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09ON THE W NTOTERFRA : HERITTURE,CUL GA E AND REGENERATION OF POR CITIEST

LOCAL AND GLOBAL DYNAMICS IN THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE PORT-CITY OF LAGOS SINCE THE NINETEENTH CENTURY Ayodeji Olukoju Department of History and Strategic Studies, University of Lagos ON THE W NTOTERFRA : HERITTURE,CUL GA E AND REGENERATION OF PORT CITIES PAGE 2

This paper outlines the local and global dynamics in the LAGOS: A SPATIAL Ikeja areas on the Mainland, which emergence of Lagos as the leading maritime, commercial AND HISTORICAL PROFILE had been part of the old Western Region of Nigeria. and industrial city in West Africa. A combination of official The port-city of Lagos, originally a fishing settlement and, subsequently, policy, ecology, retail and maritime trade, and technology Following British colonization in1861, an outpost of the Benin Empire up till underpinned the transformation of the city. British colonial Lagos was the first city to experience the late eighteenth century (Aderibigbe, Crown Colony and modern municipal rule, the return of the “Saro” and “Aguda,” the establishment 1975; Lawal, 1994), has been defined administration and, together with of newspapers, educational and other institutions that and shaped by a variety of factors: Calabar, also pioneered qualified geography (location and terrain) and promoted literacy and civic pride, and the rise of the male suffrage in Nigeria. It also had historical forces (the trans-Atlantic professions (law, medicine, journalism and teaching) the trappings of modernity – urban slave trade, British colonialism, Christian amenities,Western medical facilities, promoted social development and political participation. missionary activity, indigenous culture, British judicial and legislative institutions, The city exhibits a blend of indigenous and external religious beliefs and Islam, port newspapers, political parties and development and maritime trade). cultural traditions, local music and festivals, and modern pressure groups, and the first set This paper analyzes the interaction popular culture and is long regarded as the pace-setter of Christian Mission schools. It was of these dynamics in their spatial and Nigeria’s capital from1914 till1991. and harbinger of ‘civilisation’ and innovation. Like Mumbai historical contexts. Informed by archival, in India, Lagos benefited from extensive port development newspaper and oral sources, it seeks to and flourishing maritime trade since the nineteenth deepen our understanding of the forces that shaped and continue to influence century. Glasgow-Bombay imperial and maritime links THE EMERGENCE the fortunes of West Africa’s premier OF A PREMIER PORT resonate with those between Lagos and Liverpool. port, industrial and commercial centre. But Mumbai had the advantage of the antiquity and Lagos was rapidly transformed by the strength of indigenous Indian mercantile enterprise. Lagos grew out of its core on Lagos expansion of trade and the growth of Island, the surrounding plains at shipping. By1880, it was nicknamed Ikoyi and Oto and Victoria islands. ‘the “Liverpool” of West Africa’ on Its boundary was extended to the account of its regional pre-eminence. Mainland (Yaba and Ebute Metta) in But the bar at the mouth of the harbour 1911, fifty years after British colonization kept out ocean liners, necessitating the in1861.The next major landmark was use of lighters. However, railway and the creation of Lagos State in1967. road development complemented This extended the metropolitan area extensive and expensive harbour into the Ajeromi, Mushin, Oshodi and works, which opened the port to ON THE W NTOTERFRA : HERITTURE,CUL GA E AND REGENERATION OF PORT CITIES AP GE 3

