WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES 3 Labour market Inactive youths The good news is that youth inactivity rates have been falling in Did you know? most countries since 1995 – the first year for which these data “Inactive youths” are those between 15 and 19 who have no jobs are available. (In the chart below negative “growth rates” mean and are not at school. a decline.) In most countries the gender differences are small but there were For the OECD as a whole, female youth inactivity rates have been substantially fewer young inactive women than men in Norway, Belgium and Sweden and many more inactive women than men falling at just over 3.0% per year compared with 1.9% for men. in Mexico and Turkey. In most countries where youth unemployment has been rising, the increases have been larger for young men than young women. In Sweden, on the other hand, the annual growth of the inactivity Inactive youths constitute both a present and future problem. rate for women has been relatively high while the rate for men Present because they are more likely to be involved in various has been falling. kinds of anti-social behaviour including property crime and drug abuse. Future, because lacking work experience or marketable Average annual growth in rates of youth inactivity skills they are likely to join the pool of the “socially excluded” for 1995 or earliest year available to 2004 much of their lifetimes. Men Women In most OECD countries less than 10% of those aged 15 to 19 are 25 inactive and less than 5% in eight. Rates in excess of 10% were recorded 20 in Turkey, Mexico, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom. 15 10 Percentage of people aged 15-19 who were not 5 in education or work (2004) 0 -5 Men Women -10 50 -15 45 -20 40 -25 y k y a e 35 d d m rg s li e s in ey m d al te a any k iu It ra ag eec a eden ance elan Sp publicm ur rtugal elan 30 Ic zerlan Poland Gr Mexico St Canada er T Fr ngdo Ir Belg DenmarHungar Aust aver G Po Sw k Republic ted h Re Ki 25 Swit Netherland Luxembou Uni ted OECD 20 Slova Czec Uni 15 Source: OECD Education database. 10 5 Further reading: 0 OECD (2006), Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, OECD, Paris.

s k ay rg d m e d ry c ic a d y m e n OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris. nd es ali tria ge al ec gal ey rw iu eden anc ga ubli la s a It do e u rk elan inlan n p er str er elan g Spai rt Poland No Ic Fr F Canada Stat Au Ir in Gr MexicoTu Denmar Germany Belg Sw Hu itz Republ Au av K Po Re k ted Netherland ch Sw Luxembou e Uni ted OECD Cz Slova Uni

14 WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES 3 Labour market Gender wage gaps The chart below shows the gender gaps in wages – men’s minus Did you know? women’s – for low paid and for high paid workers. (Low and high In all OECD countries median wages for men are higher than paid are defined as those in the 20th and 80th percentiles of the those for women. The average difference is more than 15% and wage distribution respectively.) In a majority of countries, the exceeds 20% in several countries. gender gap is larger for the high wage earners. This is evidence Male median earnings are more than 20% higher than those of that the “glass ceiling” is no myth – women are less likely to get women in Korea, Japan, Germany, Switzerland, Canada and the into higher paid and managerial occupations. United States. Note that these are median earnings in full-time jobs and so are not affected by a widespread preference for part- Gender gap at the top and bottom of the earnings distribution time work by women (though men tend to work longer hours 2003 or latest year available than women). At the other end of the scale, the gender gap is less Low earners (20th percentile) High earners (80th percentile) than 12% in New Zealand, Belgium, Poland, Greece and France. % 45 Almost all OECD countries legislate to ensure equal pay for equal 40 work regardless of gender. But there are all sorts of reasons why 35 this is insufficient to close the gender gap. Discrimination may 30 25 continue, if legislation is not or cannot be applied. More generally, 20 women may end up in lower-paid occupations than men, and may 15 struggle to be promoted as often as men. 10 Gender wage gaps 5 Gender gap in median earnings of full-time employees, 0 m d k m a d d y n a 2004 or latest year available gal ali ge tes re eece u iu ance a eden an rt tr ta inlan Japa Ko Gr Fr ngdo Poland s Canada S zerl F Po Belg Sw w Zealan Denmar Ki Au aver ted German 45 Swit Ne ted Uni OECD 40 Uni 35 Source: OECD Employment and Labour Market Statistics. 30 25 Further reading: 20 OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris. 15 OECD (2002-2004), Babies and Bosses – Reconciling Work and Family Life, series, OECD, Paris. 10 5 0 e y k a a d m li n e d m d es blic gal re iu eece anc ra eden ag u lan land apan Spai rt inlan J Ko PolandGr Fr Ire ngdo F Stat Canada er Belg HungarDenmarAust Sw aver Repu Po itz Germany w Zealan h Ki ted Sw Ne ted Uni OECD Czec Uni

