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The Art of Staying Neutral the Netherlands in the First World War, 1914-1918

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9 789053 568187 abbenhuis06 11-04-2006 17:29 Pagina 1 THE ART OF STAYING NEUTRAL abbenhuis06 11-04-2006 17:29 Pagina 2 abbenhuis06 11-04-2006 17:29 Pagina 3 The Art of Staying Neutral The Netherlands in the First World War, 1914-1918 Maartje M. Abbenhuis abbenhuis06 11-04-2006 17:29 Pagina 4 Cover illustration: Dutch Border Patrols, © Spaarnestad Fotoarchief Cover design: Mesika Design, Hilversum Layout: PROgrafici, Goes isbn-10 90 5356 818 2 isbn-13 978 90 5356 8187 nur 689 © Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam 2006 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the written permission of both the copyright owner and the author of the book. abbenhuis06 11-04-2006 17:29 Pagina 5 Table of Contents List of Tables, Maps and Illustrations / 9 Acknowledgements / 11 Preface by Piet de Rooij / 13 Introduction: The War Knocked on Our Door, It Did Not Step Inside: / 17 The Netherlands and the Great War Chapter 1: A Nation Too Small to Commit Great Stupidities: / 23 The Netherlands and Neutrality The Allure of Neutrality / 26 The Cornerstone of Northwest Europe / 30 Dutch Neutrality During the Great War / 35 Chapter 2: A Pack of Lions: The Dutch Armed Forces / 39 Strategies for Defending of the Indefensible / 39 Having to Do One’s Duty: Conscription / 41 Not True Reserves? Landweer and Landstorm Troops / 43 Few and Far Between: The Voluntary Landstorm Corps / 45 Field Army, Garrison and Territorial Troops / 46 Guns and Artillery / 50 Policing the Force / 51 Whoever Said ‘Navy’ Meant ‘Indies’ / 52 Orange Dots in the Sky / 54 At the Top of the Chain of Command / 55 Warning Signs / 58 Chapter 3: Api Api: The Mobilisation July-August 1914 / 61 Fire Fire / 62 Preparing for War, 25-31 July / 64 All Soldiers Mobilise with Due Haste / 66 Soldiers, Soldiers Everywhere, 1-3 August / 69 Horses, Dogs, and Houses / 73 An Undivided Positive Impression / 74 5 abbenhuis06 11-04-2006 17:29 Pagina 6 Chapter 4: Calm Amidst the Raging Waves: Defending Territorial Neutrality / 77 Neutrality or Defence? / 78 Limburg: Protecting Territorial Integrity on Land / 84 The Schelde and Eems: Protecting Territorial Integrity on Water / 86 Bombs Away! Protecting Territorial Integrity in the Air / 90 The Dangers of Defending Territorial Integrity / 93 Chapter 5: Fugitives of War: Refugees and Internees / 95 An Evacuation Without Precedent / 96 From a Trickle to a Flood / 101 All But a Prisoner of War / 103 Rules and Regulations / 107 Prisoners of War and the Advantages of Neutrality / 109 Another Kettle of Fish Entirely: Escaped POWs and German Deserters / 111 Interned Goods / 113 Neutrality Maintenance and the Military’s Responsibility for Foreigners / 114 Chapter 6: Shifting Sand and Gravel: Military and Economic Neutrality / 117 Endeavouring to Starve Germany: The Netherlands and the Allied Blockade / 119 Smuggling and the Policing of Economic Neutrality / 121 The Allies Increase Their Stranglehold, 1917 / 124 War Calls for Drastic Means: Germany’s U-Boat Campaigns / 125 German Transit Trade and Military Neutrality / 130 Between a Rock and a Hard Place: The Law of Angary / 132 An Unusual Response: A Neutral Convoy / 134 The Notorious Question of Sand and Gravel / 135 Chapter 7: Somewhere Between War and Peace: The States of War and Siege / 139 The War Law of 1899 / 142 The ‘State of War’ and ‘State of Siege’ in August 1914 / 143 The Convenience of the ‘State of Siege’ / 146 Who Has the Jurisdiction to Do What? / 149 Causing Havoc in the Chain of Command / 153 The ‘State of War’ and ‘State of Siege’ in Perspective / 155 Chapter 8: Ash-Grey with Neutrality: Safeguarding Neutrality in the State of Siege / 157 The War on Goods / 158 Undercover for the Kaiser: Espionage / 162 Wire of Death: The Electric Fence / 164 Censorship and Public Opinion in the ‘State of Siege’ / 169 Public Order and Control / 173 The Success of the ‘State of Siege’ / 175 6 the art of staying neutral abbenhuis06 11-04-2006 17:29 Pagina 7 Chapter 9: The War for Bread and Guns: Supply and the Fate of a Small Nation / 177 Military Supply / 178 Reluctant Funding / 183 Neutrality and Deterrence / 184 Food, Fuels, and Rationing / 187 Somewhere to Lay One’s Head / 194 The Fate of a Small Nation / 197 Chapter 10: No More War! The Furore over Leave and Demobilisation / 199 Too Many Indians, Not Enough Chiefs / 200 Conscription and Recruitment / 202 Leave for One and All / 206 The Easter Scare of 1916 / 208 The Demobilisation Debate / 212 A Second Mobilisation / 215 The Demise of the Armed Forces / 216 Chapter 11: This