ocean shipping by1914. Modern banking THE MAKING OF THE and carpentry while the “Saro” were the indigenous settlement on Lagos Island and a unified currency system facilitated COSMOPOLITAN CITY leaders in the professions of medicine, (Olukoju, 2003b, 2004). However, the trade in an economy dominated by law, journalism and teaching.Various colonial government transplanted some expatriate interests (Ogundana,1961; The imposition of colonial law and hinterland peoples – mainly,Yoruba, metropolitan landmarks to Lagos – Hopkins,1964; Olukoju,1992, 2004). order, the growth of produce exports Hausa, and Nupe – also settled in The Marina (cf. Nigerian Pioneer [Lagos], and the rising profile of Lagos as a Lagos at different times and for 20 March1931), the Supreme Court, Port development took a new turn leading commercial centre attracted various reasons (Aderibigbe,1975; Race Course and other public buildings. in the immediate aftermath of World migrants from the Yoruba hinterland. Echeruo,1977). These were sited in the European War I with the alignment of rail and The in-migrants included fugitive slaves section of the port-city. maritime transport.The focus of port and demobilized soldiers, upon the A major challenge of colonial development shifted from Lagos Island to conclusion of the inter-state wars urbanization was the violation of Rising population aggravated housing Apapa, thus underscoring the importance in Yorubaland in 1893 (Aderibigbe, town planning laws by the unregulated and food supplies, two key indices of of the railway to port development. 1975). By this time, Lagos had become development of the overcrowded cost of living in colonial Lagos.The Great The extension of the railway to Kano cosmopolitan with a racially and socially indigenous quarters on the Island Depression compounded the woes of in Northern Nigeria in1912 facilitated a diverse population. In addition to the and mainland of Lagos.The bubonic the city dwellers as did World War II phenomenal rise in groundnut production majority indigenous Lagosians, the plague of1924-30 ravaged the city exigencies – epitomized by salt, gari in the Kano region. Paradoxically, as the descendants of slaves of West African, and prompted the establishment of (processed cassava flour) and petroleum port and its hinterland developed, mainly Yoruba, origins had flocked to the Lagos Executive Development scarcity – and rising cost of living Lagos earned the unsavoury reputation Lagos from Sierra Leone, Brazil and Board (LEDB) in1928.The consequent (Olukoju, 2000).These developments as an “expensive port.” High port tariffs Cuba (Echeruo,1977). demolition of squalid structures, generated labour militancy and discouraged shipping without freeing port evacuation and resettlement of slum culminated in the World War II-era operations from fiscal deficits (Olukoju, The Sierra Leonean émigrés dwellers, and enforcement of town cost of living (COLA) wars, which 1994). Still, Lagos remained critical to (known as “Saro”) and their “Brazilian” planning simply transferred unregulated also aligned with late-1940s nationalist colonial port development policy, which counterparts (who bore the generic development to the Lagos suburbs of politics (Oyemakinde,1970). Lagos was oscillated between port diffusion and name “Aguda” – though a good number Mushin and Ikeja (Olukoju, 2003a, 2004). the hotbed of Nigerian nationalism, not concentration.The collaboration of of them were Muslims) soon occupied An unsavoury dimension of town simply because it was the national capital imperial/colonial governments with particular areas on Lagos Island – the planning was the colonial policy of and economic hub.The newspapers and metropolitan and local business pressure “Saro” at Olowogbowo and the Brazilians residential segregation, which created a the Legislative Council were outlets for groups ensured the growth of the colonial at Popo Aguda – distinct from the other separate European Quarters on Victoria anti-colonial activities. economy – in spite of the intervention quarters in the African section of the Island and Ikoyi with an enclosing cordon of global and local adversities, such as the city.The “Aguda” pioneered various sanitaire to ward off pestilence which world wars and the Great Depression. artisanal occupations, especially, masonry was feared to emanate from the ON THE W NTOTERFRA : HERITTURE,CUL GA E AND REGENERATION OF PORT CITIES AP GE 4

Lagos experienced unprecedented, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL rate agitation, the deposition of Lagosians indulged in conspicuous phenomenal growth during the second DIMENSIONS AND DYNAMICS Eshugbayi Eleko, the schism in the Lagos consumption, opulent housing, half of the twentieth century thanks to Muslim Community, the acquisition of expensive cars, an aristocratic lifestyle Mid-nineteenth century Lagos the post-war boom and the port-city’s Ikoyi for European settlement and the and elaborate marriage ceremonies. already exhibited considerable racial, increasing political, social and economic demolition of houses in the wake of the Dress for Muslim and Christian cultural and social diversity. Each group significance.The population of the city bubonic plague (Cole,1975). Songs in Lagosians was designed to reflect contributed to the mix of foreign and rose dramatically from some 250,000 support of rival factions in chieftaincy social status (Euba,1987), though indigenous cultures. In spite of foreign in1950 to 10 million by1991, the year in disputes, party politics, land and related this was taken to an extreme in two influences, the indigenous fabric of Lagos which the national capital was transferred matters are still recalled in contemporary respects: the aso ebi (uniform apparel) social life and culture proved resilient. to Abuja. By the close of the century, Lagos, where the tradition continues in practice (which was roundly condemned The latter combined Yoruba, Edo (Bini) the mega-city had a population in the context of modern local politics by contemporary newspapers) and and Nupe traditions, reflecting the excess of12 million in spite of the (Dimeji Ajikobi, oral communication). the tendency to show off literally in evolution of the people and society. loss of national capital city status borrowed robes (Olukoju, 2004). The indigenous social system was (Mabogunje, 2007). Paradoxically, this woven around the political structure Traditional and contemporary culture has merely encouraged a greater influx comprising the Oba (king) and the in Lagos reflects social class and power The extravagance that defined of people from other parts of Nigeria, various categories of land-owning relations, and the changing demographic Lagos spread to many other Nigerian especially Igboland in Eastern Nigeria. chieftaincy families.These institutions structure of an emergent mega-city. communities, where moderation or Late colonial-era import substitution produced their own social idioms and Still, Lagos is famous for its peculiar modesty was part of the indigenous light industrialization occurred in the lore, which made Lagos a peculiar festivals (Eyo and Igunnu) and street moral code. Lagos, however, remains Ikeja and Apapa axes of the metropolis. Yoruba kingdom with Edo, Nupe and carnivals, a lasting legacy of the “Saro” Nigeria’s culture capital in terms of new Mercantile and industrial organizations Western flavour. Indigenous festivals and “Aguda.”The Muslim majority too fashions. Its cultural cosmopolitanism is as well as government bureaucracy were depicting the political history and asserted its dominance in the social typified by the coexistence of indigenous, major employers of labour. In addition, maritime roots of the city have survived and political life of the city during the Western and Afro-Brazilian architecture, Lagos had the largest retail market substantially but with inescapable annual Muslim festivals since the colonial cuisine, music and dress. Christian structure in West Africa but street changes over time (Aderibigbe,1975). period. Display of opulence during major missionary activities – exemplified by trading compounded the problems Muslim festivals, epitomized by long the credo of “the Bible and the Plough” of sanitation, town planning and traffic The socio-political order was hierarchical convoys of motor cars in street parades, and the establishment of primary and control.This still poses the same though the people retained a certain was common during the period secondary schools – the rise of the challenges today (Lawal, 2003). measure of autonomy. Dissent was (Olukoju, 2004).The African business professions and the newspaper industry ventilated through songs and aphorisms, and professional elite too left its mark since the nineteenth century have as demonstrated in the city’s major through intra-class marriage, social exerted a most profound impact twentieth century crises – the water values and tastes. Generally, affluent on Lagos and Nigeria. ON THE W NTOTERFRA : HERITTURE,CUL GA E AND REGENERATION OF PORT CITIES AP GE 5

