Maritime Archaeology a Reader of Substantive and Theoretical Contributions the Plenum Series in Underwater Archaeology Series Editor: J

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Maritime Archaeology A Reader of Substantive and Theoretical Contributions The Plenum Series in Underwater Archaeology Series Editor: J. Barto Arnold III Institute of Nautical Archaeology Texas A&M University College Station, Texas

Maritime Archaeology: A Reader of Substantive and Theoretical Contributions Edited by Lawrence E. Babits and Hans Van Tilburg

The Persistence of Sail in the Age of Steam: Underwater Archaeological Evidence from the Dry T ortugas Donna J. Souza

A Continuation Order Plan is available for this series. A continuation order wi11 bring delivery of each new volume immediately upon publication. Volumes are bi11ed only upon actual shipment. For further information please contact the publisher. Maritime Archaeology A Reader of Substantive and Theoretical Contributions

Edited by Lawrence E. Babits East Carolina University Greenville, North Carolina and Hans Van Tilburg University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii

Springer Science+ Business Media, LLC Library of Congress Cataloglng-ln-Publ1 cation Data

Maritime archaeology : a reader of substantive and theoretical contributions / edited by Lawrence E. Bablts and Hans Van Tilburg. p. cm. — (The Plenum series in underwater archaeology) Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Underwater archaeology. I. Babits, Lawrence Edward. II. Van Tilburg, Hans. III. Series. CC77.U5M366 1998 930. 1'028'04~dc21 97-49977 CIP

ISBN 978-0-306-45331-1 ISBN 978-1-4899-0084-5 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-0084-5

1098765432 1

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher This work is respectively dedicated to four maritime archaeologists who first saw the importance of underwater cultural resources and helped create a new discipline

George F. Bass Keith Muckelroy Reynold Ruppe Peter Throckmorton

and to the next generation of maritimers who will continue in their tradition of excellence and professionalism Series Preface

This volume initiates a new series of books on maritime or underwater archaeology, and as the editor of the series I welcome its appearance with great excitement. It is appropriate that the first book of the series is a collection of articles intended for gradu• ate or undergraduate courses in underwater archaeology, since the growth in academic opportunities for students is an important sign of the vitality of this subdiscipline. The layman will enjoy the book as well. Academic and public interest in shipwrecks and other submerged archaeological sites is indicated by a number of factors. Every year there are 80 to 90 research papers presented at the Society for Historical Archaeology's Conference on Historical and Underwater Archaeology, and the Proceedings are published. Public interest is shown by extensive press coverage of shipwreck investigations. One of the most important advances in recent years has been the passage of the Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1987, for the first time providing national-level law con• cerning underwater archeological sites. The legislation has withstood a number of legal challenges by commercial treasure salvors, a very hopeful sign for the long-term pres• ervation of this nonrenewable type of cultural resource. The underwater archaeological discoveries of 1995 were particularly noteworthy. The Texas Historical Commission discovered the Belle, one of La Salle's ships, and the CSS Hunley was found by a joint project of South Carolina and a private nonprofit organization called NUMA. In many areas there is active participation of avocationals with underwater archae• ologists is researching and investigating shipwreck sites. The recreational dive commu• nity has the potential to provide assistance in studying underwater archaeological sites. It is the responsibility of the archaeological community to embrace this opportunity and provide the guidance and education needed by the divers. Volunteers are particularly

vii viii Series Preface adapted to the predisturbance mapping and site-recording phases of fieldwork. Publica• tions in the Plenum series will be particularly useful for avocationals. As a field of study, maritime archaeology continues to grow and expand. Like other archaeologists, underwater archaeologists have an obligation to publish their results; the series is a great new channel to fulfilling that obligation. This book and the initiation of The Plenum Series in Underwater Archaeology will make 1998 a milestone.