15 WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES 3 Labour market Employment However, differences in employment rates for men and women are Did you know? falling in almost all countries. The chart below shows how much The “employment rate” is the number of people of working age faster female employment rates have been growing compared who are in employment divided by all those of working age. to male employment rates over the last decade. The growth of female employment has been higher than that of men in all OECD Employment rates of women are below employment rates of countries except Turkey, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Finland men in all OECD countries. But nearly everywhere, the gap and Sweden. Female employment rates have been growing between male and female employment rates has been falling. much faster than those for men in Spain, Ireland, Greece and the There are only five countries where the gap between male Netherlands. and female employment rates have risen since the mid-1990s – Turkey, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Finland and Sweden. Difference between women and men in annual average increases of employment rates Average annual increase from 1991 to 2004 A higher percentage of men than women are employed in each OECD country. Less than 50% of women are in paid employment 3.5 3.0 in Turkey, Mexico, Italy, Greece, Spain and Poland, while more 2.5 than 70% are employed in Iceland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden 2.0 and Switzerland. The gender gap is most pronounced in Turkey 1.5 and Mexico but is also high in Japan, Korea and Ireland. 1.0 0.5 Percentage of men and women of working age in employment 0 2004 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 Men Women -2.0 y k a a a e y s e 100 ey d n n d es d ay li e d rg m d in de re nc gal al ico a rk e rw ra ag a u It x iu eec inlan Japa elanStat Ko gdom rt r elanSp 90 Tu F Poland Ic No Canadan Austri zerlanFr Me G Ir Hungar Sw Denmar d Ki Aust aver Po Germany Belg h Republic k Republicte w Zealan d xembou Swit u Netherland 80 Uni Ne te L Czec OECD 70 Slova Uni 60 50 Source: OECD (2006), OECD Factbook: Economic, Environmental and Social Statistics, 40 OECD, Paris; OECD (2006), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris. 30 Further reading: 20 OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris. 10 OECD (2006), Economic Policy Reforms: Going for Growth – 2006 Edition, 0 y e d n y a d e n e a s s d d a d y d OECD, Paris. ey al ic m ic li d rk an re iu nc ag tria gal ate ad wa rk It eec l ourg elan a s u ra n eden elan Tu Spai Ko Japa u rt rlan St nlan gdom or OECD (2006), OECD Factbook 2006: Economic, Environmental and Social Mexico Gr Po Ir Fr A Fi n Ca zerlanSw enmaN Ic Hungar Belg averGermany Po Aust ed Ki it D k Republ h Republ etheit w Zealan w N S Statistics, OECD, Paris. Luxemb Un Ne ted OECD ni Slova Czec U