URBAN RENEWAL activities precipitated a greater influx of with the aim of achieving a synergy of Although the initiative is still in its AND WATERFRONT in-migrants to Lagos, which grew rapidly waterfront development and tourism. infancy, some progress has been made DEVELOPMENT SINCE1967 into a mega-city by the early1990s. In 2008, the State House of Assembly in curbing the abuse of the waterfront considered a bill for the regulation of and harnessing it for tourism.The State The creation of Lagos State in1967 Federal government investment has waterfront infrastructure development government is implementing a major conferred on the city the dual status been complemented by infrastructure (The Punch [Lagos], September 1, 2008:80). infrastructure plan (including a free of Federal and State capital.The State development through the State and local trade zone and an airport) for the capital was relocated to Ikeja on the governments (Olowu,1990, Olukoju, Two major issues in the management of strategic Lekki Corridor, which has mainland in1975 while the Federal 2003a).Waterfront development has the Lagos waterfront are sand dredging been divided into five development capital was moved to Abuja in1991. been promoted since the late 1990s and land reclamation. Both pose a serious zones (The Guardian, August18, 2008: Lagos is the only State in Nigeria where even with the occasional disputes threat to the waterfront environment 29).The development of the Lagos the Federal government still retains between the State Government and and have elicited mixed reactions waterfront through the reclamation of control of some territory, and this has Federal Government agencies, such as from the government and civil society the foreshore is expected to generate bred contentious inter-governmental the Nigerian Inland Waterways Authority (Businessday [Lagos], July 25-27, 2008: annual revenues of some N34billion relations. Still, the Federal government (NIWA), Nigerian Ports Authority (NPA) 19). Property owners fear that (The Nation [Lagos], May 22, 2008). invested heavily in road, aviation and and the Federal Roads Maintenance unregulated sand dredging and Old landmarks, such as Tinubu Square maritime transport infrastructure in Agency (FERMA).Those disputes reclamation would imperil their (named after an influential 19th-Century Lagos during the oil boom years of the underscore the crisis of inter-governmental assets through erosion and flooding, Lagos woman), the Central Business 1970s. Increasing population pressure relations under an imperfect federal two natural processes which have been District and the Marina have been given has however caused infrastructure system of government and the need for aggravated by human activity in recent a significant facelift for aesthetic and decay arising from overuse and poor a special dispensation for the mega city. times. Residents of upper scale areas of planning purposes.The sustenance of maintenance. Heavy port traffic has Ikoyi (Park View Estate),Victoria Island the ongoing massive work all over the also damaged the roads and polluted The development of the Lagos waterfront and the Lekki Peninsula have formed metropolis promises to transform the environment. Extensive port has proceeded in the face of pressure pressure groups to oppose the unregulated Lagos into a progressive mega city. development took place at Apapa on land from sand dredgers and real alteration of the waterfront and to Physical reconstruction has been and Tin Can Island, consequent estate developers.The administration of prevent long term environmental risks complemented by a wholesale upon a protracted port congestion Government Bola Tinubu (1999-2007) to their assets (The Guardian [Lagos], beautification of the city, including occasioned by the “cement armada” established in 2000 an administrative July 14, 2008: 35). Experts too have tree and flower planting, modern and of the mid-1970s resulting from agency for waterfront development – warned of the possibility of “major standard street direction finders and massive cement imports. Expansion The Lagos State Waterfront and Tourism environmental disasters” if the situation the transformation of previous black of port facilities attracted heavy Development Corporation.Tinubu’s was not well managed (The Punch, spots and dumpsites into recreational shipping (including container) traffic successor, Governor Fashola upgraded September 1, 2008: 53). and aesthetically appealing places. and aided industrialization in the the Corporation to a State Ministry vicinity of the port. Increasing economic ON THE W NTOTERFRA : HERITTURE,CUL GA E AND REGENERATION OF PORT CITIES PAGE 6