J. Barto Arnold III Preface

Refinement of the self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) during World War II gave more and more people an opportunity to spend time underwater. On repeated occasions, divers encountered the remains of past human activity, ranging from eroded prehistoric sites through sunken vessels to entire towns. As word of these accidental discoveries spread, site visitation increased and damage occurred. Eventually, news of the sunken sites reached the archaeological community and divers already trained in archaeological techniques began to work underwater. In many cases, people trained as archaeologists underwent dive training in order to work on sites related to their academic interests. As underwater technical knowledge increased, more archaeologists and historians, both amateur and academic, began to dive. For many, the mask, fins, tanks, and slates were simply an outgrowth of trowels, shovels, and other equipment used on land. Development of specific techniques for underwater research occupied most exca• vators and few thought to delve into the theory behind the archaeology. This practical approach was not a problem for those trained as archaeologists. For those trained as historians, or diving simply to recover something of the past, a basic understanding of what is meant by archaeology, its assumed meanings, and its relation to the scientific method was missing. Theoretical problems grew as students and amateurs alike engaged in the recovery of submerged cultural artifacts. While implications of a specific anthropological orientation permeating the field can be seen throughout this text, development of a scientific methodological frame• work allowing replicative testing is heavily emphasized. Although a scientific para• digm often shifts slightly, its use allows others to check and verify conclusions which should push investigators toward accurate data recovery and interpretive conclusions. In some ways, this development paralled Historical Archaeology. Many terres• trial archaeologists said, often in writing, that working underwater was not archaeol• ogy, possibly because of the publicity, the financial riches of some sites, and the rogue

ix x Preface image associated with divers and presented in the media. The legacy of the cowboy image persists today but diver training, both in techniques of working underwater and the academic aspects of archaeology have improved greatly. Diving archaeologists need a foundation in theoretical issues and the "why" of archaeological endeavor if they are to carry the field of archaeology into the next cen• tury. This book is written for those who wish to convey a knowledge of the past within a scientific framework, especially students with serious interests in locating and inter• preting past human behavior. The first part (I) includes an introduction to the field. This is followed by a series of articles discussing what the field of archaeology actually involves and how it relates to the past. The sometimes acrimonious division between salvors and archaeologists is included here because they represent two different extremes of the same effort. Part II presents information and sources on several areas of the world. An emphasis on writings outside the mainstream suggests areas which need additional effort, particu• larly native African and Asian maritime material culture. The well-known Caribbean, Mediterranean, and northern European areas are covered with introductory bibliographic materials which are readily available. The two parts that follow deal with the theory behind the scientific method (IV) and how one finds sites (V). The part on scientific theory includes two classic articles by Chamberlin and Platt which are available only in microfilm. Finding sites requires knowledge of theory, the site formation process, and the sophisticated equipment (VI) used to search below the surface for sites. The readings on survey apply theoretical and practical matters, especially in Part VI, which includes material on the sophisticated technology used to locate sites. Since this technology changes so rapidly, early, basic articles are presented. These are supported by a more current bibliography. The importance of any site varies from person to person depending on their back• ground and interests. Part VII provides readings on how one determines significance, an image-laden word related to funding, protection, and publicity about the site. With• out some idea ofa site's significance, and its relationship to other sites, generating sup• port for a research effort is problematic. How information is recovered and conserved is presented in Parts VIII and IX. Methods of examining a site before it is disturbed, how the site is recorded during excavation, and working in zero visibility conditions are covered. A section (IX) on how artifacts are conserved and why follows. The last two parts deal with the legality of working on underwater sites (X) and how a site is interpreted, and the information given to the public (XI). In some ways, these two areas represent both ends of the underwater spectrum. Salvors and archaeologists have confronted each other in the courts on numerous occasions and the often spectacular message of treasure hunting salvors seems to reach more of the public than does archaeological work. The last part, on interpreting underwater sites and creating exhibitions is designed so the archaeologi• cal community'S next generation realizes the ultimate responsibility lies in informing the public, rather than their peers, of what they have learned. Two appendices provide information on additional source materials, the archaeological journals which publish underwater findings, and a chronologically oriented bibliographic listing of sites, ships, and research. The entire text often shifts from theoretical to practical methodology and experiences in the underwater realm. This is deliberate because it encourages those new Preface xi to the field to recognize interrelationships between theoretical positions and the thought processes involved in solving practical problems. This collection is not an attempt to be complete, nor up-to-date, but to provide a selection of certain hard-to-find and/or out-of-print articles that address aspects of maritime archaeological theory and perspective. Acknowledgments

This book is the result of student requirements for a text on maritime archaeology. The students who went through three years of History 6805 without a text and made com• ments about their readings played a major role in creating this book. The authors and publishers who granted us permission to reprint their material made the book a reality. We owe special thanks to Eliot Werner of Plenum for guiding us gently into the publishing business and yet still holding us to a functional timeline. Most importantly, we owe our wives and children a special note of thanks because they put up with long telephone calls and our absences. We must specifically acknow• ledge Maria, Nancy, Sabina (the "Bean"), and John because they were so patiently understanding while we created this book. At the Program in Maritime History, East Carolina University, Frank Cantelas aided tremendously in retrieving and printing hard copy and solving computer prob• lems. Karen Underwood tracked down addresses, kept interruptions to a minimum, and sent out letters. One and all, you have our thanks.

xiii ~ '.~ 1,; .' Contents ~l . ~/:.

