendency to laugh. reactions of children carried out by means of infra- With regard to the social milieu factor, the children red photographs and discusses the implications of investigated were (1) suburban children, (2) children 44 of these photographs. Children of 3 to 4 years from working class districts and (3) children from appear to experience little contact with the film. residential districts.It was found that, generally, With children of 5 to 7 years there is also little suburban children laughed less often than town evidence of film understanding. The situation children. changes with children between 8 and 11 and the author discusses, for this age category, such 173 .Leroy-Boussion, A. Le jeune spectateur et questions as: the degree of interest in the film, son entourage. (The young spectator and his the tension with which the child experiences the entourage] (a study of the inter-individual film action and how far he anticipates it, the signi- relationships of 222 children aged between 4 ficance of film music for the child, his capacity to and 14 years during the projection of a comic receive aesthetic impressions, the extent to which film) .In: Enfance, Paris, (4), September- the child is touched by the film, how he reacts to October 1954, p. 293-316. comic situations, his fright and fear reactions and his comprehension of the film language. A young spectator is seldom so absorbed in a film The study by Paul Lammers is concerned with that he forgets those surrounding him. This work research by means of infra-red cinematography is a study of the influence exercised by the people on the individual differences in the film experience surrounding the child (friends, audience, teachers) of children, including a number who are deaf and on his emotional reactions to a film. The author dumb. Twenty series of photographs taken from endeavoured to establish the most natural possible the infra-red films made are studied extensively. conditions for observation. He showed a short The author concludes that the banning of cinema comic film ("Charlie Chaplin takes a cure") 222 visits for certain age-groups does not constitute a times before uniform groups of children aged be- solution to the negative influence of the film on tween 4 and 14. On each occasion he chose at children.It is up to parents and educators to guide random one child, which he observed attentively children with regard to their visits to the cinema. and whose attitude was carefully recorded. In order to examine the 222 subjects closely, he was 171 .Lercaro, Giacomo. Per un film vero, buono obliged to attend 222 showings of the test-film. He e bello. (Towards a true, good and beautiful recorded 1,080 reactions which could be considered film . In:11 Regno, Bologna, (12), December as forms of social contact, and 7,680 reactions 1956, p. 11-17. classed as "solitary" or individual. Only 52 of the 1,080 inter-individual reactions could be inter- A study of psychological problems of puberty: ana- preted as signifying a lack of interest in the film. lysis of the influence of the cinema on children, The remainder were all related to the film: the and practical suggestions for the production of child seeks to make contact with his friends, with films to meet the needs of the young spectator. the audience or with the teachers present in order to enhance his enjoyment of the film or to seek re- 172.Leroy-Boussion, A. Etude du comportement assurance when a scene frightens him. The author emotionnel enfantin au cours de la projection then examines in closer detail the nature of these d'un film comique. LA study of the emotional individual reactions, which he classified under behaviour of children during the projection of four headings. a comic In: Revue internationale de filmologie, Paris, V (17), April-June 1954, 174.Marzi, Albertozil fanciullo davanti al cinema p. 103-123. apettacolare. (The child and entertainment filing In: Cinedidattica,Rome ,III (2), February 1952, p.5-6.

44 The author shows that the film constitutes a syn- 178.Perron, Roger. Essai de mise en relation de thesis of very precise sensual and intellectual certains tes de contenus filmi ues et des stimuli: when these are too strong, they endanger reactions des spectateurs enfants. A study the harmonious development of the child's per- of the relationship between certain kinds of sonality.Nevertheless, the cinema has certain film sequences and the reactions of juvenile psychologically important positive aspects. spectators.] Paper read at the second Inter- national Congress of Filmology, Paris, 1955. 175.Maucorps, P.M. Les phinomftes de participation et 1' experimentation filmologique. A study of children' s reactions to certain kinds of LThe phenomena of participation and filmo- film sequences, to determine whether the degree logical experimentation.] Paper read at the of "participation" is related to the kind of dramatic second International Congress of Filmo logy, situation portrayed. Verbal, motor and non-verbal Paris, 1955. sound reactions (e.g. laughing) of boys and girls aged 7 to 9 and 9 to 11 were recorded during the An attempt to arrive at a clearer definition of screening of nine different film sequences (the hero "participation", "empathy", "identification", and in danger, the hero hunted, the hero vanquishing ",projection". A description is given of the mutual his enemies, etc.).It was found that 60 per cent relationship between these phenomena. to 80 per cent of the children consistently reacted in the same way to the same type of situation. 176.Musatti, Cesare. Les processus psychiques Three major types of participation were noted: actives par le cinema. ZPsychological pro- (1) in which the child is no longer interested in cesses activated by the cinema.] In: Actes du what happens around him in the cinema; (2) "ac- Congres international sur la presse perio- tive" participation; (3) "emotional" participation. dique, cinematographie et radio pour enfants, This study shows clearly that film viewing is not Milan, 19-23 March 1952. Milan, A. Giuffrb, passive. 1953, p. 156-158. 179.Stfickrath, Fritz. Das Sohn-Problem als The film is experienced as reality by the adult Schlassel zum Filmerleben.Cinematographic spectator, but as reality on a different level from experience and the personal problems of the that which he experiences in daily life. The child child..7 In: Film-Bild-Ton, Munich, IX, June, experiences film in a different manner and the fic- 1959, p. 29-32 and 49-50. titious character of realistically presented scenes is often not recognized. Only with puberty does This article is a sequel to one by the same author the young person's understanding of film approach in the February issue of "Film-Bild-Ton". The that of adults. At this time the film becomes for case here is that of young Rfidiger, aged 12, who him a means of penetrating the world of adults. chose the film "The Journeys of Ulysses" (pro- Dream analysis in the course of psychiatric treat- duced by Mario Camerini). Here, once again, a ment shows that numerous film characters and detailed evaluation is made of the extent to which scenes, and sometimes whole film sequences, are the family situation and the personal psychological "stocked" in the subconscious. On the other hand, problems of the child influence his cinematographic desires and fears present in the subconscious can experience. As his father has left home, Radiger influence the emotional experience of film. Emo- lives alone with his mother, who has several male tional reactions to film can be related to neurotic suitors. The child appears to have identified him- states or phobia, and can have an autopunitive self completely with the character of Telemachus, character. Identification with film characters can whose situation resembles his own. Among the take the form of consolation, jealousy or sympathy. puppets, Rudiger cannot select one which is suited These forms are examined. to the r8le of Telemachus; he will consequently play this part himself. In other words he rejects 177.Pellizzi, Camillo.II cinema e la sua funzione the choice of a puppet for the character and assumes sociale. (The cinema and its social function/ the r8le himself whenever Telemachus appears. In: Bianco e Nero, Rome, XII (4), Apri11951, The way in which Rudiger solves the technical p. 31-37. problems presented to him by the action of the film is also of interest because it reveals still more The cinema is a recreation of the hypnotic type clearly those parts of the story which have most which tends to release the latent emotionaltensions directly affected him. The "film play" also indi- of the spectator. Strong precautions should be cates that this boy is particularly sensitive to the observed when dealing with children up to the age main female character, Penelope (in whom he of 16. In fact, the cinema may, up to the age of recognizes his own mother). Photographs of the adolescence, drug or sap their willpower. There puppet play. should, in the case of children at least, be an element of preparation before the film and a discussion afterwards. This is perhaps the best, although the slowest, way of gradually eliminating the antisocial characteristics of the film. 45 180 .Stiickrath, Fritz. Seelenanlage und Filmer Suitable films stimulate the child' s vitality and leben beim Kind. (Cinematographic experi contribute to his experience of human relations. ence and the mental life of thechild_ In: However, unsuitable films can be a contributory Film-Bild-Ton, Munich, VIII, February1959, factor in anti-social behaviour. (3) From the age p. 3-7. of puberty a growing interest in the outside world and the child's desire to assert his own personality The author has developed a method which he calls and strength become apparent. An increased de- the "film play" to discover the effects of a film on gree of financial independence contributes togiving the child's subconscious. Children can reproduce cinema visits a more individual character. Cinema a film they have enjoyed on aminiature stage,with experience now approaches that of adults. Escapism the help of puppets. (cf. the article by the same plays an important role as also does identification. author in "Film-Bild-Ton", December 1956 - Participation in the life of film characters - whether title no. 32.) This is, the record of an experiment or not the adolescent identifies himselfwith them - carried out with a little girl aged 10, Bfirbel; is of great importance for his development. This having suffered for several years from stammer- often results in his imitating behaviour and adopt- ing, she was shy, retiring and socially maladjusted. ing ideas of screen characters. The influence of The little girl selected the film "The Golden the cinema on sexual development, which is quite Goose". The choice of the film, of the puppets to strong, is discussed in detail. The cinema can play the principal roles, the manner in which the on the one hand have a catharticeffect; on the child "directed" the play, manipulated the puppets other hand, it can be a contributory factor in anti- and made them speak, etc., gave a clear picture social, and even criminal, behaviour. of the extent to which she transferred to the film S her own situation and problems. She obviously 182.Tarroni1 Evelina.I ragazzi non sono mai identified herself with the heroine (the princess soli. LChildren are never alonej In: who will not laugh) and her latest psychological Ragazzi d 'Oggi, Rome, III (3), March 1952, problems find gradual expression in the play. p. 9-12. (Photographs of the puppet play.) A comparison between the "dangers" of cinema 181 .Stfickrath, Fritz andSchottmayer, Georg. and radio, in which the former is seen to be less Psychologie des F erlebens in Kindheit und dangerous, since a visit to the cinema requires Jugend. ZPsychology of film experience in "a decision and a choice" and because "between children and adolescents_f Hamburg, Verlag cinema experience and real daily life" there is a der SchroppschenLehrmittelanstalt, 1955, sort of interlude (determined by the very fact that 172 p. after the cinema show the spectator goes home), which itself permits an initial release of emotional Research on the films' experience of children and tension provoked by the film, whereas the ado- adolescents between 4-18 years old in Hamburg, lescent is more vulnerable to the permanent in- using Murray's Thematic Apperception Test. On fluence of the radio. the basis of the results, three age-levels of film experience are distinguished. (1) With children 183.Tarroni, Evelina. Personaggio ed attore nei around 6 years, reactions are mainly emotional. film per ragazzi. Character and actor in Generally the cinema attracts them only superfi- films for childrend In: Ragazzi d'Oggi, cially. But this can suddenly change into active Rome, IV (4), April 1953, p. 17-19. interest. Seeing too many films may endanger their emotional development, as the film contents Observations of the reactions of the young spec- do not correspond with their emotional level. tator to film characters. The child up to the age However, the child of this age is able to assimilate of 8 identified himself with this character(for certain parts of a film, which can constitute a va- example, the animals of Walt Disney). Above the luable experience.(2) With children of around 12 age of 8, the important film characterfor young years, vital relationships with theoutside world spectators is the strongest hero, and at this stage are being built up. Children are nowstrongly they are not concerned with the qualities or defects attracted by the cinema. Lack of opportunity or of the text, but with the qualities or defects of the interest in other leisure -time activities is often a character. There are good characters and bad determining factor for cinema visits. The child characters, those who are our "friends" and those of this age often goes to the cinema to compensate who are not. Then, little by little, through the for his failures and to escape from his conflicts. character he is portraying, the actor reveals his Obtaining money from perents for the admission own physical characteristicsand attitudes. At fee is often a problem, and leads to minor delin- last, with adolescence, comes film-star worship encies. Cinema visits, and the child's desire with all its problems and dangers. o discuss with otherchildren what he has seen, lead frequently to the formation of groups.The influence of the film is becoming marked and is stronger than that of other culturalcommodities.

46 184 .Wagner-Simon, Th. Psychologisches zum A comparative study of the reactions of 120 young (Psychology of the entertainment people to filmstrips and shorts. A series of experi- filmj In: Schweizer Rundschau, Zurich, ments carried out with the aid of four filmstrips 1948, p. 785-790. from Murray' s Thematic Apperception Test and four shorts with the same content shows that the shorts Examples set by the cinema are extremely conta- provoke stronger, deeper, more pronounced and gious, but imitation is mainly concerned with the more violent reactions than the filmstrips. The outward appearance of the film-stars who are films, of mediocre content and produced by the admired and idealized.Entertainment films gene- most typical processes (travellings, changes of rally lack realism; they present an inaccurate focus and so on), must consequently owe their picture of life an.d establish false values. For this appeal for the most part to the specific nature of reason there is the danger that they may alienate film language. The film lends itself much more man from himself, cause him to lose his sense of readily than the filmstrip to the process of identi- responsibility and point him towards an artificial fication.Detailed research in this connexion ideal rather than encouraging him to affirm his would supply interesting answers to certain ques- own personality. tions: does the cinema stimulate or weaken the imagination?Is the lure of the cinema due to the fact that the spectator looks to it for the fulfilment 185 . Wallon, Henri.L'interet de 1' enfant pour of his dreams or for mastery over his fears? les evenements et pour les personnages du Does the cinema encourage delinquency or expose film. LThe interest shown by the child in the child at a formative period to over-violent stimuli? events and persons in the filmj In: Revue internationale de filmologie, Paris, V (17), 187.Zieris, Franz. Zur Identifikation bei Film April-June 1954. und Fernsehen. identification in the cinema and on television.InJugend, Film, Fern- A report of a lecture given at the Institutde filmo- sehen, Munich, 2 (3), 1958, p. 21-36. logie in Paris. The spectator of a film (including the child) is mainly interested:(1) either in a Identification is a very common psychological pheno- mere succession of a series of events or in the menon. Inthe cinema it is encouraged bythe techni- development of the action from one event to the cal processes of photography (travellings, changes other;(2) in the actors (their actions, their of viewpoint, etc.)as well as by the darkness of the accomplishments, etc.). The child's interest can auditorium and the concentration of attention onthe naturally b aroused by a mixture of both. screen. In addition to identification inthe forms of consolation, sympathy and jealousy studied by Musatti (cf. notice no. 176), distinction should also 186 .W5lker, Herbert. Das Problem der Film- be made between a dynamic, affirmative identifica- wirkun .Eine ex erimental s cholo ache tion and a defensive identification. Finally, televised Untersuchung.A study in experimental presentations do not produce exactlythe same effects psychology on the influence of thecinema] as those of the cinema . Bonn, H. Bouvier, 1955, 150 p. ("Abhand- lungen zur Philosophie, Psychologie und See also: nos. 13, 20, 56, 80, 125, 132, 203, 213, Pidagogilt", series 6). 215, 243, 249, 465, 490, 491.

47 5. INFLUENCES AND AFTER-EFFECTS OF FILMS

(a) THE INFLUENCE OF FILMS ON GENERAL influence of films on behaviour and opinions, most KNOWLEDGE, IDEAS AND ATTITUDES of the students declared that it was superficial and that their fundamental social attitudes remained untouched, except for a desire for greater freedom 188. Bruner ,Jerome, S. and Fowler, George. The in social relations. This did not lead, however, Strategy of Terror; Audience Response to to revolt against traditional family organization. "Blitzkrieg im Westen".In: Journal of Ab- The effect of American films on their appreciation normal and Social Psychology, Boston, 36, of America is ambivalent; there is a respect for October 1941. material gain but other aspects of American life are considered decadent. The influence of foreign A study of the reactions of a student audience be- films is limited by the great cultural differences tween 19 and 23 years of age to the German pro- between east and west. Female students are less paganda film "Blitzkrieg im Westen" screened in influenced by western films than are male students the United States of America before that country because the former are more conservative and went to war with Germany. After the screening a attend the cinema less frequently. questionnaire was submitted to the 1,300 persons present, 260 of whom supplied answers. On the 190 . Evans , Frederick. War Films and Child basis of these answers, the spectators were divided Opinion. In: Discovery Reports, Cambridge, into four groups: (1) the belligerents who would July 1939, p. 345-360. have liked to go to war against the German; (2) the passive defeatists; (3) the frightened alarmists An account of an examination of the effect on and (4) the indifferent. The propaganda influence schoolchildren of war reportage films from the of this film appeared to be different in each of the First World War. A distinct difference was found four groups. The first were strongly in favour of between the first spontaneous reactions of the United States intervention in the war and were the children and their replies to a questionnaire. These least receptive to the idea that resistance to the replies were much more in agreement with the German Wehrmacht was futile. The second group terms of anti-war school education. Children are (to which a number of pro-Germans belonged) felt largely resistant to what adults consider to be war that there was no sense in offering resistance to propaganda. the German army. The third group was convinced, during the showing of the film, of German supre- 191 .Feo, G. de. Les impressions des jeunes sur macy but this feeling disappeared afterwards. The les films de guerre. (The reactions of young fourth group remained uninfluenced. people to war films_j In: Revue Internationale du cinema educateur, Rome, V (1-4), January, 189 .Cressey, Paul G. LThe7 Influence of Moving February, March and April 1933, p. 39-52; Pictures on Students in India.In: American 135-143; 217-224; 315-319. Journal of Sociology, Chicago, XLI (3), November 1935, p. 341-350. An inquiry into the reaction of young people to war films in Belgium. Of the 4,846 answers received, A study of the influence of films of western origin 4,441 were from French-speaking pupils (2,764 on university students in India. A questionnaire boys and 1,677 girls), and 405 were from Flemish- was submitted to 233 university students(148 men, speaking pupils (349 boys and 56 girls). 85 women) in different parts of India, relating to The following reactions to war films were (1) film preferences, particularly with regard to observed: American and films; (2) the influence of FrenchFlemish films on behaviour and opinions. These students 1. Patriotic or belligerent were found to attend the cinema1.5 to 3.7 times feelings 1,501 143 a month; this is probably higher than averagecine- 2. Pacifist feelings 1,436 112 ma attendance by students in India.The responses 3. Vague answers 427 to the questionnaire revealed a preference for 4. Critical comments 641 113 films giving insight into western living conditions. 5. Political comments 94 11 Students who do not go often to the cinema fre- 6. Appreciation of educa- quently prefer Indian films. With regard to the tional value 341 6

48 Since different opinions were expressed by child- issues: the Germans (the investigation took place ren in the same school, it was concluded that the in 1933), war, crime, prohibition, the Chinese, children' s opinions were not formed by their punishment of criminals, capital punishment, and teachers alone but reflected the opinions heard at the Negroes. The films dealing with these subjects home or in their social surroundings. were selected from 600 contemporary films to ensure that the child had neither seen them nor read 192. Forman, HenryJ. Our Movie-made Children, criticisms of them. The films had to be morally New York, MacMillan, 1933, 288 p. sound. Before the screening of a particular film the children answered a carefully-prepared ques- A popular summary of findings of the Payne Fund tionnaire containing 30 questions on the issue studies (see under Charters, Motion Pictures and concerned. They were questioned again the day Youth: A Summary Item no. 2), which stresses after the screening and all results were statisti- the main points of interest to the layman. cally tabulated.It can thus be assumed that extraneous influences were practically eliminated 193.League of Nations Advisory Committee on and that changes in attitude are directly attributable Social Questions. The Recreational Cinema to the film. The strongest influence was recorded and the Young. Geneva, League of Nations, after the showing to 182 children of the film "Son 1938, 34 p. of the Gods" (the Chinese), which provoked a change in attitude in favour of the Chinese. "Birth The development of cinematography has been so of a Nation" (the Negroes) shown to 434 children rapid that its cultural and social influence cannot had the opposite effect; "All Quiet on the Western easily be assessed. The Committee's opinion is Front" (war) shown to 214 pupils strengthened that children are more influenced than adults by anti-war feelings. "The Criminal Code" (punish- film. Young people must therefore be protected ment of criminals) shown to two groups of 246 and against the harmful influence of the cinema. 276 pupils resulted in a change of attitude against Among the worst consequences of cinema visits the prevailing system of punishment, but the show- are bad dreams, but the bad influence of a film is ing of two other films on the same subject ("Big often compensated for in play. Noticeable dif- House", attendance 138, and "Numbered Men", ferences regarding preferences between younger attendance 168) resulted in no significant changes. and older children, and between boys and girls, However, when both films were shown to the same become evident. group, positive influence was recorded which in- Two methods of protecting young people against creased when this group saw "The Criminal Code" the influence of unsuitable films are mentioned: as a third film, thus establishing cumulative effect. (1) the positive method, i.e. the screening of films By testing certain pupils again after 2 1/2, 5, 8 to develop good taste; and (2) the negative method, and 19 months, the authors found lasting changes i.e. censorship and limitation of cinema attend- in attitude. ances by classification according to age-groups. In several countries attempts have been made to 196.Raths, L.E. and Trager, F. Public opinion give the cinema a more positive value for relaxa- and "Crossfire".In: Journal of Educational tion and education by the arrangement of special Sociology, New York, (21), 1948, p. 345-368. performances. Film clubs and similar groups can be of use and the press can also contribute to the The theme of the film "Crossfire" is racial and formation of better judgement of filins. religious prejudice. This study of its effect on attitudes was conducted in two parts: (1) A high 194 .Peterson, Ruth C.,and Thurstone, Louis L. school population in an Ohio city filled out a ques- irhe/ Effect of a Motion Picture Film on tionnaire before and after seeing the picture. Children's Attitudes Towards Germans. In: Interview data supplemented the questionnaire. Journal of Educational Psychology, Baltimore, Results indicated a slight change in attitudes in a Maryland, 23 (4), April 1932, p. 241-246. favourable direction.(2) Adult reactions were learned from a different questionnaire filled out The motion picture "Four Sons" was responsible in the lobby of theatres in Boston and Denver, or for a measurable change in the attitude of high taken home and returned by mail. The general school students in Genoa, Illinois, towards the conclusion is that "Crossfire" does not change Germans. anybody's basic attitudes; but it does initiate a learning process. 195 .Peterson, Ruth C. and Thurstone, Louis L. Motion Pictures and the Social Attitudes of 197. Rosen, I.C. The Effect of the Motion Picture Children. New York, MacMillan, 1933, 75 p. "Gentleman's Agreement on Attitudes Towards (Payne Fund Studies). Jews. In: Journal of Social Psychology, Provincetown, Mass., XXVI, 1948, p. 523-536. Investigates the influence of 13 films on some 4,000 secondary schoolchildren, in order to study Shows changes in attitude towards the Jews, after their attitudes concerning the following eight social the screening of "Gentleman's Agreement" before

49 studies attempting to a number of Universitystudents. After careful This is one of a series of selection (all those who had read the book onwhich measure the effectof motion pictures on the atti- the film was based, those who had already seen tudes of schoolchildren.It reports the results of the film, and all Jewish students wereeliminated), experiments with two films:"Street of Chance", two groups were chosen, an"experimental" and a describing the life of a gambler,and "Hide-out", "control" group; both groups being tested by the a film involvingbootlegging. Before and after "Levinson-Sanford Questionnaire on Anti-semi- seeing each film the childrenfilled out schedules intended to reveal their attitudes onthe issues in- tism".After the screening of the film, the"experimental group" was asked to reply to five volved. In the case of theformer film a marked questions, some in the form of an essay. Of the effect upon the children's attitudetoward gambling (Summaries in French and 50 members of the " experimentalgroup",72 per was demonstrated. cent showed a favourable changein attitude to- German.) wards Jews, 26 per cent became moreprejudiced The "control 200. Thurstone, Louis L. TheMeasurement of and 2 per cent remained unchanged. Change in Social Attitude. In:Journal of group" was tested and was given other questions Mass. , from the same questionnaire. Of the90 members Social Psychology, Provincetown, tested, 47 per cent had a morefavourable attitude May 1931, p. 230-235. than before, 52 per cent a lessfavourable one, Schoolchildren in two Illinois towns,who had pre- and 1 per cent showed no change. viously filled in an attitudequestionnaire about 198 .Shuttleworth, F.K. and May, Mark A. The the Chinese, were exposed totwo different films, Social Conduct and Attitudes of Movie Fans. one friendly in itsinterpretation of Chinese culture, the other critical andunfriendly. The results of New York, MacMillan, 1933, 142 p.(Payne attitudes of the children Fund Studies). the tests showed that the were reversedafter seeing the films. The first part concerns the relationship between 66, 73, cinema attendance and the character and social See also:nos. 15,22, 24, 31, 51,56, 95, 103,121, 125,213, 233, 240,241,306, 387, behaviour of young people. The test groups were 489. composed of an equal number of "movie" and"non- 455, 468,469, 473,475, 478, 483,487, movie" children, i.e. children who attended the cinema 4 or 5 times a week and children who went only twice a month. The results were based on information obtained from the children and their (b) THE INFLUENCE OF FILMS ON teachers.It was found that "movie" children EMOTIONAL LIFE AND BEHAVIOUR behaved less satisfactorily in general - were less co-operative, had less self-control and emotional 201.Altavilla, Enrico. Film di gangster eriflessi stability, poorer judgement, poorer school per- psicologici sui fanciulli.[Gangster films and formance - than the "non-movie" children. They childrenj In: were, however, more oftencited by their class- their psychological effects on mates as "best friends" and were more apt to Bianco e Nero, Rome, X, October 1949, admire others. No differences in honesty, per- p. 45-49. severance, obedience and moralconsciousness Gangster films are the cause of dangerouspsycho- were observed between thetwo groups. the opi- logical complexes, not so much because they In the second part of the investigation encourage the crimes they portray(which seldom nion of 416 "movie" and 443"non-movie" children happens), as because they give rise to moral dison a variety of matters werecompared. Movie turbances which may lie at the heart of numerous children were found to have moreadmiration for "non- offences. Mythomania, in particular, may induce cowboys, popular actors, ballet girls, than in the child a conflict between two sets ofethical movie" children; they believe more readily that of the alcoholism exists, attach more importance to values, those of the gangster hero and those clothes, object more to parental control, go more family. The former, through its intensity, may often to dance parties, and read inore, butwhat prevail over the latter. they read is not of good quality. The"non-movie" 202.Association nationale du cinema pour l'enfance children showed a greater interest in students and et la jeunesse (A.N.C.E.J.)(NationalAssociation teachers as film characters than did the'movie" People) be of Cinema for Children and Young children. However, these differences cannot Le cinema et les enfants.LThe cinema and attributed solely to the cinema. children) Paris, Association nationale du cinema pour l'enfance et la jeunesse, 1950, 48p. 199 .Thurston, Louis L. Influenceof Motion Pictures on Children's Attitudes. In:Journal of Social Psychology, Provincetown,Mass The Association nationale du cinema pour1' en- II (3), August 1931, p. 291-305. fance et la jeunesse attempts in thisbooklet to

50 show the influence of cinematographic images on numerous spectators. The second section outlines children. Violence, eroticism, death and "the a theory, based on this research, of the influence easy life" contribute to the creation in children of of the film on the unconscious, together with a a false conception of the world; this is confirmed number of pedagogical conclusions. (Bibliography) by competent authorities.In conclusion the A .N.C.E.J. proposes the creation of film clubs 204.Billstram, J. Mental Hygiene and Film ("Ecran des Jeunes" ),and gives a list of films Control. In: Svenska Likartidningen, selected by its Commission osychonfdagogioue in Stockholm, (33), 1936, p. 950-955. 1950. People who are "intoxicated" by the cinema are 203.Bellingroth, Friedhelm. Triebwirkung des generally by nature unstable and unbalanced, fre- Films auf Jugendliche: EinfiThrung in die quently socially maladjusted, feeling themselves analytische Filmpsychologie auf Grund more at ease in dreams than in reality. Neuras- exrimenteller Anal sen kollektiver Trieb- thenics, on the contrary, are not particularly prozesse im Filmerleben.Influence of the interested in the cinema, and sufferers from mild cinema on the instinctual life of young people: mental disorders have difficulty in fixing their at- an introduction to the analytical psychology of tention on the film. The influence of the cinema the cinema on the basis of the experimental on neurasthenics is negligible; it in no way aggra- analysis of collective group reactions to films/ vates their condition. Bern-Stuttgart, Verlag Hans Huber, 1958, p. 154. 205.Blumer, Herbert. Movies and Conduct, New York, MacMillan, 1933, 257 p. (Payne Fund The record of an experiment carried out with the Studies). aid of the Szondi test on several groups of approximately 110 boys, most of them pupils in middle Professor Blumer Is aim is "to ascertain the kinds or vocational schools, comprising a total of 1,105 of influence wielded by motion pictures on conduct subjects. Each group attended the showing of a in so far as these can be determined from personal film, but before and after the projection, six accounts". His method is to present the evidence series of eight photographs from the Szondi test rather than to evaluate it, and his commentary on were shown on the screen, the members of the it is mainly elucidatory. The material he uses is group being asked to state, on a special form, extracted from "motion picture autobiographies" which of the characters in each series they con- obtained from 1,823 young Americans of varying sidered to be the most sympathetic and the least race, colour, and religion. Of these "autobio- sympathetic .The author's evaluation of the diag- graphies", 634 were obtained from university nostic value of the Szondi test is based on practical students, 431 from college and junior college stu- results verified by long experience, rather than on dents, 583 from high school children, 67 from theoretical considerations. The ten films used in office workers, and 58 from factory workers. the inquiry were selected as being likely to pro- Statements were given anonymouSly. voke instinctive reactions. The record of experi- The numerous examples voted of film influence ments carried out with two of these ten films: on children's play indicate a very wide variety in "Dein Leben in meiner Hand" (an American crime the forms which it takes; that such influence is film whose original title is not given) and "Himmel very generally felt is shown by the fact that, out fiber den Sampfen" (U cielo sully palude: a film on of 200 boys under twelve, 75 per cent admitted the life of Maria Goretti) is particularly detailed. playing at impersonation of film stories and, out The first part of the study relates in detail the re- of 70 boys aged 12 to 14 years, 60 per cent made sults of the inquiry from the point of view not of a similar admission. Re-enactment of love scenes individual reactions on the part of the subjects, but was common among girls, even those of 12 or 13 of changes induced by the film in the "instinct pro- years, whereas boys tended to prefer scenes of file" (Triebprofil) of each group. fighting and police arrests, cowboy and Red Indian The data thus obtained make it possible to situations, shootings, escapes, etc. establish "instinctive-psychological evaluations" One of the most obvious influences, particu- for the ten films examined. Thus the influence of larly in girls, is in the field of dress, hair style, the film "Dein Leben iii meiner Hand" on the in- and personal mannerisms. The extent to which stinctive life of young people between the ages of adolescents are prone to indulge in day-dreaming 14 and 17 years is analysed as inducing cathartic is shown by Professor Blurner's finding that, out emotions, and even a certain tendency towards the of 458 autobiographies in relation to film-going, sublimation of instincts. The showing of the film obtained from high school students, 66 per cent on "Himmel fiber den Stlmpfen" would appear to in- a conservative estimate acknowledged this experi- duce in young spectators between the ages of 14 ence as a result of seeing films . Ina total of 1, 200 and 18 a violent conflict between the awakening of papers from Chicago children of elementary school sexual instincts and the mobilization of their age, more than 50 per cent of the children claimed to defense mechanisms. The aggressive elements of have had their daydreams influenced by what they the film provoked increasing distress among saw in the cinema.

