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Toward a Dakota Literary Tradition: Examining Dakota Literature Through the Lens of Critical Nationalism

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Toward a Dakota Literary Tradition: Examining Dakota Literature through the Lens of Critical Nationalism by Sarah Raquel Hernandez B.A., University of Colorado at Boulder, 2001 M.A., University of Colorado at Boulder, 2005 A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Colorado in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of English 2016 This thesis entitled: Toward a Dakota Literary Tradition: Examining Dakota Literature through the Lens of Critical Nationalism written by Sarah Raquel Hernandez has been approved for the Department of English Penelope Kelsey, Committee Chair Cheryl Higashida, Committee Member Date The final copy of this thesis has been examined by the signatories, and we Find that both the content and the form meet acceptable presentation standards Of scholarly work in the above mentioned discipline. Abstract Hernandez, Sarah Raquel (Ph.D., English) Toward a Dakota Literary Tradition: Examining Dakota Literature through the Lens of Critical Nationalism Thesis Directed by Professor Penelope Kelsey Dakota literature is often regarded as an extinct and thus irrelevant oral storytelling tradition by EuroAmerican, and at times, Dakota people. This dissertation disputes this dominant view and instead argues that the Dakota oral storytelling tradition is not extinct, but rather has been reimagined in a more modern form as print literature. In this dissertation, I reconstruct a genealogy of the Dakota literary tradition that focuses primarily (but not exclusively) upon the literary history of the Santee Dakota from 1836 to present by analyzing archival documents – Dakota orthographies, Dakota mythologies, and personal and professional correspondences – to better understand how this tradition has evolved from an oral to a written form. In addition to reconstructing elements of a Dakota literary tradition, I also examine the various literary strategies and rhetorical devices used by five different writers and scholars to imagine and reimagine the Dakota nation. Specifically, I analyze the published and unpublished writings of Gideon Pond, Samuel Pond, Stephen Riggs, Ella Cara Deloria, and Elizabeth Cook- Lynn. Each of these five writers has used his or her translations and/or literary representations to engage in what I frame as acts that colonize and/or decolonize the Dakota nation. In this dissertation, I contend that tracing the evolution of the Dakota literary tradition will help re- conceptualize this tradition, shifting thinking away from one that configures Dakota literature as an extinct oral tradition intended for study by anthropologists toward more critical discourse that accounts for the interplay between orality, literacy, and translation, thus legitimizing the rich and complex Dakota literary tradition for future generations of writers and scholars. iii To Mom and Dad Acknowledgements This dissertation was written with the generous support of the CU-Dean’s Graduate Student Research Grant and the Beverly Sears Graduate Student Grant. These two grants allowed me to conduct archival research at the Dakota Indian Foundation, Minnesota Historical Society, and American Philosophical Society and afforded me the amazing opportunity to travel across my tribal homelands to reconstruct a genealogy of Dakota literature. It is a journey that I hope to share with other Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota students. I would also like to thank the American Indian Graduate Center, American Indian College Fund, Colorado Indian Education Foundation, Rocky Mountain Indian Chamber of Commerce and South Dakota State University for their financial support throughout various stages of this project. Their generosity, without a doubt, helped make this dissertation possible. There are many people that I wish to thank for their invaluable assistance with this dissertation. First, I would like to thank Penelope Kelsey for chairing my committee and advising this project. I would especially like to thank Penny and Danika Medak-Saltzman for establishing the Center for Native American and Indigenous Studies at the University of Colorado at Boulder and increasing the presence of Native students on campus. Your work is important and much appreciated! I would also like to thank the rest of my committee members, Cheryl Higashida, Steve Lamos, and Chuck Woodard, for their careful reading and many helpful comments. In particular, I would like to thank you Cheryl for encouraging me to apply to the doctoral program and your unwavering support ever since. I would like to say a special thank you to Steve for your guidance and support during the most challenging time of this program. After my illness, I wasn’t sure that I would ever write or research at the academic level again. Thank you for showing me otherwise. I don’t know what I would have done without you, Steve! Throughout my graduate school experience, I have worked at several Native non-profit organizations that have had a tremendous impact on my personal and professional development. These organizations include: the American Indian College Fund, the Native American Finance Officers Association, and First Nations Development Institute. My time at these three organizations taught me how to work respectfully and responsibly with the communities we serve. These opportunities made me a better, more conscientious scholar. I am truly grateful for these experiences. v I am perhaps most grateful for the incredible people that I met while working at these organizations, many of whom became dear friends: Amanda and Bridget Skenadore, Jack Soto, Katy Gorman, Kellie Jewett-Fernandez, Marsha Whiting, Sasha Hoskie, and Terri Smith. Thank you for always cheering me on. I hope you know how much you inspire me. I would like to say a special thank you to Raymond Foxworth for your friendship, sound academic advice, and much-needed humor throughout this experience. I am so glad that we started (and almost finished) our academic journeys together. Too bad you beat me to the punch. I am sure that you will never let me forget it! Last, but certainly not least, I would like to thank my family for supporting me throughout this arduous process, including all of my grandparents, aunties, uncles, and cousins. Thank you for always encouraging me and standing by me. I am blessed to have each and every one of you in my life. I would like to thank my siblings Lisa, Ruben, Anthony, and Antquant, as well as my nephew Jordan for putting up with me when I was stressed out and overworked. There were many times when you guys probably should have just slapped me upside the head. Thank you for restraining yourselves and working with me to make this dream a reality. I would like to say a special thank you to Lisa and Ruben for everything – for more than I could ever possibly say. I love you guys! Most importantly, I would like to thank my parents, Samuel and Cynthia Hernandez, for their constant love, support, and encouragement. Thank you, Mom and Dad, for working so hard and sacrificing so much to provide me with these extraordinary opportunities. You taught me the importance and value of family, education, and community. Thank you for always believing in me and giving me the strength and courage to believe in myself. This accomplishment is yours. vi Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ iii Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................................... v Figures ....................................................................................................................................................... viii Chapter One: An Overview of Dakota Literature ......................................................................................... 1 Chapter Two: Analyzing Dakota Literature ................................................................................................ 22 Chapter Three: Claiming Dakota Literature ............................................................................................... 49 Chapter Four: Reclaiming Dakota Literature .............................................................................................. 84 Chapter Five: Revitalizing Dakota Literature ........................................................................................... 117 Chapter Six: The Future of Dakota Literature and Literary Studies ......................................................... 150 Works Consulted ....................................................................................................................................... 162 Appendix I: “The Star Born – A Dakota Myth.” ...................................................................................... 179 Appendix II: Fallen Star ............................................................................................................................ 186 Appendix III: Ta-Te, The Wooing of the Wind God ................................................................................ 204 Appendix IV: The Feast of the Supernaturals ........................................................................................... 211 vii Figures Figure 1: Dakota Definitions and Spellings……………………………………………………...18 Figure 2: The Pond Alphabet…………………………………………………………………….51 Figure 3: The Dakota Bible………………………………………………………………………57
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