16 WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES 3 Labour market Unemployment Have unemployment rates been falling or rising for women over Did you know? the past decade? The chart below compares female unemployment For statisticians, the “labour force” is everybody who is either rates in 1994 and 2004. Countries that fall on the diagonal line working or is “unemployed”. The “unemployed” are people who have exactly the same female unemployment rates in both years. are actively looking for work but who have not found more than If they are below the diagonal, the 2004 rate is higher than the one hour of paid work in the last week. The unemployment rate 1994 rate. Fifteen of the 27 countries lie above the diagonal is the number of unemployed as a percentage of the labour force. meaning that in most countries female unemployment rates have The female unemployment rate is the number of unemployed women as a percentage of the female labour force. fallen over the decade. Poland has the highest with nearly 20% of the female labour force Female unemployment rates in 1994 and 2004 out of work in 2004; the Slovak Republic was second with just 1994 over 19%. 30 ESP Compared to men, women have a higher risk of being unemployed 25 in most OECD countries. Twenty-seven countries are shown 20 HUN BEL in the chart and the female unemployment rate is higher than IRL FIN ITA POL 15 AUS SWE FRA that for men in 20 of them. The gender gap in favour of men is CAN NLD GRC SVK 10 NZL OECD particularly large in Greece, Spain, and Italy. On the other hand, DEU women are somewhat less likely than men to be unemployed in GBR PRT 5 NOR USA DNK Korea, Norway, Ireland, Japan and the United Kingdom. KOR LUX CZE 0 JPN CHE AUT Unemployment as a percentage of the male 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 and female labour forces (2004) 2004 or latest year available Men Women Source: Quarterly Labour Force Statistics and Annual Labour Force 25 Statistics; OECD (2006), OECD Factbook: Economic, Environmental and Social Statistics, OECD, Paris. 20 Further reading: 15 OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris. OECD (2006), Economic Policy Reforms: Going for Growth – 2006 Edition, 10 OECD, Paris. OECD (2006), OECD Factbook 2006: Economic, Environmental and Social 5 Statistics, OECD, Paris.

0 a s a a k y a c e y ay d m n d d es li rg e d m n d re ad nc any al blic rw ra eden n ag ugal iu It eece Ko elan Japa rt inlan ra m Spai olan No Ir ngdo zerlanAustri Stat Ca F epubliF er Gr P Zealan Aust DenmarHungarSw aver Po BelgR G Repu Ki w ted h NetherlandSwit c ak ted Ne Uni Luxembou e v OECD Uni Cz Slo 17 WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES 3 Labour market Self-employment Excluding the agricultural sector, more men than women are Did you know? self-employed in all OECD countries except Mexico. The gender According to the standard ILO definition any person who works gaps are particularly large in Turkey, Greece, Italy and Ireland and for more than one hour per week is counted as being employed. are smallest in Mexico, France and Canada. As a result, self-employment rates are very high in countries where there are many small farms because virtually all family In most OECD countries, self-employment rates have been falling members will do at least an hour’s work on the farm. since 1990: rates for women have declined somewhat faster than Ignoring self-employment in agriculture, Greece, Korea, Italy and those for men. Mexico have the highest rates of self-employment while Norway, Female self-employment outside of agriculture is negatively France and the United States have the lowest. correlated with levels of economic development as measured The self-employment rate for men is more than twice that of by per capita GDP; the richer the country the lower the share of women in most OECD countries. women in self-employment. The same result is also found for men. Self-employment may be seen either as a survival strategy for Female self-employment and per capita GDP those who cannot find any other means of earning an income 2004 or latest year available or as evidence of entrepreneurship and a desire to be one’s own Per capita GDP boss. 45 000 USA Percentage of self-employed as a percentage of 40 000 NOR IRL FIN CAN employed men and women 35 000 AUT ISL GBR AUS Excluding self-employed in agriculture, 2004 or latest years available 30 000 DNK SWE FRA ESP ITA 25 000 DEU JPN OECD average GRC Women Men 20 000 NZL CZE PRT 35 15 000 HUN y = -1206.8x + 36943 10 000 POL 30 R2 = 0.2499 5 000 TUR 25 0 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 Self-employed women (excluding agriculture) as a percentage of all employed women 15 10 Source: OECD (2005), Labour Force Statistics, OECD, Paris. 5 Further reading: 0 OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris. e k a a y y a ay es n d li e d in d ey e OECD (2001), Women Entrepreneurs in SMEs: Realising the Benefits of an a an k al rw anc eden ra ag l It or eece Japa inlan el Sp rtugal publicur K Fr Stat Canada Austri F Poland Ic Ire T Mexico Gr Globalisation and the Knowledge-based Economy, OECD, Paris. No Sw Hungar ingdom Po ted Denmar Germany Aust averK w Zeland Re k Republic d Ne h Uni te OECD Slova Uni Czec