Introduction

PART I: THE FIELD 5

LA: Underwater Archaeology...... 7

I. The Fos Underwater Excavations ...... 9 Rene Baucaire

2. The Technical Importance of Shipwreck Archaeology...... 17 . . . . William A. Baker

3. Introducing Maritime Archaeology ...... , 23 Keith Muckelroy

4. Integrating Archaeological and Historical Records in Dutch East India Company Research ...... 39 J. Bas Kist

5. A Discussion of Maritime Archaeology ...... 47 ...... Paul Fontenoy

Additional Bibliography for Part I.A 53

I.B: The Secular Debate...... 55 . . .

6. Underwater Archaeology, European versus American ...... 57 . . . Joel L. Shiner

xv xvi Contents

7. The South Carolina Hobby Diver Program ...... 65 Christopher F. Amer and Carl Steen

Additional Bibliography for Part I.B ...... 71

I.C: Ethics and the Great Debate...... TJ

8. The World's Worst Investment: The Economics of Treasure Hunting with Real-Life Comparisons ...... 75 Peter Throckmorton

9. Why Dr. Bass Couldn't Convince Mr. Gumbel: The Trouble with Treasure Revisited, Again ...... 85 Wilburn A. Cockrell

10. Archaeology on Trial ...... 97 R. Duncan Mathewson, III

11. American Naval Archaeology: Past and Prologue ...... 105 William S. Dudley

Additional Bibliography for Part I.C ...... III

PART II: AREAL STUDIES 113

II.A: The Mediterranean: Bibliography 115

II.B: Northern Europe: Bibliography 117

II.C: The Caribbean: Bibliography ...... 119

11.0: The Pacific Rim ...... 121

12. Current Status of Underwater Archaeology in Malaysia ...... 123 Adi Haji Taha

13. Philippine Underwater Archaeology: Present Research Projects and New Developments ...... 127 Wilfredo P. Ronquillo

Additional Bibliography for Part H.D ...... 135

II.E: The Arabic World: Bibliography 137

II.F: Africa: Bibliography ...... 139 Contents xvii

PART III: RESEARCH DESIGN 141

1I1.A: Hypothesis Building ...... 143

14. The Method of Multiple Working Hypotheses: With This Method the Dangers of Parental Affection for a Favorite Theory Can Be Circumvented ...... 145 T. C. Chamberlin

15. Strong Inference: Certain Systematic Methods of Scientific Thinking May Produce Much More Rapid Progress Than Others ...... 155 John R. Platt

16. The Limitations of Inference in Archaeology ...... 167 M.A. Smith

17. Archaeological Methods ...... 175 Fred T. Plog

18. The Berth 52 Vessel (09CH69I): The Interim Report ...... 187 L.E. Babits

III.B: Theory ...... 203

19. Middle-Range Theory in Archaeology: A Critical Review of Origins and Applications ...... 205 L. Mark Raab and Albert C. Goodyear

20. Technology, Theory, and Analysis: Using Remote Sensing as a Tool for Middle-Range Theory Building in Maritime and Nautical Archaeology ...... 223 Richard J Anuskiewicz

21. Considerations for Research Designs in Shipwreck Archaeology ...... 233 Daniel J Lenihan and Larry Murphy

Additional Bibliography for Part III ...... 241

PART IV: FINDING SITES 243

IV.A: Site Location Factors ...... •...... 245

22. Sea Level Change as a Variable in Colonial American Archaeology 247 Reynold J Ruppe

23. Site Location Factors ...... 253 James F. Muche

Additional Bibliography for Part IV.A ...... 257 XVIII Contents

N.B: Site Formation Processes ...... 259

24. Physical Processes at the CSS Chattahoochee Wreck Site ...... 261 Richard Stephenson

25. The Archaeology of Shipwrecks ...... 267 Keith Muckelroy

26. Cultural Resources Magnetometer Survey and Testing ...... 291 Robert L. Gearhart

27. A Diachronic Study of Some Historical and Natural Factors Linked to Shipwreck Patterns in the Northern Gulf of Mexico ...... 303 Ervan G. Garrison