51 Other sections of the book deal with the subject which were condemned by th .1per-ego, then in- of fear and terror inspired by films. Out of 237 stantaneously submitted to se 'ondary in..ibitions. younger schoolchildren accustomed to film-going The film had aroused, and therefore strengthened, who were questioned on the point, 93 per cent said these inhibited tendencies to such a degree that that they had experienced fright while watching they later became manifest in the described films. Among the 458 high school students, 61 per neurosis, despite further attempts at inhibition. cent referred to similar experiences. Yet itis clear that a large number of children enjoy fright- 210.Buhr, Wolfgang. Der Gegenwartsfilm als ening pictures: for example, out of a class of 44 psychologIsh-padagogisch Phanomen. /con- young schoolchildren, 38 admitted tohaving been temporary cinema - a psychological and peda- frightened by films, yet 31 out of 38 claimed that gogical phenomenon:7 In: Film-Bild-Ton, they liked these very films. Munich, VI (2), May 1956, p. 19-22 and44-47. 206 .Boyer, Robert (Mrs .) .Children in the Cinema. On the basis of a det -led study of the action of the Newport, England, R.H. John Ltd. , 1950, cinema on the mental life of the individual, parti- p. 38. cularly of its influence on criminality and neuroses, the author defines the conditions which should be Considerations of the dangers of bad films and the fulfilled by films for young people. advantages of good films for the child. 211. Centro ftaliano Femminile. Inchiesta sulla 207.Brini, A. and Redslob, E. Les m6faits de la cinematografia per ragazzi. LAn inquiry into symphonic pastorale. ZHarniful effects of the cinema for children) Rome, 1952. film "La Symphonie pastorale 'Y In: Annales d'occulistique, Paris, (106), 1947, p. 104- An inquiry carried out by means of questionnaires 106. among well-known artists, scientists, intellectuals and educationists, in connexion with sociology The clinical case-history of a girl of 14 afflicted (psycho-criminology), legislation, production (fi- with hysterical blindness after seeing the film "La nance, renting), etc .The following questions were Symphonic pastorale". asked: (1) What, in your experience, is the influence of the cinema on children?(2) What is 208.Brudny, Wolfgang.. Der Sensationskulturfilm - your opinion of measures taken in other countries eine Warnung. LThe dangers of sensational to remedy the harmful influence of the cinema on filmed In: Film-Bild-Ton, Munich, V (9), children?(3) What is your opinion of the bill pre- December 1955, p. 18-19 and 39-40. sented to the Italian Parliament?(4) What measures may be taken in favour of cinema for children? The author, after observing symptoms of trauma - Do you consider it possible to set aside a special tiams in various children, inquires whether films part of cinema production for children and to open in which human beings are attacked by wild animals cinemas showing children's films only? are not more harmful for children thanthose in Approximately 75 per cent of those questioned which men themselves resort to acts of violence. favoured prohibition of entry to cinemas, under the With the aid of examples taken from different films, provisions of the Law on minors of 14, 16 and 18 he shows that scenes portraying attacks of this years of age. Some doctors considered that child- type, especially if they contain a large number of ren under 6 should be excluded from cinemas, in close-ups, terrify children and subject them to view of their physical frailty. Fifteen per cent excessive nervous tension. opposed prohibition in any form, as tending ulti- mately to have a contradictory result. 209.Bruel, Oluf. Psychic Trauma through the The majority of those questioned considered it Cinema - an Illustrative Case. In: Inter- necessary to draw the attention not only of the national Journal of Sexology, Bombay,VII(2), government but above all of doctors, educators and November 1953, p. 61-63. producers to these problems. An annex includes the texts of bills laid before The content of a phobia of a 15-year-old girl was Parliament, in chronological order. identified as "fear of entering a certain locality, a watchmaker's shop, where a short while ago she 212 .Civardi, Luigi. Cinema e morale.LCinema had left her father' s watch to be mended". Using and moral. Rome, Ed. Ave, 1946, 222 p. "free-association" and dream analysis, the thera- pist found that the experience of seeing the film An analysis of the extraordinary psychological and "The Hunchback of Notre Dame" had been traumatic moral power of the cinema and its influence on and had led to the phobia which, upon deeper inves- social life. The cinema should not only be a healthy tigation, was found to be characterized by avoid- entertainment, but should also contribute to the ance of the ugly, of the physicallydefective, moral elevation of the people. The chapters on Quaaimodo. The hypothesis proposed was that "the cinema and young people" and ''the cinemato- seeing the film had awakened masochistic tendencies graphic conscience" analyse the child's sensitivity

52 and weak critical capacity, legislative measures over 19 years. Adolescents show little similarity and the question of films for children, the duties to the first group, because older children are al- and responsibilities of parents and the training of ready conscious of the fictions nature of the scenes. a film conscience. The youngest group is least influenced by romantic and erotic scenes; the greatest influence is shown 213 .Decaigny, T. Influence du cinema sur l' en- for the group of the 13-18 year-olds. fant et l' adolescent. LInfluence of the cinema on children andadolescents/ In: Cahiers 215.Emery, Frederick E. , and Martin, David. Jeunesse, Education Populaire, Bibliotheques Psychological Effects of the "Western" Film: Publiques, Brussels, (1), February 1957. A Study in Television Viewing. Melbourne, University of Melbourne, Department of Resume and analysis of important research under- Audio-Visual Aids, 1957, 47 p. (Studies in taken since 1929 on the influence of the cinema on Mass Communication.) children and adolescents. There is a growing tendency in favour of the belief that no two children The report of an inquiry into psychological changes are influenced by films in the same way or to the induced in 43 boys between 10 an,' 13 years of age same extent; and that in general the cinema tends by the television presentation of a Western ("The to reinforce existing behaviour and attitude pat- Lone Hand"). Research was based on the hypothesis terns. Furthermore the cinema is not the only that the film does not systematically intensify or leisure-time activity of children, and modern orientate aggressiveness (contrary to the argument leisure-time activities are not the sole cause of of other research workers that films of this type juvenile delinquency. A film may sometimes necessarily provoke a weakening in the manifesta- suggest a delinquent act to a pre-delinquent child, tion of aggressive tendencies). This hypothesis but it is never the primary cause of the delinquency. is outlined in detail from a theoretical point of The emotional effect of the film depends on view in the first part of the report, which also three factors: (1) the intensity with which the in- studies the situation of the televiewer. The second dividual feels himself involved in the situation part examines some of the characteristics of the presented; (2) his capacity for reaction and criti- Western, in particular the interaction between the cism; (3) the degree of confidence that he has in main characters, the personality of the hero and the world and people around him. There is one his relation to his community (outsider-insider), aspect of the cinema which is not sufficiently com- and the latent content of the Western. The experi- bated and condemned - the role it plays in spread- mental study, carried out with the aid of Rosenweies ing among young people a distorted conception of frustration test and the Thematic Apperception test, life. Sixteen bibliographical references. gave the following results: (1) the psychological significance of Western films is due primarily to 214 .Dysinger , Wendell S. and Ruckmick, C.A. its latent theme (of "good v. bad" type) and not to The Emotional Responses of Children to the the manifest themes; (2) pre-adolescent boys will Motion Picture Situation. In: Peters, Charles be attracted by the "good v. bad" pattern; (3) the C.,Motion Pictures and Standards of Morality. viewer defends himself from the frightening effects New York, MacMillan, 1933, 122 p. of a film by certain selective processes (of identification and interpretation); (4) the film may cause Certain psychological reactions accompanied by certain temporary modifications of the way in changes in blood circulation, respiration and other which an individual sees himself in relation to his physiological functions are examined. Respiration social environment; (5) these modifications, how- becomes shallow with concentration and may even ever, do not appear to involve systematic changes stop- Modifications in emotion or attention can be in "aggressive drives"; (6) the individual will tend measured by means of a galvanometer and a pneu- to adopt the posture or pose of the hero in accord- mocardiograph. Dysinger and Ruckmick have ance with changes in his self-perceptions. made use of these instruments to investigate the The authors acknowledge that these conclusions reactions of given film scenes; 89 test persons cannot be regarded as firmly established, but were studied in their laboratory and 61 in the consider that they may be adopted as working cinema. The test persons were divided into dif- hypotheses for further studies. ferent age groups, 6-12 years, 13-18 years, and 19 years and over. Data obtained were in some 216 .Frontall, Gino.Ii pediatra e iiroblemi della cases completed by verbal information given by the cinematografia per la gioventa Pediatrics and test persons. One hundred and eighty-seven scenes the problems of cinema for young peoplej showing "dangerous" situations, a conflict or a In: La Difesa del Ragazzo, Rome, XXV(3-4), tragic event and 35 scenes with erotic content were May-August 1956, p. 115-118. selected and presented to the test persons. The first type of film sequence (danger, conflict, tra- A paper presented at the First Congress of the gedy) had the greatest effect on the group of 6-12 International Centre of Films for Children. An years; the curve fell rapidly with the group of analysis of the influence of the cinema on the 13-18 years, and was weakest with adolescents physical and mental health of children: hygienic 53 conditions required in cinemas; problems of edu- The causes of maladjustment in young inmates of cation and mental health; films for children; reformatories must above all be sought in their cinema in schools and in children's hospitals; original environment, particularly that of the family. child-actors in films. The attitude of the family to the cinema may have a strong influence on that which will later be 217 .Gaddini, Renata. Cinematografia e ragazzi - adopted by young people. For some of the latter, considerazioni di igiene mentale (Cinema and the cinema provides an escape from their environ- children - considerations of mental hygiene/ ment, but a number of cinemas, by their publicity In: La Difesa del Ragazzo, Rome, ma (3-4), methods, locality, internal arrangements, clien- May-August 1956, p. 135-146. tele and programmes, constitute a real danger. Some maladjusted children lack the intellectual A paper presented at the First Congress of the development necessary to understand a film and to International Centre of Films for Children, con- assess its moral values still more, to recognize cluding that the harmful nature of the cinema can- the cinematographic experience as a diversion not be generalized, since each child will overcome which has no immediate impact on real life. it according to his own way of coming to terms Violent emotional experience induced by a film with life. The adult's preoccupation should be to may entail emotional disorders. In order to re- teach the child to solve the problem by overcoming educate maladjusted children, in their new environ- its terrors and assaults. ment, it is necessary to "de-intoxicate" them and to cause them to adopt a more positive attitude to 218 .Galletto, Albino. Cinema e ragazzi (Cinema the cinema. They must learn that leisure may be and childrend In: Rivista del Cinematografo, utilized in other ways, some of them better ways. Rome, XXIV (8), 1951, p. 4-7. Finally, the author studies the various stages in the intellectual growth of young people, in close An analysis of certain types of film now being relation to the cinema. produced which encourage erotic tendencies in children, and which, the author says, are com- 222.Glastra van Loon, F.H. Speelt de film bij pletely lacking in spiritual qualities. The evidence het onstaan of in het verloop van psychische of children themselves on this point is noted; as stoornissen van het kind een rol?"Does the are also the opinions of educators as to what con- film play a part in the genesis or progress stitutes a film suitable for children. of psychic disturbances of children?_/ In: Maandblad voor de geestelijke volksgesonheid, 219 .Galliard, Olpho. La place du cinema dans la Amsterdam, 10 (2), February 1955, p. 62-72. vie sociale (The place of the cinema in social life j In: Le musee social, Paris, VIII (9), Some 400 psychiatrists and 200 pediatricians were September 1931, p. 297-324, (new series). asked whether, within as well as outside their con- sultation rooms, they had noticed the appearance A study of the social and economic position of the of mental or physical disturbance symptoms in 8 cinema in different countries; notably France. to 18 year-olds, as a direct consequence of visits Factors explaining the great economic extension to the cinema. They were also asked to give their of the cinema are discussed. The harmful influence opinions regarding a possible relationship between of films in general is considered, and special at- neurotic and psychotic deviations and visits to the tention is given to the dangers of immoral films cinema. A total of 87 replies to the written inquiry for children. Several instances of events infilms were received. The main conclusions were as as examples for juvenile delinquency are cited. follows: (1) Most psychiatrists and pediatricians do not feel that the film is responsible for neurosis 220 .Garcia Yalee, Juan. Influencia del cine en la or psychosis in young people and have not made 'uventud (Influence of the cinema on youth] any observations on the harmful influence of films In: Rumbos, Santiago de Chile, August 1956, on young people.(2) In cases where the harmful p. 257-265. influence of a film is described, the predisposition to deviate behaviour is also mentioned. As far as This study is limited to a few of the psycho-social it was possible to investigate, the film was the effects of the cinema on children above the age of 7. major harmful influence in only a few cases. (3) The role of the film is mainly provocative, or 221.Giraud, Jean. Erreurs ou carences educatives pathoplastic, but rarely causal. Anxiety syn- et activites de loisir: cinema /7:K.mutational er dromes were sometimes observed in normal child- rors or deficiencies in leisure activities: the ren immediately after a visit to the cinema. (4) cinema.z7In: La sauvegarde de l'enfance, Paris, Films seem to have had a provocative-suggestive (11), January-February 1956, p.84-105. (Spe- (mimeo-plastic) influence in some criminal beha- cial number devoted to the campaign against viour, but always with very =stable children or educational errors and deficiencies: the parti- those suffering from glandular disturbances. (5) cipation of families, and public information": In other cases films seem to have facilitated a report of a Congress onthe same subject.) direct release of pent-up emotions. In conscious

54 or unconscious conflicts as well as in neurotic 225 .Heisler, Florence. A Comparison between states of illness, films appear to have had a those Elementary Schoolchildren wbo attend cathartic-purifying and healing effect. Moving Pictures, read Comic Books and listen to Serial Radio Programmes to excess, with 223 . Heinrich, Karl. Der Einfluss von Spielfilmen those who indulge in these Activities seldom auf die soziale Einstellung von Kindern. Unter- or not at all. In: Journal of Educational Re- suchung aber Zusammenhfinge zwischen Film- search, ME dison, Wisconsin, (42), 1948, besuch und Aggressivitat durchgefiihrt an der p. 182-190. Hochschule fur internationale padagogische Forschung. LThe influence of feature films on Pupils in grades 2 to 8 were studied, and the 10 per the social attitude of children. Investigation cent who indulged most in the activities mentioned into the relationship between visits to the in the title were compared with the 10 per cent cinema and aggressivity, carried out at the who 'Adulged least. No significant differences Institute for International Educational Re - were found between the two groups in school achieve- searchj In: Hochschule fur intern. padago- ment, as measured by the Stanford test, or in gische Forschung, Mitteilungen und Nach- personality adjustment, as measured by the richten, Frankfurt, (16), December 1957, California Test of Personality. p. 2-20 (stencilled). 226.Henshaw, S., Miller, V.L., and Marquis, An interim account of an investigation into the Donald. Children's Sleep. New York, relationship between aggressiveness and cinema MacMillan, 1933, n.p. (Payne Fund Studies). attendances. A special test for aggressiveness (the tendency to destructive action) was used on a Normal movement during sleep of a random number of 13-16 year-old pupils, who saw several sample of 163 children between 6 and 19 years was films with contents ranging from "very peaceful" compared with movement after a visit to the cine- to "very violent". A similar test was made using ma. The visit took place between 6.30 and 8.30 photographs from films. Preliminary research p.m. and the children went to bed at 9 p.m. The into the effects of seven films showed that it was results were as follows: (1) increase in movement possible to detect a significant change in aggres- after a visit to the cinema varied with the test per- siveness. sons between 0 and 90 per cent. Fatigue expressed itself sometimes through reduced movement; (2) 224 .Heinrich, Karl. Traumfabrik und Jugend- Visits to the cinema resulted in an even greater traume. Eine filmpsychologische Studie disturbance of the sleeping patterns than staying LDream factors and juvenile dreams. A up until midnight. The influence of some films on psychological study of the film,.] In: Film- movement was similar to drinking two cups of Bild-Ton, Munich, (6), 1953, p. 221-227; coffee in the evening. The influence of film per- (7), 1953, p. 258-264. sisted also beyond the night which had been preceded by a visit to the cinema, and depended on age, sex A study of the influence of the cinema on the fan- and mental level of the child.(3) Some films dis- tasy life and moral values of a group of 363 stu- turb sleep more than others, and some children are dents (191 boys and 172 girls) aged 10 to 17. The more affected by certain films than are other child- young people were asked to write a composition on ren. Normal movement during sleep of children a theme inspired by one of three posters which under 10 years of age is generally less disturbed they were shown - one publicizing a film about the than that of older children.It is concluded that jungle, another a western film, and the third a unwisely chosen films and excessive attendance romantic film. Fifty-two per cent of the students have a deleterious influence on the health and growth selected the film about the jungle as the subject of of children. their composition, 23 per cent the western, and 25 per cent (nearly all girls) the romantic film. 227.Heuyer, Georges and Lebovici, S. Troubles Those who wrote about the jungle film stressed the du caractere et cinema. /Character distur- justice, helpfulness and goodness of heart of the bances and the cinemaj In: Psyche, Revue characters. Physical force, skill and gallantry internationale des sciences de l'homme et de were idealized and dominated the young people's psychanalyse, Paris, (11), 1947, p. 1,106. fantasies. The group which wrote about the western made no moral evaluation of the bandit's A study of the relationship between emotional actions, and seemed indifferent to the sorrow and disturbances of children and the films which they misery which he caused others. The large majo- see. Films are not generally the original cause rity of the third group interpreted the poster as of emotion disturbances, though they may provoke relating to a love film, and showed precociousness them. and exaggerated romantic ideas about sex.

55 228.Heuyer, G., Lebovici, S. and Bertagna, L. A study, carried out with 28 schoolchildren be- Sur Quelques reactions d' enfants inadaptes. tween the ages of 10 and 14, of the psychological /Some reactions of maladjusted children] In: effects of the film "Die Feuerspringer von Montana" Revue internationale de filmologie, Paris, (the original title is not given). After the showing, III (9) , January-March 1952, p. 71-79. the children were submitted to Wartegg's drawing test, and were instructed to prepare a free compo- An investigation of the reactions of 22 child sition and a free drawing. An account of the be- patients (between 7 and 17 years) of a psychiatric haviour of the children during the film, their clinic to a number of comic films, cartoons, ad- assessment of it, their attitudes to its characters, venture, gangster, and animal films. The child- etc . A study of the effects of scenes shot close to ren were observed during screening and afterwards flames (the film is in colour) on the children. Such questioned. The main results of this investigation a film is too sensational for young children(below were as follow: (1) only chill '-en of a higher men- the age of 13), and is too exciting for that age. It tal age than 12 years were capable of general may well be asked whether such films should be understanding of the film shown, whereas (2) those shown to children under 16. of a mental age of 10-12 years were only able to "string together" odd scenes; (3) the film leaves 231. Indian Film Inquiry Committee. Report of the only unconnected impressions in children below a Film Inquiry Committee, 1951. New Delhi, mental age of 9; (4) only the elementary comic Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, element is accessible to children below the mental 1951, 339 p. age of 12 years; and (5) even older children appreciate only moderately the comic element in Chaplin Contains comments on the relation between the film films; (6) commercial cartoons are barely under- and the public, effect of the cinema on the mass stood by children below the mental age of 12 years . mind, psychological effects of film themes, the proper role of films, film production Toy the govern- 229. Hills, Janet. Are they .safe at the Cinema? ment, and the use of films in education, etc . London, The British Film Institute, n.d., Also includes comments on the production of 24 p. films specially for children, children in cinemas, and the effect of films on children. Can violence, fright and sensation be accepted in films to be seen by children and adolescents? The 232.Kahnert, M.E .Film und Psychohygiene. answer is not a categorical one as fright and vio- LThe cinema and mental healthd- In: Geistige lence are essential elements in human experience. Hygiene, Forschung und Praxis, ed. by Violence for the sake of sensation is repudiated, Pfister- Ammende, Maria, Basel, 1955, as is also the tendency to falsify life's most im- p. 179-195. portant values by emphasizing wealth, luxury, glamour, cheap success, etc .No irrefutable cor- Children and young people ought not to be admitted relation exists between crime shown in films and to films intended for adults, because these films juvenile delinquency, although these films may may have a traumatic effect on them. Films cannot lower standards. Censorship (British Board of be held directly responsible for juvenile delinquency Film Censors) is hampered by negativi. criteria but they may prepare the way for it. The produc- and by unsatisfactory age limits. tion of good children's films must be encouraged. Too many visits to the cinema by children In principle, there should be three types of child- create another problem: the child ought to see ren's films: one for the "fairy tale" period of the films adjusted to his understanding and his world very young, in which surroundings and self merge; of experience. Productions by Children's Enter- one for the "realistic" period of the 8-12 year-olds tainment Films (Rank), followed in 1950 by those in which the desire for adventure dominates; and of the Children's Film Foundation are still rela- one for children of 14 years and over who are al- tively small in numbers, so that less suitable ready seeking their own personalities. material must be used. A plea is made for the A summary is given of the experience gained creation of local committees of interested parents by the Children's Entertainment Films Organiza- and teachers, the institution of a special "C" clas- tion in the United Kingdom with the production of sification for children's films (since created), and children's films. the spread of film education. 233 .Keilhacker, Martin and Margarete. Kind und 230 .Hoffmann, Hermann. Das Problem der Film. LThe child and the film, Stuttgart, Reizaberilutun Bericht Ober die Ergebnisse Ernst Klett Verlag, 1955, 55 p. (Bedrohte einer Testvorfahrun des Films "Die Feuer- Jugend-Drohende Jugend /Threatened youth - Aprinira:rvon Montana". The problem of exces- Threatening youth series,39). sively sensational films. Results of an experimental screening of the film "Die Feuer- The following "dangers" of the cinema are dis- springer von Mortanag. In: Film, Jugend, cussed: the child is exposed at too .early an age to Schule, Gelsenkirchen, (9), July 1954, 8 p. impressions which he cannot assimilate; children

56 are too young to understand the manner of expres- concerning the relations between teachers and sion of the film (film language); they do not under- children as shown in the film story, and the stand the meaning of the films which are shown to changed behaviour of the class in the film toward them; they are exposed to an excess of stimuli the teachers; and relates discussions between and to the negative example and falseness of the teachers and pupils following the screening of the life which is represented by the film. Film cen- film. As a result, some teachers abandoned their sorship in Germany is then discussed, as well as originally negative point of view. Pupils appeared the work of the "Freiwillige Selbstkontrolle" to be capable of correctly understanding the rela- (Voluntary self-control) with its stress on the de- tionship between teacher and pupils as represented velopment of personal responsibility in the child. by the film. Fears that this film had had an unde- The chapter on "positive potentialities" discusses sirable influence on the internal affairs of the the educational merits of films of value, film school were not confirmed. education, and the organization of children's performances. 235 .Lanoux, Armand. L 'enfant en prole aux The work closes with ten principles, that give images. nighe child, a prey to images.] a short and practical summary of the above- Paris, Labergerie, 1950, 104 p. mentioned points: children and adolescents see and experience a film in a different way from Three chapters are devoted to the influence of adults; young people generally like films for their films which show crime, cruelty, eroticism and visual clearness, their liveliness and action, sexuality and to examples of attempts in the United rather than for their more abstract explanations. States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist The film affects the spectator mainly through Republics to solve the problem of children's films. image, movement, sound, everyday conversations, Several suggestions for tackling this problem in and as a result of these forms of expression it is France are made. easily understood. Special techniques of film language (bridging space and time) still cause children ^36 . Lox, Florimond. L 'enfant inadapte et le great difficulties and lead to misunderstanding. A cinema. Leihe maladjusted child and the good children' s film appears in a different way to ciremaj In: Les cahiers de l'enfance, Paris, each age-group. Premature cinema-going harms (2'!), June-July 1956. the child, even if a good film is shown, as does also too frequent viewing of films, which can lead It would be a mistake to make the cinema the scape- to nervousness. The film is very real to the child goat for all the perversions and errors of children. and moral criteria in film evaluation must there- There can be little doubt that it has a deeper in- fore be strict. One-sided representations of the fluence on difficult, temperamental or maladjusted world give a false impression of reality and in- children. In fact, the intensity and duration of fluence children's values and stanearda. mental stimuli on children who lack security and Parents and teachers must be made to feel res- affection are considerably increased. ponsible for visits to the cinema by children entrusted to them. Joint visits to the cinema and a 237 .Ludman, Rene. Cinema, foi et morale. film discussion are absolutely necessary from [Cinema, faith and moralsj Paris, Lea time to time. For ten to fourteen year-olds, the Editions du Cerf, 1956, 144 p. ("Rencontres" following are especially recommended: animal series, 46). films, films with young actors, good adventure films, and comedies adapted to their age. Human The first chapter describes the influence of film values must dominate in film programmes for on moral behaviour. Attention is given to screen- older children. star worship, commercial eroticism, sadism, masochism, gangster worship, escapism, super- 234 .Kubenka,Max. Das Lehrer-Schfiler-Ver- ficiality, standardization in the behaviour of film hiltnisErfahrun sbericht zum Film "der actors, etc .Film censorship, moral enlightenment Nachtigallenkitfig". LThe teacher-pupil on film, and film education as means of counter- relationship: a report of experiences concern- acting the harmful influences of film are considered. ing the film "Der Nachtigallenkifig" (The cage The theme "film and youth" is discussed in an of nightingaleigIn: Film, Jugend, Schule, appendix to this chapter. Gelsenkirchen, 44 (15-16), April 1956, 4 p. The second chapter mentions a number of elements in films which undermine religious belief, A number of teachers were asked to report on and deals in detail with the positive values of films, their experience with the French film, "La cage e.g. as a means of evangelization and as art. The aux rossignols", as it gave rise to debates con- third chapter discusses several types of film, in- cerning its suitability for children. The report cluding both the anti-religious film and the film presents a general view of the teachers' personal which is on a high spiritual level and in favour of opinions (partly negative and partly positive), Christianity. describes how pre-screening preparation had been given in class; records the opinions of pupils

57 238 .Luxenburger,Hans. Psychiatrische und 241 .Mayer , Jacob. Sociology of Fi Studies heilria.dagogische Fragen des Films. (Psy- and Documents .London, Faber and Faber, chiatric and mental hygiene problems of 1946, 328 p. films _t/ In: Keilhacker, StUckrath, Film, Jugendpsychologisch betrachtet, Franz Chapters 4 to 8 deal mainly with "film and youth", Ehrenwirth Verlag, Munich, n.d. , p. 37-47. whereas the others touch only indirectly on this subject. The author sees great educational possi- In considering the influence of film on young people, biiities in the children's film clubs in England, a distinction must be made between the films them- and presents data obtained from a questionnaire selves and the cinema where they are shown. The distributed among 1,000 children in one of the exterior of the cinema is attractive, exciting and "Odeon Cinema Clubs", and from 30 essays written stimulating to young people, with its lights, colours, by secondary school girls .A number of film dis- photos, and the coming and going of people. The cussions with children who had won prizes for the inside of the cinema shuts off the real world and best answers were also held. The data are ana- arouses expectations about the film. Under the lysed and discussed and the children's essays are intoxicating spell of the cinema, inhibitions and reproduced in extenso. Chapter 7, "Movies and cares fade away. conduct" is largely based on the book of the same The influence of films on the mentally-retarded name written by Professor Blumer for the Payne child, who cannot understand them either emo- Fund (see no. 205) . tionally or intellectually, is unpredictable and A general conclusion is drawn that children who quite likely to be harmful. The same danger is see films often are confronted with so many sub- present in the case of epileptic children. The film jects that their view of real life must certainly be does not have a very great influence on children influenced, because many films represent the suffering from organic or endogenous disturbances . extreme as normal. Its r8le in neurosis is over-estimated by educators . The film tends to reinforce emotional immaturity. 242.Metzger, W. Kind und Film. LChild and Anti-social behaviour may be provoked by films in film] In: Psychologie und Praxis, Munich children who are emotionally immature. A film (11), 1952, p. 18-32. of artistic quality can have a therapeutic effect if it gives a true picture of life. The cinema which shows many things more vividly and more easily for the audience than other forms 239 .Maggi, Rafaello. Riflessi dell 'attuale posi- of presentation, need not be harmful, but many zione psycho-sociale del film. LConsequences films are because of their content. Commercial of the current psycho-sociological state of the entertainment movies, the choice of newsreels, cinema) In: Biancoe Nero, Rome, X (2), previews, and advertising shots are discussed in February 1950, p. 6-30. relation to frequent tendencies to show crime and cruelty, lack of restraint, and unrealistically high Conditions involving the phenomenon of film-star standards of living. Films are said to alter notions worship and fashions in connexion with the cinema. of privacy and also tact, and to change the relative A detailed analysis of the cinema's effects: from status of various social roles in a direction which automatic imitation there is an increasing trend is not conducive to the proper functioning of society. towards conformity, which results in conscious There have been "constructive" films which have imitation. Such effects are much more pronounced made a great appeal to children; more such films in young people and they are, unfortunately, very could be made if they were demanded. frequently harmful. 243 .Morin, Edgar. Le probleme des effets dan- 240 . Manvell, Roger. Film. London, Pelican Books, gereux du cinema. LThe problem of the revised edition 1946, 240 p. dangerous effects of the cinema.] In: Revue internationale de filmologie, Paris, IV (14-15), Part II deals with the influence of film on present 1953, p. 217-233. society, discussing the influence on adults and on children, the public's tastes, and film censorship. A critical account of research on the crime- Concerning the content of most American and provoking action of films on young people, with English films, it is said that the "good" generally reference to: Payne Fund Studies (see no.2); wins, but these films often imply a number of very Adler, M. "Art and Prudence" (see no. 18) ; debatable theories, such as: wealth in the abstract Report of the Departmental Committee on Children is desirable; luxury, mainly in connexion with and the Cinema (see no. 71).It is noted that re- women, is normal; it is also normal for idle searchers often neglect to take into account the businessmen and rich young men to run after psychological processes of identification and pro- women; fathers spoil their daughters by gifts of jection. money; men are a source of money for women; Many studies show that the mimetic after-effects night club life is desirable; sex is probably the of film concern only minor aspects of behaviour, most important sensation in life, etc . e.g. manner of talking, dress, civilities, and that 58 1.401.11711WIFORIPWAIM

the portrayal of anti-social activities such as A study of the psychological influence of films on murders, other crimes and violence has a cathar- children. Gives quantitative data on cinema tic effect. Films may, however, suggest a tech- attendance by schoolchildren and examines criti- nique for committing an anti-social deed. The cally research methods which have been used to influence of films cannot be dissociated from the study the influence of films on children. Particular social situation of the spectator. Differences in reference is made to projective tests and to the attitude and behaviour exist between children who Pigem and Tuanima tests used by the author. A visit the cinema frequently and those who do not. summary of research on the influence of film on It is regretted that most investigations are con- children and the results of the author's own inves- cerned only with children up to 16 years of age, tigations include the following findings: the child and that it is therefore impossible to determine the experiences the film in his own world; his reac- influence of film on young people over 16. tions are largely emotional; the child sympathizes with the "good" character; the emotions portrayed 244 Philippon, 0. L 'influence du cinema sur 1' en- in the film are generally not understood; the child fanc e et l'adolescence: 11 enquete nationale accepts the film as something real; the child' s francaise. LThe influence of the cinema on own character defects are reinforced by seeing childhood and adolescence: French national the same defects repeatedly portrayed in film investigationj In: Nouvelle revue pedago- characters. gique, Paris, 7 (19), 1952, p. 526-530. 247 .Siegel, Alberta Engvall. Film-mediated Results of an extensive inquir made in France by Fantasy Aggression and Strength of Aggressive the Comite catholique de Penfance. The chief Drive. In: Child Development, Lafayette, conclusion is that a child or an adolescent who Indiana, (27), 1956, p. 365-378. goes to the cinema more than once a week needs psychiatric attention and should be looked after. It The behaviour theory hypothesis of equivalence of is claimed that the part played in education by the forms was tested as it applies to the effects of cinema is very small in comparison with the harm film-mediated fantasy aggression on the strength wrought upon young minds by emotional shocks and of aggressive drive in young children. After the sentimental over-eXcitement. screening of a highly aggressive cartoon film and a "matched" non-aggressive film, the children' s 245 . Preston, M.I. Children' s Reactions to Movie play was scored for aggression and for overt signs Horrors and Radio Crime. In: Journal of of guilt and anxiety. The scores were similar for Pediatrics, St. Louis, Missouri, (19), 1941, the two films. Sex differences and session differ- p. 147-168. ences were found. Thirty-one references. The reactions of 200 physically and mentally nor- 248.Siersted, El lon and Hansen, H. Lund. mal children to movie horror and radio crime Reactions des petits enfants au cinema. Re- were studied by means of an emotional inventory sume d 'une serie d 'observations faites au designed to detect maladjustments in various as- Danemark. (Reactions of small children in pects of child life. Nervousness, generalized the cinema. Summary of a series of observa- fears, fears of kidnapping, sleeping disturbances, tions made in Denmark; In: Revue inter- eating disturbances, nail-biting, callousness, day- nationale de filmologie, Paris, II (7-8), 1951, dreaming in school, and sex interest were found to p. 241-245. be present to a more marked extent among addicts of horror movies and radio crime programmes An investigation of the reactions of 250 infant than among non - addicts. In addition, the severity schoolchildren and 350 pupils of the lower primary of these symptoms of maladjustment increased as school classes to a film programme. A Disney the degree of addiction increased. Treatment cartoon, an animal film and a Tarzan film were suggested for those adversely affected by such screened. Only 34 of the children had not seen a addiction consists of gaining parental co-operation, film before. Infra-red photography, a tape record- restricting the frequency of indulgence, elimina- ing and notes taken by observers during the screen- tion of crime and horror stories, and substitution ing were used. Children were questioned afterwards, of a suitable recreational and social life. as also were a number of teachers and parents. The results showed that emotional reactions, parti- 246. Sicker,Albert. Kind und Film. Der Einfluss cularly of infant schoolchildren, during the screen- des Fmes auf das Seelenleben des Kindes. ing were not in agreement with their replies to the Eine experimentelle Studie unter Verwendung questions put to them later on. Several scenes des Pigem- und des Tuanima- Testes. LChild frightened them. Some children began to cry and and film. The influence of films on the emo- wanted to go home; others stayed near the teachers. tional life of the child. An experimental study, Some disregarded the film and began to play. In a using the Pigem and Tuanima tests...1 Bern - fairly disciplined infant school the children re- Stuttgart, Verlag Hans Huber, 1956, 143 p. mained comparatively quiet during the film, but afterwards several children felt ill. Mrs. Siersted

