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From the Desk oF the eDitor-in-ChieF
Dear Readers,
With immense pleasure, we present to you our Quick Book Series.
The series is an endeavour by Drishti Publications to provide crisp and concise study material on core subjects that are very important for competitive examinations.
‘Environment and Ecology’ is first in the series of Quick Books. Environmental awareness is an integral part of the curriculum and syllabi at every level of education; hence the importance is accorded to it.
If we talk about different study materials available in the market on environment & ecology, then most of it is advanced, basic and bulky. We have attempted to remove the inadequacies by explaining the integral concepts in a very concise manner.
The most notable thing about the environment section is its dynamic nature. We have included concepts related to the current happenings, thereby helping the reader to co-relate the theory along with the practical aspect of the subject.
Another key highlight is the incorporation of Practice Questions at the end of the chapter to equip you to tackle the questions asked in various examinations.
Team Drishti has attempted to do justice to the students in terms of coverage and presentation of the content related to environment and ecology. However, we are welcome to any feedback from your side and will be ever ready to incorporate the valuable suggestions of yours in the subsequent editions.
With Best Regards,
Editor-in-Chief
Drishti Publications Quick Book Environment and Ecology
1. INTRODUCTION 1-3 Environment 1 Ecology 1 Habitat 2 Ecological Niche 2 Ecotone 2 Ecotope 3
2. ECOSYSTEM 4-10 Ecosystem 4 Food Chain 5 Food Web 5 Ecological Pyramid 6 Ecological Interaction 7 Ecological Succession 8 Ecosystem Stability 9 Ecosystem Services 9
3. BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES 11-15 Biogeochemical Cycles 11 Carbon Cycle 11 Nitrogen Cycle 11 Water Cycle 12 Sulphur Cycle 12 Phosphorus Cycle 13 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification 13 Biotic Potential (Ecosystem) 14 (v)
4. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM 16-27 Types of Ecosystem 16 Forest Ecosystem 16 Mountain Ecosystems 23
5. DESERTIFICATION 28-35 Introduction 28 International Efforts on Combating Desertification 29 Dry Lands 30 Desertification in India 31 COP14 34 EIA and Desertification 35
6. FOREST CONSERVATION 36-43 Forest 36 Deforestation 37 Forest Management and Conservation in India 39 Forest Fires 41 Forest Conservation Movements in India 42
7. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM 44-59 Aquatic Ecosystem 44 Aquatic Organism 44 Flood Plains 46 Wetlands 46 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 48 Wetlands in India 51 Estuarine Ecosystem 52 Coral Reefs 54 Initiatives of Government of India to Protect Marine and Coastal Environments 57 Eutrophication 57
8. BIODIVERSITY 60-68 Biodiversity 60 Measurement of Biodiversity 61 Magnitude of Biodiversity 62 Hotspots of Biodiversity 62 Biodiversity Hotspots in India 63 (vi)
Importance of Biodiversity 64 Threats to Biodiversity 65 Endemism 66 Extinction 66 State of the World’s Biological Diversity 67
9. CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIES 69-71 Keystone Species 69 Indicator Species 70 Flagship Species 70 Priority Species 70 Foundation Species 70 Umbrella Species 71 Charismatic Megafauna 71
10. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION 72-86 Introduction 72 Conservation Strategies and Methods 72
11. INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE 87-91 The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 87 Red List Index 90
12. BIODIVERSITY IN INDIA 92-110 Introduction 92 Realm 92 Biome 92 Biogeographic Zones 92 Biogeographic Provinces 92 The Land Region 92 Biogeographical Regions of India 92 Species Diversity 102 Zoological Survey of India 103 Plant Kingdom 103 Parts of trees 106 Die Back 109 Medicinal Plants 109 Insectivorous Plant 109 Invasive Alien Species 110 (vii)
13. INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION 111-117 World Conservation Strategy 111 UN Conference on Environment and Development Rio Declaration, 1992 111 Aichi Biodiversity Targets 111 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety 113 Nagoya Protocol 113 Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol 114 International Seed Treaty 114 International Plant Protection Convention 114 Conservation of Migratory Species or Bonn Convention 114 Raptor Agreement 114 Efforts to Curb Poaching and Illegal Trade 115 TRAFFIC 115 Protection of Marine and Coastal Biodiversity 116
14. INDIA’S EFFORTS TOWARDS BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION 118-126 Biodiversity Conservation 118 Important Institutions in India 120 Wildlife Sanctuaries 123
