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THERMAL TESTING of INTEGRATED CIRCUITS Thermal Testing of Integrated Circuits THERMAL TESTING OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS Thermal Testing of Integrated Circuits by JosepAltet University Politecnica de Catalunya and Antonio Rubio University Politecnica de Catalunya SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V. A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 978-1-4419-5287-5 ISBN 978-1-4757-3635-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-3635-9 Printed on acid-free paper AII Rights Reserved © 2002 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2002 Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover lst edition 2002 No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specificalIy for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Xl PREFACE xiii 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE TESTING OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 1 1. INTRODUCTION 1 2. NATURE AND MODELLING OF REALISTIC DEFECTS 3 2.1 Classification of defects 3 2.2 Realistic defect models 5 2.2.1 Defect model for a GOS 5 2.2.2 Bridging defect models 6 2.2.3 Open defect models 6 2.3 Defective behaviours at the electrical level 8 2.3.1 Gate oxide short defects 8 2.3.2 Bridging defect 8 2.3.3 Open defects 9 2.3.4 Conclusions 9 3. FAULT MODELS AND CONVENTIONAL TESTING STRATEGIES 10 3.1 Fault models 10 3.2 Conventional test strategies 11 4. PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF TESTING INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 12 4.1 Test pattern generation 13 4.2 Design for testability and test standards 13 4.3 Built-in self-testing 14 4.4 The cost of testing 14 v vi Contents 5. FUTURE PERSPECTNES OF CONVENTIONAL TEST STRATEGIES 15 5.11DDQ testing 15 5.2Evolution of semiconductor technology and role of 1DDQ testing in deep submicron circuits 17 6. CONCLUSIONS AND SCOPE OF THIS BOOK 18 7. REFERENCES 19 2. THERMAL TRANSFER AND THERMAL COUPLING IN IC'S 23 1. INTRODUCTION: HEAT TRANSFER AND ITS RELATION TO THERMODYNAMICS 23 2. MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER 25 2.1 The conduction mechanism 25 2.1.1 Thermal resistance 27 2.1.2 Contact resistance 29 2.2 The convection mechanism 31 2.2.1 Natural convection 31 2.2.2 Forced convection 32 2.3 The radiation mechanism 32 3. ENERGY BALANCE IN A MEDIUM: HEAT TRANSFER EQUATION 35 4. THERMAL ELEMENTS IN IC'S 37 4.1 Heat sources 37 4.1.1 Passive components 38 4.1.2 Active devices 38 4.1.3 Power dissipation due to switching activity 39 4.1.4 Peltier Effect 40 4.2 IC structure: materials and transfer 41 5. EFFECTS OF HEATER TRANSFER IN IC'S 42 5.1 Temperature sensitivity of electronic devices 42 5.1.1 Temperature effects in MOS transistors 42 5.1.2 P-njunction diodes 43 5.1.3 BJT devices 44 5.2 Ageing mechanisms and circuit degradation 45 6. CONCLUSIONS 47 7. APPENDIX: UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS 48 8. REFERENCES 49 3. THERMAL ANALYSIS IN INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 53 1. INTRODUCTION 53 2. DEFINITIONS 54 2.1 Thermal analysis versus electro-thermal analysis 54 Contents VB 2.2 Boundary conditions 55 2.2.IExample 1: Application of boundary conditions for an IC analysis 56 3. THERMAL ANALYSIS OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 58 3.1 Analytical methods 59 3.1.IExample 2: Presentation of the method. Calculation of a static two-dimensional temperature map 60 3.1.2Example 3: Calculation of a three-dimensional time dependent temperature map 64 3.1.3 Example 4: Thermal analysis in cylindrical coordinates 67 3.1.4 Example 5: AC thermal analysis 70 3.1.5 Example 6: Analysis of multi-layer structures 73 3.2 Numerical methods 78 3.2.1 Finite difference method 78 3 .2.1.1 Nodal equation extraction 79 3.2.1.2 RC modelling of heat transfer 84 3.2.1.3 Reduction ofthe complexity in thermal analysis ofIC's 85 4. ELECTRO-THERMAL ANALYSIS OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 91 4.1.1 Example 7: Dynamic electro-thermal procedure 92 5. CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY 94 6. REFERENCES 94 4. TEMPERATURE AS A TEST OBSERVABLE VARIABLE IN ICS 97 1. INTRODUCTION 97 2. MODIFICATION OF THE THERMAL PATH BETWEEN THE HEAT SOURCES AND THE HEAT SINK 99 2.1 Example 1: thermal testing of the quality of solder joints. 100 2.2Example 2: thermal testing of the quality ofpackages 102 3. MODIFICATION OF THE HEAT SOURCES PRESENT IN THE IC 116 3.1 Identification of defects as heat sources 117 3.1.1 Example 1: Power dissipated in different bridge topologies 119 3.1.2 Example 2: Effects of device scaling and degraded logic levels. 121 3.1.3Example 3: Power dissipated in CMOS combinational circuits with a GOS defect. 