59 111 /MIM.

feels that these anxiety reactions are dependent on 252.Wall, William,D. and Simson, W.A.ti'hil the liberty of the child to react freely. Onlythe Emotional Responses of Adolescent Groups to child who can express his fears can free himself certain Films. Part I.In: British Journal from them; disciplined children express these of Educational Psychology, London, (20), 1950, fears during a frightening film scene, by hyper- p. 153-163. active behaviour. Responses to 12 films seen under conditions of 249 .Sttickrath, F .Der Film als Erziehungsmacht. habitual attendance by groups of 38 or more boys LThe film as an educational force Hamburg, and girls aged 13-16 were analysed in terms of Verlag der Gesellschaft der Freunde des their effects upon the subjects' emotional beha- vaterlandischen Schul- und Erziehungswesens, viour. Among the broad response categories, that 1953, 72 p. (Zur Hamburger Schulreform of "lasting emotional effects" showed relatively series, 10.) high mean percentages of positive responses, while comparatively few reported any effect on Twelve articles already published elsewhere. The their attitude to others. The remaining three strong emotional effect of films on young people is categories - "immediate emotional effects", pointed out and the author is convinced that scenes "identification" and "values and attitudes" - re- of violence and cheap eroticism react unfavourably vealed averages closer to the general mean of on juvenile audiences. The problemsof identifica- 30 per cent for boys and girls respectively. tion and "escape" are dealt with, and cinema- going habits are compared with habits of museum, 253 .Wall, William,D. and Simson, W.A. LThf library and theatre attendance. Emotional Responses of Adolescent Groups to Certain Films. Part II.In: British Journal 250 .Tarroni, Evelina. Sul cinema ricreativo per of Educational Psychology, London (21), 1951, ragazzi. (Entertainment films for childrenj p. 81-88. In: Bianco e Nero, Rome, X, October 1949, p. 50-54. Qualitative analysis of the responses of boys and girls, aged 13-16, to a group of 12 films recently Some remarks in connexion with the importance viewed, reveals evidence of fantasy, shock and attached to the harmful effect of the cinema on identification stimulated by the films, The content children, in comparison with the formative in- of the film largely, but not exclusively, determines fluence of certain films on the child's psychology. the nature of the response made. Erotic fantasy The author observes that any film, even the most appears prominently, especially among boys, in seemingly harmless, may provoke adverse reac- the reactions to certain films. Shock is reported tions according to the psychological state of the chiefly as responses of outraged modesty and vio- young spectator.It is thus necessary for the lated ideals, with minor evidence of genuine fright. teacher to observe and supervise the different About one-third of the group report identification reactions of each child. mainly with the leading character of the same sex. Among girls, physical characteristics and perso- 251 .Wall, William, D. and Simson, W.A.LThe/ nality qualities are the determining factors, while Effects of Cinema Attendance on the Behaviour boys cite the capacities of the star or the prestige of Adolescents as seen by their Contempo- of the part itself. raries. In: British Journal of Educational Psychology, London, February 1949, p. 53-61. 254.Wiirth, Elisabeth. Der Kinderfilm.Films for childrenj In: Gloria Dei, Zeitschrift A study of the influence of films on 1,261 boysand ftir Theologie und Geistesleben, Vienna, VIII 899 girls between 13 and 17 years of age by means (1), 1953, p. 53-60. (Special number.) of a questionnaire concerning behaviour in films which they believe to have been imitated by their Discusses the suitability of film screenings for contemporaries .The following aspects were cited children of different age-groups. Children between most frequently as giving rise to imitation: manner 5 and 6 years are physically not yet sufficiently of dress and hairdress, courtship techniques, grown up to be exposed to films without detriment style of dancing, relaxing, walking.It was con- to the development of their personality. Only at cluded that imitation inspired by films was more primary school age is the child sufficiently "ma- widespread among girls than among boys, and that ture" for film experience; a maturity which deve- at least one-third of the girls copied their manner lops gradually as he grows older. The films from films they had seen. The opinion of both which are to be shown to children must take this boys and girls is that at least one-third of their psychic "maturity" into account, if they are to be contemporaries imitate courtship techniques seen of positive value for the child. in films. The author enumerates a number of factors which must be considered, and lists several requirements which the film must meet in relation to different age-groups. Films which portray

60 social reality and child life truthfully offer good plausible sequence; this tendency influences the possibilities for identification and can develop way in which 'the test person recollectsthe images social qualities in the child. The film can meet perceived. The result is the formation of a more the children's urges for physical performanceby or less independentlyrecognized framework which choosing subjects which can awaken in the child dictates the way in which the remaining material the desire for sport and play and activity. Films is fitted together. showing travel, adventures, discovery, and heroic deeds have great power of attraction for children 257 .Fraisse , P. and Montmollin, G. de. Sur la of secondary school age. But the film must here memoire des films. LThe recollection of remain on the firm ground of reality. films In: Revue internationale de filmologie, Paris, III (9), January-March 1952, 255 .Zazzo, Bianka. Le cinema a l'ecole mater- p. 37-69. nelle. LThe cinema in the infantschoolj In: Revue internationale de filmologie, Paris, An experiment conducted with 100 students to III (9) , January-March 1952, p. 81-88. determine what they had recollected from a film. Immediately following the screening of several To study the importance which the cinema can short films, they were asked to write an account have in the education and development of infant of what they had seen and heard. The following schoolchildren, a questionnaire was sent out to a conclusions were drawn: general and already ex- number of headmistresses of those schools, con- tensively studied precepts relating to memory taining questions on whether films had already seem to be applicable tothe recollection of films. been shown to the children, the age of the children, The recollection of a film is not a question of re- which films had been screened, the children's reproduction, but implies, on the part of the spec- actions, and whether a magic lantern or filmstrip tator, a certain measure of activity. The specta- projection had also been used. A survey of the tor is not passive during a viewing of afilm, but replies is listed, from which it can be concluded he selects from what he sees and hears the ele- that favourable answers were mainly based onthe ments he needs to understand the action. favourable emotional response of children, whereas unfavourable answers oftenresulted from con- 258.Garrido Lestaches_Juan. La infancia y el siderations on the part of the headmistresses con- cinematografo. (Childhood and the cinema cerning the effects of the film on intellectuallife. Madrid, Direcci6n General de Sanidad, December 1940, 20 p. ("Al servicio de Espafla See also:nos.13, 31, 37, 56, 65, 69, 80, 81, y del nanoespafiol" series, 34). 85,93, 95, 100,104, 136, 147, 161, 165, 169, 170,181, 184,192,193,198,261,306,387,404, The author, clinical director at the Hospital of the 423,457, 461,462,463,465,466,468,469,475, Child Jesus, Madrid, outlines the dangers for the 478,483, 487,489,491. child in contemporary cinema and indicates the necessary conditions for a productionfavourable to mental and moral education of children. The (c) WHAT DO CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE last four pages contain a list of works in this RECOLLECT FROM FILMS? series. 259 .Holaday, P.W. and Stoddard, G.D. Getting 256.Bruce, D.J. Rememoration du materiel Ideas from the Movies. New York, MacMillan, filmi ue. Etude ex erimentale. (The recall 1933, (Payne Fund Studies). of filmic material: an experimentalstudyj In: Revue internationale de filmologie, Paris, Two American educationalists have given their at- IV (12), January-March 1953, p. 21-38. tention to the question of children's recollection of films. Seventeen commercial films were shown How is a scene from a film remembered? What to more than 3,000 children, divided into different general form does the recollection take and what age-groups. After seeing these films("Tom erroneous sequences can beincluded in it? What Sawyer", "Stolen Heaven" , "Passion Flower", is the influence of the sudden interruption of a per- "Fighting Caravans", etc.) the children were ad- ceived action on recollection? These questions mitted to various tests .The investigations were were investigated by means of ashort film inthree concerned with finding out (1) what remained of different versions, with three groups of test per- the film content in the minds of the children - ac- sons.It can be concluded that the process of tions and the utterances of the actors - and (2) abstraction plays an important part in recollection; what knowledge of history, geography and tech- that test persons seek out the salient points ofthe nology the children had acquired. The following action in order to create a recognizable framework results were obtained: (1) Children aged 8 recall into which the characters' actions can befitted. three out of every five facts which an adult re- In addition, if a gap has deliberately been left in members. Childrkn of 11 or 12 years of age the story, the viewer tends to reconstitute a remember three of every four facts; children of 61 15 and 16 years, nine of every ten facts. (2) When comparative dearth of good films for them to see, questioned again after six weeks, the first group frequently observed mental instability among seemed to have remembered 90 per cent of the schoolchildren, the growing appeal of visual in- facts known one day after the screening, and three formation media and the high rate of juvenile de- months later this figure was still 90 per cent. In linquency (for which the cinema is often blamed) some cases they remembered more after six or necessitate a close study of the relations between twelve weeks than at first.(3) Very young children the cinema and individual and collective psychology. remembered 60 per cent, but this does not mean The author examines those elements of films which that they had not absorbed 40 per cent. It frequent- children understand and retain, and the emotional ly happens that they do not understand certain aspect of cinematographic experience in relation things and are therefore unable to react positively to children, and draws a number of conclusions to this test.(4) Children of all ages tend to accept for the teacher. everything they see as authentic, including events wrongly shown in the film, and mistakes are taken 262.Tarroni, Evelina.I bambini guardano. for facts.(5) Facts relating to sport, general LChildren watchd In: Almanacco del cinema conversation, crime and fighting, with a highly italiano, Rome, 1952. emotional element and occurring in familiar surroundings, such as at home or in school, are re- Results of an inquiry involving approximately membered best. They were least well understood 2,000 compositions by children between 10 and 16 if they concerned business life, had practically no years of age, in which they freely record their emotional impact, and took place in unfamiliar impressions and judgements of a film which has surroundings. particularly affected them. This analysis made it possible to collect some very important observa- 260.Paulsen, Kithe. Was bleibt? Kinder be- tions concerning the duration of memories and the sinnen sich auf einen Film. LWhat remains? point at which the child's attention passes from the Children recall a filmj In: Film-Bild-Ton, character to the actor. Munich, VII, October 1957, p. 8-13. 263 .Tarroni, Evelina. La memoria del film. After a certain lapse of time, can certain things LRecollections of a film.] In: Cine-Gioventa, still be observed in the child' s memory of a film Rome, (2), May 1954. which was carefully selected according to pedagogic criteria and which had a favourable influence, A number of drawings made by children after or has this memory been affected by the great watching a film enabled the author to undertake a number of unsuitable films which the child has research project which throws light on some of meanwhile "consumed"? A small investigation the least known aspects of delayed reactions by was carried out among eleven-year-old children children to various cinematographic experiences. in a primary school in Hamburg, where monthly visits to the cinema averaged 4.3. Twenty-two See also: nos. 24, 51, 85, 192. months after the screening of the film "Peppin and Violetta" (the children had meanwhile seen an average of eighty other films) an examination was (d)FILMS AND JUVENILE DELINQUENCY made of how much of this film remained in the memory of the twenty-eight children left of the original group.It was seen that in the resume of 264.Alberola Such, Ramon. Factores influyentes the film content, which the children had to make de la delincuencia infantil. ,Factors influen- in the form of a composition, the main points were cing juvenile delinquencyj Santander, better reproduced than immediately after the Tribunales Tutelares de Menores, 1944, 20p. screening of the film. Nearly 60 per cent of the children reproduced the plot fully. This ability Text of the report presented to the Sixth National did not appear to be correlated with their level of Congress of Pediatrics, in which the author intelligence or with the frequency of their visits to examines environmental factors influencing juve- the cinema. For purposes of comparison adults nile delinquency. Among social factors, he devotes were given a similar test, which indicated that about fifty lines to the cinema (p. 15 and 16), to children remembered more of a film than adults. which he attributes a considerable influence on The general conclusion is that children see and delinquency, together with supporting statistics experience a film in a different way from adults whose source he does not indicate. and, in consequence, remember other things. 265.Alberola Such, Ram6n. Los ratios en los 261.Rebeillard, Monique. Le cinema et l' enfant. especthculos como factor influyente en la LThe cinema and the child) In: L lecole des delinquencia infantil. LChildren in public parents, Paris, (4), February 1957, p. 30-38. entertainment as a factor influencing juvenile delinquency,) Valencia, Tribunales Tutelares Increased cinema-going by young people and the de Menores, n. d. , 32 p.

62 Text of a report presented by the Children's Court 267.Casso y Romero, Domingo de. Influence du to the XIIIth Assembly of the National Union of cinema dans la delinquance juvenile. anfluence Children's Courts. With a forword, four chapters of the cinema on juvenile delinquencyj Paper and conclusions . (See no. 267) read at the Second International Congress of Filmology, Paris,1955. 266.Blumer, Herbert and Hauser, Philip M. Movies, Delinquency and Crime. New York, There are two types of influence exerted by film - MacMillan, 1933, 233 p., (Payne Fund external or formal and internal or content influence. Studies). The former is immediately derived from an openly immoral or subversive film, but a film of this type An inquiry into the r8le of the cinema in the lives is considered less dangerous than a film which, of young delinquents and offenders, carried out while professedly moral in intention, actually with the help of a variety of material: film disorients the conscience and introduces immoral sequences recreating the lives of 90 boys from a leanings.Mysteries of the hereafter, horror, "bad" district, of 40 residents in a House of crime, war, etc . impress children most. Obser- Correction for Boys, of 20 pupils from a school vations of the Spanish Guardianship Tribunals for educationally backward and delinquent girls during 1944-1953, claiming that 37 per cent of the and of 55 ex-convicts; a shorthand record of inter- boys who committed offences had been influenced views with 42 delinquent boys and 18 girls; by unsuitable films, are also quoted. short essays written by 258 convicted boys and 118 convicted girls. The authors consider that 268.Clostermann, Gerhard and Preuss, K. the influence of the cinema is noticeable in about Abhandlungen zur Jugend-Filmpsycholgie. 10 per cent of delinquent boys and 25 per cent of (Discussions on juvenile film psychology delinquent girls. This influence is frequently Published by Stadtisches Forschungsinstitut unconscious; in fact, the delinquents and offenders fur Psychologie der Arbeit and Bildung in who acknowledge the influence of the cinema are Gelsenkirchen. Minster, Westfalen, much more numerous than those who, themselves Aschendorffsche Verlagsbuchandlung, 1952, establish a relation between this influence and 47 p. (Publication, 3). their behaviour. Films which exercise this indirect influence on boys are those which show the A study on (1) films and juvenile delinquency and activities and behaviour of criminals, which (2) the entertainment film as seen by pupils in arouse a desire for wealth and luxury and indicate upper primary school grades. The first part is an undesirable means of satisfying this desire, which analysis of the case histories of 342 juvenile de- create a mentality of "toughness" and the spirit of linquents .Only 16 of them visited the cinema very daring and adventure, which induce violent sexual frequently. Those of the 342 delinquents who were desires and encourage young people to dream of a cinema-goers had been convicted for petty infrac- gangster's future. As far as girls and young tions of the law (theft, vagrancy), not for acts of women are concerned, the cinema plays a more or violence, and in all those cases from two to ten less important r8le in awakening sexual passions, factors having nothing to do with cinema attendance stimulating the desire for a gay, adventurous and contributed to the delinquent behaviour.It is con- interesting life, the taste for luxury and smart cluded that the film, important as an educational clothes, whilst suggesting undesirable ways of and cultural factor, is not a primary factor in gratifying these desires; or by inciting them to delinquency. coquetry and flirtation through a description of all The second part is a study conducted in a number the possibilities for misconduct open to girls and of schools, of the reactions of 86 boys and 60 girls young women and, finally, by occupying a large place aged 10 to 15 years to the film "Nanook of the in their life to the detriment of home and school. North". 90 per cent of the children understood the On the other hand, films may also exercise a film content; 98 per cent liked the film, having favourable influence on delinquents and offenders, found it interesting, thrilling and educational. 30 providing them with examples of socially acceptable per cent mentioned that they liked it because it conduct or frightening them. Such are those films showed the customs and morals of another race. which reveal the unpleasant and dangerous aspects Questioned regarding their preferences among the of crime, which portray punishment in a concrete film characters, 69 per cent stated that they liked form or show that, as a rule, crime does not pay. Nanook best; 40 per cent preferred the Eskimo But these films do not always have the desired children. 96 per cent of the children said that they effect; many factors weaken their positive influence, would like to see the film a second time. for example, the sympathy aroused for the criminal, familiarity with the punishment portrayed and 269.Corradini, Umberto. ll ragazzo al cinema . the feeling that one would not have let oneself be the child at the cinemaj In: Lumen, caught so easily. The positive elements of these Brescia, February 1955, p. 46-50. films are also often overshadowed by scenes which depict in an attractive fashion a life of luxury and The commonest attitude towards the problem of gaiety, of adventure and easy gain. the cinema is to make it responsible for every

63 adolescent crisis, but the question calls for a advanced countries, where the cinema enjoys wide serious critical spirit and an objective examina- popularity. He quotes several cases of juvenile tion which make it possible to form a correct crime in Italy. Psychological investigation should assessment of the influence of the cinema on the be widely used, at least in connexion with the psy- development of the child, and to find a solution. chological aspect o1 child development. Co- operation with parents is indispensable, as is the 270 Council of Motion Picture Organizations. implementation of measures to ban the cinema for Exploding a Myth: Motion Pictures are not young people below the age of18. An analysis of Responsible for Juvenile Delinquency. Opinions the behaviour of young people in regard to films expressed by noted psychiatrists, psycholo- specially designed for them. The author urges the gists, educators, jurists, and criminal establishment of an international centre for the sociologists. New York, September 1950, collection of films for children and young people. 23 p. 273.Flesch, Gislero. Liinfluenza sui ragazzi A selection of quotations from documents and della stampa e del cinema a carattere crimi- statements by 54 well-known authorities on juvenile nale .LThe influence on children of news- delinquency, from which the following conclusions papers and films dealing with crime may be drawn: (1) the influence of films on young The record of a course of comparative studies people cannot be isolated from other social factors, of delinquency among minors, organized by (2) it cannot be scientifically measured, nor is it the Ministero di Grazia e Giustizia and by the possible to determine, whether a certain film can Administrazione Aiuti Internazionali, in co- reasonably be expected to contribute to juvenile operation with the United Nations, Rome, delinquency. 3-9 December, 1950, Rome, Tipografia della This is the printed edition of an almost identical Mantellata, 1952. publication: "Motion picture association of America: Juvenile Delinquency and Dramatized The press and the cinema have in many instances Entertainment", New York, March 1950. a power of suggestion which maylead to crime. This power may take various form s and may in- 271.Cressey, Paul G. , and Thrasher, Frederich fluence anyone, but more particularly children, M. Bays, Movies and City Streets. New York, either individually or collectively. MacMillan, 1933, n.p. (Payne Fund Studies). 274.Flik, G. Untersuchungen Ober den Einfluss 949 boys from New York (about one-quarter behind des Film: auf kriminell gewordene Jugend- in their studies and one-quarter ahead) were exa- liche (Inquiries into the influence of the mined. Of those who visited the cinema four times cinema on young delinquents' In: Psycholo- or more a week, 19 per cent were ahead, 24 per gischeRundschau, GOttingen, 6(1), 1954, p. 1-21. cent normal and 57 per cent behind in their studies. Of those who went once or less, 35 per cent were An inquiry carried cut among 179 young prisoners, ahead, 33 per cent normal and 32 per cent behind. which reveals that before conviction they went to 109 boys were delinquents, among whom 22 per the cinema on an average twice each week. Their cent visited the cinema three times or more a favourite films were those dealing with love, ad- week, and 6 per cent less than once, whereas 14 venture and crime; religious films took last place per cent of the non-delinquents wentthree times in the list. Only 14 per cent of the older boys and or more a week, and 6 per cent less than once. 24 per cent of the younger acknowledged the in- These figures indicate that a correlation exists fluence of the cinema on their criminal behaviour. between truancy and delinquency, and frequent 74 per cent of the olt!er boyo and 82 per cent of the attendance at the cinema. Does excessive cinema younger consider the cinema to be dangerous for attendance lead to bad behaviour, or do badly be- young people under sixteen. haved children go often to the cinema? The authors The author points out that juvenile delinquency conclude that it is not generally possible to hold was as common in the past as it is today, and that films solely responsible for anti-social behaviour the influence of the cinema may also be a positive and delinquency.It is also wrong to claim that one. delinquents who often go to the cinema are not influenced by it. 275.Giacomelli, Ferruccio.11 film e la delinquenza Jtiovanile.The film and juvenile de- 272.Di Majo, Carlo. Criminalita e film.(Crime linquency/ Perugia, Thesis presented at the and the cinemaj In: La Difesa del Ragazzo, Faculty of Medicine of Perugia, 1956. Rome, (3-4), May-August 1956, p. 119-121. On the basis of considerable bibliographical mate- The author envisages the need for disciplining rial, together with his own studies, research and cinematographic activity because of its undeniable experiments, the author shows that the influence influence on youth, and furnishes proof that juve- of the cinema on crime has not yet been clearly nile crime is on the increase in technically established.

64 276 .Japanese Central Council on Youth Problems The influence of films on criminal behaviour (ed.). Research on Reactions and Behaviour: of young people must be carefully reviewed from Film and Juvenile Delinquency. In: Seishonen case to case. Some magistrates feel that certain Hakusho-Showa-32-nen Ban. LWhite Paper on juveniles, i.e. those with criminal tendencies, or Youth 195V, Tokyo, Seishonen-Mondai who are harmfully influenced bytheir environment Kenkyukai, 1957, p. 482-500. and have unstable characters, have an inherent disposition to criminal behaviour, influenced and Deals with: "activated" by frequent viewing of crime films. 1. Youth and harmful publications, films, etc . Juvenile delinquents often attempt to use as an 2. Dissemination of good films, publications, etc . excuse the influence which the film is supposed to have had on their behaviour. 277 .Jimenez de Asua, L. Cinematografo y delincuencia .(The cinema and delinquencyj In: 279.Le Moal, P. and Lalande, Helene de. Action Revista de Criminalogia, Psiquiatria y Medi- du cinema sur les mineures delinquantes. cina Legal, Buenos Aires, May-June 1929, LThe influence of the cinema on delinquent p. 377-384. girls,/ Paper read at the Second International Congress of Filmology, Paris, 1955. Earlier studies of the influence of literature and art upon delinquency, especially of the young, A study of the influence of the cinema on 150 de- began to be extended to the field of the movies soon linquent girls between 13 and 19 years of age in an after 1910. Such studies were undertaken in the observation centre at Chevilly-Larue. One-fifth United States of America and later in most leading of the girls had been arrested for theft, four-fifths countries of the world. The general conclusion is for vagrancy. 20 per cent of the latter category that the cinema is widely effective in suggesting were prostitutes .Favourite recreational activities crime. Various prophylactics have been attempted, were reported to be the cinema (35 per cent), of which public censorship has been most common- dancing (25 per cent), sports and camping (21 per ly and widely applied. cent) and reading (7 per cent).Investigation of Pedro Casablanca has agitated for the inter- the extent to which the girls' attitudes to the national censorship and control of films, but the cinema differed from those of normal girls plan is scarcely practicable. The Brussels Con- revealed the following. gress for the Protection of Childhood (1921) sought Chevilly Normal to stimulate the production of a more educational girls type of picture. The only legitimate control over Keen enthusiasm about the films must be in the interests of children and cinema 5% here considerations of health are more important Great interest 30% 62% than morals. Moderate interest 35% 17% Little interest 7% 17% 278.Lavies, Hanns-Wilhelm. Film und Jugend- No interest 22% .Eine Betrachtung zu einer Active dislike 1% 4% Umfrage an Deutschen Jugenderichten. Zpilm and juvenile delinquency. Observations on a Concerning the frequency of cinema attendance, survey among juvenile courts,/ Wiesbaden- the following figures were obtained: Biebrich, Deutsches Institut fur Filmkunde, Chevilly Normal November 1954, 173 p. (Jugend und Film girls LFilm and Youth/ series, III (4)). 1-4 times per month 73% 82% 8-12 times per month 27% 17% The results of an inquiry among all children's courts The Chevilly girls preferred love and adventure in the Federal Republic of Germany in towns of more films (24 per cent), followed by crime and "sad" than 10,000 inhabitants. Of 320 forms sent out, 200 films (14 per cent). Comic films were preferred were returned duly completed. Critical comments by only 5 per cent. Additional data related to are presented on a large number of criminal cases, films which were best remembered, and to the with summaries of the court's judgement concerning number of girls who dreamed about sequences the part played by films in each case. from films which they had seen, and who wept or The preconceived ideas generally held by were frightened in the cinema. children's magistrates concerning the film as a factor in juvenile delinquency are outlined.It is 280.Lindsey, Ben B. The Movies and Juvenile pointed out that in a very small number of cases Delinquency. In: Perlman, William J.: only was a direct causal relation between visits to The Movies on Trial, New York, MacMillan, the cinema and criminal behaviour established by 1936, p. 50-63. (See No. 17.) the magistrates, but that press and radio reporters had wrongly given the impression that the magis- The author, a judge, feels unable to ascertain trates attributed considerable importance to the from his own experience with thousands of juvenile influence of the cinema. delinquents whether the cause of crime can be found

65 in the influence of the cinema. Inasmuch as it 283 .Redano, Ugo.11 cinemne xToblema keeps young people from the streets, the cinema is educativo. LThe cinema, an educational precisely the best means of preventing crime, and problem 2 In: La Difesa del Ragazzo, Rome, it achieves more than many other means in the XXV (3-4), May 1956, p. 103-114. fight against the greatest of all crimes: war. The cinema is considered to be the greatest educator The author stresses the correlation between crime which the world has ever known. as represented on the screen and as it occurs in real life, particularly where young people are 281.Michard, H. Cinema - delinouance juvenile concerned. A list of the problems which should et reeducation. LCinema - juvenile delin- be studied "in addition to and independent of the quency and re-educationj In: Revue de bill presented to Parliament". 1' education surveillee, Paris, (8), May-June 1947, p. 61-67. 284.Sinoir, Guy M. Les correlations entre le cinema et la delinquance Juvenile. LCor- The power of suggestion of the cinema is greater relation betvieen the cinema and juvenile than that of books. It is certain that its effect is delinquency] In: Actes du Congres inter- more clearly marked on young people who are so- national sur la presse periodique, cinema- cially maladjusted, but the exact nature of its tographie et radio pour enfants, Milan, action has yet to be determined. How may its (19-23), March 1952. Milan, A. Giuffre, 1953, harmful influence be combated, and how may the p. 195-203. cinema be used for educational purposes, in particular in re- education centres? Report on three surveys carried out in France in 1948 to determine the r6le of the cinema in juve- 282.Morris, Norval. Films, comics, and nile delinquency. The first survey compares the delinquency. In: Visual Aids Review, cinema-going habits of delinquent children with Melbourne, 1 (4), March 1953, p. 4-8. those of normal children. In the second survey, juvenile delinquents were asked to draw a cinema The problem of the crime-provoking action of film poster and a scene from a film. The third inquiry is often presented in far too simple a manner. aimed at discovering to what extent children's Little or nothing is known of this question, or magistrates believed that films had an influence on whether the representation of violence and crime juvenile crime. It was concluded from these three has a good or bad effect on children. But, in any surveys that the direct influence of film on juvenile case, there is no point in simply banning films delinquency is difficult to establish. and comics. See also: nos. 13, 60, 66, 69,103,106,107, 136, 192, 210, 213, 219, 229,232,243,261,289, 387, 409, 423, 457, 460, 466,475,482,483.