15. RENEWABLE ENERGY 127-136 Introduction 127 Hydroelectric Energy 127 Grid-Connected Photovoltaic (PV) System 129 Wind Energy 131 Geothermal Energy 132 Tidal Energy 133 Miscellaneous Topics 133
16. POLLUTION 137-167 Pollution 137 Air Pollution 138 Water Pollution 147 Marine Pollution 151 National Efforts towards Prevention of Marine Pollution 152 Plastic Pollution 153 (viii)
Radiation Pollution 154 Soil Pollution 155 Prevention and Control of Noise Pollution 156 Government’s efforts to curb Noise Pollution 156 Thermal Pollution 157 Solid Wastes 157 Government Initiatives for Solid Waste Management 159 Electronic Waste 161 e-Waste Management in India 163 Hazardous Waste 163 International Conventions for Hazardous Waste Management 165
17. CLIMATE CHANGE 168-185 Climate Change 168 Strategies to Reduce Global Climate Change 172 Ozone Layer Depletion 174 Global Mitigation Efforts towards Climate Change 179
18. INDIA AND CLIMATE CHANGE 186-192 Impact of Climate Change 186 Indian Efforts to Tackle Climate Change 190
19. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 193-211 Origin 193 Global Efforts for Sustainable Development 193 Biofuels 198 Sustainable Water Management 200 Sustainable Agriculture 202 Role of Biotechnology in Agriculture 205 National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) 206 Evergreen Revolution 206 Precision Agriculture and Sustainable Development 207 Sustainable Habitat 207 Strategy for New India @ 75: Sustainable Environment 210
20. ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 213-217 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 212 Social Impact Assessment (SIA) 216 Introduction QUICK BOOK
1 Introduction
Environment Factors Impacting Population Birth and Immigration: Increase in population Death and Emigration: Decrease in population Environment is defined as the surroundings or conditions in which an organism lives or operates. Biotic and Abiotic Components: Limit to growth of population ComponentsIt includes both of Environmentliving and non-living components. Population Percentage variation between the number of Abiotic/Non-living/Physical: Growth individuals in a population at two different times. Population Number of individuals of a population per unit Abiotic factors Density area. include land, energy, water, climate (temperature and humidity), gases and winds, fire, gravity, Community Biotic/Living: soil, etc. Biotic components are all the living things in an ecosystem, such as plants, animals and A group of organisms consisting of several different species that live in an area and interact with Ecologymicro-organisms. each other. Types of Community It Major Community: Depends only on the energy from the sun, hence, are independent units, e.g., tropical evergreen forests, is the study of organisms and environment; and grasslands, deserts, etc. how the organisms interact with each other and with Minor Community: Smaller community which is not a self- their environment. Ernst Haeckel sustaining unit and is dependent on other communities for its The term was first coined by the German biologist existence, e.g., fungi decomposing a wooden log. . Ecology not only deals with the study of the Ecosystem relationship of individual organisms with their environment, but also with the study of populations; A community of organisms and their physical Levelscommunities; of Ecological ecosystems; Organization biomes; and biosphere. environment interacting as an ecological unit. Individual It acts as a functional unit of nature and varies from Biomesa small pond to a large forest or a sea. An organism that has the capability of acting or functioning independently is known as an individual. A large community unit, characterized by a major It can be an animal, bacteria, fungi or a plant. vegetation type and associated fauna, found PopulationIt is the basic unit of study. in a specific climatic region. Examples include tundra, taiga, grasslands, savannas, deserts, tropical forests, etc. It is defined as a group of freely interbreeding Temperature, soil, and the amount of light and water individuals of the same species present in a specific help determine what life exists in a biome. No two area at a given time. biomes can DRISHTIbe alike. PUBLICATIONS 1 QUICK BOOK Environment & Ecology
2 Ecosystem
Ecosystem Features of Ecosystem
Usually, it is an open system with a continuous, but An ecosystem can be visualized as a functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact among variable influx and loss of material and energy. themselves and also with the surrounding physical It is a functional unit capable of energy transformation, environment. Structuralcirculation Components and accumulation. of an Ecosystem The ecosystem varies in spatial coverage. It may be as small as a cow-shed, a tree or even a part of a tree having certain microorganisms. The largest unit is Biotic Components the whole biosphere. Components of EcosystemAbiotic Components