The ongoing urban renewal, Second, the Federal Government CONCLUSION infrastructure upgrade and waterfront of President Olusegun Obasanjo development have rekindled civic pride (1999-2007) frustrated similar efforts Lagos owes its emergence as the leading maritime, commercial in a people who had longed for the by the Bola Tinubu administration in and industrial city in West Africa to the interplay of local and global restoration of Lagos to its past glory. a show of muscle flexing that left dynamics – official policy, politics and inter-governmental relations, But continued success will depend upon Lagosians groaning while urban roads ecology, retail and maritime trade, and technology. British colonial the continued support of the people, (controlled by the Federal and State rule, the return of the “Saro” and “Aguda,” the establishment of adequate funding, involvement of the governments) deteriorated into craters. newspapers, educational and other institutions and the rise of the private sector and sustained focus by A power project that could have professions (law, medicine, journalism and teaching) promoted the government. ameliorated the erratic power supply literacy, civic pride, social development and political participation. situation in Lagos became a major victim The city exhibits a blend of indigenous and external cultural However, party politics and inter of political brinkmanship.The situation traditions, local music and festivals, and modern popular culture. governmental relations have often degenerated to the point that the Long regarded as the pace-setter and harbinger of ‘civilisation,’ frustrated laudable plans proposed Federal Government illegally withheld Lagos has been the city of the savvy (“Eko Akete, Ilu Ogbon”), by the State government. First, the the statutory allocation of funds from and innovators in dress, social practices, cuisine and recreation. ambitious urban commuter train (metro the Federation Account to local As the hub of the leading mega churches, the Redeemed Christian line) project proposed by the Lateef governments in Lagos even in defiance Church of God, Deeper Life Bible Church and Mountain of Fire Jakande administration (1979-83) of a Supreme Court ruling.Though and Miracles, it is also a major religious centre in West Africa. was frustrated by political differences the situation has improved remarkably between the governor’s Unity Party under President Umoru Musa Yar’Adua Lagos is comparable with similar port-cities in the Global South, of Nigeria (UPN) and President Shehu (2007-), volatile inter-governmental notably, Mumbai (formerly known as Bombay) in India. Both rose Shagari’s National Party of Nigeria relations persist on the issue of as colonial port-cities in the wake of extensive port development and (NPN).The project was finally scrapped waterfront development and local flourishing maritime trade in the nineteenth century. Mumbai owed its by the military government of General government creation. For instance, emergence to a synergy of indigenous Indian enterprise and Scottish Muhammadu Buhari (1984-85). NIWA still contests the control of capital, technology in port construction, managerial capacity and the inland waterways within the city maritime enterprise (Hazareesingh, 2009:21-29). Glasgow-Bombay limits with the State government. imperial and maritime links resonate with those between Lagos and Liverpool. Lagos and Mumbai continue to grapple with the consequences of maritime enterprise and urban development, and the legacy of British colonial rule. But Mumbai has had a critical edge over Lagos in the antiquity and strength of indigenous Indian mercantile enterprise. It has thereby made a greater success of the development of its port and maritime trade. ON THE W NTOTERFRA : HERITTURE,CUL GA E AND REGENERATION OF PORT CITIES PAGE 7

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1992 ‘The Development of the Port of Lagos, c.1892-1946’. The Journal of Transport History, vol.13, no.1, pp. 59-78. If you would like this document in a different format, please contact our Customer Services department: Telephone: 0870 333 1181 Fax: 01793 414926 Textphone: 01793 414878 E-mail: [email protected]