66 6. EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS AND PRACTICAL MEASURES

(a) THE USE OF FILMS IN THE The first three chapters of this work on the cinema DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY and youth deal with the following problems: (1) the pros and cons of educational cinema; (2) children in the cinema; (3) banning of minors. The book 285 .Albright, Roger. Education from the also contains some comments on the educational Theatrical Screen. In: Elliott, Godfrey M.: function of thu cinema, together with the texts of Film and Education, New York, Philosophical relevant Italian laws. Library, 1948, p. 407-424. 288. Cottone, Carmelo. Didattica e cinema. Many feature films have acquainted the general (Didactics and the cinema`/ In: Cine- public with literary works they might otherwise didattica, Rome, (1), April1950, p. 7-10. never have known. Examples are given of films which have stimulated interest in literary and The author makes a distinction between educational musical works. The contribution of the short and instructional films, and accords greater im- cultural and historical film to general education is portance to the former. When they end with the also discussed. In the schools, the feature film is triumph of good over evil, even adventure films beginning to be recognized as an educational me- may have positive value. On the other hand, from dium, and instruction in film appreciation is being an educational point of view, historical films dis- introduced. The film industry is taking a growing tort history through the fictionalized portrayal of interest in the possibilities of the feature film as events. an educational aid, and a considerable number of films have been made available for educational 289.Crisanti, Pina. Arte e cinema nella loro purposes. funzione sociale. (The social functions of art and cinema...7 Rome, Ed. Auia,1954, 286.Calb, Giovanni. Le cinema et l' education 156 p. intellectuelle. (The cinema and intellectual education.in: Actes du Congres inter- A study of the relationship between art and cinema national sur la presse periodique, cinema- and an analysis of the cinema's social function. tographie, et radio pour enfants, Milan, 19-23 The last chapter of work deals with the educational March 1952. Milan, A. Giuffre, 1953, influence of the cinema on children, and contains p. 158-16C. extracts from articles by eminent jurists on juvenile crime and the cinema. A discussion of the r8le of the cinema in the moral and intellectual development of children. Films 290 .Diaz-Plaja, Guillermo. Cineadolescencia shown to children should be suited to the emotional en "el a: t` de quedarse solo y otros ensayos". maturity and intellectual capacity of the age-group TertiTima and adolescence, in "The art of for which they are intended. The rhythm of the remaining alone, and otheressays"2 In: film, its action and plot must be adapted to the Juventud, Barcelona, 1936. child audience's capacity for comprehension. The child should be able to see the film with a certain Pages 155-168 contain "a Pedagogical Essay: degree of objectivity. Failing this, disturbances Cinema and Adolescence" in which the author in the child's development are to be feared. A examines the specific conditions for educational categorical distinction should not be made between cinema in secondary schools. Six main points are children's films and films for adults, particularly distinguished, the third of which deals with censor- when considering children of 12 years and over. ship problems in relation to juvenile mentality. From this sage the normal child begins to attain a This essay was included in the publications of the degree of comprehension comparable to that of League of Nations International Institute of Educa- any adult. The establishment of film clubs where tional Cinematography, Rome, in 1934. children can see suitable films is advocated. 287. Cotton, Carmelo. Cinema educativo o no. (The pros and cons of educational cinemaj Rome, A. Signorelli, 1953,96 p. ("Biblioteca del Maestro" series) . 67 291. Di Tullio, Benign°. Dell' influenza educativa Every year, in this review, Jean Giraud devotes a del cinema sui minorenni traviati e delinquenti. series of articles to examining the problemof the ZOn the educational influence of the cinema on cinema and its relation to adolescence and to youth. young offenders and delinquents.] In: Revista This series is concerned with seeking to define internazionale del cinema educatore, Rome, better conditions for instruction through the cinema. V (3), March 1935, p. 189-192. The present number comprises a Franco-Italian bibliography and the first part of a comprehensive The cinema is a possible source of re-education, survey of educational and culturalefforts in this since it may serve either to change and gradually field in France and a number of foreign countries; improve the instinctive expressions and emotional the author then examines the main problems en- attitudes which make up the "primitive psyche", or countered, beginning with needs of children and to reinforce the powers of inhibition and the re- adolescents. sistance offered by acquired mental habits, thus developing the individual's capacity for adaptation 295.Grigor ' eva, A.A. Kino vo vneklassnoj i to social life. vneNkolnoj rabote. LThe cinema and extra- curricular activity] In its: Use of films and 292.Foerster, Oskar. Film, Bild und Ton in der diapositives in and out of class for pupils be- Erziehung zum euroi.N;ischen. Bewusstsein. tween 12 and 17 years. Moscow, 1952, p. LThe role of the cinema - image and sound - in 414-431. (School education publications). the formation of a European mentality.] In: Film-Bild-Ton, Munich, VII, September 1957, This article, written by an inspector of school film p. 12-15, 48. libraries in Moscow, describes extra-curricular A study of the r8le which might be played by the film work in schools and establishes the relation - cinema in the formation of a European mind. The ship between films for children at school and the image of the world presented by the cinema is, in educational syllabus and subjects. contrast with traditional school education, con- On the basis of experience in Moscow schools, crete, dynamic and immediate. The film presents the author describes numerous ways in which films reality in the round, instead of breaking it down are used: ordinary cinema sessions; an evening into its components, and places the spectator in film programme or a cycle of such programmes real life situations;it enables the spectator to on a particular educational theme or school participate in the lives of other people. Such subject; film lectures; school centres for film masterpieces of the cinema as "The Winslow Boy", lectures; film festivals; relationship between "It is Midnight, Dr. Schweitzer", "From Man to films and reading; considerable use of the film in Man", "Forbidden Games" - may moreover make "Pioneer" activities in schools. The important a powerful contribution to diffusion of the great role of the teacher and the active participation of principles of humanity, democracy, liberty, human the pupils in all phases of Min work are stressed. dignity, tolerance and justice. Two characteristics mark the use of films in Moscow schools; the utilization of current full- 293 .Forter, Adolf. Le documentaire dans la re- length films (films for children and films for adults), education spirituelle de la jeunesse LThe popular science films and diapositives, and the documentary film in the spiritual re-education combination of film methods with the spontaneous of young people) In: Bachlin, Peter: Cinema activities of the children. An analytical catalogue d'aujourd' hui. Congres international du cine- of films (some 100 titles), divided into 22 subject ma a Belle. Geneve-Paris, Editions Trois groups, is annexed. Collines, 1945, p. 201-208. ("Cahiers de Traits" series). 296 .K3mpe, Fritz. Der Film in der Jugend und Erwachsenenbildung. LThe film ,in youth and A deep gulf separates the post-war generation from adult edtiCalc.731. Published by the Institut fiir its predecessor. Young people today are no longer Film und Bild in Wissenschaft und Unterricht, concerned with spiritual values, and this indif- Seebruck am Chiemsee, Heering-Verlag, 1958, ference is dangerous. Their elders must conse- 86 p. quently re- establish contact with them, and come within their reach; in this respect, the document- survey of the characteristics of the main types ary film may be a powerful aid. But documen- oilm (scientific, educational, documentary, news- taries should conform to reality (otherwise young reeartistic, recreational, etc.) followed by a people lose confidence in the teacher who presents stat merit on their use in factories, people's them), and they should have artistic merits. universities, youth clubs, etc. The role which might be played by the recreational film in educa- 294.Giraud, Jean. La jeunesse et le cinema. tion and teaching, particularly in connexion with LYouth and the cinema (a Franco-Italian biblio- young people. Ways of achieving a better under- graphy)1 In: Ecole pratique de psychologie et standing of the cinema through discussions, study de pedagogie, Bulletin, Lyon, (2), November- sessions, introductory cinema courses, etc. December 1954, p. 104-108.

68 297.Kiselev, C.A. and Polowskij, M.M. Kino v providing them with concrete illustrations of sub- u8ebnoi i vneklasnoj rabote Bkoly. LThe cinema jects which they have learned at school. Films and class work and extra-curricular work in can help them to understanddifferent literary schools j Moscow, State Institute of Scientific styles, but this educational r8le can only beplayed School Research of the Narkompros of the if the youthful spectator is capable of assimilating RSFSR, 1940, 44 p. ("To help the teacher" personally what he has seen. series, 18). 301.Mufioz Fernandez, Pedro. El cine en la mano, The following chapters discuss problems of films en "El evangelic)vivo".The cinema controlled, for children and their extra-curricular application in "The Living Gospel" j Madrid, Graficas in Moscow schools: Chapter 2: "The cinema and Nebrija, 1951, 144 p. ("Editorial Bibliografid children". Chapter 3: "The role of films in Espanola" series). school educational work". Chapter 10: "Methods of using films in extra-curricular work". Chapter This handbook, which deals with methods of cate- 11: "The cinema and the work of Pioneer Clubs". chism, evaluates the efficacy of the cinema in Chapter 12: "Film equipment for extra-curricular education; Chapter V "The Cinema controlled" work in schools". Annex 2 gives a list of 16 mm. (p. 47-59) is devoted to the cinema as a family films. recreation, and assesses the adaptation to this type of presentation of the film"Cielo sobre el 298.Laporta, Raffaclo. Cinema ed eta evolutiva. pantano" (p. 123 -126) . LThe cinema and the age of development./ Florence, La Nuova Italia, 1957, 188 p. 302.Pelizzi, Camillo. Il cinema come strumento ("Educatori Antichi e Moderni" series, 153). di azione sociale. LThe cinema as an instrument of social action./ In: Bianco e Nero, A contribution to filmological research from a Rome, (9), September 1949, p. 21-32. pedagogical point of view, which shows how deeply the film affects the experience of children and An analysis of the pedagogic relationship between adolescents. The feature film today is educational the cinema and the spectator, with references to neither in character nor in content. Study of its specific problems concerning the adolescent or different aspects will therefore be necessary before child spectator. it can be used for educational purposes. 303.ROssler,W.E. Miterzieher Film. Eine 299.Meylan, Louis M. Le cinema et 1' education pfidagogische Studie im Anschluss an den morale. LThe cinema and moral educationjln: Film "Das grosse Abenteuer". LThe film as Actes du Congres international sur la presse an aid to education: a pedagogicstudy carried periodique, cinematographie et radio pour out with the aid of the film "The Great enfants, Milan, 19-23 March 1952, Milan, Adventure"2 In: Film, Jugend, Schule, A. Giuffre, 1953, p. 169-175. Gelsenkirchen, (15-16), April 1956, 6 p. A discussion of how the film can contribute to the The aim of this inquiry was to determine, with the moral development of young people. Many enter- aid of a selected film ("The Great Adventure" of tainment films are not adapted to the needs of the Arne Sucksdorff), the contribution which a film developing juvenile personality and it is felt that may make to development of the emotionallife and children should not be admitted to ordinary cine- intelligence of children between the ages of ten mas but that the selection of filmssuitable for and fourteen. 406 children were the subjects: children should be left to educators. Documentary some were asked, after the showing of thefilm, films, feature films of good artistic quality in to provide a written answer to the question:"What which social responsibility is portrayed, and was Arne Sucksdorff trying to expressin this poetic films are considered to have moral value, film? "; the others were interviewed immediately and can contribute to the intellectual, social and after the showing of the film. Quoting extracts aesthetic development of the child. from the replies, the author shows that children do not gain purely aesthetic pleasure from a film, 300 .Meylan, Louis M. Le film, moyen de culture. but that they see it partly as reality and partly as LThe film as a cultural medium./ In: Caldera a symbol. de pedagogie de l' University de Liege, 15 (1), March 1956. 304 .Schiavi, Alessandro.11 cinematografo e la gloventti. LCinema and youth./ In: La Difesa Many children experience films as "real" life;it del Ragazzo, Rome, (3-4), May-August 1956, gives them ideas of good or bad behaviour. Parents p. 95-102. and educators must teach children to make good use of the film, by keeping a safedistance between The cinema may constitute a real and cultural ex- the child and the cinema. Films offer young perience capable of educating the child. But its people the chance to enrich their imagination by content remains outside all educational control. 69 ,11.11111,IslinyealIWTT,

It is thus necessary for individual persons to create children since they tire easily and react emotionally bodies for the study, production and diffusion of to cinema experience. education films which should: portray the characteristic aspects of different countries, the See also: nos. 15, 19, 76, 149, 155, 159, 212, customs and life of their inhabitants; induce a desire 233, 249, 254, 381, 474, 475, 478, 482, 485. for mutual assistance and fraternization between the children of different countries; stress the essential elements of a social life based on work, solidarity and (b) EDUCATION TOWARDS BETTER personal dignity; reveal the constant efforts of indi- APPRECIATION AND CRITICAL viduals and groups to transform, improve and edu- ASSIMILATION OF FILMS (CINE-CLUBS) cate society, inculcate the concept of rights and "FILM EDUCATION" responsibilities so that they maybe applied in daily life; and portray the true stories of young heroes. 308 Arnsler, Roger and Cady, Jacques. Les reac- 305 .Stiickrath, Fritz. Der Einbruch des Films in tions fficheuses du cinema sur les jeunes die Padagogische Provinz. LThe intrusion of spectateurs sont evitables par une initiation. the into the domain of pedagogyj In:. (Harmful influences of the cinema on young Film-Bild-Ton, Munich, V (9) , December spectators can be avoided through a process 1955, p. 9-11. of initiationj A report presented to the Second International Congress of Fihnology, Film culture constitutes a transitional stage be- Paris, 1955. tween reading and seeing. Educators must not lose sight of the fact that films affect the pupil's intel- The authors, who examined the activity of a cinema lect and thus his development and education. Films club at Angers, are convinced that children who offer a means of apprehending reality that differs attend such clubs no longer react in the same way from verbal apprehension, thus making a new to films . world accessible to the spectator. We must consider whether the educational means and methods 309.Boeck, A. de. Le probleme du film pour used up to the present are still acceptable in an enfants. LThe problem of films for childre era where man's situation has changed completely. In: Revue de droit penal et de criminologie, Brussels, 35 (9), June 1955, p. 789-796. 306 .Sutermeister, H. Film und Psychohygiene. LMovies and mental hygiene] In: Gesundheit Belgian legislation on the admission of young und Wohlfahrt, Zurich, (30), 1950, p. 249-278. children to public cinemas is obsolete. Films which may under the present law be shown to young The film is here considered as an aid to a healthier children too frequently contain potentially harmful emotional life. The cinema in the school and for scenes of a violent or erotic nature. Many films the people at large is a form of collective therapy, expose children to emotions which they are not yet but it constitutes a certain danger for adolescents capable of assimilating, and instruct them in the who are particularly suggestible without having technique of sexual relationships at an age when sufficient experience to serve as a counterweight. they cannot yet satisfy their erotic needs. It is perhaps not so much the erotic element in the For this reason, in certain countries, England movies which is dangerous, but rather the illusions in particular, special sessions for children are which they foster of social ascension without effort, organized, in which attempts are made to combat and the glorification of idleness and of the easy life. the harmful influence of films. In general, however, there is a scarcity of films for children. 307.Urickij N.Z. ZnaEenie kino dlja detejphe Cartoons themselves often contain harmful elements. significance of the cinema for children. In: Moreover, various inquiries have shown that young Semja i Skola, Moscow, (7), July 1948, p. children are not yet able to understand the language 27-28. of the cinema, and lack the capacity for synthesis which would enable them to establish a relationship Children react quite strongly to films because they between the different scenes of a film.It is there- identify themselves very readily with the characters. fore necessary to produce films adapted to the Such identification can be beneficial to character- intelligence of children. In this respect, Soviet building if the children' s cinema experiences are films for children are particularly praiseworthy. properly directed. Children should be guided to The author is convinced that entry to cinemas see films that are suitable for their age in content should be strictly denied to young children. and depth of emotional experience. Attendance at the cinema should not be too frequent and should be 310.Brinkmann, Donald. Zur Psychologie des selective. Older children should be afforded the Jugendfilms (The psychology of films for opportunity of discussing films with adults so as to childrenj In: Der Psychologe, Schwarzenburg, deepen their perception and understanding. Special Berne, (5), 1953, p. 89-93. care must be exercised in the case of pre-school

70 Films produced specially for children,however indicates, on the basis of his own experience, the well suited to the age of the audience,may give aims, methods and results of these clubs. rise to an undesirably passive attitude. To combat this tendency, group activitiesare recommended, 315.Chiarini, Luild.. Le cinema et 16ducation such as participation in the singingor acting of the esthetique. (The cinema and aesthetic films, discussions, and carrying out projectssug- education.] In: Actes du Congres inter- gested by the films. The negative aspects of the national sur la presse periodique, cinemato- popular film should be counterbalanced byrecrea- graphie et radio pour enfants, Milan, 19-23 tional activities and by documentary films suitable March 1952, Milan, A. Giuffre, 1953, p. to the age-group and emotional maturity of the 175-176. audience. Film education is the principal condition on which 311 .Brudny, Wolfgang. Filmerziehung. the development of the cinema depends, and the Education.] In: Mitteilungen des Arbeits- best method of protecting young people from its kreises "Jugend und Film", und des harmful influences. Wissenschaftlichen Instituts fiir Jugend- filmfragen, Munich, 1955, 52 p. (Special 316. Cipriani Fagdoli, Maria Luisa. Cineclubs number). scolastici. (Film clubs for schools.] In: Cineclubs per Ragazzi, Rome, 1957, p. 99-105. A guide for teachers and youth leaders concerning the part that film education can play in general On the basis of experiments carried out with film education and the manner in which the subjectcan clubs for students, the author believes that it is be introduced in the teaching of art appreciation, impossible to draw up an abstract pattern of literature, religion, the social sciences and programmes for these clubs, and that individual economics. conditions (environment, age, cultural level, etc.) must be taken into account. 312. Buchanan, Andrew.Going to the Cinema. London, Phoenix House Ltd.,1951, 160 p. 317. Claude, Robert. Education cinematographigue (Education through the cinema.] Liege, La Fundamental concepts of cinematographic tech- pensee catholique; Paris, Office general du nique, and a survey of various types of film, livre, 1949, 63 p. ("Etudes religieuses" series, designed to enable young people to learn to judge 662-663). films critically. The cinema requires a "constructive attitude"on 313.Biiring, H. and Eiland, K. Filmkritik einer the part of the teacher. The Papal Encyclical Landschulklasse. Ein Erfahrungsbericht "Vigilanti Cura" enjoins Catholics to adopta posi- fiber den Film "Heimweh".(Film criticism tive attitude to films. A study of the influence of in a rural school: report on a presentation of the cinema and its determining factors. Ways of the film "Heimweh".] In: Film, Jugend, teaching the public to select and judge films. Schule, Gelsenkirchen, (12-13), June 1955, 4 p. 318.Clostermann, Gerhard. Musische Erziehung nach Filmeindriicken. Schglerzeichnunen A report on an inquiry into the ability of 36 school- bezeugen Bildungsmoglichkeiten der Filmer- children to appreciate a film from a formal point ziehung. (Artistic education through films. of view .Criticism was above all directed against Children's drawings reveal the culturalpos- emotionally unsatisfying scenes. Only one child sibilities of the educational cinema2 In: made a real criticism of form; most frequently, Film, Jugend, Schule, Gelsenkirchen, (6), emotional reactions were involved. The author is September 1953, 6 p. nevertheless of the opinion that it is possible, when discussing these reactions, to lead children An analysis of drawings made by 112 boys and 83 gradually towards an interest in the form of the girls after a showing of the film "Lassie": most film. frequently chosen scenes, reasons for this choice and differences noted between the drawings, by 314.Chevallier, Jacques (et. al.) Regards neufs age-group and category of school.It seems that sur le cinema. LA fresh look at the cinema_ cinematographic experience is calculated to im- Paris, Editions du Seuil, 1952, 508 p. ("Peuple prove drawing skill and that children need to dis- et Culture" series). charge,through drawing and painting, the emotions aroused by certain scenes. Children who cannot A collection of essays on the cinema,seen from express themselves in words find a means of ex- different points of view, and in particularon the pression in drawing and painting. In thisway, the work of film clubs (p. 361-404); mention should cinema would appear to contribute to the aesthetic be made, among others, of the article by J. Michel development of the child. (Film clubs for young people), in which the author

71 319.Clostermann, Gerhard. 'Nanuk der Eskimo': 322.Decili filmski klub (Film club for children). Oberstufenkinder urteilen fiber einen Film. Priru8nik saveta druiltava za staranje o deci L' Nanook of the North' :evaluation of a film omladini Yugoslavije. (Manual of the Federa- by secondary school pupils2 In; Film, Jugend, tion of Children's Welfare Organizations of Schule, Gelsenkirchen, (11), January 1955, Yugoslaviaj In: Savremena Skola (Modern 4 p. schooj/, Belgrade, 1958, 61 p. Results of an inquiry carried out with 68 boys and A handbook concerned for the most part with child- 60 girls between-the ages of 10 and 15, after ren's film clubs in Yugoslavia. A survey of the main screening of the film "Nanook of the North". The type of films which young people may see, followed questions asked dealt particularly with the sharp- by a detailed study of the organization and ways of ness of auditory and visual perception,the subject running children's film clubs, and of the criteria of the film, impressions produced by the filmand applicable tothe choice of films. An article by its characters, landscape and scenes of nature, DuaanStojanovia,entitled "Kinoklubovi mladih kod music; 90 per cent of the children were able to nas" ("Our young people's film clubs"). A list of make a satisfactory precis of the film. The technical terms in the cinema, summary of notable author, attempting to ascertain why the remaining films inthe history of the cinema, notes on projec- children (10 per cent) could not follow the film, tion apparatus and a short bibliography. reveals, among other things, the influence of temperamental characteristics. 99.1 per cent of 323.Deherpe, Raphael. Pour une pedagogie du the children replied (22.6 per cent with enthusiasm) cinemq. LA plea for film educationd In: that they enjoyed the film; 25 per cent of the Education et cinema, Paris, January 1954, children gave vague assessments (the film is ex- 101 p. (special number). citing, instructive, amusing). The replies of the others (75 per cent) made it possible, neverthe- A detailed explanation of the psychological and less, to determine to what extent the film was sociological characteristics of the cinema and a instructive, exciting, etc. 30.5 per cent of the discussion of the aims of film education, i.e. children, for example, declared that the film is learning to understand the film language, to appre- instructive because it taught them about the habits ciate films aesthetically and morally, and to and customs of foreign peoples. assimilate their message. Various methods of film education are examined. 320 . C ochin, Marcel. Recherche d lune pedagogie des tine -clubs. Lin search of a pedagogical me- 324.Drillich, P.A. Een oe thod for film clubs.] In: Education et cine- een inrichting. LA study-group on the cinema ma, Paris, I (6), July 1956, p.395-397. in an institutionjIn: De Koepel, Rotterdam, November 1955, p. 386-390. If the organized discussion of a film is to be successful certain principles should be observed. No The record of an experiment aimed at inducing criticism of the film should be asked for as long young girls to adopt a critical attitude towards the as the audience is still under its spell.One should cinema. A single film was shown on five occasions start the discussion by asking what scenes or to subjects between the ages of 13 and 21, in a actors seemed particularly striking. In the hostel for working girls. A few days later, a second phase of the debate, the discussion leader debate was organized, with the assistance of a should explain why the scenes or persons men- chairman from outside. tioned attracted the audience in a certain way. Following this he can analyse the film. The third 325 . Dus sardier , Maurice .L' education cinema- phase opportunity should be offered for the spec- tographique a-t-elle sa placela colonie? tator to formulate his own judgement. (Does educational cinema have a place in the 'Colonle'Y In: Vers 1' education nouvelle, 321. Dale, Edgar. How to Appreciate Motion Paris, (116), September 1957, p. 18-24. Pictures: A Manual of Motion Picture Criti- cism prepared for High School Students. New This record of an experiment conducted at the York, Macmillan, 1938 (first published in "colonie de vacances" (holiday-home) at 1935), 243 p. (Payne Fund Studies). Puygirault (Vienne) shows how the production of films by children themselves can help in introduc- Young people must be given all the information ing them to the cinema. necessary to enable them to evaluatefilms con- structively. They must therefore be given objec- 326.Ekk, A.A. and Oskolskij, A.P. Zadaai, sistema i tive standards of aesthetic appraisal. Thehistory metody vnakolneikinoraboty s det'mi v 1933- of the cinema and the process of making afilm 1934 O. Godu. (Problems, systems and me- are described in detail. thods of extra-curricularfilm work with children during the school year1933-1934j Leningrad, Office of the Artistic Education of Children, 1933, np.

72 Directives concerning problems of method for use The first part ("The cinema and education") in all sectors of Public Instruction and all schools explains general problems relating to the educa- in Leningrad. The organization of extra-curricular tional and instructive r6le of the cinema, these film work in Leningrad is described: in each dis- being mainly questions of film perception, and trict, a specialist instructor prepares a general problems of pedagogy, hygiene and health con- work plan and supervises its execution; in each nected with the use of the cinema in work with school and trade union club, a children's film children. The second part ("Film matinees for specialist is responsible for this work; he is as- children") and the third part ("The cinema for sisted by a group of pupils representing the active children") describe the methods of organization members. and work with children before, during and after The book sets out the educational work required the screening of a film, illustrated by examples for a film: (a) explaining to the children the fun- from practical experience. The methods cited damental idea of the film; (b) acquainting them have been tried and proved by extra-curricular with the period represented by the film; (c) deve- teachers. The fourth part ("The cinema and loping their ability to appreciate the artistic value school") explains problems of organization and of the film. Educational work concerning a film methods involved in setting up a cinema in the should bear on a single problem only, that which school.It also gives information on educational has the most characteristic importance in the films. contemporary situation.If a second screening of At the time, this work played an important part the same film is made, another subject may be in the development of the cinema for children and dealt with. The aim of this book is to illustrate a the cinema for school purposes in the Soviet practical achievement in centralizing the organiza- Union.It has also served as a manual for education, methods and direction of film work with tors who used the cinema in education. children for the city as a whole. 330 .Gemelli, Agostino. Film per ragazzi.gilms 327. Fusellier,_E. Possibilites d tun enseignement du for children.] In: Cinema, Rome, DI (1), cinema ./Possibilities for teaching about the 1938, p. 9-10. cinema.] In: Enfance, Paris, 1957, p. 377-382 (special number). The author examines the problem of censorship, and comes to the following conclusions: "if a child th. plan for the organization of teaching about the knows that a film has been censored, his enjoyment cinema in the second cycle of secondary education. or interest is lessened...to ban children from the This teaching should be given in close connexion cinema is impossible, raising the age-limit is a with the course in literature, which it would pro- bad solution which may have an opposite effect to vide with a much-needed stimulus. that intended. What is required are film producers capable of reaching children, by telling them 328 .Garmendia de Otaola, A. Educaci6n cinema- stories and educating without boring them". tografica: Cine forum. (Educational cinema: Cine-forum.] In: Atenas, Madrid, (243), 331 .Greiner, Grace. Teaching Film. A Guide to May 1954. Classroom Method. London, British Film Institute, 1955, 32 p. The activities of the Cine-Forum are without doubt excellent in its choice of films for adults, but A manual on film edUcation from kindergarten to should be extended to include a study of the pro- secondary school, based on practical experience. blem of education for young people and children in Examples of how children and adolescents can be its entirety; i.e. it should take account of the brought to a better understanding, appreciation social, technical, artistic, moral, religious, and and critical assimilation of films are given for each human aspects of the cinema. age and type of school. Data on several organizations working in the field of film education, and a 329 . Gel Mont, A .M . (Ed .) .Kino - Deti - Skola . list of aids, are given in three annexes. /inema- Children - School.] Moscow, Publications on Cultural Activities, 1929, 332.GrOder, Ursula. Das Filmerlebnis and seine 240 p. padagogische Vertiefung "Erfahrungsberichte zum Film "Es est Miternacht Dr. Schweitzer" A collection published by the "extra-curricular (Cinematographic experience and its educa- education" section of the Council of Scientific tional elaboration. A record of activities Method (Moscow section of the Department of organized in connexion with the film "It is Public Instruction). The articles and information Midnight, Dr. Schweitzer "j In: Film, Jugend, contained in this collection reflect characteristic Schule, Gelsenkirchen, (14), July 1955, 4 p. experiences concerning the use of silent films in extra-curricular activities with children during A survey of the comments and opinions of 17 teachers the first period of development of the Soviet on activities which they organized on the theme of educational system. the film "It is Midnight, Dr. Schweitzer". Only

73 the children of 13 and 14 understood the moral 336.Hochheimer, Rita. Motion Picture Discrimi- content of the film, which had to be explained to nation in Schools. A Consideration of the the 11 and 12-year olds. Indication of the methods Theatrical Motion Picture and its Place in employed by the teachers to secure a better under- Education.Wilmette, Ill., Encyclopaedia standing by the children of the moral significance Britannica Films, n.d. , 7 p. (stencilled). of the film. Appreciations by the children of the content and form of the film. Contains a definition of "motion picture discrimination" (film education) and consideration of the 333 .Haase, Ulrich. Filmerziehung im Kunstun- manner in which this subject can be integrated in terricht . LFilm education in the art apprecia- the school curriculum and teachers trained for tion classIn: Film, Jugend, Schule, this purpose. Gelsenkirchen, (14), July 1955, 6 p. 337 .Hodgkinson, A .W .Film Appreciation in Does film education belong to the art appreciation Youth Clubs. Some Suggested Approaches. class in our schools?In aesthetic training it must London, British Film Institute, 1955, 14 p. be assumed that the good taste of young people is (stencilled). not corrupted by films which seem to have "educational" content, but which, in fact, are only senti- A survey of the methods which can be applied in mental. The author gives an account of his own film education in youth clubs .The following sub- experience with young people who prepared a jects are discussed: how to lead group discussion school paper with lino-cut illustrations, based on on a given film or a subject relating to it; choos- film scenes which had attracted their attention. ing films which young people should see; how to This type of a school bulletin is considered to be a collect news clippings, photographs, critiques, etc. , very useful element in film education. of these films; how to hold "sessions" concerning a given film in order to understand its qualities; 334.Hedden, C.G. Pin-up Girls in School: What to the offer of an "Oscar" for the best film or per- Do about Movies in the Classroom?In: The formance in which young people are taught to English Journal, Chicago, January 1946. formulate their judgement accurately; a "brains trust" in which the participants must try to answer Describes experiences with a "two-week movie various questions by way of a competition; short appreciation unit" in a New York junior high lectures on film by young people themselves; the school. Some of the questions raised were: "How writing of film critiques; the making of scenarios does one produce sound in a film?", "How does a and short films; and the preparation of a short film camera operate?" .Following the discussions, study on a film subject. pupils wrote film criticisms which clearly showed a heightened sense of discrimination. They also 338 .Hodgkinson, A.W. Twenty Films to Use in tended to apply more valid criteria in their Junior Film Societies. London, British Film selection of films. Institute and the Society of Film Teachers, 1953, 55 p. 335. Hills, Janet. Films and Children: The Posi- tive Approach. London, British Film Institute, Twenty films suitable for screening and discussion n.d. 59 p. in Junior Film Societies are cited and data given which may be of use to leaders of such clubs. A positive approach to the problem of the cinema Technical details, principal actors and summary and youth is considered essential, and a plea is of contents are given for each film. A number of therefore made for film education. Possibilities press reviews are also listed. The main points, of training "film teachers" are investigated and the however, are suggestions for discussion arising work of the "Society of Film Teachers" is dis- from each film. cussed, as also are the results of experience gained in England in teachers' training colleges. 339.Hodgson, Lena. Children as Film Makers. Suggestions are offered as to how film-educational In: Sight and Sound, London, 26 (2),Autumn activities can be incorporated into the curriculum, 1956, p. 100-102. and how film clubs in schools and in young people's associations can be established. A brief survey is In some primary and middle schools, children given of the activities of film education in other make their own films; in this way, they learn to countries (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)and look more attentively and critically at films, and United States of America) and a number of annexes to develop their aesthetic sense. This cinemato - (a bibliography, a list of media used instructions graphic education may be given in connexion with for guiding a film club, etc .) are appended. various subjects in the curriculum; the scenario is prepared during English lessons, illustrations during Art classes, etc. In addition to film making there are screenings and discussions.