Abiotic Components Biotic Components
Physical Factors Inorganic Organic Producers Consumers Decomposers Substances Substances (Green plants) (Animals) (Microorganisms) Temperature Humidity Water Proteins Light Oxygen Carbohydrates Atmospheric Carbon dioxide Lipids pressure Atmospheric Functions of Ecosystempressure z It is not available to the next trophic level. Therefore, Energy flow through the food chain; the number of steps are limited in a chain to 4 or 5. Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles); Heat Heat Ecological succession or ecosystem development; Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or feedback control Sun Producers Consumers Energymechanisms. Flow through Food Chain
Most ecosystems rely on supply of energy from Inorganic sunlight. Nutrient Decomposers In the food chain, the energy flow is unidirectional, Pool i.e., from producers to subsequent higher Heat z trophic levels. Based on their roles in the food chain, organisms are However, during this process of transfer of energy, classified into three groups: Producers, Consumers some4 energyDRISHTI is lost intoPUBLICATIONS the system as heat energy. and Decomposers. QUICK BOOK Environment & Ecology
z Provisioning Services: z Supporting Services:
Products obtained from Services necessary for the z Regulating Services: z Cultural Services: ecosystems. production of all other ecosystem services. Benefits obtained from the Non-material benefits obtained regulation of ecosystem processes. PRACTICE QUESTIONSfrom ecosystems.
1. With reference to food chains in ecosystems, consider (c) Nutrient cycling the following statements: (d) Disease regulation 1. A food chain illustrates the order in which a chain 4. Lichens, which are capable of initiating ecological of organisms feed upon each other. succession even on a bare rock, are actually a symbiotic 2. Food chains are found within the populations of a association of species. (a) algae and bacteria (b) algae and fungi 3. A food chain illustrates the numbers of each (c) bacteria and fungi (d) fungi and mosses organism which are eaten by others. 5. The highest trophic level in an ecosystem is obtained Which of the statements given above is/are correct? by: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (a) Herbivores (b) Carnivores (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None (c) Omnivores (d) Decomposers 2. In the grasslands, trees do not replace the grasses as a 6. In a food chain, man is part of an ecological succession because of (a) Producer (a) insects and fungi (b) Only primary consumer (b) limited sunlight and paucity of nutrients (c) Only secondary consumer (c) water limits and fire (d) Primary as wellAnswer as secondary consumers. (d) None of the above 3. As per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, which one of the following is supporting service? 1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (b) (a) Production of food 5. (c) 6. (d) (b) Control of climate
10 DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS Biogeochemical Cycles QUICK BOOK
3 Biogeochemical Cycles
Biogeochemical Cycles volcanic eruptions and decomposition of dead Biogeochemical cycle is a pathway by which a organic matters. Some carbon also enters into long term cycle due to chemical substance moves through both biotic and abiotic components of Earth. accumulation as undecomposed organic matter or as z Gaseous Nutrient Cycle: Biogeochemical cycles are of two types: insoluble carbonates in the aquatic system. In this case, the reservoir It also gets dissolved in the ocean and remains there for a long time. z Sedimentaryis the air or the Nutrient oceans (via Cycle: evaporation), and it Nitrogen Cycle includes Oxygen, Carbon and Nitrogen cycles. In this case, the reservoir is Earth’s crust and it includes the cycles Nitrogen cycle refers to circulation of nitrogen in various chemical forms through the atmospheric, of Phosphorus, Sulphur and Calcium, which are Carbonpresent Cycle as sediments of Earth. terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Our atmosphere contains nearly 78% of nitrogen, but it cannot be used directly by the majority of Carbon cycle is the continuous exchange of carbon living organisms. between the atmosphere and Earth through different There are five main processes which are essential for processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, nitrogen cycle, viz., Nitrogen Fixation, Nitrification, z Nitrogen Fixation: burning of fossil fuels, decomposition, etc. Assimilation, Ammonification, and Denitrification.