18 WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES 3 Labour market Working hours In most OECD countries the standard working week is around 40 Did you know? hours but many people work longer. Working paid or unpaid long More than one in four women work part-time and nearly three workweeks is a “man’s thing” in all OECD countries. In Iceland, out of four part-time jobs are held by women. Part-time work by Mexico and Turkey 60% or more of men report that they work more women increases when they live with a partner and increases than 45 hours per week. High percentages of women also work still further if they have dependent children. more than 45 hours in Turkey and Mexico. On the other hand, Men tend to work longer hours than women in paid employment, workaholics of either gender are rare in Netherlands, Norway, but women work more hours in unpaid activities – housework and Luxembourg, Austria and Sweden. caring for children and elderly parents. Most OECD countries carry out “time-use” surveys to measure this unpaid employment, but Percentage of employees who work more than 45 hours per week these are not done regularly or on a comparable basis. Years around 2002 Men Women People who work for less than 30 hours per week in their main job 80 are considered as part-time workers, although not all countries use 70 this definition. Part-time work is particularly favoured by women 60 in the Netherlands, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Germany, 50 Belgium and Ireland but is rare in central Europe, Turkey, Mexico 40 and the United States. The only country in which part-time 30 employment of men significantly exceeds 10% is the Netherlands. 20 Percentage of employed persons who work less 10 than 20 hours per week (2002) 0 s a y k a e ay rg d m d d n es e d m ly li d ey Men Women n gal an a ec rw iu eden ance la u ag l It ra apan e rk inlan e Spairt Stat J elan No Austrizerlan Canada F Fr Ir Po ngdo ealand Ic Gr MexicoTu Germany Belg Sw Hungar RepublicDenmar Po aver Ki Aust Z 70 k Republic ted w Netherland Swit ch ed Luxembou e Uni t Ne Cz OECD 60 Slova Uni

50 Source: OECD Employment and Labour Market Statistics. 40 Further reading: 30 OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris. OECD (2006), Economic Policy Reforms: Going for Growth – 2006 Edition, 20 OECD, Paris. 10 OECD (2006), OECD Factbook 2006: Economic, Environmental and Social 0 Statistics, OECD, Paris. . y n e d n d e k e y a d d s p ey es lia rg ay m nd gal ag nc al tri iu rk u eec eden a ra It rw g la k Re h Rep. rt Japa nlan Spai us elan elan rmany er land Tu Poland Mexico Stat Gr CanadaFi Fr A No Ic Ir el ingdom er Hungar Po aver Sw Denmar Aust B Ge K itz ted w Zealan d Slova Czec Sw Neth Uni Ne Luxembou te OECD Uni

19 WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES 3 Labour market Occupations of men and women The table below shows the top ten “gender-biased” occupations Did you know? on average in Europe and the United States. In the first column, Women tend to work in a much narrower range of occupations the numbers in brackets are the ratios of women to men in these than men. occupations. For example, 14.5 times more women than men work The International Labour Organisation lists 110 major occupation as “pre-primary teaching associate professionals”. In the second groups in their classification of occupations (ISCO). In OECD column the genders are reversed so that, for example, there are countries for which information is available, half of all women just over 80 men working as “miners, shot-firers, stone cutters work in eleven or fewer of these occupations. and carvers” for each woman in this occupation.