74 340 .Inui, Takashni. Eigano Kansho-shido. 343 . Kerstiens, Ludwig. Filmunterricht in der (Guidance towardsappreciation of the cinema./ hoheren Schule. /Film education in the high Tokyo, Soryusha, Gendai Jido-BunkaKoza, school.In: Film, Jugend, Schule, Gelsen- 1951, (Present-Day Children'sCulture series, I). kirchen, LX, December 1953. Four stages in film education in secondary schools The book deals (on p. 234-253)with the guidance, can be distinguished. For pupils between 10 and from the psychological pointof view, of children 12 years of age, visits to the cinema should towards appreciation of the be cinema. considerably restricted; yet, when childrenwant to discuss a film they have seen, they should be 341 .Kimpfer, Winfried. Bildungsmaglichkeiten taken seriously. When the need for cinema visits der Filmerzeihun im Reli:onsunterricht der becomes greater, more attention is given to film hoheren Schule.Educational possibilities of content, and therefore teaching young people to the cinema in religious instructionin second- understand the content (e.g. by reproducing the ary schoolsIn: Film, Jugend, Schule, film story) becomes imperative. Towards the end Gelsenkirchen, (10), September 1954, 8p. of this period, a beginning should be made with moral evaluation of the film content. In the third The author, who is a secondary schoolteacher, period, the pupils also interest themselves in film has experimented with film discussionsduring form, and the teacher must, at this stage, define religious instruction. His point of departureis clearly methods of expression by photography and the contention that only really interestingfilms montage. Children should be allowed toprepare a are worth examining. The discussion of films script based on a literary story. In theadvanced makes it possible to deal both "intuitively"and classes of the secondary school, attention mustbe searchingly with spiritual and religiousvalues. A given to aesthetic evaluation of the filmas a whole, detailed outline of the methods appliedin connexion i.e. with regard to both form and content.Pupils with three of the films studied: "TheEdge of must now learn to realize that the filmcan influence Doom", "Don Camillo" and "Journald tun cure de their outlook on life. campagne". 344. Kobayashi, Kaoru. Eigano Kansho Shido. 342.Keilhackerj_Martin. Fragen der Filmer- (Guidance in cinema appreciation./Tokyo, ziehung. /problems of film educationdIn: Kofu Publishing Co.,Kofu Kyoiku Raiburari, Zeitschrift fiir Pidagogik, Weinheim, III(4), 1955, 91 p. (Kofu Educational Library series) 1957, p. 253-270. Contents: 1. The significance of guidancein A systematic survey of different formsand me- cinema appreciation. 2. Present conditionsin the thods of practical film education andthe critical film world. 3. The cinema and schoolchildren. study of them from a psychological andpedagogical 4. Merits and demerits of the cinema. 5.Choice point of view. The choice of suitablefilms (espe- of films. 6. How to guide cinemaappreciation. cially animal films) for differentage groups is in- 7. Examples of guidance in cinemaappreciation. vestigated. By means of such films, thechild can 8. Various problems in guidance. be induced to acquire experienceswhich are abso- The book also includes an overall discussion of lutely necessary for his development,but which he guidance in cinema appreciation, children'sfilm rarely finds in the outside world. Inpre-puberty preferences, and statistics of film attendance by an interest in technical aspects of the cinemais children and others. awakened; that of boys is directedtowards film- making and trick photography, while girls look at 345.Lanocita, Arturo. Cinema: Fabbrica disojW. the movements of film actors. Thequestion of the /Cinema: a dream factoryj Milan,Ed. desirability of "disillusioning" mustalso be asked. Signorelli, 1951. The author feels that such "disillusion"should have a positive intention only, i.e. itshould meet A history of the cinema, written for the curiosity and the impulse children. This to know how a film is work also contains some interesting statisticscon- made. In puberty the behaviour ofyoung people cerning cinema attendance and favouriteactors, on becomes truly "polydimensional".Young people the basis of data provided by English children. are interested in many facets of the film simulta- neously. Films are a gateway anda training 346. Laporta, Raffaele. Che cosa a un cineclub ground for life for children of thisage-group. per ragazzi: Problemi nsico-pedagogici. Education must not be restricted toaesthetic edu- /What is a children's film club?psycho- cation only. Methods of film discussion,and the pedagogical problems_] In: Cineclubper study of suitable literatureon film, are also Ragazzi, Rome, 1957, p. 33-48. described. Paper presented to a study sessionon film clubs for children (Rome, 1956), dealing withthe influence of films on children and the functions of

75 organizers of film clubs, who "may improve, 350 .Lensing, Adolf. Warum Filmerziehung in der correct and even completely change" the different Schule? LWhy film teaching is necessary.] In: reactions provoked in children by films. Film, Jugend, Schule, Gelsenkirchen, (10), September 1954, 4 p. 347 .Laporta, Raffaele. Educazione morale ed estetica attraverso it linguaggio cinemato- The cinema meets a real and entirely acceptable grafico nei giovanni dells scuole medic need of young people of all ages. It is true that superiori italiane. Mora( 1 17E------td.aesthetic edu- seeing too many films without supervision or con- cation through the language of the cinema for trol has its dangers, but the teacher should not be young pupils in Italian upper middle schools,7 blind to the fact that some films have a positive In: Il nuovo cinema, Rome (7), November- educational value. The film is a teaching aid that December 1952, p. 13-14. cannot be controlled: it may be excellent or harm- fill. The school may play an important r8le by When, towards the age of 16, a young person is protecting children from the dangers of the cinema capable of understanding the complex syntax of and exploiting its educational possibilities. film language, it would be appropriate for the teacher to "br'ng into the school itself the cinema 351.Lewin, William. Photoplay Appreciation in which the child seeks outside".It is consequently American High Schools. New York, D. necessary to develop in young people a critical Appleton Century, 1934. 122 p. taste for the language of the cinema, thus entailing as aesthetic and moral evaluation of films. Can the film habits of more mature children in America be improved in the English lessons in 348 .Lehman, Margaret. Motion Picture Education school; can certain ideals and attitudes be deve- in a Small Suburban High School. In: Funda- loped by the showing of well-selected films from mentals in a Democratic School, Philadelphia, current production; can the local cinema serve as University of Pennsylvania, 1938, p. 409-413. an "educational laboratory", and films for high- school pupils yield valuable and useful literary A description of a ten-week course in film appre- experience? ciation given at a Pennsylvania high school in Film appreciation can be taught to normally 1938. It includes an expose of the various phases intelligent boys and girls in grades 9, 10, 11 and of film production, followed by practice in film 12, after which the pupils adopt the habit of seek- making, during which the students acquired ex- ing their teachers' advice in the selection of films. perience in scenario writing, film acting, and Class instruction leads also to appreciation of stage management. honesty, gallantry, devotion and self-sacrifice. Film critiques were studied with a view to Film appreciation can well begin by considering developing the pupil's ability to select suitable the work of the film director, and the importance films for children of various ages. attached to his name. The pupils like to discuss films and take an active part in these discussions. 349 .Lehnemann, Heinrich. Vielseitige Film- The use of films is also an aid to literary Auswertung. Ergebnisse einer unterricht- appreciation. lichen Behandlung des Films "Columbus". /Multilateral appreciation of films. Results 352.Lewin, William and Frazier, Alexander. from the use of the film "Columbus" in Standards of PhotoplayAppreciation. Summit, teaching_] In: Film, Jugend, Schule, New Jersey, Educational and Recreational Gelsenkirchen, (14), July 1955, 4 p. Guides, Inc., 1957. The report of an experiment in film criticism in Intended as a textbook for junior and senior high school. In accordance with the practice of schools. The approach is primarily informational. "Westdeutsche Schulfilm", the film "Columbus" Production, screen writing, directing, screen act- was first shown to teachers and to a small group ing, editing and cinematography are described and of pupils who'were afterwards asked certain ques- the contribution of each-to the finished film is in- tions about the film. The answers enabled the dicated. Names and notable achievements, both teachers to decide whether the film was suited to present and past, of important figures in each field its intended purpose. The film was then screened are discussed. Standards of performance in each before all the pupils who were the subjects of the field are given. A summary chapteron "How to experiment, and they were asked to write down become a better movie-goer" contains a rating their impressions. The author quotes extracts scale to be used in evaluating particular films. A from these essays, which contain appreciations of guide for the class discussion of the screen version the content and form of the film, its technical of "Julius Caesar" is also annexed. qualities and its use in the teaching of history. The The authors note in the preface: "It is futile to extracts showed that films of this type are valuable expect any significant improvement in young people's teaching aids. movie tastes unless the teaching procedure includes a series of at least fourteen class periods devoted

76 to the discussion of a minimum of seven choice than book selection?" "Are young people selected pictures". taken seriously in motion pictures; are they real; are they given credit for intelligence?" These 353 .Liska, Miroslay. Le film artistique en tant questions were discussed by the pupils with the que moyen de travail dans lee &oleo des Ier result that they learned to judge a film critically et Herne degree. LThe artistic film as a teach- and realized that they were able to exercise some ing aie in primary and secondary schools .J influence on film distribution and production, i.e. In: Comenius, Prague, 96 (14, 1952, p. by refusing to see a given film. 804-810. 357.Makarenko, Anton S. Ekciii o vospitanil detej. The author analyses the opinions of psychologists (Lectures on the education of children) 8th concerning conditions for children's understanding lecture: The cinema. In its: Works, 2nd ed. of a work of art. He then deals with the prepara- Vol. IV. Moscow, Academy of Pedagogic tion of teachers and pupils for the showing of films, Sciences of the RSFSR, 1957, p. 417-428. and evaluates the educational and instructional aspects of the cinema. The work is based on an The author considers that "in our time the film example: "The brave schoolgirl". represents a powerful factor of education, not only for children, but also for adults". He also notes 354 .Liska, Miroslav, Beran, Jan and Brychtova, "the unpleasant side of children's infatuation for V. Le film artistique dans le travail educatif the cinema. Often, the child does not pass the et instructif de l'ecole unique. LThe artistic stage of simple unreasoned impressions; his ar- film in the educational and instructional work tistic impressions are superficial, they do not of the comprehensive school) Prague, State touch his personality, do not awaken thought and Publishing House for Education, 1953. pose no problems. Under these conditions, the film offers only very insignificant advantages and The authors quote examples of the use of artistic may, at times, cause considerableharm". films for educational purposes in the compulsory For this reason, the author advises parents and general school. They record in detail the training teachers to prevent their children from visiting of teachers and the psychological and educational the cinema more than twice a month, to discuss preparation of pupils, and also examine the ques- films with them, and to direct their thoughts to tion of discussions after the screening of films. the deepest and most important aspects of films. The book concludes with six concrete examples, He recommends that children should visit the together with stenographers' notes on comments cinema with their parents or with older brothers made by pupils. or sisters. 355 .McCullough, Constance. A Preview of an 358.Marcus, H.L. Plea for the Movies. In: Investigation of Motion-picture Class and Club High Points, St. Albans, N.Y. , November Activities. In: The English Journal, Chicago, 1945. XXVIII (2), Part I, February 1939, p. 120-130. An account of a lecture course on film held at the The result of a survey on film education in school Eastern District High School in New York exclu- and in youth organizations. The answers come sively for honour students .The course was divided from 40 classes and 40 clubs in 23 different States into 19 "units" , among which figured: "standards of the United States of America. Film courses, for films", "validity and treatment of social from one to six weeks in duration, are organized in problems", and "types of motion pictures" . many schools (mainly in senior high schools). Following the course, the pupils had a heightened Teachers generally employ a book or film perio- sense of discrimination, were more sensitive to dical as guide. (Edgar Dale 's book "How to appre- propaganda elements in the film, and therefore ciate motion pictures" is the work most frequently became more critical of the treatment of social cited (see no.321).) Most teachers are of the problems. opinion that the subject "film" can better be dealt with in class than in a film club, and several 359.Marcussen, Elsa B., Germeten, Elsa, Ness, examples of suitable methods are noted. Einar. Rapport am forsoket med filmunder- visn pa Ruselokke Skole, 1956. (Report on an 356 .Maggio, Joseph B. A Guidance Programme in experiment with film teaching in Ruselokke FilmA andTaste. New York, Film School, 19562 Oslo, Norm Almenviten- Estimate Board of National Organizations, skapelige Forskningsrad,LNorwegian Popular 15 June 1956. (Joint Estimates of Current Science Research Council), 1957, n.p. Entertainment Films - Green Sheets). A report on an experiment in film teaching among A film study course in a high school is described, 300 pupils aged 12-13 in an Oslo elementary school. t%t ld on the "Communication Arts Syllabus" . After an introduction about film education abroad, why are we less selective with regard to film the report describes the pedagogical methods and 77 the materials used in the experiment. It gives the 3. Strength of the motion-picture industry. evaluation of two film experts and a group of 4. Reliance of education on the motion-picture teachers as to the methods and the results. The industry. results of two questionnaires issued to the children 5. Practical measures against harmful film- during the experiment are also published, giving vidwing. an indication of the extent of cinema-going among the children, their film preferences, and their Part 2: Principles of Film Education attitudes before and after the film teaching experiment. 1. What is the educational film? 2. The field of film education. 360.Menlinskaja, Ju. Kino kak vid massovoj 3. School education and films shown at school. raboty s det mi. LThe cinema, as an aspect 4. Social education and problems of the cinema. of collective work with children] Pedagogical 5. Present conditions of film education in Japan. Encyclopaedia, published under the direction 6. Film education in the future. of A.G. Kalahnikov, with the assistance of 7. The cinema and children's health. M.S. Eplitejn, vol. II: The Cultural Worker. 8. The bad cinema and educational counter- Moscow, 1928, p. 542 -548. measures.

The article consists of four parts: (1) the educa- 362.iVtilieirwh.amosieGFoarnrdonn.More Movies Suitable for tional r8le of the cinema and the immediate pro- Family_.In: New Zealand Family blems concerning work with children in the field of Doctor, Auckland,3 (1), January 1959, the cinema; (2) the organization of film sessions p. 28-30. for children; (3) preparatory work and (4) the spectacle and the repertoire. The author, who has served as Film Censor for Mention is made of the extra-curricular me- New Zealand, shows how official censorship selects thods of using the cinema for educational purposes films suitable for children. Such films include, in employed during the early stages of the system of particular, British productions by "Children's Soviet public instruction, when special children's Entertainment Films" and by the Children's Film performances were organized with the aid of spe- Foundation, as well as an increasing number of cialized educators. The latter advised on the films in which cuts have to be made to eliminate choice of the most suitable films from an educa- scenes and shots which might bore or frighten tional point of view, bearing in mind the topical children. With the aid of various examples, the interest of the subjects. They then collected author shows how certain scenes, which could be material likely to illustrate the subject of the film considered harmless for adults, cannot be screened to be screened(posters, drawings, photographs before children as they were produced.It is ne- and printed material) for display in the foyer of the cessary to set up in New Zealand a centre for cinema and as a basis for games, songs and reci- children's films (in accordance with the recom- tations with children before they were shown the mendations of the International Centre of Films film. In front of the exhibition stands they held for Children in Brussels), which would perform a discussions with the children in order to prepare great service to the production, import and distri- them for better assimilation, feeling and under- bution of good children's films, and to study and standing of the film content. In the cinema itself research in this field. the projection of a silent film was accompanied by an explanation or a recitation given by a suitably 363 .Mohrhof, Siegfried. Die Filrndiskussion und trained educator . die Jugendgruppe. ZPilm discussion groups The distribution of tickets for these educational and youth clubs.] In: Film-Bild, Ton, Munich, sessions was made in a systematic way by the V (8), November 1956, p. 33-47. schools, children's organizations, and "Pioneer" groups. The school groups attended cinema per- Some considerations on film discussion groups for formances under the direction of their teachers, young peop1P: educitional needs, themes for dis- instructors or parents. The most active elements cussion (lack of realism, the pseudo-problems and among the young spectators became the voluntary aesthetics of the cinema), and factures of collective helpers of the organizers. psychology which the organizer should take into account; practical problems to be solved in the 361 .Mikakawa, Kikuyoshi, and Hoshino, Choshaku. interests of well-organized discussions. Eiga Kyoiku no Riron to Jissai. 4Principles 364.Mohrhof, Siegfried; Haase, Ulrich; Winkler, and practice of film education2 Tokyo, Gerd and Brudny Wolfgang. Filmgesprache Koseilcaku, 1931, 373 p. mit Jugendlichen. Beitrgge zur Methodik und Praxis der Jugendfilmarbeit. LFilm discus- Part I: A view of the Cinema Era sions with young people. A contribution to methods and practice in youth film activities,.] 1. Movement towards a "cinema civilization". Munich, Institut fur Film und Bild in 2. Education and mechanical aids. Wissenschstft und Unterricht, 1957, 52 p. 78 Considers the value of organizing discussions arrangement of the foyer of the cinema (in accord- among young people and the methods likely to ance with the title of the film), slogans, posters, bring the best results.Well directed discussions photographs from the film;(6) documentation for enable the participants to acquire more objective the reading rooms: a list of books relating to the standards of film appreciation and stimulate think- film, ideas for work concerning these books; (7) ing about problems treated in films. Haase sum- ideas for the organization of children's collective marizes the principles of good film discussion and games related to the subject of the film; (8) docu- offers suggestions for advance preparation by dis- mentation for the educator and his work for and cussion leaders. Several pedagogical points of with the children: poems, songs, ideas for play- view are considered. lets on the subject of the film; (9) a subject dia- Winkler explains how a film can be analysed gram of the educational work with children prior dramatically and cinematographically. Mohrhof to screening; (10) general subjects for lectures reviews the various types of persons who take part or discussions before the presentation of the film in film discussions, the difficulties of getting a to the children; (11) characteristics of the com- discussion started, and the aids available to the mentary accompanying a silent film; (12) sugges- discussion leader. Brudny discusses how young tions for work following the screening of the film. people experience a film at different ages, and Such brochures were published regularly for links this with his ideas on the importance of film several years. discussion among young people. A short bibliography onthe art of leading a discussion is included. 368.Peters, Jan M.L. Experiences and Ideas on Film Teaching n En landgA Western Germany, 365 .Mura, Antonio. Il film nell'educazione dei France the United States of America and the giovani. LThe film in education for young Netherlands. The Hague, Institut Film en peopled In: Ufficio Cattolico della Educa- Jeugd, 1957, 63 p. (stencilled). zione, Bolletino, Rome, X (7), July 1958, p. 249-253. A report prepared for an international conference on film education (Amsterdam, November 1957), A synthesis of problems related to the cinema and which examines in detail the principles applied in children. The artistic taste and poetic sense of film education in each of the countries concerned, the child are not sufficient to enable him to judge namely; main considerations on which the need a film correctly. The task of the teacher is to for film education is based; the concept of film prepare the child to judge a film "firstly by edu- education; the age at which such education should cating him morally and aesthetically, then, if it begin; the advisability of film education as a school should be necessary, by keeping him at all costs or out-of-school activity. A study of methods and away from harmful films" . aids utilized in film education, in connexion with the age of the pupils, the place which such educa- 366 .0ietti, Pasquale. Immunizziamo i ragazzi tion may be accorded in the curriculum, etc ,An dal cinema. LLet us immunize children indication of the methods used in various countries against the cinema; In: Maternith e infanzia, to train the necessary teaching staff. A short Rome, (5-6), May-June 1951, p. 37-39. bibliography. A summary of discussions. The author advocates 369. Peters, Jan M.L. The necessityof learning, film education for children, i.e. a psychological how to see a film.In: Audio-Visual Commu- solution to the problem rather than one involving nication Review, Los Angeles, III (3), Summer such external methods of coercion as censorship 1955, p. 197-205. or restrictive legislation. Film may be considered a language in the sense of 367.Peres, B. Revang 1930. Litevengej a linguistic system. The potentialities of the Kandirin, B. Palika 1931. Lpachka2 visual language to stimulate perception, imagina- Muarav' ev,,I. Ja ne lament LI am not tion, ideas, thought, feeling and desire are dis- small cussed.It is pointed out that to experience these Kister, G. Othajanyl betel' on 1934. if he benefits, the spectator must learn to understand brave batallionj the film language. The film can be a valuable aid Moscow, Directorate of Cinematographic to the teacher in helping pupils to experience and Installation Services of the Sovnarkom of the visualize the world and to familiarize themselves RSFSR. (Monographs on Children's Films) . With given subjects. These brochures concerning the above children's 370 .Reed, Stanley. Film Appreciation as a Class- films were published at the time the films were room Subject. London, British Film Institute, issued, for use by children's cinemas and schools. n.d., 11 p. (stencilled). Each brochure gives: (1) the credit titles of the film; (2) the subject; (3) the content; (4) an The necessity for film education and the difficulties evaluation of the film; (5) suggestions for the to be overcome (e.g, the training of teachers) are

79 stressed. A plea is made for the introduction of moral unrest. Consequently, it is necessary to film lessons in school, and different methods develop in children a suitable critical sense, and which could be applied are proposed; the discus- to take steps to provide them with special films sion method, instructions on film technique, writ- and cinemas. ing of scenarios, and the making of short films by the children themselves. Several practical 375 .Sekino, Yoshio. Eigo Kyoiku no Riron. hints on how to obtain suitable films and other aids LPrinciples of film education, Tokyo, are given. Shogakkan, 1942, 430 p. 371 Rosenthal, Newman H. Films inour Lives: An 1. Principles of cultural films. Approach to Film Appreciation. Melbourne, 2. Principles of film education F.W. Cheshire, 1953, 68 p. Chapter 1: Tracing the development of film education. The film can be said to have a real future only if Chapter 2: The advance of film education. the public receives satisfactory film education. Chapter 3: Problems of learning through films, The need for film education is stressed, anda and films for school subjects. survey of film history, principles of film tech- Chapter 4: Problems of film education outside nique and the process of film productionare pre- schools, and screenings in the school sented, as well as several suggestions about the auditorium. teaching of critical film appreciation in school. Chapter 5: The establishment of children's films. Chapter 6: The place of film appreciation in the 372 . Santinello, Giovanni.Il cinema nella scuola field of education. come mezzo didattico ed educativo. LThe cinema in school as a didactic and educa- 376 .Seton, Marie. The Film as an Educational tional aidj In: Cinema e Scuola, Treviso, Force in India. New Delhi, Ministry of Education, 12 June 1952, p. 21-26 (special number). 1956, 41. (Culture in Education series, 3). A study of the possibilities of didactic cinema and A series of lectures: of the use of fictional films as elements in the 1. The subjects and the films. education of children and adolescents. If the 2. General reactions to film appreciation. teacher prepared the child to see, understand and 3. The educational value of specific films. judge a film, it would considerably reduce the 4. Experiments with children and villagers. disadvantages caused by the passive nature of film entertainment. 377. Shoemaker, Francis ed. Communication Arts in the Curriculum. In: Communication and 373. Schubert, Klaus. Das Filmgesprach mit the Communication Arts, ed. by Francis Jugendlichen: Grundsitliches and Prak- Shoemaker, New York, 1957, p. 111-119. tisches. LA theoretical and practical guide to the organization of film study circles for An analysis of the pedagogical implications of young people Munich-13asle, Ernst Susanne Langer's theories ("Philosophy ina new Reinhardt Verlag, 1957, 44 p. key" and "Feeling and form"). Manconquers the world through symbols which complete the blanks This work is intended for the organizers and pro- in his experience and through which he assimilates moters of film study groups, particularly those other people's experiences. Susanne Langer in schools and youth clubs. The introduction deals makes a distinction between discursive andnon- with the theoretical importance of film discus- discursive symbols, both of whichare essential sions as teaching methods, and is followed by in the child's education towards adulthood.Films observations on the choice of films to be studied, should belong to the syllabus of schoolsas they and the preparation and organizations of discus- bring us in contact - along the non-discursiveway - sion. The discussion should lead to a critical with aspects of life which cannot be approached appreciation of the relationship between the film through other symbols. and reality and of its technical and aesthetic qualities. Suggestions for the conduct of discus- 378 .Society for the Study of Film Education in sions, and an account of the general educational Japan. Eiga Kyoiku no Kiso Chishiki. value, the dangers and the limits of film (Fundamental knowledgeon film education:7 discussions. Osaka, 1930, 348 p. Part I deals with Problems of Film Education. 374 .Sciascia, Ugo. La nostra azione. Lour Chapters include Furyoji to Eiga tono Kankei action./ In: Stampa, cinema, radioper (Relations between delinquent childrenand the ragazzi, Rome, n.d., p. 79-83. film/ by Seisuke Fujimura; andJido no Kogyo- eiga Kanran Mondai to Eiga KyoikuLProblemsof Contact between young people and the modern children's film-viewing at theatres, andeducation cinema is responsible for increasing mental and by the fills/ by Tatsuo Inada.

80 379 .Stiickrath,Fritz (et al.) Arbeitshinweise 382. Troger, Walter. Beispiel einer Filmanalyse fur Jugendfilmclubs. (Suggestions for film fiir Ju endliche:"Das Geheimnis der Schwester clubs f Achen, Verband der deutschen Angelikd'. LAn example of film analysis for Filmclubs e. V. - Jugendreferat, (1), young people: "The Secret of Sister Angelica' September 1956, 56 p. In: -Jugend and Film, Munich, (2), 1957, p. 17-28. A series of directives and practical suggestions concerning film education. Articles,by Fritz An analysis of a thought-provoking film, indicating Stiickrath (Der Film als Bildungserlebnis der questions which might serve as subjects for a film Jugend); Siegfried Mohrhof (Die Arbeit in der discussion with adolescentsIn each instance, the Bundesrepublik). A list of recommended films, author endeavours to explain what it praiseworthy film criticisms, remarks on the programme of a or reprehensible in the actions and motives of the course in film appreciation, etc. film's main characters. 380 .Tarroni, Evelina. Spettacolo, tipo, e 383 .Urickij, N.Z. Kino vo vnEklassnoj rabote. metodologia dei cineclubs per ragazzi. The cinema and extra-curricular activities.' ZProgrammes, type and methodology of film Moscow, Utchpedgis, 1954, 120 p. clubs for children." In: Cineclub per ragaze, Rome, 1957, p. 73-80. A manual of methods for the educational use of films with State school pupils between 12 and 17 A paper presented during the study session on years of age. children' s film clubs (Rome, 23-25 April, 1956). Chapter 1 gives a general view of non-documen- The methodology of children' s film clubs tary films and discusses films preferred by young should differ from that of clubs for adults. Refer- people. ring to results of an inquiry carried out for the Chapter 2 explains the r8le and range of Soviet Pedagogical Institute on the tastes and behaviour films in the political education of the young. Ob- of children with regard to the cinema, the author sErvations made by teachers, and the pupils' view- distinguishes two groups of spectators (8-12 year- point concerning the place of the cinema in their olds, and 12-17 year-olds), for which he outlines existence, are presented. The material collected a methodology to be used in discussions and in gives concrete and abundant information on the the selection of films. tastes and interests of Soviet pupils with regard to films. 381 .Tol', B.H. Primenenie kino vo vneklassnoj Chapter 3 describes different ways of utilizing rabote lkoly. LThe cinema and extra- films in extra-curricular activities and shows to curricular school activities.] In: Gercen what extent the role of the teacher is varied and Institute of Pedagogy, Scientific notes, responsible. He must control the children's Leningrad, VIII (1), 1953, p. 46-82. cinema-going habits, organize collective outings, and prepare school cinema performances. He In the introduction, a general view of the role must familiarize himself with the films prior to played by the cinema for young people in the life screening in order to be able to arrange film pro- and education of children and adolescents is given. grammes according to the age of the spectators. Important documentation is presented, based on A school film performance is not limited to a the Soviet and foreign press.Using extracts from simple screening, but a whole series of educa- the American, English and Greek press, the author tional activities are attached to it, and meetings presents a critical examination of the influence of with well-known personalities have here an Hollywood film production on young people. important place. The author stresses that it is important for Finally, the activities of cinema clubs, which teachers and instructors among the "Pioneers" to enable pupils to familiarize themselves with film be initiated into film work at school and to have techniques and art, are described and programmes assimilated the principles of film "grammar". of cinema clubs are also given. Descriptions of the different types of film This work, which describes actual experience activity at school demonstrate the varied nature in Moscow schools, is intended for a wide range of this work as carried out in Leningrad. Films of educators. The annex includes a catalogue of are used in conjunction with touristic and sporting the children's film library up to 1 January 1954, activities of young people. Films also facilitate and a bibliography of works relating to films. their understanding of all aspects of art: theatre, painting, sculpture, music, etc. 384 . Verdone, Mario. Alcune esgerienze al estero. The question of integrating film into the syl- (Some foreign experimentsd In: Cineclub labus is raised: pupils must learn to know the per ragazzi, Rome, 1957, p. 125-133. film classics in the same way as the classic works of literature. A paper presented during a study session on film Different extra-curricular ways of using films clubs (Rome, 23-25 April 1956), dealing with in Soviet schools are described. foreign experiments in the screening of films for