Cycling of carbon between organisms and atmosphere It is the conversion of gaseous is a consequence of two reciprocal processes of nitrogen into ammonia, a form in which it can be photosynthesis and respiration. Atmospheric Fixation: used by plants. Lightening, combustion and volcanic activities help in the fixation Industrial Fixation of nitrogen. : At high temperature and high pressure, molecular nitrogen is broken into atomic nitrogen which then combines with Bacterial Fixation hydrogen to form ammonia. : There are two types of bacteria which helps to fix Nitrogen: (i) Symbiotic bacteria, e.g., Rhizobium in the root nodules of leguminous plants. (ii) Free living or Non-symbiotic, e.g., Nostoc, Azobacter, and Cyanobacteria can combine atmospheric or dissolved Nitrogen with z Nitrification: hydrogen to form ammonia. It is a process in which ammonia is Carbon in the atmosphere increases due to converted into nitrates and nitrites by bacteria, burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, forest fires, e.g., NitrosomonasDRISHTI PUBLICATIONS and Nitrosococcus11 convert Biogeochemical Cycles QUICK BOOK
Which of the above add carbon dioxide to the carbon (b) Biogeochemical cycles cycle on Earth? (c) Geological cycles (a) 1 and 4 (b) 2 and 3 (d) Geochemical cycles (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 5. Which one is the Sedimentary cycle? 3. The concept of weathering relates to- (a) Oxygen Cycle (a) Decomposition of decomposed material (b) Hydrogen Cycle (b) Change in weather condition day to day (c) Nitrogen Cycle (c) Natural process leading to the decomposition of (d) Phosphorus Cycle rocks Answer (d) None of the above 4. The cycling of element in an ecosystem is called (a) Chemical cycles 1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (d)
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS 15 QUICK BOOK Environment & Ecology
4 Terrestrial Ecosystem
Types of Ecosystem Natural Ecosystem like rivers, lakes and ponds; marine ecosystems Artificiallike coral or reefs, Man-made sea floor, Ecosystem etc. It is an assemblage of plants and animals which functions as a unit and is capable of maintaining its The artificial ecosystems do not possess a self- identity such as forest, grassland, or an estuary. These Main Categories of Natural Ecosystems regulating mechanism and rely on the human efforts ecosystems are totally dependent on solar radiation. z Terrestrial Ecosystem: to sustain themselves.
These can be agricultural lands or aquaculture ponds z Aquatic Ecosystem: Ecosystems found on land, e.g., forests, grasslands, deserts, and tundra. which are dependent on solar energy, or fossil fuel Plants and animal community dependent ecosystems like urban settlements or found in water bodies, e.g., freshwater ecosystems industrial ecosystems.ECOSYSTEM
Natural Artificial
Aquatic Terrestrial
Fresh Water Marine Grassland Desert Forest
Lentic Lotic Wetlands Coastal Upwelling Open Areas Regions Oceans
(Ponds, (Rivers, (Marshes, Lakes) Streams) Swamps) (Estuatries, Coral Roofs, z Forest Ecosystem Mangroves) Found in northern part of South America, Congo, Malaysia, parts of east-Asia, the western coast of Forests are large areas supporting rich growth of trees and cover about 30% of land on the Earth. India, north-eastern India, Andaman and Nicobar Rainfall: Depending on the climate and type of trees they are islands, etc. generally grouped into Tropical Rainforests, Boreal Above 200 cm of rainfall per year, and rain Temperature: Forests, Tropical Deciduous Forests, Mediterranean should be uniform all year round. TropicalForests, Rainforest Temperate Deciduous Forests, etc. Uniform temperature throughout the Distribution Soil: year, i.e., monthly temperature of around 25-26°C. z Latitude: Soil quality is quite poor due to high rate of 16 0°-10°DRISHTI North PUBLICATIONS and South latitudes. leaching and this makes it unfit for agriculture. QUICK BOOK Environment & Ecology
5 Desertification
Introduction Land degradation Land degradation is defined as the temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land, and the diminution of the Desertification is reduction or destruction of the productive potential, including its major land uses (e.g., rainfed, arable, biological potential of the land which ultimately leads irrigation, forests), its farming systems (e.g., smallholder subsistence), to the formation of deserts. and its value as an economic resource. Land degradation can happen Due to anthropogenic factors and climate change, the everywhere, but desertification occurs only in dry land ecosystems. A productive potential of dry lands (arid or semi-arid) desert landscape supports a very limited growth of sparse vegetation falls by at least 10%. and stunted growth of plants. According to UNESCO, one