Dreary War: Expressions of Popular Frustration / 219 Pent Up Bitterness / 219 The Plague of the Spanish Lady / 222 No More War! / 224 Like the People, So the Army / 226 To Salute or Not? / 232 Chapter 12: All Hell Has Broken Loose: The Year 1918 / 237 Harskamp / 237 Snijders’ Resignation / 243 Kaiser Wilhelm Seeks a New Home / 249 A Misguided Attempt at Revolution / 251 Demobilisation / 254 Conclusion: Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: The Paradox of Neutrality / 261 Appendices / 269 Illustrations Credits / 281 Notes / 283 Bibliography / 353 Index / 405 table of contents 7 abbenhuis06 11-04-2006 17:29 Pagina 8 abbenhuis06 11-04-2006 17:29 Pagina 9 List of Tables, Maps and Illustrations Table 1: The Operational strength of the field army, August 1914 p. 47 Table 2: Number of battalions in the fortified positions, 1914 p. 48 Table 3: Position of landweer battalions outside Fortress Holland, 1914 p. 50 Table 4: Withdrawals made from the Rijkspostspaarbank, 1914 p. 68 Table 5: Numbers of internees, 1914-1918 p. 106 Table 6: Ships and tonnage entering Dutch ports, 1912-1920 p. 127 Table 7: The Netherlands’ foreign trade, 1914-1918 p. 128 Table 8: Numbers of convicted smugglers, 1914-1917 p. 161 Table 9: Coal supplies in tonnes, 1913-1918 p. 190 Map 1: The Netherlands p. 28 Map 2: The Netherlands and the Schlieffen Plan, 1905 and 1908 p. 33 Map 3: Number of landweer districts per province p. 44 Map 4: Field army afwachtingsopstelling, August 1914 p. 48 Map 5: Districts of the Territorial Commanders (TB) p. 58 Map 6: Field army position, 4 August 1914 p. 79 Map 7: Field army position, October 1914 p. 80 Map 8: Field army position, early 1918 p. 80 Map 9: Limburg p. 85 Map 10: Bomb drops by foreign aircraft, 1914-1918 p. 92 Map 11: Refugee camps and grensconcentratieplaatsen p. 100 Map 12: Internment camps and clearing stations p. 113 Map 13a: The ‘state of war’ and ‘state of siege’, 1914 p. 140 Map 13b: The ‘state of war’ and ‘state of siege’, 1915 p. 140 Map 13c: The ‘state of war’ and ‘state of siege’, 1916 p. 141 Map 13d: The ‘state of war’ and ‘state of siege’, 1917 p. 141 Map 14: The electric fence from Vaals to the Schelde p. 165 Map 15: Military riots and disturbances, 25-31 October 1918 p. 240 Illustration 1: Between the devil and the deep blue sea p. 26 Illustration 2: General C.J. Snijders p. 56 Illustration 3: The bombing of Zierikzee, April 1917 p. 93 Illustration 4: Dutch and German soldiers fraternise at the border, 1914 p. 108 Illustration 5: Oppressed! p. 129 Illustration 6: American strangulation p. 133 99 abbenhuis06 11-04-2006 17:29 Pagina 10 Illustration 7: The electric fence p. 166 Illustration 8: The electric fence p. 167 Illustration 9: Louis Raemaekers, ‘Ain’t I a loveable fellow?’ p. 171 Illustration 10: The stock of steel helmets p. 183 Illustration 11: Conscription p. 204 Illustration 12: Snijders’ cure for anti-militarism p. 229 Illustration 13: The salute stays! p. 234 Illustration 14: Revolution scare p. 253 Illustration 15: Disarming German troops near Maesyck, November 1918 p. 257 1010 the art of staying neutral abbenhuis06 11-04-2006 17:29 Pagina 11 Acknowledgements While academic research can be an isolating experience, academics never work com- pletely in isolation. They simply would not be able to complete the tasks they set for themselves. I am certainly no exception and have many people to thank for their help and support. Of course, how their influence has shaped the work that is in front of you now is entirely my responsibility. It goes without saying that any mis- takes or errors in it are my own. There are many advantages and disadvantages to studying outside the country of one’s research topic. Living in New Zealand meant I could not have been farther removed from the materials I needed for a study of the Netherlands in the Great War. Luckily, the financial aid given by the University of Canterbury’s History Depart- ment as well as the Canterbury Historical Association’s Postgraduate Travel Grant, allowed me to travel to the Netherlands on three separate occasions during my PhD. I am very grateful for this support. The History Department at the University of Auckland, where I am presently employed, must also be thanked for their unquali- fied encouragement. I am very grateful to the Faculty of Arts at the University of Auckland for a subvention without which this publication would not have come off the ground. A special note of thanks goes out to Igor Drecki, in the Geography Department of the University of Auckland, for his wonderful work on the maps. But foremost I wish to thank my thesis supervisor at the University of Canterbury, Dr.
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