81 7.1111111.1.3111.011.1.11nwRinMS

children; some useful commentson the direction on children in: Belgium, France, Germany, of Italian activity in this field. Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United States of America 385. Zochbauer , Franz. Kontrolluntersuchungen and Uruguay. fiber den Erfolg filmischer Erziehung. Chapter 2, dealing with "Films for Children, LControl investigation of thesuccess of film includes the following sub-headings: Production; educationj In: Jugend and Film, Munich, Organizing performances for children; Children's December 1956, p. 1-8. reactions; The film and juvenile delinquency. The author concludes that in the few countries A questionnaire on the cinema was given to 3,000 where an effort has been made to produce films pupils of a boys' primary school in Salzburg,some specially intended for children and to organize of the questions being repeated one year later to cinema clubs and performances for children, re- 165 pupils of the highest grade inthe school. These sults appear to have been most encouraging. This pupils had meanwhile receivedfilm education; does not alter the fact that enterprises such as several suitable films had been screened, and had these at present affect only a very small percentage been expertlyintroduced and then discussed. Acom- of children, and that even the children who attend parison of the two inquiries showed that film educa- the special performances continue to see a large tion appears to have had some influence onthe fre- number of films for adults. Inadequacy of produc- quency of cinema attendance, hero-worship of film tion and impediments in the way of free trade in stars, critical attitudes vis-à-vis the film content films are two of the main current obstacles to the and interest therein. development of films for children. In the first survey, 85 per cent of the children stated that the cinema had taught them how to be- 388.Bertin, Giovanni M. Cinema et education have when with other people; only 55 per cent sociale. LCinema and social education.] corroborated this statement during the second A paper presented at the Second International. survey. At the time of the first investigation, the Congress of Filmology, Paris, 1955. frequency of the children's visits to the cinema amounted to 2.1 per month; it rose to 3.2 at the Some brief considerations on the social and psycho- time of the second inquiry (including additional logical aspects of the cinema, followed by an out- visits to specially organized school film perform- line of influential conditions which education films ances). In the first survey, 60 per cent stated should meet. A pedagogical criticism of the neo- that they went to the cinema to see a certain actor; realist film. in the second inquiry this figure had dropped to 26 per cent. At the beginning only 33 per cent were 389.Boldyreva, L.A. Kinoiurnal "Pioner" i ego guided in the selection of films by critiques; this rol' v komunistieeskom vospitanii detej. figure rose to 63 per cent in the second survey. LThe cinema journal "Pioner" and its role in the communist education of children) See also:nos.13, 15, 19, 37, 41,56, 58, 65,66,71, 96, 106, 127, Diploma thesis prepared under the direction 150, 177, 193, 212, 220,233, 237,241,250, of Professor G.M. Boltjanskij,1949, 296.300,304,307,392,398,414,415,447,448,453, (manuscript). 456,460.461,463,464,465,466,467,468,469,472, 473,474,475,477,478,481,482,483,487,490. The problems facing the Soviet people in the education of the young generation. The r8le of the documentary cinema-journal (c)PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF "Pioner" in the education of children. CHILDREN'S FILMS: SELECTION OF Characteristics of its contents: variety of sub- SUITABLE PROGRAMMES FOR CHILDREN jects drawnfrom life, political topicality and perti- AND ADOLESCENTS nence and a gradualtendencytoward deeper subjects. The journal deals with children's studies and work, their leisure and games, travel, and their most 386. Basdevant, Andre. Cinema et education. interesting artistic activities. It also includesa LCinema and education.] series of studies deVoted to the great men of the A paper i.resented at the Second International SovietUnion, and other series devotedto popular Congress of Filmology, Paris, 1955. science, art, and general knowledge. Each series is based on a clearly defined selection of subjects. Some considerations on the technical, adminis- A detailed examination of the various stages in trative and financial problems posed by the use of the growth of "Pioner" and its operation before, recreational films for educational purposes. during and after the war (e.g. specialprogramme characteristics during the war: sequences showing 387. Bauchard, Philippe. The Child Audience. patriotic activities of children during the last Paris, Unesco, 1952, 198 p. World War, and the r8le played by the Pioneer organizations. A survey of the influence of press, film and radio

82 Analysis of technical problems: rules and 393.Dawson, Marjorie Granger. The Children's principles for the production of a documentary Film Library and Special Children's cinema-journal for children. The subjects are Programmes. New York, National Children's treated in the most accessible forms, i.e. essays Film Library, n.d. 38 p. and short stories. There is a detailed study of the art of prepar- A survey of the activities and working methods of ing a film commentary. the Children's Film Library in New York, containing a list of films suitable for children. A short 390 .Caldana, Alberto.II film per ragazzi al description, and the result of the "Wiggle Test", festival di Venezia. (Children's films at the is given of each film. Venice Festival.] In: Ragazzi Aspiranti, Rome, (9-10), 1950, p. 399-403. 394.Edinburgh Film Festival, 1955. Making Films for Children. (A report on the Conference An account, with commentaries, of the Venice held during the 1955 Festival) Edinburgh, Film Festival for Children. Analysis of the films Edinburgh Film Festival, 1955, 31 p. presented. Addresses delivered at the Conference by Mary 391. Ciampi, Antonio. Aspetti economici della Field, Patricia Latham, Brian Salt, Jan Choyce, produzione di film per ragazzi. (Economic Ernest Welton, George Singleton, J.K. Stafford aspects of the production of films for Poole and M. McIntosh, with summaries of the children.] In: Lo Spettacolo, Rome, VI (4), discussions which followed the addresses. October-December 1956, p. 19. Topics included "General Principles of Pro- duction", "Scripting", "Direction", "Selection", The positive solution to the problem of the "youth- "International Distribution and Exhibition". cinema" relationship lies in the production of films which meet both cultural and recreational needs at 395 . Field, Mary. Good Company. London, the same time, because these films are seen not Longmans, Green& Co., 1952, 192p. (Italian only by young people but also by adults of little edition: II film per ragazzi in Gran Bretagna, education who wish to improve themselves. The Rome, Ed. dell'Ateneo, 1952). future depends on the spirit of initiative and the element of risk taken by private firms, which need Describes the development of the production of financing over longer periods and on better terms, children's films in the United Kingdom and dis- a guarantee of wide distribution over themain cusses the requirements of such production.This Italian circuits, and foreign exploitation, since the demands, among other factors, special film tech- Italian market cannot support the cost of films of niques; particularly simplicity and clearness. a certain artistic standard. Details of the reception accorded these films abroad and of the economic aspects of production, 392 .Cochin, Marcel. Etude d'un programme de and a list of all films produced, are given. films pour Ia jeunesse miniLre. (Study of a film programme for young miners.] In: 396.Gastaldi, Enrico. Caratteristiche del film Education et cinema, Paris, I (6), July 1956, per ragazzi. LCharacteristics of the film for p. 385-390. childrenj In: Rivista del Cinematografo, Rome, XXV (4), 1952, p. 6-8. The young miner between 19 and 20 years of age visits the cinema frequently and prefers films The author argues that the children's film should about cowboys, Tarzan, crime, and films with a divert without prejudicing education, captivate pronounced erotic element. The programme of without distortion and instruct without boring. The cine-clubs is too intellectual for this type of public. child is full of imagination and curiosity: conse- Because of their modest intelligence, emotional quently the most suitable films for children would deprivation and life of hard work, they seek be on the one hand fairy tales - to meet his ima- security in the cinema in the anonymous mass of ginative needs - and on the other hand films of their companions. The film interests them in so human character and documentaries, to satisfy far as it demands neither physical nor mental his curiosity about life. effort, and to the extent that it affords oblivion, escape and amusement - the fulfilment of their 397.Gastaldi, Enrico.II cinema e i ragazzi. dream life. But their film appreciation can be (Cinema and children) In: Rivista del developed, first of all by helping them to recognize Cinematografo, Rome, XXIII (1), January the more positive aspects of the films which 1950, p. 12-13. appeal to them. It is necessary to produce films adapted to the age of the spectators, and to show them in special cinemas.

83 398.Gel'mont, A. Kino kak Faktor Vospitanifa. films as "didactic", "cultural" and "entertainment". LThe cinema asa factor in education) In: Production of films for children remains stationary; Courier of Culture, Moscow, (5), 1927, comparison should be made between those produced p. 9-21. in the West with those made elsewhere, and more account -should be taken of the results of scientific This article was written at a time when the cinema surveys. for children in the Soviet Unionwas in its early stages. Few films for children were in existence 402.Graziani, Cesare.11 cinema e teatro per and children saw mainly films for adults which ragazzi. (Cinema and theatre for children./ taught them little, if they were not actually In:I Servizi dei Ragazzi, Rome, n. d., dangerous. p. 52-59. Details are given of measures taken to mitigate the harmful influence of the cinema by (1) limiting What should be the attitude of teachers towards the admission of children; (2) educationalcensor- films for children? There is a need for special ship of films, entrusted to Public Instruction children' s films. bodies; (3) the organization of collective visits to the cinema for children under the direction of the 403 .Hills,Janet.Children' s Films.In: Sight school or "Pioneers" organization; (4) daynur- and Sound, London, 21 (4), April-June 1952, sery and activities for children in the foyer of the p. 179-181, 185. cinema while adults attended the screening; (5) organization of special children' s matinees. Published as a consequence of Henri Storck's "The At the same time production of a cinemato- Entertainment Film for Juvenile Audiences", (see graphic repertoire of good educational valuewas no. 423). The merits and shortcomings of a started and the bases of cinematographic working number of children's films produced in the United methods with children were seriously studied. The Kingdom are discussed, and views on the desira- work plan included (1) the study of the youngspec- bility of the production of special children' s films, tator; (2) the training of educators specializing in the aesthetic value of a film in the eyes of a child, the cinema; (3) the organization of an experimental the representation of good and bad characters, the educational cinema. appearance of children and adults as leading actors, etc. are developed. 399 .Gerstenberger,, Magdalena. Jugendfilm- stiftung. Ein praktischer Versuch. LApracz. 404 .Hoel, N. Barn og film. LChildren and film, tical experiment in film-making for children2 Oslo, Tiden Norsk Forlag, 1938. In: Jugend and Film, Munich, (2), 1957, p. 29-36. This is a study of the films shown to Norwegian child audiences in the nineteen-thirties,an analysis Faced with the shortage of good films for children, of the various types of films, examples of their an attempt was made to adapt an adult film by the effect on the children, and suggestions for better deletion of certain scenes, the addition ofnew programmes for children. scenes and the substitution of a narrative commentary for parts of the original dialogue. 405.Juez Vicente, Julian. La produccidn de peliculas para nirios. LThe production of 400 .Giraud, Jean. Les festivals mineurs de films for children2 Madrid, Consejo Venise en 1953. /Children' s films at Superior de Investigaciones Cientfficas, 1951, Venice, 19532 In: La sauvegarde de l'en- 24 p. and: Revista Espaflola de Pedagogfa, fance, Paris, IX, September 1954, p. 669-679. Madrid, (34), April-June 1951, p. 341-359. A study of the results of the Fifth Festival of A systematic and well-documented study, in six Children's Films and the Fourth Festival of Docu- chapters, of the characteristics and conditions of mentary and Short Films, organized in Venice cinema for children. Concludes withan examina- from 11-19 August 1953. Criticism of the films tion of European production of this type, with presented, together withflome considerationson particular reference to six countries. the conditions which shodld be met by children's films, and criteria for appreciation. 406 .Kister,G.A. Detskii kino-teatr. (Cinema for children2 Moscow, Publication of the 401 .Giraud, Jean. Les festivals mineurs de Central Office for the Artistic Education of Venise en 1954. (Children's films at Children, 1936, 55 p. Venice, 19542 In: La sauvegarde de l'enfance, Paris,X, April 1955, p. 337-345. This work reflects the results of experiences during the nineteen-thirties, concerning the function- Criticism of the children's films, documentaries ing of the cinema for children. Forty-six such and short films presented at the Venice Festival, cinemas, catering for 30,000 children per month, from 6-17 July 1954.It is difficult to classify existed in the Soviet Union at that period. 84 Chapter 1 discusses fundamental principles for 408.Lahy-Hollebecque, Marie. L 'enfant au the functioning of a cinema for children. royaume des images: essai sur le cinema et Chapter 2 defines the film repertoire for les "eunes. LThe child in the kingdom of children, i. e. mainly films on the life of children, images: Essay on the cinema and children./ plus a certain number of films for adults, suitable Paris, Union rationaliste, 1956, 187 p. for children. Chapter 3 attempts to show the characteristics A description of a 35-year-old struggle to arrive of publicity for children's films (posters, hoard- at good recreational films for children, and the ings, trailers, broadcasts, etc.). requirements such films should meet in relation Chapter 4 describes the setting-up and the to the age and maturity of the child. Several equipment of a children's cinema. suggestions regarding the production of children's The book gives details of a preparatory work films are made. A scenario of a typical children's programme with children prior to the projection film is given as an illustration. of the film: music, sketches, exhibitions, etc. Chapters 5, 6, 7 and 8 explain to children how 409.Lavies, Hanns-Wilhelm. Ergebnisse der a film is made, thus awakening their interest in amerikanischen Untersuchungen: Film und film art. Jugend. Part I: Unesco Fragebogen iiber Chapter 12 lists methods of presenting a film Unterhaltungsfilme far Jugendliche; Part U: to children. Jugendliche Straffilligkeit und dramatische A list of songs and recitations, relating to given Unterhaltung. (Results of American inquiries films, as well as different texts on the cinema, into cinema and youth: Part I: Unesco ques- are included in an annex. tionnaire on recreational films for young people; Part II: Juvenile delinquency and 407.Kulik, Adam and Wr6blowa-Koblewska, Janina dramatic entertainments2 In: Deutsches (rapporteurs). Deuxierne concours inter- Institut fiir Filrnkunde, Mitteilungen, Wiesbaden- national du film recreatif pour enfants. Biebrich, (17), January 1953, 36 p. (stencilled). Compte-rendu et premieres deductions. The first part is devoted to the work of the National Second international competition of children's Children's Film Library Committee in the United entertainment films. Report and preliminary States of America. Detailed exposition of the findings:7 Warsaw, Polish Head Office of following points: conditions which should be met Cinematography, 1957, 27 p. (stencilled). by a film for children; the need for specially produced films for children; principles to be This competition was organized in Warsaw from applied to the production of films for children; is the middle of February to the first week in June it necessary to take into account the fact that 1957, by the Polish Head Office of Cinematography children cannot understand certain technical in collaboration with the International Children's processes; the financing of the production of Centre and Rene and Bianka Zazzo who had con- children's films; organization of film shows, etc. ducted a similar competition in Paris during The second part contains the German transla- 1953-1954 (see no. 432). Answers were sought to tion of Motion Picture Association of America. the following questions: Which films please "Juvenile delinquency and dramatic entertainment", children and why? Are preferences related to age and sex and if so, how? What are the typical 1950. reactions of children to films which they like and 410 . Lhotsky, Jaromir.Moglichkeiten und which they dislike?121 films from 19 European Grenzen des Mirchenfilms. LPossibilities and 2 Asian countries were received from which and limitations of films based on children' s 60 were selected and shown to 1,500 primary tales) In: Film, Jugend, Schule, Gelsen- schoolchildren divided into two age-groups (7-9 kirchen, July 1954. and 10-12 years). Each of these contained approximately 55 per cent boys and 45 per cent girls. A study of the educational possibilities and of the Their votes were cast immediately after each disadvantages of films based on tales. On the performance. By means of special equipment the basis of inquiries carried out by Charlotte Beier, children' s reactions were registered. the author examines how the child's reasoning The preliminary findings largely confirmed the and imagination may be linked to the characteristic results of the Paris experiment. However, during possibilities of the cinema. The author analyses the latter it was found that differences in film the commonest objections to films of this type, appreciation between children of the two sexes de- and categorically rejects films based on children's crease with rising age, whereas the Warsaw ex- tales, interpreted by actors in costume. periment indicates a contrary tendency. 411. Liehm, A . J. "Des amis inseparables" et certains problemes du film pour enfants. L"Inseparable friends", and some of the problems of films for children.] In: Les nouvelles litteraires, Paris, IV (2), 1954.

85 In an article written on the occasion ofthe the schools; teachers belong to the cinemacouncil showing of the Soviet film for children "Inseparable and participate in the preliminary work withthe Friends", the authorsays that this film has cer- children and at school following the screening. tain positive aspects from which the producersof Active elements among the children takepart in children's films might draw inspiration: itsactua- the organization of the matinees. lity, its illustration of the mutual bondsbetween The aim of this book is to show a typical form the child's and adult's worlds, and its ideological of extra-curricular film work organized bya depth. But it also has certain artistic shortcom- cinema, with the active participation cf teachers. ings - in particular, an insufficientlydeveloped scenario - which should be avoided. 415.Nath, Mahendra. Clean Slates. New Delhi, Children's Film Society, 1959, 20p. 412 . Menzel, Josef. The Writer andtheChildren' s Film. In: Film et 1)oba (Film inour timed A report on the development of the children'sfilm Prague, 113-115 (3-4), 1955. movement in India.It gives a brief chronological account of what has been accomplished in various The author, who works in the Czechoslovak Studio States as well as in the capital, and includesa list for Children's Films, relates his experiencein of the films which have been produced, adapted, collaboration with novel-writers and scenario and "dubbed". writers. A scenario intended for children should be 416.Paramonova, K. Nekotoriev2prosy razvitija based on real life, the heroes should be human detskoj kinematografii. (Several aspects of beings. children' s filmsd The defects of films for childrenare not always V Zanitu Romantiki. (Defence of romanti- attributable to the shortcomings of their authors cismd but also to the actions of the supervisingauthori- In: Cinema Art, Moscow, (9), 1952; (5), 1953. ties of the producing organization which often transform the works of authors into amorphous The author discusses the problems whichshe and lifeless products. considers the most important in the field ofchild- It is necessary to find new themes andnew ren's films in the post-war period. Thearticle scenario writers for children' s films. deals with the traditions of Russian children's literature and its relationship to the children's 413 .Mirams, Gordon. Films for Children. cinema. The author feels that the two most im- In: Education, Wellington, New Zealand,(1), portant elements in these two fieldsare the au- February 1956, p. 59-65. thenticity of conflicts, the vitality of thecharacters and the clearness of the subject and composition, A critical inquiry into the New Zealandproject of not forgetting questions of immediate interestand organizing regular cinema programmes specially entertainment value which are of equal importance. designed for the entertainment of children,based Numerous examples of recent successes and largely on the work and experience of the Child- errors in children's films are cited. In the ren's Film Foundation, London. Particular second article, it is stated thatone of the most reference is made to the unusual censorship important educational tasks is the initiationof certificate employed in New Zealand wherebythe children into the romanticism of brilliantfeats in Government Censor officially recommends the service of the people. To enablethe children selected films as being "particularly suitableas to become true builders of the future,their faculty family entertainment". of drama and fantasy must be cultivatedand they must be taught to transform thisdream into reality 414 .Municipal Council of Deputies and Workers by means of examples from life. of Kiev.Iz opyta raboty kino- teatra dia On the basis of this conception of children's detej im.Capaeva. (Experimental data films, the author analyses and criticizesthe faults concerning the functioning of the Kiev child- of Zuravlev' s film "The Inseparables"as being ren's cinema...7 Kiev, Executive Committee faults which are typical ofa whole series of of the Municipal Council of Deputies and children's films, e.g. limited psychology,lack Workers of Kiev, 1956, 18 p. of initiative in children, excessivelydidactic manners, etc. A report of the functioning ofa children's cinema Braun's film "Maksimka" is citedas an example at Kiev, opened in 1943, with seating for 218 of a successful film, with "complete"and interest- persons in winter (630 in summer). In 1955 some ing characters.Conclusions arrived atare that 1,500 performances were organized andwere fewer words and more vivid actionare needed to attended by 215,000 children. The work is illus- show the character of the protoganists,that trated by numerous photographs givingan idea of greater clearness is required in thestatement and the installation of the cinema and the different solution of important educational problems,and aspects of work with children. that care should be taken to avoid excessive This work was done in close co-operationwith didacticism which renders a film tiresome. 86 417 . People' s Commissariat of Instruction of the Children's cinema, without overtly moralizing, RSFSR. Detskoe kino. LThe cinema and should set before the child a life which is optimistic children) Moscow, Teakino Press, 1930, and calm, governed by the high concepts of honour, 80 p. knowledge, patriotism, the family and God. Realizing that the cinema is a powerful means of 422.Sailii, Giovanni. Ragazzi al cinema. education, the Direction of Social Education of the (Children at the cinema) In: Cinema, Rome, Peoples' Commissariat of Instruction published (108), 30 April 1953, p. 221-223 (new series). this collection with a view to drawing the attention of teachers, extra-curricular workers and the The author refers to an experiment in children's general public to the usefulness of developing the cinema carried out in the first months of 1953: cinema to the maximum in the education and in- "Children's Film Week", in which the participants struction of children, and with a view to stimulat- showed particular interest in films specially in- ing specialists of children's educational and school tended for children. films in the production of good films for these purposes. 423. Storck, Henri. The Entertainment Film for The collection contains instructions and direc- Juvenile Audiences. Paris, Unesco, 1950, tives (in use at the time of publication) concerning 252 p. the organization, theory and methods governing the setting-up of school cinemas in the RSFSR; A survey of the production and distribution and rules concerning the scenario and the presentation exhibition of films for children in a number of of school films; educational analysis and evalua- countries, and a study of the composition, needs, tion of a certain number of existing children's and tastes of the juvenile audience. The influence films; information concerning problems of tech- of films on young people' s sexuality and on juvenile nique, and 16 mm. films for children in the Soviet delinquency and the extent to which the film stimu- Union and abroad. lates fear are considered; it is felt that children's films should not attempt to conceal all violence, 418 .Petrucci, Antonio.I film educativi e i film but should portray it with moderation. Children's per llinfanzia. /Educational films and films reactions to films should be studied by direct for childrend In: Actes du Congres inter- observation, through discussions, interviews, national sur la presse periodique, le cinema, questionnaires, letters, intra-club bulletins, et la radio pour enfants, Milan, 19-23 March exercises, drawings, stories, collective games, 1952. Milan, A. Giuffre, 1953, p. 117-120. and memory and opinion tests. The need for careful interpretation of results is stressed. The re- It would be appropriate, though difficult, for the quirements to be met by films in relation to different types of spectacle to correspond to the children's interests are considered, as well as different phases of the child's evolution; the technical problems of film production for young effectiveness of legislative measures which are people, and the financing of such productions. purely repressive is called in question; the Govern- Includes a list of specialists and associations, lists ment should take actionto promote the production of films suitable for children, and a bibliography and import of films specially addressed to children. (53 references). 419 . Pradella, Giulio.It film per ragazzi LThe 424.Tarroni, Evelina. ll film ricreativo per film for childrend In: Venezia 1950, Rome, llinfanzia. LThe recreational film for Directorate of the Venice Festival, 1951, children2 In: Indice d' Oro, (10), October p. 35-72. 1953, p. 300-303. A country-by-country history of film production The problems of children's literature and the pro- for children, followed by a list of children's films. duction of children's films compared. The difficulty lies in finding producers who not only under- 420 .Rondi, Gian Luigi. ll cinema e i ragazzi. stand the world of children but who also know how (The cinema and childrenz/In: Ragazzi to give aesthetic value to the expression of this d'Oggi, Rome, Ill (3), May, 1951, p. 13-18. world.

The important influence of the cinema upon child- 425.Tavistock Clinic, The. A Psychological Study ren. Collection of the laws of various countries of Film Production for Child Audiences; on children's films. Preventive and legislative London, Petroleum Films Bureau, 1952, 36 p. measures to be adopted in Italy with regard to the production of children's films. An investigation, carried out by the staff of the Tavistock Clinic, of the effect of three films on 421 .Sacchetto, Aleardo. B. cinema e la scuola. road safety on primary schoolchildren. The films LThe cinema and the school, i Rome, ARTE, were viewed with considerable interest and appre- 1951, p. 23. ciation by the children. However, those passages

87 in which adults were too obviously trying to give which would counteract the damage caused by children a lesson were much criticized. The ex- harmful films. He recognizes that, appropriately periment clearly showed that, in the production of employed, the cinema is a valuable instrument in children's films, it is desirable to maintain close the servic.e. of childhood and civic education; he contact with the children themselves. The success examines the possibilities of selecting usable ma- of a film seems to depend largely on whether child- terial from the commercial, cinema, the production ren can enjoy it in liberty, can discuss it and voice of special films for children and the exploitation of their criticism afterwards. A second investiga- children' s cinema. The work ends with a conclu- tion was devoted to the result of the collaboration sion, presented by Maria de la Rigada and Carmen of children in the preparation and criticism of the Isern to the International Child Welfare Congress, scenario of a new road safety film. The children and which was unanimously adopted. were evidently absorbed in finding solutions to different problems posed by the scenario. Boys 430.Vinokurov, J. Po puvodu detskogo hudoest- liked to identify themselves with drivers of fast vennogo films. LThe film for childrenj cars and fire engines, police, smugglers, etc.; In: Cinema Art, Moscow, (7), 1954, p. 117. girls with nurses, ambulance drivers and adult women who behaved sensibly and courageously. The author sets out a certain number of essential problems arising from the struggle to produce 426 .Verdone, Mario.11 cinema per ragazzi e la children' s films that possess real ideological and sua storia. LCinema for children and its artistic qualities. After mentioning a number of historyj Rome, Edicine, 1953, 84 p. recent children's films, he goes on to discuss the essential problem: "the hero". A history of the cinema, from which it emerges With regard to the film subject, the author that the recreational film for children is still in considers that it is undesirable for the contents of its early stages. This work deals, inter alia, children's films to be simplified or adapted for with the educational need for films for children. their use. Serious subjects, such as work, the community, one's native land, must appear in 427 .Verdone, Mario.I film per ragazzi a children' s films. But such subjects must be Venezia. (Children' s films at Venice treated in accordance with the age of the audience. In: Cinema, Rome, (115), 15 August 1953, The different conceptions of the subject cycle must p. 62-65 (new series). penetrate the consciousness of the child as soon as possible; as the child gets older, his conceptions An analysis of the films presented at the Inter- become wider, thus widening his horizon. Prin- national Festival of Children' s Films in Venice, ciples, system and selection are indispensable in 1953, preceded by a commentary. "The child- the choice of subjects. There must inevitably be ren's film - according to the author - has not yet a gradation in the knowledge of the world, but found its path.Its language is in process of serious subjects are necessary right from the development". "In this age of research and beginning: this is the specific characteristic of awareness, the aesthetic problem, important children's films. In presenting this idea the though it may be, is not the main concern. In fact, author contests Malcarenko's thesis, according to teachers and parents should be not so much con- which the specific characteristic of children's cerned with knowing whether the film is artisti- literature does not lie in the choice of the subject, cally satisfactory (though this should obviously not but in the manner of telling it. be neglected), as with knowing whether it is The problem of the artistic treatment ofa sub- adapted to the child" . ject cannot be separated from the problem of play. Referring to Makarenko; the author states that 428.Verdone, Mario. Realizzazioni e probleme the child, who first becomes conscious of the world del cinema per ragazzi. LAchievements and through play, passes gradually from play to serious problems of children's cinemaj In: Stamps., work. For this reason the author condemns the Cinema, Radio per Ragazzi, Rome, 1952, attitude of adults who regard children's play with p. 63-68. condescension and who consider play as something non-authentic. The development of production and of legislation It is felt that it is this erroneous conception- in Italy and elsewhere, with regard to films for i.e. considering that it is the artisticprocesses children. involved and not the choice of subjects that cha- racterize children' s films as such- which is 429.Vicente Gelabert,Enrique de. Cinemato- responsible for the standard of certain films, such grafo pro infantia. ginema for children. as "The Mysterious Treasure", "Fire over the Madrid, Consejo Superior de Protecciofi a la River", "Our Street Gang" and severalothers. Infancia, 1926, 14 p. Life offers enough heroic or romantic situations to make it unnecessary to invent artificial The author, a lieutenant-colonel of artillery, out- plots. lines a plan for the creation of a children's cinema