third of the world’s land Factors Leading to Desertification surface is threatened by desertification and across the world it affects the livelihood of millions of people who depend on the benefits of ecosystems Some of the principal causes, which promote thatCauses dryland provides. desertification,Effect are: Over Cultivation Every cycle of cultivation is preceded by ploughing to remove weeds. Weeding exposes soil to degradation. Deep ploughing exposes soil to land erosion and degradation further. Nutritive matters are lost due to repetitive monoculture. Ploughed soil loses more water by evaporation. The soil of the regions with slopes, and less vegetation is more susceptible to erosion. Overgrazing Animal grazing is a huge problem for many areas that are starting to become desert biomes. Overgrazing removes the protective vegetation and exposes the soil. Movement of grazing animals loosens the soil surface by their hoofs. Unprotected loose soil becomes highly susceptible to erosion by wind and water and leads to formation of desert. Deforestation Forests are often cleared for agriculture, timber, construction wood, firewood, raw material for paper, etc. The process of denuding and degrading a forest land also contribute in desertification. Salinity due to With demand for more land for agriculture, crops are grown in areas that have little access to natural water bodies. over irrigation Intensive and uneconomic exploitation of water resources leading to fall in water table, seepage and problems of excessive salinisation of soil. Salt accumulation in soil retards plant growth. High salt concentration present in the water and soil will negatively affect the crop yields, degrade the land and pollute groundwater, which further lead to desertification. Climate Change Higher temperatures resulting due to climate change have negative impacts through increased loss of water from soil and reduced rainfall in dry lands. This results into desertification and diminishes biological diversity. As the days get warmer and periods of drought become more frequent, there is a possibility of rapid desertification. Fire Frequent and intensive fires can contribute to desertification when they affect natural vegetation. Frequent fires can turn savannas and forests into deserts.
28 DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS QUICK BOOK Environment & Ecology
6 Forest Conservation
Forest z According to World Bank estimates, more than 1.6 billion people depend on forests for their Forests are complex ecosystems consisting mainly of z trees that support myriad forms of life. livelihoods with some 300 million living in them. Forests provide jobs for more than 13 million Trees are the most important component of forests. z people across the world. Tree helps to create a unique environment to support various kinds of animals and plants. The forest product industry is a source of economic Trees clean the air, cool it on hot days, conserve heat growth and employment, with global forest at night, and act as excellent sound absorbers. products traded internationally is estimated to be Classification of Forest z Natural Forests: around USD 327 billion. Forests satisfy aesthetic needs of humans and have These forests mainly comprise Plantations or Man-made Forests: been a source of inspiration for the development Ecosystem Services: naturally grown indigenous (local) trees. of culture and civilization. z Theses forests are established by growing trees by humans. Absorbing harmful greenhouse gasses that The FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) has produce climate change. In tropical forests alone, defined forest as land with tree crown cover (or a quarter of a trillion ton of carbon is stored above equivalent stocking level) of more than 10% and area z and below ground biomass. of more than 0.5 hectares. The trees should be able to reach a minimum height of 5m at maturity level. Serving as a buffer in natural disasters like floods z and rainfalls. Forests currently cover about 30% of the world’s landmass. Providing habitat for more than half of the world’s land-based species. According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), the Ecosystem Services Provided by the Forest earth loses 18.7 million acres of forests per year. Services Benefits It is estimated that 15% of all greenhouse gas Importanceemissions come of Forests from deforestation. Provisioning Production of various types of woods, fruits Services and a wide range of compounds such as resins, alkaloids, essential oils, latex and pharmaceutical substances. We depend on forests for our survival, from the air we breathe and to the wood we use. Proactive Provide habitat for various organisms, conservation Besides providing habitats for animals and