Comparable information on occupations is available only for Concentration of employment in 20 OECD countries the European members of the OECD and the United States. In Many more women than men work as: Many more men than women work as: these countries, at least half of all working women are in eleven of the 110 occupations while half of the men work in more than Pre-primary education teaching associate Miners, shot firers, stone cutters and professionals (14.5 ) carvers (80.2) twenty of them. This suggests that women tend to enter a more Nursing and midwifery professionals Building frame and related trades workers restricted range of professions than men. But it could also be (10.1) (64.8) partly a statistical illusion. It is possible that a gender bias may Secretaries and keyboard-operating clerks Ships’ deck crews and related workers have inadvertently appeared due to a more detailed breakdown (9.8 ) (52.9) of the occupations that are typically chosen by men. Gender Nursing and midwifery associate Building finishers and related trades gaps – whether real or statistical – are particularly marked in the professionals (9.5) workers (35.4) United States, Italy, Ireland, Greece and the United Kingdom. Personal care and related workers (9.3) Mining and construction labourers (35.3) Number of occupations that account for half of total employment Primary education teaching associate Agricultural and other mobile plant 2004 or latest year available professionals (6.2) operators (30.5) Women Men Shop, stall and market salespersons and Mining and mineral-processing-plant demonstrators (5.8) operators (24.5) 50 Metal moulders, welders, sheet-metal 45 Special education teaching professionals workers, structural-metal preparers, and 40 (5.6) related trades workers (23.1) 35 Domestic and related helpers, cleaners 30 Machinery mechanics and fitters (21.7) 25 and launderers (5.4) 20 Primary and pre-primary education Power-production and related plant 15 teaching (5.3) operators (15.9) 10 5 Source: European Labour Force Survey and March Current Population 0 Survey for the United States. k n m d ic d e y s m y s gal ar d ay al e u eece land ag ance an rw eden iu It at Further reading: Spai rt inlan e l g ngdo F Poland zerlan Gr Ir Fr No Sw el St Denmar Po Germany aver Hung B Republic OECD (2005), OECD Employment Outlook, OECD, Paris. Ki k Republ h ted ted Swit Nether OECD Uni Uni Slova Czec 20 WOMEN AND MEN IN OECD COUNTRIES 3 Labour market Immigrants and employment This is a common pattern – in all except two countries Did you know? unemployment among the foreign-born is higher than that of Statisticians define employment as work for pay or profit of at native-born people. The two exceptions are Spain and the Czech least one hour in the last week. Republic. Like native-born women, immigrant women are less often Although immigrant women are not employed as often as employed than their male counterparts. But the difference between men and women is larger for immigrants. Immigrant immigrant men, differences in unemployment rates between women can be said to have a double “handicap” in the labour immigrant men and women are small. Indeed, when the bars market: as immigrants, they have lower employment rates in the chart below fall below the zero-line, immigrant women compared to non-immigrants and as women, lower employment are less likely to be unemployed than immigrant men. Ireland, rates compared to men. Sweden, Germany and Norway are countries where this is the case. Overall, if native-born women find it harder than native- In most OECD countries, finding a job is harder for immigrant born men to find work, then it is generally also the case for women than for immigrant men and is harder for immigrant foreign-born women compared to foreign-born men. women than for native-born women. Gender gap in unemployment rates, native-born and foreign-born The chart below shows the gender gaps for employment of Unemployment rate for women minus unemployment rate for men in 2004 foreign-born versus native born people. It shows, for example, that Native-born Foreign-born native-born Finnish women are almost as likely to be employed 14 as native-born Finnish men, but foreign-born Finnish women are 12 far less likely to work than foreign-born Finnish men. 10 Gender gap in employment of native-born and foreign-born adults 8 Employment rates for men less employment rates for women (2004) 6 Native-born Foreign-born 4 2 40 0 35 -2 30 -4 l 25 d m y a d d k s e a m e g ic y n es ay tria li al eden rw s ra ag ug iu anc It eece elan inlan rt g Spai Ir ngdo CanadaNo Au F zerlan el Fr Gr 20 d Stat Sw Germany Hungar Aust Denmar aver Po B embourRepubl te d Ki k Republic x h Swit Netherland Uni te Lu OECD 15 Uni Slova Czec 10 Source: OECD (2006), International Migration Outlook, OECD, Paris. 5 0 Further reading: k a y s a y n d ay es m ic d e m li d rg in OECD (2006), International Migration Outlook – 2006 Edition, OECD, Paris. de ag iu an al a e rw ance tugal ra l It eece inlan r re Sp Sw F No Canada Stat Fr ngdo Austri zerlan I Gr Denmar Germany Ki HungarPo aver Belg Aust Republic ted d k Republ h Swit Netherland Uni te Luxembou OECD Uni Slova Czec 21