88 431 .Vojtolovskaja L . and Amasovie, A. (ed.) for children "Pioner". The principle: authenticity Deti i kino. (Children and the cinema./ of subject-matter. Function: to deal comprehen- Collection published under the literary sively with the life of all children in the Union. direction of L. Vojtolovskaja and A. Amasovic, Contents: (1) general knowledge; (2) school and Moscow, State Film Publications, 1940, n.p. pioneer. activities; (3) discussion of experience acquired by children in creative work. Particular This collection includes articles by nine authors, interest has been adaed since the journal has been mainly film directors with experience of children's produced with sound. There is no lack of subjects: films. The object is to define several important heroism, biography, etc. problems connected with children's films: prin- T. Arusinskaja - "For the little ones" . Analysis ciples of interpretation, the composition of a of experience of film production for children at pre- scenario for children, the influence of the cinema school age; a plea for the system of "rehearsal on children, etc. play". G. Rodal - "Film Art for Children". The L. Vojtolovskaja - "A hero to come". An ac- author considers that children's films, whatever count of work on Razumnij, s film ("Timour and their subject, must be absolutely accurate in rela- his team"). A children's film scenario must be tion to age and education. Each age has its pecu- drawn from life and be close to the world of the liarities. Films for children at pre-school age child. There are different points of view about must be very simple if they concern a fable, but the way to direct child actors. Like Razumnij the fully documented if they relate to animals or na- author favours the "combined method". tural phenomena. Films for older children must A. Amasovic - "Children and the camera": The be heroic and romantic (e.g. "A white sail on the author discusses young amateur film-makers from horizon" by Legogin and "A personal affair" by the Pioneer House at Zagorie and from Pioneer Razumnij). With films intended for young people Headquarters. It should be noted that certain one should not be afraid to tackle great moral children mentioned in the article as amateurs have problems (e .g. the Gorki trilogy by Donskoj). The since become cinema professionals: L. Sagalova world's classical heritage may be drawn upon and L . Dranovskaja (actresses) and S. Rastockij (Schiller, Shakespeare, etc .) . Baal feels that (Director). permanent companies of child actors should be A. Maksimova - "After the screening". A dis- organized; they would go on from one film to cussion of the influence of the cinema on children another without assuming a professional character at different ages. Examples are shown of how too early. children's impressions are reflected in their A. Razumnij - "Preferred r8les". This article personal activities: drawings for pre-school gives a general description of the authors s experi- children; letters, public reports and scenarios ence with child actors. He feels that forchildren' s for schoolchildren. r8les child actors should be used and that work with them should be carried out according to a 432.Zazzo, Rene and Bianka. Le concours inter- "combined method": the children should first be national du film recreatif pour enfants. LThe entrusted to specialist educators to learn rhyth- international competition for a recreational mics, plastic arts and elocution; they should then film for children./ In: International Child- go on to rehearsals which should alwayscontain ren's Centre, Courier, Paris, IV (5), May an element of play andimprovisation by the 1954, p. 235-258. children. T. Lukadevid - "A five-year-old actress". An account of the International Competition for a Using the films "Gavroche" and "The foundling" Recreational Film for Children held in Paris from as examples, the author describes an"associa- November 1952 to March 1954. The purpose of tion" method for work with child-actors. Children the competition was to encourage the production have the ability to pass from real life to imaginary of films suitable for children and to define the situatiems which they "live" and take seriously. criteria of such suitability. Producers from 16 From this starting point, a method can be evolved countries replied to the announcement of the com- which consists of "provoking" associations of sen- petition issued by the International Children's sations during rehearsals - these always remain Centre in November 1952. Out of the 90 films play. entered, 50 were retained for consideration by an V. Jurenev - "The young cinema actor" . International Working Committee composed of Analysis of experience acquired during the making childhood and cinema specialists. These fifty films of the film "Spring Torrent". The author contests were assessed for two age-groups (children aged the necessity of creating permanent groups of child 7 to 9 and children aged 10 to 12) and presented to actors. He feels that such methods lead to uni- 1,473 schoolchildren in groups of some 150 child- form interpretation.It is essential to arouse a ren of the same age and sex. The votes of the sense of humour, in keeping with the work in hand, children cast immediately after each performance and to preserve a spontaneous approach. were the only criteria taken into account in draw- A . Ovanesova - "Pioneers" . The author gives an ing up the prize list of the competition. Children's account of the organization of the cinema journal reactions during the screening were registered 89 with apparatus specially designed to record the 435 .Castejon, Federico. La reglementation juri- sounds, comments, and kinesthetic movements of dique des films pour Penfance. LLegalregu- the spectators. Mimic reactions were recorded lations for children's films) In: Actes du by means of ultra-violet photographs. The votes Congres international sur la presse periodique, were analysed by means of conversations with the cinematographie et radio pour enfants, Milan, children. The degree of silence and stillness dur- 19-23 March 1952. Milan, A. Giuffre, 1953, ing the screening is an indication of a favourable p. 176-183. impression, while the degree of chattering and restlessness is indicative of a negative impres- A comparison of Spanish legislation governing sion. The degree of excitement, more difficult to admission of children to the cinema with similar interpret, is likely to be a favourable sign on the legislation in other countries. The cinema hasa part of boys and unfavourable on the part of girls. strong hypnotic effect on children and may bea The comparison of the reactions with the pictures contributing factor in juvenile delinquency.It is which brought them forth is made possible by the recommended that censorship bodies should define parallel graphic record of the continuous reactions their criteria for the establishment of age limits and the sequence of all the pictures of the film. regarding admission to cinemas and to cultural All these documents (votes, reactions, etc.) are events in general. Special censorship bodies classified by sex and age. For testing purposes, should be established, composed of representatives 40 adult persons were requested to express their of the church, schools, and civil government, to opinion on the value of the films. A remarkable ban film scenes which are unsuitable for children. degree of agreement between the choice of the Bodies for the protection of morals, suchas the children and that of the adults was noted with Legion of Decency in the United States of America regard to the films topping the list. and the Roman Catholic Film Selection Board in Holland, should also be established. See also:nos. 4, 10, 13,56,65, 66, 69, 71,96, 103, 143,150, 169, 171,193,210, 212, 216,229, 436.Cimatti, Leone. I ragazzi al cinema. 231,233,235,258,304,362,442,447,456,458, (Children at the cinema./ In: Aggiornamenti 462,464,465,466,468,471,474,475,478,479, Sociali, Milan, (3), March 1952,p. 99-106. 481,484,485,487,490,491. Analysis of the figures and data provided by P. Le Moal (see no. 81), and by an inquiry carried (d)CENSORSHIP AND LEGISLATION out in Italy with 1,374 children between theages of 7 and 16. Negative conclusions. An accountof legislative and practical activity abroad andcom- 433 .Administrative Standing Commission on a Code ments on the bill laid before Parliament by Mrs. of Ethics for the Motion Picture Industry, Dal Canton. Censorship and Legislation. Tokyo, Eirin Kanri Iinkai Hokoku: Showa-32-nen Kamihanki, 437.Garcia Yague, Juan. La Juventudy el pro- Shimo Hanki.LReport of the Commission: first blems de la censura cinematografica. Lyouth and second half-years, 1957,../ 1957-1958, and the problem of film censorship) In: 2 vols. Revista de Educaci6n, Madrid, (53), December 1956, p. 68-70. In the chapter on "Measures for Youth" (p. 14-23 of vol. 1 and p. 10-17 of vol. 2) this report re- The author re-examines this very controversial counts the activities of the Council of Motion problem, which - as inquiries prove- has not Pictures for Youth and the Special Study Committee been satisfactorily resolved, arguments in favour on Measures for Youth; and describes the recom- of censorship being frequently contradictory.The mendations concerning juvenile films, the designa- author gives his definition of film censorship,and tion of adult films, and contacts with the film replies to three important questions: to whatex- industry. tent is censorship justified? What factors should be taken into consideration?Is censorship 434 .Andreotti, Giulio. Censura e censure. effective? Censorship and censured In: Rivista del Cinematografo, Rome, XXV (12), December 438.Keilhacker, Margarete. Berechtigung und 1952, p. 2-5. Wirksamkeit des Jugendverbotee in der Sicht der Jugend. LYouth expresses its viewpoint An account of the problems involved in films for on whether the exclusion of young people from children. The Government's acceptance of bills some films is justifiable and effectivej In: on the children's cinema, and positive aspects of Jugend und Film, Munich, January 1956,p. 1-8. these bills. The opinions of young people were sought regarding the harmful influences of film and theregula- tions which they believe necessary. This is the 90 report of an investigation amonga number of young decisions in each of these countrieson a large members of a Film and Youthgroup in Munich and number of feature films. an inquiry in I beck. The children generally believed that sc. 1,films could be harmful for them 442.Lo Savio, Giulio. La censura cinematografica and agreed that protective regulationswere neces- in Italia. (Film censorship in Raly..../ In: sary. The general reason given was that gangster, Records of the Congress organized by CIDALC, adventure, and immoral films might leadto an Florence, 6-11 June, 1950. imitation of criminal behaviour and,to moraland sexual depravity. Some "bad" films mentioned An account, with notes, of legislativeprovisions were: "Lucretia Borgia", "The Sinner", "The concerning the cinema for children. In order to Cabinet of Professor Bondi" Lad "She Danced only promote the production of films for children, one Summer" . financial and legislative advantages should be accorded. 439 .Keir, Gertrude. Le rele, la necessity et la valeur d'une censure cinematographioue. 443 .Lox, Florimond. La legislation cinemato- LThe r8le, necessity and value ofcinema graphique a propos de la jeunesse. (Cinema- censorship./ In: Revue Internationalede tographic legislation with regard to young filmologie, Paris, IV (14-15), July-December people.7 In: Reeducation,Paris, (101-102), 1953; p. 179-198. July-September 1958, p. 1-12. A consideration of the question of filmcensorship, After the First World War, many countries adopted with special regard to the youthful cinemagoer. laws regulating the admission of young people to The situation in England, where parentsare prin- cinemas. Some of these provisionswere influenced cipally responsible for deciding what films child- by over-hasty conclusions regarding the correla- ren may see, is discussed. With reference toa tion between the cinema and juvenile delinquency. report by an official commission whichrecom- An outline of the most characteristic legislative mended that expert committees be setup to select provisions and criteria. films for children, it is considered that the value of such action is questionable as longas so little 444.Lox, Florimond. La prevention legale et le knowledge is available on the influence of filmson cinema. (Legal prevention and the cinemaj children. Continued research by psychologists In: Revue Internationale de defense sociale, and sociologists to test prevailing hypotheses Paris, 10 (3-4), July-December 1956. about the influence of filmon children seems more pertinent at this stage. This study outlines the boards of control of various European countries, together with criteria adopted. 440 .Lavies, Hanna -Wilhelm. Beitragezur Frage The :author insists on the necessity for legalpre- der JugendfreiKabe von Filmen far Bestimmte vention, which should take into account thepsy- Altersstuffen. ZProblems concerning the chological differences between childhood, adoles- approval of films for children in relation to cencc, and adulthood. He recommends that there age-groups.7 Wiesbaden-Biebrich,Deutsches should be two levels of censorship, for theages Institut fur Filmkunde, 1958 98 p. (Film of 14 and 18. and Jugend gilm and Youth series, (4) .) 445 .Lox, Florimond. Problemes d lune legisla- Contains contributions by university professors, tion specialiseeriroblems of specialized jurists, psychiatrists. Suggestions formore legislation./ Reports- International Meeting suitable age limits than those in force in the of Experts to consider the psychological, Republic of Western Germany are made and infor- technical and social aspects of problems mation on age limits in 19 European countries is concerning the cinema and young people, given. The general opinion is that the harmful Geneva, World Brotherhood, 1955, 11p. influence of the cinema has not yet beenproven; (stencilled). on the other hand, attention is drawn to the positive aspects of its influence. A survey of regulations in force in different countries concerningthe protection of childrenand 441.Lavies, Hanns-Wilhelm. Die Jugendzensuren young people against the harmful effects of the in Europlischen Landern. (Censorship of cinema. Subjects dealt with include: the examina- films for children in European countriesj tion of films prior to screening; government film In: Deutsches Institut far Filmkunde, censorship; self-regulation bythe industry;co- 1Viitteilungen, Wiesbaden-Blebrich, (22), operation between authorities and private bodies; September 1953, 18 p.,(stencilled). the functioning of film censorship boards; criteria of censorship; age limits; control withregard to A comparative survey of the criteria used in 18 the censor's decisions; sanctions; regulations European countries to judge the suitability of films concerning the selection of films suitable for for young people, an4 a tabulation of censors' children, and special children's screenings.

91 446 . Lublinskij , P.I. Kinematograf i deti. (The Zealand Government film censor, argues that cinema and childrend Moscow, Law and provided there are adequate safeguards to protect Life, 1925, 122 p. ("For the Protection of younger and weaker members of the community, Children" series). censorship should not hamper the film-maker any more than it hampers the writer, the painter, the This work, written by a lawyer and educator, re- sculptor, the dramatist or other creative worker flects a feature which was characteristic of the from developing his medium and expressing him- years 1920-1930, but which has still lost noneof self freely. its importance: the concern of educators, parents and a large section of public opinion, regarding the 450 .Mohrhof, Siegfried. Bewertung von Jungend- harmful influence of many films and much cinema filmen unter der Lupe. LA criticism of the publicity on the morality of young spectators. choice of films for children) In: Film-Bild- Studies of the measures likely to protect child- Ton, Munich, VI (1), April 1956, p. 28-30; ren against the bad influence of the cinema, and 47-48. also of legislation and the use of censorship in a number of Western European countries and the Comparison between the results of a survey carried Soviet Union since the October Revolution, are out at Flensburg among 2,000 schoolchildren be- cited. tween the ages of 12 and 15, concerning the film subjects they would enjoy, and the norms applied 447.Marcussen, Else Brita. Films for Children by the official censors to the choice of films for in Scandinavia. In: American-Scandinavian young people. The norms by no means correspond Review, New York (1), 1957, p. 22-34. to the tastes of the public. A survey of the situation regarding: children and 451.Peretti Griva, Domenico Ricardo. La reale- films in the Scandinavian countries, censorship mentation juridique des films pour l'enfance. regulations, cinema perfoxmances, production of (Legal regulations for children' s films, children's films, and efforts to interest parents In: Actes du Congres international sur la and teachers in the problem. presse periodique, cinematographie et radio pour enfants, Milan, 19-23 March 1952. Milan, 448 .Mirams, Gordon. The New Zealand Film A. Giuffre, 1953, p. 183-189. Censorship Regulations. In: Education - Wellington, New Zealand, 6 (1), February A survey of Italian legislation governing the admis- 1957, p. 15-18. sion of children to the cinema and a brief discussion of legislation in force in other countries .At This article by the New Zealand Government film the time of writing a bill had been placed before the censor describes marked innovations in censor- Italian parliament which would authorize the crea- ship legislation and practice, brought about by new tion of a national council for film and youth. The regulations which came into operation at the end of council was to be composed of representatives of 1956. The writer contends that these changes organizations for the protection of the family, should be of particular interest to teachers, pa- educators, a psychologist, an author of children' s rents and all others who have any influence over . books, a film director and a film critic, and it film-going by children, because the basis of the would have authority to decide on the suitability of New Zealand censorship system is that primary films for children. Provision was to be made for responsibility for deciding what films should be restricting admission to cinemas of children under seen by children is assumed, not by the Govern- 14, or even under 18.Certain privileges were ment, but by parents and teachers. Suppression, proposed for theatres showing films exclusively in whole or in part, which once constituted the sole for children. work of censorship, has been relegated to a comparatively minor place, the emphasis being much 452 .Portugal. 0 regime da assistencia de menores more on the new function of"guidance" and the a especticulos publicos. (Regulations govern- classification of films according to the type of ing the admission of minors to public enter- audience for which they are considered suitable. tainments.] In: Infancia e Juventude, Lisbon, This change has come about through the legislative April-June 1957, p. 12-16. provision of a wide range of "recommendatory" Spanish edition: Nueva ley sobre espectdculos certificates. y literature Para menores en Portugal (The new law on entertainment and literature for 449.Mirams, Gordon. What do we Expect from children in Portugalj In: Revista de la Obra the Film Censor? In: New Zealand Family de Protecciofi de Menores, Madrid, May-June Doctor, Auckland, 2 (1), 1958, p. 12-14. 1957, p. 57-62. A discussion on the part played by the modern film Text of the decree-law adopted by the Portuguese censor in reconciling the needs of children with Government, dealing with the attendance at public the tastes of adults. The writer, who was New entertainments by minors, and setting up the

92 "Committee for the Examination and Classification See also:nos. 10, 15, 58, 71, 106, 155,193, 211, of Entertainments", as well as the "Committee on 212,229,232,233,237,240,283,287,290,309, Literature and Entertainments for Minors",1 April 330,362,398,413,415,428,458,460,469,471, 1957. 475,485,487,490,491.

93 7. MISCELLANEOUS

(a) SPECIAL NUMBERS OF 456./Le/cinema pour enfants. Linema for GENERAL PERIODICALS childrenj In: Tele-Cine, Paris, 8 (39), December 1953, 32 p. (special number). 453 .Les eine-clubs de jeunes. (Cinema clubs for This special number contains contributions by: young people] In: Enfance, Paris, 1957, (1) Macke, Claude - L 'enfant a-t-il droit au p. 195-419, (special number). cinema? Ls the child entitled to the cinemag (2) Salachas, Gilbert - Prehistoire du cinema pour Preface by Henri Wallon; articles by: Henri Agel enfant. (Prehistory of the cinema for children) and Jean Delmas (Hommage a Jean Michel); Jean (3) Marroncle, G. - L 'animation des seances de Michel (Les cine-clubs de jeunes; Pour la crea- cinema pour enfants. (Directing cinema perform- tion de cine-clubs d' enfants) .Reports on the ances forchildren) (4) Pialat, Henri -_Problemes activity of cinema clubs. Article by Helene economiques du cinema pour enfants.(Economic Gratiot-Alphandery (Sur les reponses au question- problems of the cinema for children j5) Calvet, naire). Interviews with: C. Autant-Lara - A. Jean - Cinema, moyen do education. The cinema Bazin - G. Charensol - Christian Jaque. - G. Cohen- as a means ofeducation) Anonymous: 16) Cinema Seat - L. Daquin - M. Delafond - J. Gremillon - pour enfants et perspectives d'avenir. (The cine- H. Jeanson - Albert Lamorisse - R. Regent - ma for children - the outlook for the future2. (7) G. Sadoul. Articles by: Etienne Souriau (Culture Comment creer un eine-club. Li-lbw to start a et cinema); Etienne Fuzellier (Possibilites d'un cine-club.] enseignement du cinema); Andre Be ley (L 'hygiene mentale au cine-club de jeunes); Bianka Zazzo 457./Le 7 cinema pour la jeunesse. (Cinema for (Une enquete our le cinema et la lecture chez les young people.] In: Pour 1' enfance, Paris, adolescents). Appendices: Administrative informa- (13-14), May - August' '956, p. 1-61. tion; Examples of model statutes for a cinema club for young people; addresses of the main groups of This special issue contains a detailed report on young people's cinema clubs. the Journee Nationale du Cinema pour Enfants, organized at the Musee Pedagogique in Paris, on 454.11 cinema e i bambini. (The cinema and young 18 March 1956, by the Mouvement national pour la children.] In: Bianco e Nero, Rome, III (8), defense de 1' enfance.It includes articles on psy- August 1939. chological and educational problems (dangers of bad films, juvenile delinquency, cartoon films), An issue devoted to the results of an inquiry carried accounts of exchanges of views between the various out among children at a Rome schooL This number, committees, monographs and suggestions. which has an introductory note by Giuseppe Bottai and a foreword by Luigi Chiarini, contains the im- 458 ./Le / cinema pour les jeunes en URSS. pressions of the children after the screening of the (Cinema for young people in the USSR.] In: film "Scipio Africanus", presented in the form of Cine-Jeunes, Paris, (12), 1957, p. 1-30. school compositions. Members of the "Comite frangais pour la jeunesse" 455 .(I1) Cinema e i dovani. Lille cinema and took advantage of their visit to Moscow during the young people.] In: Bianco e Nero, Rome, Sixth World Youth Festival, to ascertain the state XVI (1-2), January-February 1955. of children's cinema in Russia. This publication contains the results of their inquiries concerning A collection of articles: Justice for young people, the place of the cinema in Soviet education, the by Giuseppe Sibilia; Those who are not young and types of films shown, the production of films, the the cinema, by Sergio Frosall; Why is middle- organization of studios, cartoons and puppet films, class youth in Italian films so featureless? by the documentary series "Central Journal of the Luciano Santitale; The university at the cross- Pioneers", the distribution of films, young people's roads, by Giancarlo Tesi. An issue devoted camera clubs and educational cinema. This pano- mainly to the portrayal of youth in films. rama is completed by reproductions of scenes from an excellent Soviet film for children, "Cuk and Guek", and by some young people's opinions.

94 459. Communication and the Communication Arts. Paul Heimann indicates the conclusions which In: Teachers College Record, New York, may be drawn by educators and teachers from the 57 (2),November 1955, p. 59-149, (special current r8le of the cinema in society ("Die Funk- number). tion des Films in der heutigen Gesellschaft. Folgerungen fur Erziehung und Unterricht"). The Although none of the twelve contributions deals spe- task of-the school is to familiarize young people cifically with the cinema and youth, many points with the language of the cinema, in view of its of contact with this subject are found. Contribu- social and cultural importance at the present time. tions by: Klapper, Joseph T. (Studying effects of Teachers should adopt a positive attitude towards mass communication), Schoemaker, Francis (Com- recreational films, which constitute a very in- munication arts in the curriculum), and Forsdale, teresting source of experience for young people. Louis (Helping students observe processes of A detailed critical bibliography by Karl communication). Heinrich on "the cinema and young people" A comprehensive bibliography is added. ("Literatur zum Thema 'Jugend und Film '"), dealing particularly with German publications. 460 . Connaissance du cinema. (Understanding the cinema] In: Educateurs, Paris, (26), 1952, 462.L leducateur chretien en face du cinema. (The p. 3-14,(special number). Christian teacher and the cinemad In: Educateurs, Paris, January-February 1952, Contains contributions by (1) Agel, Henri - Le 132 p., (special number). tine -club au Lycee LThe film club inthe Grammar School/. (2) Chazal, Jean - Cinema et delinquence Articles by Claude Macke (Is there a children's juvenile LThe cinema and juvenile delinquency/. cinema? ) and by Paul Le Moal (The cinema and (3) Sinoir, Guy -A propos de l'influence du cinema the physical and mental health of children). sur la delinquence juvenile; quelques idees sur une enquete Lon the influence of the cinema on 463./Der/ Film als Erzieher. LThe film as juvenile delinquency; some ideas on a survey]. teacher.] In: Filmkunst, Vienna, (21), (4) Meinrath, Jacqueline - Le controle des films 1957, 38 p.,(special number). et la protection de la jeunesse LFilm control and protection of young people/. (5) Legeais, Jean - Papers presented at the Second International Une experience de tine -club en Algerie: Studio Filmology Week (Vienna 1956) on the theme "The jeunesse LA film-club experiment in Algeria: Cinema as Teacher":Wolfgang Brudny: "Die Youth Studio'. Forderungen des Erziehers an den Jugendlichen" (What the teacher requires of young people); 461 .Die Deutsche Schule. LThe Germans schools.' Albert Sicker: "Der Einfluss des Films auf das Arbeitsgemeinschaft deutscher Lehrer- Seelenleben des Kindes" (Influence of films on verbande, Hanover, Herman Schroedel, the psychological life of children); EllenSierstedt: 50 (2), February 1958, 45 p., (special number: "Untersuchung fiber die Wirkung des Films auf Film-Funk-Fernsehen) Kinder" (An inquiry into the influence of films on children); Ludwig Gesek: "Die Bedeutung des A special number devotedtothe cinema, radio and Films fiir den Einzelnen. Ein Bericht" (Influence television. An article by Johs. Gerhard ("Geden- of films on the individual: a report); Peter ken zu einer erziehungswissenschaftlichen und Steigerwald: "Lohnt rich ein Kulturfilm?" (Does schulpraktischen Auseinandersetzung mit den a cultural film pay?); Franz Z8chbauer: "Hat modernen Massenmedien") on the educational Filmerziehung durch die Schule Erfolg" (On the problems of modern means of information; an potential success of film education in schools). illustrated account of the negative and positive effects which the cinema may have upon children 464.Filmdebatt. Spesialnummer om barn og film. and adolescents by its very nature and because of (Debate on films.Special number on children the content of films; a series of practical sug- and filmj In: Filmdebatt, Oslo, (4-5), gestions for teachers, whose task is summarized October 1954, 37 p. under three headings: (1) since the uselessness of banning needs no further demonstration, the Contains contributions relating to children's films only reasonable and useful attitude on the part of in the four Scandinavian countries: articles by- teachers is to accustom children to use informa- (1) Germeten, Else - Nordisk barnefilmkurs LA tion media in moderation; (2) since the influence Scandinavian film course. (2) Marcussen, Elsa of information media on children begins at a very Brita - Superman, Tarzan, and children.(3) early age, the educator should take steps as early Siirsted,_ Ellen - Med 1,000 danske bArn i bio- as possible to teach childrento understandthem and grafen LWith 1,000 Danish children in the cinema. to form their owntastes inthis field; (3) it is not al- A concise bibliography and a list of films suitable ways necessarytotake information media as a point for children under 12 years of age are included. of departure or to be restrictedtothem when teaching childrento understand what they see and hear.

95 465. Jugend und Film. tYouth and thecinemaj 467./Lesi Journees d' etudes de Madrid sur In: Filmkunst, Vienna, (19), 1956, 38 p., 1' education cinematographioue. (Study ses- (special number). sions on cinematographic education, Madrid.] In: Revue internationale du cinema, Brussels, Papers on the subject of "Youth and the Cinema", 4 (13), 1952, 72 p. presented at the International Filmo logy Week (Vienna, 1954): Martin Keilhacker: "Grundziige An issue devoted to the study sessions on film des Filmerlebens der Kinder und Jugend lichen in education organized in 1952 in Madrid by the der ausgehenden Kindheit und beginnenden International Catholic Film Office. The first part Pubertit"; (The fundamentals of cinematographic concerns film education for youth (Agel, Claude, experience of children and adolescents at the stage Peters, Souren, Laspina, Lindsay and Fagan); of puberty/; J.M.L. Peters: "Ziel und Wege der the second part concerns the education of the elite; Filmerziehung"; LThe goal and methods of and the third part, that of the masses. The official cinematographic education ; Edith Rauser: "Wiens conclusions of these study sessions are, in parti- Jugend und der Film" (Viennese Youth and the cular, the following: a place must be made for the Cinemil; Mary Field: "Die britische Jugend- cinema in the teaching of the humanities; film filmarbeit" LFilma made by British youth); Alois education lessens the moral risk of cinema at- Eder: "Filminteressen Elf-bis Vierzehnjahriger" tendance; experiments carried out up to now show LThe interest of the cinema for young people from that it is possible to reduce the frequency of 11 to 14/; Karl Eiland: "Der Westdeutsche Schul- cinema attendance by young people by arousing film" LFilms for schools in West Germany/. their critical sense. 466 .Jugend und Film/Jeunesse et cinema/Gioventft 468.Kind und Film. (Child and film.../ In: e cinematografia. LYouth and cinema) In: Pidagogische Welt, Donauwarth, (7), July Pro Juventute, Zurich, maw (2-3), 1955, p. 337-390, (special number). February-March 1953, p. 41-128, (special number). Contributions by Keilhacker, M_- Der Film als Erzieher LThe film as educatorf; Heinelt, Gottfried- Contains the following articles: Edwin Arnet: Zur Ausdrucks - und Eindrucksqualitit der Films Film und Jugend LYouth and the cinema./ (p. 45- LThe expressive and impressive qualities of film; 46); B. Neidhart: Film und Jugendschutz LThe and Aibauer, Rosa_- Film und Filmschaffen sozial- cinema and the protection of youth (p. 46-50); kundlich gesehen LFilm and film production from Herbert Fischer: Film und Jugendkriminalitat a sociological point of view/. The cinema and juvenile delinquency] (p.51-54); Professor Keilhacker discusses both the nega- Hans Zulliger: Der Einfluss des Filmes auf die tive effects and the educational possibilities of kindliche Seele /Influence of the cinema on the films. Among the negative effects he mentions mind of the chilg/ (p. 55-57); D. Brinkmann: the fact that certain films confront children with Richtlinien ftir gute Kinder und Jugendfilme LHow situations which they are too young to assimilate, should good films for children and adolescents be that the uninterrupted stream of sensational events producedY (p. 58-62); Fritz Bachmann: Film and the superabundance of accoustical and optical und Schule LThe cinema and the school/ (p. 63-65); effects usually present in films renders children Albert Schwartz: Kinder im Kino (Children at the incapable of appreciating descriptive passages cinema/ (p. 66-69); Bruno Knobel: Warum geht calling for concentration and mental activity, and der Jugendliche ins Kino? (Why does the adoles- that young audiences are often exposed to a por- cent go to the cinema/ (p. 70-73); Heinrich trayal of reality which may be distortedor even Fueter: Jugend und Film: Eine Stellungnalune completely false. Heinelt compares French and LYouth and the cinema: A standpoint./ (p. 74-75); American films, with a view to determining to J.R. Schmid and Hans Chresta: Pro und kontra what extent the film expresses the spirit of the Jugendfilme LThe pros and cons of films for age, national character and a philosophy of life. childreW (p. 76-82); Hans Chresta: Tatigkeit der Rosa Aibauer discusses, on the basis of her ex- Arbeitsgemeinschaft fur Jugend und Film in der perience, how film education can be integrated Schweiz (The activities of the "Youth and Cinema" with social studies. working parties in Switzerland) (p. 88-90); Various authors: Stimmen aus Eltern-, Lehrer- und 469.Mass Media and Education.In: National Erzieherkreisen (Opinions of parents, teachers, Society for the Study of Education, Yearbook and educational circles/ (p. 83-87)1 Georges (53) Part II, ed. by Nelson B. Henry, Chicago, Panchaud: Les jeunes au cinema (Young people at The University of Chicago Press, 1954, the cinema/ (p. 97-102); Jean Brocher: De 1' en- 290 p. fant sur 1, &ranl' enfant dans la salle LFrom the child on the screen to the child in the audience/ Dr. Edgar Dale introduces this three-sectionyear- (p.102-108); Sergio Jacomelia: Cinematografo book dealing with the purpose, scope, effects, e delinquenza minorile LThe cinema and juvenile group responsibility and r8le of the teacher in delinquency/ (p. 109-117). mass media. Section I consists of a discussion 96 by Fred S. Siebert of "The Role of Mass Commu- (10) Sonika Bo -L 'enfant a-t-il besoin de cinema? nication in American Society",delimiting authori- LDoes the child need the cinema) (11) Michel, J. tarian, libertarian, communist and social respon- Quand les enfants disent ce au ' ila pensent ZWhen sibility theories of mass media functions. R.W. children say what they thinlg. (12) Chantry, M. - Wagner ("Motion Pictures in Relation to Social Pour un.publicjeune et populaire (For a young and Controls") discusses content, social responsibility popular public/. 113) Michel, J. - 11 n'y a pas de and censorship. In Part II, W. Schramm ("Pro- films d'enfants (There are no films for children/. cedures and Effects of Mass Communication") outlines the elements of, role of, experience in, 472.Spielfilm und Unterricht. Zihe entertainment conditions for, and effects of mass communication. film and education.] In: Filmkunst, Vienna, F. Fearing ("Social Impact of the Mass Media of (11), 1953, 49 p. (special number). Communication") discusses theories of communication, the situational factors, reinforcement and Articles on the relationship between the entertain- transmission of existing value 'systems, problem ment film and education, by Ludwig Gesek: Wie solving and acquisition of new experiences, eva- sieht der Jugendliche den Film und wie soil er ihn sion of content, and lists generalizations. In sehen? (How does an adolescent look at films and Part III, E. Dale writes on "Teaching Discrimi- how should he look at them _/; Adolf Huebl: Welche nation in Motion Pictures"; B.J. Blakely outlines Lehrgegenstande sollen und konnen sich mit dem the interaction of "The Citizen and the Mass Spielfilm beschaftigen? (Which branches of edu- Media".Bibliographies are appended to each cation could and should be concerned with enter- chapter. tainment films? j; Walter Hillis: Kritisch Bewertung und Verwertung der Spielfilme im 470 .Psychologische bijdragen tot de filmpro- Unterricht (Appreciation and utilization of the en- blematiek. (Psychological contributions_ tertainment film in education/: Edith Hauser: towards solving problems of the cinema.] Erfahrungen mit den Filmdiskussionen fur die In: Nederlands tijdschrift voor de psychologie Jugend (Experiences with the discussion of films en haar grensgebieden, Amsterdam, VIII (2), for young people/; Franz Haussler: Filmdiskus- 1953, p. 83-200 (special number). sion zum Film "Der Schatz der Sierra Madre" (Discussions of the film The Treasure of Sierra Papers and psychological studies by: A. Querido: Madrpj; Gertrude Behringer: Die pidagogische "De dadels van Hassan" (The dates of Hassan); Begrundung des Filmverbotes fur Jugendliche Rene Micha: "De cinematografische waarheid" (Educational grounds for the prohibition of films (Cinematographic truth); P. Th. Hugenholtz: "Het to young spectators/. modern cultuurproduct: De Film" (The cinema, Bibliography on "The entertainment film and product of modern culture); J.M.L. Peters: youth". "Psychologische processen bij het zien van een film" (Psychological processes of watching a film); 473 .Temoignages sur le cinema et lleducation. S.J. Popma: "In de ban van de bioscoop" (The (Opinions on the cinema and education" obsession of the cinema); W.A. Hart: "Een In: Cinema educatif et culturel, Rome, inleidend onderzoek tot het probleem film en jeugd" (10-11), July-October1955, 58 p. (special (Introduction to the problem of the cinema and number). youth). 471.Regard de Penfance. LThe gaze of chilcihooW Contains contributions by: (1) Basdevant, Andre - In: Cine Club, Paris, (5-6), March-April Temoignages sur le cinema et 1' education 1951, 26 p. (special number). Opinions on the cinema and educatiog. (2) Deherpe, Raoul - Necessite d'une culture cinema- Contains contributions by: (1) Agel, Henri - Ces tographique LThe need for cinematographic cul- enfants These childreW. (2) Chantry, Marcel - ture/. (3) Rave, A. - Cine jeunesse ZCine-YoutW. L &ran est un miroir LThe screen is a mirror]. (4) Bourges, Maurice - L 'education cinemato- (3) Chanois, J.-P. - Une featre magique aaphique dans les milieux des jeunes ouvriera magic windoyij. (4) Rave, A. -L'ecole buisson- LThe cinematographic education of young workers/. Mere ou Pecole des parents (Playing truant, or (t) Tienda, Henri de - Film et culture aux prisons the school for parentig. (5) Delmas, J. -Alice au (Films and culture in prisons/. (6) Feraud, P. - pays des merveilles ou les chemins de la vie Lea long metrages en version originale et la con- (Alice in Wonderland, or the paths of life/. (6) naissance de 1' stranger (Full- length films in the Storck, H. -Les kroblemes de la production (Pro- original version, and knowledge of foreign duction problems/. (7) Chazal, J. and Chargelegue, countries/. (7) Georgin, B. - L 'activite culturelle J. - Le cinema influence-t-il l'enfance delinquante? du cinema scolaire & l'Academie de Paris LThe LDoes the cinema influence delinquent youthyj (8) cultural activity of the school cinema at the Aca- Gratiot-Alphandery, H. -L 'enfant devant le &ran demy of Paris/ (8) Moguy, Leonide - Le role du LThe child before the scree.Y.(9) Lambert - cinema social LThe part played by the social Experiences etrangeres L Foreign experiences/. cinemil.