livelihoods Services of soil and water, prevention of drought, shelter against wind, cold, radiation, noise, sounds, smells for humans, forests also offer watershed protection, prevent soil erosion and mitigate climate change. and sights. Forests provide habitats for diverse plants, animals Regulative Absorption, storage and release of gases (most and microorganisms. They are home to 80% of the Services importantly CO and oxygen), water, minerals, Source of Livelihood: 2 world’s terrestrial biodiversity. elements, and radiant energy. z Cultural Bird watching, camping, wildlife tourism, etc. Forests form a source of livelihood for many Services different human settlements, including 60 million indigenous36 DRISHTI people. PUBLICATIONS QUICK BOOK Environment & Ecology
7 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
Aquatic Ecosystem Aquatic Organism Benthos It refers to plant and animal communities occurring in water bodies. The benthic organisms are those found living in the TypesIt is classifiedof Aquatic on the Ecosystem basis of salinity. bottom of the water mass. Freshwater: Practically every aquatic ecosystem contains well Marine: Examples: It has low salt concentrations developed benthos. Brackish It Water: has a high salt concentration 35 ppt or Sponges, Bristle Worms, Mollusks, above NeustonCnidarians, Crustaceans, and Echinoderms. Salt content is between freshwater and marine water, i.e., 5 to 35 ppt. They are estuaries, Salinity mangroves, salt marshes, etc. These are unattached organisms which live at the Salinity refers to the concentrations of salts in water or soils. air-water interface. Forms of Salinity Some organisms spend most of their lives on top of z Primary salinity or Natural salinity: It is caused by natural the air-water interface such as water striders, while processes such the accumulation of salt from rainfall over others spend most of their time just beneath the many thousands of years or from the weathering of rocks. air-water interface and obtain most of their food Examples: z Secondary salinity or Dryland salinity: It is caused where within the water. groundwater levels rise, bringing salt accumulated through Periphyton Beetles and Back-swimmers. ‘primary’ salinity processes to the surface. z Tertiary salinity or Irrigation salinity: It occurs when water is reapplied to crops or horticulture over many cycles, either These are organisms which remain attached to stems directly or by allowing it to filter into the groundwater before and leaves of rooted plants or substances emerging pumping it out for re-application. Example: above the bottom mud. Salinity Salinity (milligrams Purpose Snails, Frogs, Aquatic insects, and Fish. Status of salt per litre) Nekton Fresh <500 Drinking and all irrigation Most irrigation, adverse This group contains animals which are swimmers. Marginal 500 – 1000 effects on ecosystems The nektons are relatively large and powerful as they become apparent have to overcome the water currents. Irrigation certain crops only; Brackish 1000 – 2000 The animals range in size from the swimming useful for most stock insects (about 2 mm long) to the largest animals, Example: Saline 2000 – 10000 Useful for most livestock the blue whale. Highly Saline 10000 – 35000 Very saline groundwater, Sharks, Dolphins, Turtles, Sea cows, limited use for certain livestock PlanktonCrustaceans, Shrimp and Squid. Brine >35000 Seawater; some mining and industrial uses exist They include plants and animals that float along at 44 DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS the mercy of the sea’s tides and currents. Aquatic Ecosystem QUICK BOOK
The Ramsar Convention works closely with five other where changes in ecological character have occurred, organisations known as International Organization are occurring, or are likely to occur as a result of Partners (IOPs). These are Birdlife International, technological developments, pollution or other the International Union for Conservation of Nature human interference. (IUCN), the International Water Management It is maintained as part of the Ramsar List. Institute (IWMI), Wetlands International and Worldnd Wildlife Fund (WWF) International. Sites may be added to and removed from the Record only with the approval of the Contracting Parties in World Wetlands Day is celebratednd every year on 2 February. It marks the date of the adoption of the which they lie. MontreuxConvention Record on Wetlands on 2 February 1971. Currently, two wetlands of India are in Montreux record viz. Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan and Loktak Lake, Manipur. Further, Chilka Lake, Odisha Montreux Record, under the Ramsar Convention, is a was placed in the record but was later removed register of wetland sites of international importance from it.