N.C: Survey Methodology ...... 317

28. Nautical Archaeology Survey Methods ...... 319 Kimberly Watson

29. A Developmental Model for Survey and Inventory of Submerged Archaeological Resources in a Riverine System: The Patuxent River, Maryland ...... 323 Donald G. Shomette and Ralph E. Eshelman

Additional Bibliography for Part IV ...... 337

PART V: HIGH TECHNOLOGY 339

V.A: History of Going Underwater ...... 341

30. History of Diving ...... 343 u.s. Navy

V.B: Magnetometer ...... 355

31. Considerations of Remote Sensing Limitations to Submerged Historical Site Survey .. 357 Larry E. Murphy and Allen R. Saltus

32. An Airborne Magnetometer Survey for Shipwrecks and Associated Underwater Test Excavations ...... 363 J. Barto Arnold, III

33. Magnetic Search and Survey in Shallow Water and Beach Areas ...... 375 Jack Hudson, Kay G. Hudson, and Harry W. Rhodes, III

V.C: Sonar ...... 379

34. New Capabilities for Side-Scan Sonar ...... 381 Martin Klein Contents xix

35. Isis - Versatile Sonar Data Acquisition ...... 387 Laura Jean Penvenne and John Penvenne

V.D: Mapping and Recording ...... 395

36. Computer Video Image Digitization on the USS Monitor: A Research Tool for Underwater Archaeology ...... 397 Roderick M. Farb

37. Electronic Mapping of Underwater Sites ...... 403 Peter J.A. Waddell

V.E: Remote Operating Vehicle (ROy) 411

Additional Bibliography for Part V ...... 413

PART VI: SITE SIGNIFICANCE 415

V1.A: Significance 417

38. An Envelope Full of Questions That Count in Underwater Archaeology ...... 419 Parker B. Potter, Jr.

Additional Bibliography for Part VI.A 427

VLB: Specific Criteria ...... 429

39. Toward Establishing Research and Significance Criteria for Civil War Shipwreck Resources ...... 43 I Gordon P Watts. Jr.

40. A Small-Craft Topology: Tool for Archaelogical Research 441 Michael B. Alford

Additional Bibliography for Part VI.B ...... 447

PART VII: DATA RECOVERY 449

VILA: Pre-Excavation Recording ...... 451

41. Preliminary Investigations of a Shipwreck. Pumpata Cahuita National Park. Costa Rica ...... 453 Stephen J. Gluckman

V1LB: Sampling ...... 469

42. The Analysis of Sea-Bed Distributions: Discontinuous Sites 471 Keith Muckelroy xx Contents

VII.C: Extreme Data Recovery Conditions ...... 491

43. Mapping and Site Characterization in Zero Visibility: The C.S.S. Georgia ...... 493 James G. Baker, Richard J. Anuskiewicz, and Ervan G. Garrison

44. Bridging the Experience Gap: Techniques for Reducing the Stress of Zero Visibility Training ...... 507 Steven H. Sellers

45. ZeroNisibility Diving on the Maple Leaf: The Tricks of the Trade ...... 513 Hans K. Van Tilburg

Additional Bibliography for Part VII ...... 519

PART VIII: CONSERVATION 521

46. The Investigation of the Factors That Affect the Preservation of Underwater Archaeological Sites ...... 523 Ian Oxley

Bibliography for Part VIII ...... 531

PART IX: INTERPRETATION AND EXHIBITION 533

IX.A: Interpretation ...... 535

47. 16th-Century Spanish Basque Coopering Technology ...... 537 Lester A. Ross

IX.B: Exhibition ...... 551

48. Shipwreck! - The 1554 Flota Exhibit ...... 553 J. Barto Arnold, III A Children's Museum Exhibit on the 1554 Flota Wrecks ...... 558 Becky Alsup

Additional Bibliography for Part IX ...... 561

Conclusion ...... 563

Appendix A. Archaeological Organizations and Journals ...... 565

Appendix B. Supplemental Bibliographical Sources for 17th through 19th Centuries .. 567

About the Contributors ...... 571

Index ...... 575