97 474.iurnal, "Iskusstvo Kino". (Cinema Artzi The issue also contains a report of a survey In: Cinema Art, Moscow, (10), 1935, carried out among children of pre-school age, with (special number). a view to selecting young film actors. K. GevrjuSinfs article "Be prepared" tells of experience with the This nt'mber is entirely devoted to children's films. documentary film-journal for children "Pioner". The first article "A great art for small spectators" In "Stories in images on the screen", V. Solev takes into account the importance of the films for discusses the use of filmstrips in work with child- children in Soviet cinema art, and its independent ren and the similarities between filmstrips andfilms. character. E. gvarc 's and Olejnikov's scenario "Lenaka See also: nos. 53, 254. and the grapes" is also published, as well as an extract from Pagnol's scenario "Merlusse", an article by S.S. Gincburg, devoted to Pagnol's (b) CONFERENCE REPORTS: HANDBOOKS work, and a series of articles on theoretical and OF ORGANIZATIONS, ETC. practical problems of Soviet children's films. In "Art and Play", G. Roaal is concerned with certain problems of pre-school cinema: the 475.Actes du Congres international sur la presse scientific use of films already in existence, a study periodique, cinematographie et radio pour of the child at play and a definition of the dramatic enfants, sous le haut patronage de l'Unesco, art problem. The possibilities offered by the Milan, 19-23 mars 1952. ,Records of the theatre and pre-school cinema are compared. In International Congress on the periodical press, "Looking for a hero", Novogrudskij notes that the cinematography and radio for children, under cinema has a more powerful influence on children the patronage of Unesco, Milan, 19-23 March than any other form of art. Children have a very 19522 Milan, A. Giuffre, 1953, 329p. acute sense of any deficiency in the representation of a character, and thus the more competent The part of this report devoted to film includes the performance of an actor playing a "bad" role may following lectures and reports: (1) Petrucci, exert a stronger emotional influence than the .AItonio (Films educatffs et films pour l'enfance/ performance of a "good" character. The author in- Educational films and films for children); (2) sists onthe necessity of creating expressive cha- Wohlrabe, Willy (Problemes techniques et artis- racters for the children's cinema, and of ensuring tiques du film pour enfants et 1' experience alle- that the interpretation of the character is beyond mande/ Technical and artistic problems of films reproach. He considers that child characters should for children, and the German experience); (3) be played by child actors. The art of the actress Banfi, Antonio (L 'aspect social du cinema en tant Zejmo is cited as the exception that proves the rule. que spectacle/ The social aspect of the cinema, The problems discussed by R. Katzman in the seen as spectacle); (4) Lunders, L. (Les condi- article entitled "A great educator" - on the neces- tions d'une enquete sur 1' influence des films sur sity of teaching the history of the cinema in 1' enfance / Conditions of a survey on the influence schools - are still valid for the present day. Such of films on children); (5) Mergen, Armand (Cine- instruction has a direct value in that children who ma et hygiene mentale / The cinema and mental are unacquainted with the historic past can learn hygiene); (6) Zazzo, Rene (Le niveau mental et a great deal from films such as "Battleship la compreheniion du cinema/Mental level and Potemkin" (Eisenstein), "The Mother" (Pudovkin) understanding of the cinema); (7) Musatti, Cesare etc .The study of the history of the cinema in Les processus psychiques actives par le cinema/ literature classes plays an equally important part. Psychic processes activated by the cinema); (8) Instruction may take different forms; courses, Calo, Giovanni (Le cinema et l' education intel- questionnaires, etc. The best films should be in- lectuelle / The cinema and intellectual education); cluded in the syllabus just as literary works are. (9) Meylan, Louis (Le cinema et l' education mo- All these measures will serve to reinforce the rale/The cinema and moral education); (10) educational scope of the cinema. Castejon, Federico (La reglementation juridique In "Films for children", I. Popov contests the des films pour llenfance / Legislation concerning then current definition of the specific character of films for children); (11) Griva, Domenico Riccardo children's films, based mainly on the specific Peretti (La reglementation juridique des films characteristic of form of perception. The author pour 1' enfance/ Legislation concerning films for believes that one should consider first of all the children); (12) Caparros, Morata J.B. (Cinema artistic value of films and that the particular forms et education morale/The cinema and moral of perception involved should be of secondary im- education); (13) Sinoir, Guy (Les correlations portance. With regard to the adaptation of factual entre le cinema et la delinquance juvenile/ Cor- topics in children's films, the author, referring relations between the cinema and juvenile delin- to the example of popular art, stresses the neces- quency); (14) Chazal, Jean (Les correlations sity of bringing out a positive feature of the hero's entre le cinema et la delinquance juverdle/ Cor- character. Dramatized characters must be simple, relations between the cinema and juvenile but strong in their simplicity. delinquency).

98 476 .Albiero, Giuseppe. Si sta facendoualcosa 479.Cinema e gioventb: dodici convegni di studio Per la nostra gioventa?Is anything being nelle citta italiane.,Cinema and youth: done for our youth?_/ In: Il Regno, Bologna, twelve study sessions in different Italiantownsj (12), December 1956, p. 18-20. In: Bianco e Nero, Rome, XVII (11-12), November-December 1956. A record of seminars organized by the experimental centre for cinematography in collaboration An introduction devoted to the organization of these with the production company "Titanus". Comments sessions is followed by papers delivered by Michele on the present state of the problem of cinema and Lacalamita, President of the Experimental Centre youth in Italy. for the Cinema, at the opening session of the Rome Congress, at the Campidoglio, on the relationships 477.Cain, C. and Vannoey, R.C. The Film between the cinema and youth, and by Antonio Teacher' s Handbook 1957-1958. Annual Ciampi, Director of SIRE, on economic problems Journal of the Society of Film Teachers. and on specialized production for young people; London, Society of Film Teachers, 1957, these papers illustrate the problems which emerge 115 p. at the national and international levels. This publication also includes an analysis of two works on This yearbook and handbook of the "Society of the same subject by Henri Storck and Edgar Dale, Film Teachers" in England (a teachers' organiza- together with a bibliography. tion for the promotion of film education, mainly in schools) gives a programme of film educationfor 480.Colini Lombardi, Pia. Inchiesta sulla cinema- primary, secondary modern and grammar schools. tografia er ragazzi.(Inquiry into cinema It includes a list of films suitable for discussion for children.] In: Ragazzi d'Oggi, Rome, in the classroom, with suggested themes for (1), December 1950, p. 17-19. discussion. A bibliography of works about films foryoung A general survey of the studies carried out in people, a list of films made by young people,a connexion with this problem at the International guide for discussion of certain types of film,a Study Conference (Venice, August 1950). Pointers membership list, and other information, complete and suggestions concerning the solution of the this handbook. problem of cinema for children at the national level. 478 .Children' s Films: A Symposium. New Delhi, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 481. Film Education of Youth. Report of an inter- Government of India, June 1955, 39 p. national conference on film education of youth under the auspices of World Brotherhood, A summary of the papers presented duringa sym- Amsterdam, 22-24 November 1957, 28 p., posium on children' s films organized at New Delhi (stencilled). on 11 October 1954 by the Indian Ministry of In- formation and Broadcasting. Also contains the The report of a conference of experts on film edu- texts of various talks, some of them broadcast,on cation of youth. Papers by L. Lunders: "L 'educa- the same subject. S. Radhakrishnan underlines in tion cinematographique et les relations inter- an "Inaugural. Address" (given on 24 December humaines"; Lfilm education and human relationil; 1953 at New Delhi, on the occasion of the second J.M.L. Peters: "The domain of film education; exhibition of films for children) the influence which Stanley Reed: "Film education in schools"; the cinema may exercise on the child by offering B. Alexandre: "Education cinematographique_ examples of strength of character, bravery, extra-scolaire" (Out -of- school film educatioil; heroism and nobility. Siegfried Mohrhof: "Maglichkeiten der Produktion R.R. Diwakar examines the influence of the and des internationalen Austausches von film- cinema on the mind of the child (Films and the kundlichen Arbeitsmaterial" ZPossibilities of the child mind), M.V. Krishnaswamy points to experi- production and international exchange of filmolo- ments made in England in children' s films (British gical material/. At the end of this conference, experiment in children's films). P.K. Atre (What various resolutions were adopted, regarding the are children's films? ) stresses that the most dan- usefulness of film education, its content, the r8le gerous films are those which give a false picture of the school, and the training of teaching staff. of life.Films for children should accord a large place to spiritual values. J.S. Bhownagary 482.Film i omladina. (The cinema and youth..7 (Social importance of children's films) examines Lectures and discussions held on 3, 4 and 5 experiments carried out in England, the Soviet December 1956, at Novi Sad, Yugoslavia. Union, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, etc., and draws Belgrade, Novi Dani, 1957, 229 p. conclusions concerning the way of approaching the problem of children' s films in India. Lastly, Includes contributions by Afrie, Vjekeslav (Film Mary Field makes one or two brief commentson culture and youth); Vasa, Zivorad (Favourite children' s films. heroes and actors with children between 10 and 14

99 years of age); Dordevic, Jovan (The attitude of an examination of the legislative provisions in this parents to their children's visits to the cinema); field. A list of films for children. Makavejev, Dugan (The popularity of special types of film with children); Brenk, France (Four 486.Petrucci, Antonio. IlAyrnposiurn per lo methods of investigating the influence of film on studio della "Miranda Prorsus". (Seminar youth); Sebek, Levin (Which films are preferred for the study of "Miranda Prorsus". by delinquent and non-delinquent youths?); Vrabec, In: Rivista del Cinematografo, Rome, XXXI Miroslav (The film image and the visual culture of (5), May 1958, p. 148-155. pupils); Foht, Ivan (The possibility of aesthetic education through film); etc. A summary of the study sessions organized by the "Ente delle spAtacolo" and the "Istituto univer- 483 .Filmska kultura mladih. LFilm culture and sitario Mendel" (Rome, April 1958), on the ency- young people2Savet drugtava za staranje o clical "Miranda Prorsus". Papers read by deci i omladini Jugoslavje (Federation of eminent specialists on the cinema and youth, from Children's Welfare Organizations of the educational, psychological and social points of Yugoslaviad In: Savremena gkola (Modern view. school), Belgrade, 1958, 178 p. (With list of contents annotated in English and French.) 487 .Rencontre internationale d' experts sur les aspects psychologiques, techniques et sociaux Includes the following articles: Vladimir Petrie des problemes du cinema et de la jeunesse. (Film culture as a part of general education and (International Meeting of Experts on the psy- knowledge of the arts); Blagenka Mimica (Cinema, chological, technical and social aspects of school and the free time of children); France problems concerning the cinema and youthz/ Break (Problems of film education and instruction); Luxembourg, 31 May-4 June, 1955. Miroslav Vrabec (Some problems of identification Geneva, World Brotherhood, 1955, n.p. among filmgoers); Dugan Makavejev (The film and (stencilled). the dream-world of childhood); Baja Baji6 (An inquiry into the way in which children from rural Aspects psychologiques (Psychological aspects) and urban districts understand children's films); (1) Rev. P. Valentini, S.J., Rome: Action imme- Jovan Dordevie (Favourite films of rural children); diate du film sur les jeunes iImmediate effect of Velibor Urosevie (Teachers' attitudes to films); film on youth/.(2) Siersted, Ellen, Copenhagen: Lepa livanovie (How do rural children between the Influence immediatement decelable au-dessous de ages of 12 and 14 understand films?); Milenko 10 ans (Immediately discernable influence under Karanovie (What do rural parents think of films?); 10 yeare/.(3) Heuyer, Georges, Paris: Influence Niko la Kovaeevie (Use of the film in the family immediatement decelable au-dessus de 10 ans and at home); Radomir Makarie (An inquiry held (Immediately discernable influence over 10 years/. among children after the International Film Fes- (4) Keir, Gertrude, London: Influence lointaine tival at Voyvodina); Radovan Ivaneevie (Is it decelable du film sur les jeunes (Remotely dis- dangerous for children to see cowboy and gangster cernable influence of film on young people/. films?). Aspects techniques (Technical aspects)(5) Pront, John, The Hague: Selection dans la pro- 484.IV festival dei film per ragazzi.5Vth duction courante (Selection from current produc- Festival of films for children./In: tioW. (6) Rev. P. Lunders, Leo 0.P., Bruxelles: Ragazzi d'Oggi, Rome, (9), September 1953, Utilisation des films adaptes aux differents niveaux p. 17-21, 24. dlagefUtilization of films adapted to different age levels. Report of the meeting of children's film experts Aspects sociaux (Social aspects) (7) M. l'Abbe held on the occasion of the IVth Festival of Films Bernhard Alexandre, Paris: Formes dlapplica- for Children (Venice, August 1952), and which tion pratiques LForms of practical application; arrived at the following definition: a film adapted (8) Keilhacker, Martin, Mfinich: Education cinema- to the mentality and to the healthy needs of child- tographique aux divers niveaux cilRge CFilm educa- ren, conceived and executed specially for a child tion at different age level]; (9) Lox, Florimond, audience. Bruxelles: Problemes cillme legislation specia- lisee (Problems of special legislation. 485 .Katholieke filmactie, Beige: Handboek van de film voor kinderen.(Handbookon films 488.Sciascia, Ugo. I film per ragazzi. (Films for children2 Brussels, Dienst "CEDOC", for children) In: Indice d 'Oro, Rome, n.d.,46 p. November 1951, p. 25-30. An examination of the criteria applicable to the A report and commentary of the international study choice of films for children and the organization sessions on children's films, and on national and of film shows for young people. An outline of international activities in this field. regulations governing children's film shows and

100 489 .Vortrige und Berichte der 2. Jahrestagung 491.Wissenschaftliches Institut fur Jugendfilm- der Deutschen Gesellschaft fur Filmwissen- fragen Film - Jugendpsychologisch Betrachtet schaft. Der Film als Beeinflussungsmittel. /The cinema from the viewpoint of youth (Papers and reports of the 2nd Annual psychology] Munich, Ehrenwirth Verlag, Congress of the German Association for Film n.d., 76 p. Science. Film as influencing medium:" Emsdetten, Verlag Lechte, 1955, 118 p. Contains contributions by: (1) Keilhacker, Martin: Der gegenwfirtige Stand der Deutschen und aus- Several of the papers deal with the cinema and lindischen Forschung fiber Wirkungsweisen und youth: Keilhacker, Martin ("Die Filmeinflfisse bei Einflfisse des Films auf Kinder und Jugendliche Kindern und Jugend lichen und die Problematik The present state of German and foreign research ihrer Feststellung" /Influences-of the cinema on on the effects and influence of films on children children and adolescents and the problems con- and adolescent]; (2) Stfickrath, Fritz: Die Rolle nected with their determination;) Feldmann, E. des Films im Leben der Jugend LThe r8le played ("Der Film als Kulturfaktor"/ The cinema as a by the cinema in the life of young people"; (3) cultural factor.) Luxenburger, Hans: Psychiatrische und heil- pidagogische Fragen des Films (Psychiatric and 490.Winkler, Gerd. Handbuch Film und Jugend. therapeutic-educational questions concerning glandbook: Film and Youthi Munich, films"; (4) Krause-Ablass, Margarete: Entwick- Juventa-Verlag, 1956, 125 p. lungs-psychologische Gesichtspunkte und prak- tische Erfahrung als Grundlage ffir die Beurteilung Data on the activities of organizations in the von Filmen far Kinder und Jugendliche (Psycho- Federal Republic of Germany which deal with logical considerations concerning development and questions of the cinema and youth; the main practical experience as a basis for the evaluation censorship regulations with reference to the proof films suitable for children and adolescent; tection of young people; a list of distributors of (5) Speidel, Edmund: Kurzreferat zum Paragraph children's films, some practical hints; and a 6 des Gesetzes zum. Schutze der Jugend in der bibliography of some 60 titles relating to: history Offentlichkeit, Forderungen und Beschlfisse der of the cinema, filmology, film language, the Jugendschutzbeauftragen der Lander und Vergleich cinema and youth, the cinema and education, the mit dem gegenwartigen Stand /port report protection of children against the danger of the concerning paragraph 6 of the law relating to the cinema, and legislation. protection of youth in public places; proposals and conclusions of the youth welfare delegates from the Lander, and a comparison with the present state of affairs]

101 INDEX OF AUTHORS

the References are to items in the bibliography/

Adler, Mortimer, J. 18 Cain, C. 477 Administrative Commission on Motion Caldano, Alberto 390 Picture Code of Ethics 433 Ca16, Giovanni 286 Agel, Henri 96 Canestrari, Renzo 14, 154 Aibauer, Rosa 129 Canestrelli, Luigi 155 Alberola Such, Ramon 264, 265 Capriolo, E. 108 Albertini, Laura 130 Caruso, Ada P. 130 Albiero, Giuseppe 476 Casso y Romero, Domingo do 267 Albright, Roger 285 Castejon, Federico 435 Altavilla, Enrico 201 Centro Ita liano Femminile 211 Amasovie, A. 431 Charters, Werrett W. 2 Amsler, Roger 308 Chevallier, Jacques 314 Andreotti, Giulio 434 Chiarini, Luigi 315 Association nationale du cinema Cresta, Hans 58 pour 11 enfance 202 Ciampi, Antonio 391 Ayfre, Amedee 115 Cimatti, Leone 436 Cipriani Faggioli, Maria Luisa 316 Bailyn, Late 51 Civardi, Luigi 212 Bann, Antonio 149 Claude, Robert 317 Basdevant, Andre 386 Clostermann, Gerhard 268,318, 319 Bauchard, Philippe 387 Cochin, Marcel 320, 392 Begak, B. 1 Cohen-Seat, Gilberrt- 3 Behringer, Gertrude 52 Colini Lombardi, Pia 480 Be ley, Andre 150 Commission on Educational and Bellingroth, Friedhelm 203 Cultural Films 4 Beran, Jan 354 Corbel, F. 107 Bertagna, L. 228 Corradini, Umberto 5, 269 Bertin, Giovanni M. 388 Cotton, Carmelo 287, 288 BillstrOzn, J. 204 Council of Motion Picture Bias, W.E. 54 Organizations 270 Blumer, Herbert 205, 266 Cressey, Paul G. 189, 271 Boeck, A. de 309 Crisanti, Pina 289 Boldyreva, L.A. 389 Bosio, Luigi 55 Dale, Edgar 41, 59,116, 321 Bossard, Robert 56 Dawson, Marjorie Granger 393 Bouman, J.C. 151 Debesse, Maurice 156 Bower, Robert (Mrs.) 206 Decaigny, T. 213 Box, Kathleen 57 Decji Filmski Klub 322 Brandt, Herman P. 131 Deherpe, Raphael 323 Bricker, Harry 127 Department of Social Welfare and Brini, A. 207 Community Development in Accra 60 Brinkmann, Donald 132, 310 Deprun, Jean 157 Bruce, D.J. 256 Descamps, J. 97 Brudny, Wolfgang 152, 170, 208,311, 364 Diaz-Plaja, Guillermo 290 Bruel, Oluf 209 Di Majo, Carlo 272 Bruner, Jerome S. 188 Di Tullio, Benigno 291 Brychtova, V. 354 Dolinskij, I.L. 6 Buchanan, Andrew 312 Driel, A .A .E . van 122 Buhr, Wolfgang 210 Drillich, P.A. 324 Miring, H. 313 Dussardier, Maurice 325 Dysinger, Wendell S. 214 Cady, Jacques 308 Cahn, Paulette 153 Edinburgh Film Festival 394

103 Elck,A .A. 326 Heinrich, Karl 10, 46,223,224 Eiland, K. 313 Heisler, Florence 225 Eiserer, Paul E. 158 Helier, Daniel 69 Emery, Frederick E. 215 Henshaw, S. 226 Evans, Frederick 190 Heuyer, Georges 135, 136, 151,227,228 Hills, Janet 229,335,403 Faugere, M.M. 81 Hiroshima Association of Federation of Children's Welfare Juvenile Correction 70 Organizations of Yugoslavia 7 Hochheimmer, Rita 336 Feldman, Erich 19 Hodgkinson, A.W. 337,338 Feo, G. de 61,191 Hodgson, Lena 339 Field, Mary 20,395 Hoel, Nic. 404 Flesch, Gislero 273 Hoffmann, Hermann 230 Flik, G. 274 Holaday, P.W. 259 Flores d'Arcais, Giuseppe 159 Home Office 71 Foerster, Oskar 292 Hoshino, Choshaku 361 Ford, Richard 8 Forman, Henry J. 192 Indian Film Inquiry Committee 231 Forter, Adolf 293 Inui, Takashni 340 Fowler, George 188 Irgens, Hans Rutger 24 Fraisse, P. 257 Itkyal, N.L. 72 Frazier, Alexander 352 Frontali, Gino 216 Japanese Central Council on Fulchignoni, Enrico 133,160 Youth Problems (ed.) 276 Funk, Alois 161 Japan - Ministry of Education 73, 74, 75,76 Fusellier, E. 327 Jessel, Oskar R. 77 Jimenez de Asua, L. 277 Gaddini, Renato. 217 Jones, Dorothy B. 117 Galletto, Albino 162,218 Juez Vicente, Julian 405 Galliard, Olpho 219 Garcia Yague, Juan 220,437 Kahnert, M.E. 232 Garmendia de Otaola, A. 328 Kiznpfer, Winfried 341 Garrido Lestache, Juan 258 Kandirin, B. 367 Gastaldi, Enrico 396,397 Karsten, Anitra 78 Gel' wont, A.M. 21,329,398 Keilhacker, Margarete79, 101, 169,233,438 Gemelli, Agostino 163,164,330 Keilhacker, Martin 11, 25, 166,167,168 Gerhartz-Franck, Ingrid 134 169, 170,233,342 Germeten, Elsa 359 Keir, Gertrude 26,439 Gerstenberger, Magdalena 399 Kejlina, I. 12 Ghilardi, Agostino 484 Kempe, Fritz 296 Giacomelli, Ferruccio 275 Kerstiens, Ludwig 343 Gibson, Harold J. (Mrs.) 62 Kiselev, C.A. 297 Giraud, Jean22, 63, 64, 226,294,400,401 Kister, G. 367,406 Glastra van Loon, F.H. 222 Klapper, Joseph T. 27 Glogauer, Werner 23,165 Kobayashi, Kaoru 344 Gongalves, S. 9 Kubenka, Max 234 Grail, Xavier 98 Kulik, Adam 407 Graziani, Cesare 402 Gray, Barbara 65,66 Lacis, A. 12 Greiner, Grace 331 Lahy-Hollebecque, Marie 408 Grigor'eva, A.A. 295 Lalande, Helene de 279 Groder, Ursula 332 Lammers, Paul 170 Gromov, J. 1 Lanocita, Arturo 345 Guitton, R. 107 Lanoux, Armand 235 Lanz-Stuparich, Maria 80 Hasse, Ulrich 333,364 Laporta, Raffaele 298,346,347 Hagemann, Walter 19 Lavies, Hanns-Wilhelm 278, 409,440,441. Handel, Leo A. 99 League of Nations Advisory Hansen, H. Lund 248 Committee on Social Questions 193 Hart, W.A. 't 67,68 Lebovici, S. 151,226,227 Hauser, Philip M. 266 Lehman, Margaret 348 Have, Tonko, T. ten 100 Lehnemann, Heinrich 349 Hedden, C.G. 334 Leites, Nathan 128

104 nrorma.o.WW07#1,,TrIww,

Le Moal, P. 81,279 Oietti, Pasquale 366 Lensing, Adolf 350 Osaka Prefecture Association of Lercaro, Giacomo 171 Juvenile Correction 83 Leroy-Bousson, A. 172,173 Oskolskij, A .P . 326 Lewin, William 351,352 Lhotsky, Jaromir 410 Paderni, S. 34, 89 Liehm, A .J. 411 Paramonova, K. 416 Lindsey, Ben B. 280 Parrot, Philippe 107 LiNka, Miroslav 353,354 Patel, A.S. 84 Lo Savio, Giulio 442 Paulsen, Kfithe 260 Lox, Florimond 236,443,444,445 Pelizzi, Camillo 177, 302 Lublinskij, P.I. 446 People's Commissariat of Ludman, Rene 237 Instruction of the RSFSR 417 Lunders, Leo 13,28 Peres, B. 367 Luxenburger, Hans 238 Peretti Griva, Domenico Ricardo 452 Lyness, Paul I. 102 Perlman, William J. 17 Perron, Roger 178 McCullough, Constance 355 Peters, Charles C. 123 McIntosh, Douglas M. 82 Peters, J.M.L. 122,368, 369 Maggi, Raffaello 239 Peterson, Ruth C. 194, 195 Maggio, Joseph B. 356 Petrucci, Antonio 418, 486 Makarenko, A.S. 357 Philippon, O. 244 Manvell, Roger 103,240 Pitta, A. 108 Marcus, H.L. 358 Polonskij, M.M. 297 Marcussen, Elsa Brita 359,447 Ponzo, Ezio 138 Marquis, Donald 226 Portugal 452 Martin, David 215 Pradella, Giulio 419 Marzi, Alberto 14,174 Preston, M.I. 245 Maucorps, P.M. 175 Preuss, K. 268 May, Mark A. 198 Mayer, Jacob P. 104,241 Raths, L.E. 196 Me lies, M.C. 137 Rebeillard, Monique 85, 261 Menzel, Josef 412 Redano, Ugo 283 MenEinskaja, Ju. 360 Redslob, E. 207 Metzger, W. 242 Reed, Stanley 370 Meylan, Louis M. 299,300 Rey, Andre 139 Mialaret, G. 137 Reymaker, J. de 31 Michard, H. 281 Roessler, E. 140, 303 Mikakawa, Kikuyoshi 361 Roessler, W. 140, 303 Miller, V .L . 226 Rondi, Gian Luigi 420 Mirams, Gordon 15, 118,119,120,121 Rosen, I.C. 197 362,413,448,449 Rosenthal, Newman H. 371 Mizutani, Tokuo 16 Ruckmick, C.A. 214 Mohrhof, Siegfried 363,364,450 Montmollin, G. de 257 Sacchetto, Aleardo 421 Morin, Edgar 105,243 Salvi, Giovanni 422 Morris, Norval 282 Santinello, Giovanni 372 Morrison, John 41 Schiavi, Alessandro 304 Moss, Louis 57 Schottmayer, Georg 181 Muarav'ev, I. 367 Schubert, Klaus 373 Muller, H.S. 122 Sciascia, Ugo 374, 438 Municipal Council of Deputies Scott, W.J. 86 and Workers of Kiev 414 Sekerak, Robert M. 87 Mugoz Fernandez, Pedro 301 Sekino, Yoshio 375 Mura, A. 365 Seton, Marie 376 Musatti, Cesare 176 Shoemaker, Francis 377 Muth, Heinrich 29 Shuttleworth, F.K. 198 Sicker, Albert 245 Negaki, Teiichi 106 Siegel, Alberta Engvall 246 Nahabedian, Vaskey (Mrs.) 62 Siersted, Ellen 247 Nath, Mahendra 415 Sijmons, A .H. 122 Ness, Einar 359 Simson, W.A. 251, 252, 253 Nozet, Hugues 30 Sinoir,Guy M. 284 105 Skoleinspektoren i Hamar 88 Verdone, Mario 384,426,427,428 Smith, E.M. 93,110 Vicente Gelabert, Enrique de 429 Snejder, M. 141 Vincent, Carl 49 Society for the Study of Film Vinokurov, J. 430 Education in Japan 378 Volpicelli, Luigi 92 Soriano, Marc 142 Vojtolovskaja, L. 431 Spinat, P. 107 Stoddard, G.D. 259 Wagner-Simon, Th. 184 Storck, Henri 423 Wall, William D. 93,110,251,252,253 Stackrath, Fritz 32,17 9,180,181,249 Wallon, Henri 185 305,379 Ward, J.C. 94 Sutermeister, H. 306 Warshow, Robert 125 Wasem, Erich 36,37,126 Tarroni, Evelina 33, 34,89,109,143,182 Wieringen, H. van 122 183, 250262,263,380,424 Winkler, Gerd 364,490 Tavistock Clinic, The 425 Witty, Paul 127 Thrasher, Frederick M. 271 Wolf enstein, Martha 128 Thurstone, Louis L. 194,195,199,200 Walker, Herbert 186 Tol' B.H. 381 Wrablowa-Koblewska, Janina 407 TOnnessen, H.A. 90 Wirth, Elizabeth 254 Trager, F. 196 Wyeth, Ezra R. 111 Traversa, Carlo 91 Trager, Walter 35,382 Zanotti, Milena 112 Zazzo, Bianka 95,113,144,145 Urickij, N.Z. 307,383 146,255,432 Zazzo, Rene 95, 113,146,147,148,432 Vandromme, Pol 124 Zieris, Franz 187 Vannoey, 477 Zochbauer, Franz 114,385

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Adly- Iran: Commission nationale iranienne pour l'Unesco, avenue du Pasha, CAIRO (Egypt). Musee TEHERAN. United Kingdom : H.M. Stationery Office, P.O. Box 569, LONDON Iraq: McKenzie's Bookshop, BAGHDAD. S.E, 1. Ireland: The National Press, 2 Wellington Road, Ballsbridge, United States of America Unesco Publications Center., 801 DUBLIN. Third Avenue, NEW YORK 22. N.Y., and except /or periodicals: Israel Blumstein's Bookstores Ltd., 35 Allenby Road and 48 Nahlat Columbia University Press, 2960, Broadway, NEW YORK 27, N.Y. Benjamin Street, TEL AVIV. Uruguay: Unesco Centro de Cooperacidn CientIfica para America Italy: Libreria Commissionaria Sansoni, via Gino Capponi 26, Latina,bulevarArtigas1320- 24,casilla de correo. t859, casella postale 552, FIRENZE. MONTEVIDEO.Oficinade RepresentaciOnde Editoriales, Jamaica : Sangster's Book Room, 91 Harbour Street, KINGSTON; plaza Cagancha 1342, Ler piso, MONTEVIDEO. Knox Educational Services, SPALDINGS. USSR : Mezhdunarodnaja Kniga, MOSKVA G-200. Japan : Maruzen Co., Ltd., 6, Tori-Nichome, Nihonbashi, P.O. Viet Nam :Librairiepapeterie Xuan -Thu, 185-193, rue Ttr-Do, Box 605, Tokyo Central, TOKYO. B.P. 283, SAIGON. Yugoslavia : Jugoslovenska Knjiga, Terazije 27, BEOGRAD.

669 Li] $1;50; 7/6 (mg.); 5,25 NF