123 3.1.4 Conclusions 124 3.2 Thermal disturbances generated by heat sources 125 3.2.1 Dynamic thermal characterisation 125 3.2.2 Static thermal characterisation 129 viii Contents 3.3 Location of the heat source 131 3.3.1 Amplitude measurements 132 3.3.2 Phase measurements 132 3.3.3 Rise time and delay measurements 134 4. SUMMARY 136 5. REFERENCES 136 5. THERMAL MONITORING OF IC'S 139 1. INTRODUCTION 139 2. OPTICAL METHODS 141 2.1 Contact methods 141 2.1.1 Liquid crystal thermography 141 2.1.1.1 Principle of operation 141 2.1.1.2 Technique performance 143 2.1.2 Fluorescent microthermography 144 2.1.2.1 Principle of operation 144 2.1.2.2 Technique performance 144 2.2 Non-contact methods 145 2.2.1 Infrared emission thermography 145 2.2.1.1 Principle of operation 146 2.2.1.2 Technique performance 147 2.2.2 Thermoreflectometers 148 2.2.3 Interferometers 154 3. MECHANICAL METHODS 158 4. BUILT-IN TEMPERATURE SENSORS 161 4.1 Absolute temperature sensors 162 4.2 Differential temperature sensors 169 5. CONCLUSIONS 179 6. REFERENCES 181 6. FEASmILITY ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS 185 1. INTRODUCTION 185 2. FEASmILITY ASPECTS OF THE THERMAL TESTING OF CIRCUITS 187 2.1 Cost estimation 187 2.2 Discriminability analysis 190 2.2.1Heat sources in fault-free circuits: generation of thermal disturbances 190 2.2.2 Discriminability 195 2.2.3 Strategies to improve the feasibility of thermal testing 195 2.2.4 Generation of test vectors 196 3. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 198 4. REFERENCES 199 Contents ix INDEX 201 Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the researchers referenced throughout the book for their valuable previous work. We are specially grateful to Professors Wilfrid Claeys, Stefan Dilhaire, Stephane Grauby and all the research team of the "Centre de Physique Moleculaire Optique et Hertzienne" from the Universite Bordeaux I, France; Sebastian Volz from the Laboratoire d'Etudes Thermiques, Ecole Nationale Superieur de Mechanique et d' Aerotechnique, France; Jean Christophe Batsale, from the Laboratoire d'Energetique et Phenomenes de Transfert - Universite Bordeaux I, France; Hideo Tamamoto from the Department of fuformation Engineering, Akita University, Japan; Joan Figueras and Rosa Rodriguez, from the Electronic Engineering Department, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Spain; Jaume Segura from the Physics Department, Universitat de les TIles Balears, Spain; Victor Champac from the INAOE, Mexico; and Andre Ivanov, from the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, The University of British Columbia, Canada; with whom we have been tightly working during the last years in this field. Weare also grateful to Prof. P.E. Bagnoli, C. Casarosa, M. Ciampi, E. Dallago, V. Szekely, M. Rencz, A. Poppe and B. Courtois for providing figures from their research work. Xl Preface Integrated circuits (IC's) have undergone a significant evolution in terms of complexity and performance as a result 'of the substantial advances made in manufacturing technology. Circuits, in their various mixed formats, can be made up tens or even hundreds of millions of devices. They work at extremely low voltages and switch at very high frequencies. Testing of circuits has become an essential process in IC manufacturing, in the effort to ensure that the manufactured components have the appropriate levels of quality. Along with the ongoing trend towards more advanced technology and circuit features, major testing challenges are continuously emerging. The use of ambivalent procedures to test the analogue and digital sections of such complex circuits without interfering in their nominal operation is clearly a critical part of today's technological ipdustries. Chapter 1 presents the general purposes and basic concepts rel~ted With' the"testing of integrated circuits, discussing the various strategies and their limitations. Readers who are already familiar with the field may opt to skip this chapter. This book offers a multidisciplinary focus on thermal testing. This is a testing method which is not only suitable for use in combination with other existing techniques, but is also backed by a wealth of knowledge and offers exciting opportunities in the form of as yet unexplored areas of research and innovation for industrial applications. In short, thermal testing is that general category of testing procedures in which the observable magnitude is the temperature of a part or whole of the system. The technique can be applied either to the packaging of the components, or directly to the components themselves. This book will also deal with the testing of packaging and silicon dies. xiii xiv Preface In order to achieve a thorough understanding of thermal testing, a knowledge of thermodynamics, specifically of heat propagation mechanisms, and diffusion and heat balance equations, will be necessary.
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