Small Powers in the Age of Total War, 1900–1940 History of Warfare Editors Kelly DeVries Loyola College Maryland John France University of Wales Michael S. Neiberg University of Southern Mississippi Frederick Schneid High Point University North Carolina VOLUME 65 Small Powers in the Age of Total War, 1900–1940 Edited by Herman Amersfoort Wim Klinkert LEIDEN • BOSTON 2011 Cover illustration: “In de Verdrukking. Holland: “De heeren oorlogvoerenden laten me niet veel ruimte om m'n boodschappen te doen.” by Albert Pieter Hahn (Groningen, 1877–1918). Th is book is printed on acid-free paper. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Small powers in the age of total war, 1900-1940 / edited by Herman Amersfoort, Wim Klinkert. p. cm. -- (History of warfare, ISSN 1385-7827 ; v. 65) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-20321-1 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Europe--History, Military--20th century. 2. Neutrality--Europe--History--20th century. 3. Neutrality, Armed--Europe--History-- 20th century. 4. World War, 1914-1918--Europe. 5. World War, 1914-1918--Infl uence. 6. Netherlands--Military policy--History--20th century. 7. Belgium--Military policy--History-- 20th century. 8. Denmark--Military policy--History--20th century. 9. Norway--Military policy--History--20th century. 10. Switzerland--Military policy--History--20th century. I. Amersfoort, H. (Hermanus), 1951- II. Klinkert, W. III. Title. IV. Series. D431.S65 2011 355'.033549--dc22 2011002720 ISSN 1385-7827 ISBN 978 90 04 20321 1 Copyright 2011 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, Th e Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to Th e Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. CONTENTS List of Contributors ...................................................................................vii Preface ..........................................................................................................xi Chapter One Introduction. Small States in a Big World ....................1 H. Amersfoort and W. Klinkert Chapter Two ‘Too Good to Be True?’ European Hopes for Neutrality before 1914 ...................................................................27 M. M. Abbenhuis Chapter Th ree Neutral Tones. Th e Netherlands and Switzerland and Th eir Interpretations of Neutrality 1914–1918 .............................................................................................57 P. Mo e y es Chapter Four Fall K. German Off ensive Plans Against the Netherlands 1916–1918 ................................................................85 W. Klinkert Chapter Five German War Plans Against Denmark 1916–1918 ...........................................................................................119 C. Paulin Chapter Six Th e Development of the Air Defence of Copenhagen ........................................................................................135 M. H. Clemmesen Chapter Seven Th e Debate on Denmark’s Defence 1900–1940 ...........................................................................................153 K. Galster Chapter Eight Small Nations under the Gun. Europe 1914–1940 ...........................................................................................183 W. Murray vi contents Chapter Nine Th e German Army in the Interwar Years ................201 M. Strohn Chapter Ten Between Passéisme and Modernisation? Th e Case of the Belgian Fortifi cation System 1926–1940 ...........................................................................................221 J. Vaesen Chapter Eleven Give us Back our Field Army! Th e Dutch Army Leadership and the Operational Planning During the Interwar Years ..............................................................................251 H. Amersfoort Chapter Twelve Neutrality Guard or Preparations for War? Th e Norwegian Armed Forces and the Coming of the Second World War .............................................................................281 T. Kristiansen Chapter Th irteen Th e Development of the Swiss Army’s Combat Methods aft er the First World War ...................................307 M. M. Olsansky Chapter Fourteen Strategic Dilemmas of a Small Power with Colonial Empire. Th e Netherlands East Indies 1936–1941 ...........................................................................................321 A. C. Tjepkema Bibliography .............................................................................................351 Name Index ..............................................................................................363 Geographical Index .................................................................................369 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Dr. Maartje Abbenhuis is a Senior Lecturer of Modern European History at the University of Auckland, New Zealand. Her research interests lay in the fi eld of neutrality studies, particularly relating to Europe. In 2001 she received her Ph.D. on Dutch neutrality during the First World War at the University of Canterbury. In 2006 she published Th e Art of Staying Neutral. Th e Netherlands in the First World War: 1914–1918. She is now working on a monograph regarding the history of neutrality in Europe in the period 1815–1914. Professor Herman Amersfoort is working since 2006 at the Netherlands Defence Academy as head of section Military History and Strategy. He studied history at the University of Leiden and received his Ph.D. in 1988 on the last Swiss regiments in Dutch service, 1814– 1829. Most of his publications discusses the history of the Dutch draft system and subjects concerning the Second World War. His current research focuses on Dutch military history in the Interwar years. Previous to the appointment at the Defence Academy, Amersfoort was researcher at the Netherlands Institute for Military History in Th e Hague. Since 1994 he also holds a chair as professor of Military History at the University of Amsterdam. Michael Hesselholt Clemmesen, MA (hist.) Brigadier General (ret. Danish Army), was Director Strategy Department and Course Director of the Danish Joint Senior Command and Staff Course at the Royal Danish Defence College from 1991 untill 1994 and creator and fi rst Commandant of the Baltic Defence College from 1998 untill 2004. He has since the late 1980’s been lecturing military history, strategic theo- ries and the realities of doctrinal development at staff and war college levels. Clemmesen is currently a senior research fellow at the Royal Danish Defence College Center of Military History. He has published numerous books and articles. His latest publication (2010) is – with the title translated from Danish-: Th e Long Approach to 9. April. Th e History about the Forty Years prior to the German Operation against Denmark and Norway. viii list of contributors Kjeld Hald Galster, Ph.D., M.A., is a senior researcher at the Royal Danish Defence College in Copenhagen and a visiting lecturer at the University of Copenhagen. Moreover, he works as an external examiner of graduate and undergraduate history students at Danish universities. He served as an offi cer with the Royal Danish Life Guards and was a military advisor for the UN in Georgia from 1993 to 1994. 1996–99 he spent in the diplomatic service working on the staff of the Danish Delegation to the OSCE in Vienna. He published a wide range publica- tions, articles and reviews regarding military history. His latest book is For King and Coff ers: Danish Troops with the Williamite Colours, 1689–9, to appear April 2011. Kjeld Galster is presently researching the intricacies of coalition warfare. Professor Wim Klinkert studied history at the University of Leiden. Since his military service he is attached to the Royal Military Academy (present day Netherlands Defence Academy), since 1992 as associate professor. In 1992 he received his Ph.D. at the University of Leiden on Dutch defence strategy 1874–1914. His publications focus on Dutch military history between 1870–1945, the military history of Brabant and the history of military education. He co-edited and contributed to Militaire strategie (2002) and Studeren in uniform. 175 jaar KMA (2003). His current research focuses on the Dutch army 1900–1925. Since 2007 he is attached to the University of Amsterdam as professor of Military History. Dr. Tom Kristiansen is a Senior Research Associate at the Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies. He is also responsible for the teaching programme on military theory and history at the Norwegian Command and Staff College. He is a graduate of the University of Oslo and earned his doctorate at the University of Bergen. Kristiansen has written exten- sively on Scandinavian diplomatic, naval and military history in the late 19th and fi rst half of the 20th centuries. Tom Kristiansen is now in the process of fi nishing a book on Norwegian security policy, strategy and eff orts to re-arm from the mid-1930s to the German attack in April 1940. During the recent years his focus has been on maritime issues and the defence