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8 Biodiversity
Biodiversity Genetic Diversity
Biodiversity or “biological diversity,” is defined as Genetic diversity refers to the variety of genes contained within species of plants, animals and the variety of life on Earth, in all its forms and all its interactions. The number and variety of plants, microorganisms. animals and other organisms that exist is known as New genetic variation in individuals occurs by gene biodiversity. and chromosomal mutation. In case of organisms with sexual reproduction, it may be spread across According to 1992 United Nations Earth Summit, the populationVavilov by recombination. Center of Diversity biological diversity is the variability among living A Vavilov Center of Diversity is a region of the world first indicated organisms from all sources, including, inter alia, by the Russian agro-botanist Nikolai Vavilov to be an original terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, center for the domestication of plants. and the ecological complexes of which they are a Vavilov centers are regions where a high diversity of crop’s part. This includes diversity within species, between wild relatives can be found, representing the natural relatives of species and ecosystems. domesticated crop plants. The United Nations designated 2011–2020 as the Vavilov identified eight such centers of origin of cultivated plants United Nations Decade on Biodiversity. To increase around the world in 1935. the understanding and awareness of biodiversity India has a high genetic diversity and is regarded as a Vavilov’s issues, May 22 was proclaimed as the International center of high crop genetic diversity. TypesDay forof BiodiversityBiological Diversity. Vavilov proposed eight centers of origin of cultivated plants, fundamental and ancient centers of agriculture in the world. Biological Diversity The Eight centers are as following: 1. China; 2. India; 2a. Indo-Malayan region; 3. Central Asia, including Pakistan, Punjab, Kashmir, Afghanistan and Turkestan; 4. Near East; 5. Mediterranean; 6. Ethiopia; 7. Southern Mexico and Central America; 8. South America (8. Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, 8a. Chile, 8b. Brazil-Paraguay). Genetic Species Ecosystem Diversity Diversity Diversity
60 DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS Classification of Species QUICK BOOK
9 Classification of Species
Keystone Species Salmon is the keystone species in Pacific sea as a large Keystone species are those which have an extremely number of species depend on it for survival. high impact on a particular ecosystem relative to Phytoplankton and krill on which blue whale feed its population. are also keystone species. Such species are known to play a critical role Mangrove forests and coral reefs are also keystone in maintaining the structure of an ecological species. community, affecting many other organisms in an Certain plant species like ebony tree and Indian-laurel ecosystem, and helping to determine the types and exclusively depend upon bats for their pollination. If numbers of various other species in the community. the bat population is reduced, then regeneration of An ecosystem may experience a dramatic shift if these particular plants would become more difficult. a keystone species is removed, even though that species could have been a small part of the ecosystem by measures of biomass or productivity. Some of the keystone species are Bengal tiger, Lion, Crocodile, and Elephant. If tigers go extinct in the ecosystem, the population of deer and other herbivores increase exponentially, which will reduce grazing plants, and ultimately all the animals would go extinct due to lack of food. All keystone species need not be apex predators, though.Benefits of Keystone Species Engineer Species Enhances Habitats An engineer species or ecosystem engineers is the Removes Genetic Weakness one that creates, changes, or destroys a habitat. Regulates Animal Population The terms ‘keystone’ and ‘engineer’ are used Recycles Nutrients Waste interchangeably but the latter is better understood Examples Pollinationof Keystone Species as a subset of keystone species. In North America, the prairie dog is an ecosystem engineer. Prairie dog burrows provide nesting areas Sea Otters is considered as keystone species because of their critical importance to the health and stability for mountain plovers and burrowing owls. of the nearshore marine ecosystem. They eat sea Similarly, in the African savannas, the larger urchins and other invertebrates that graze on giant herbivores, especially the elephants, shape their kelp. Without sea otters, these grazing animals can environment. The elephants destroy trees, making destroy kelp forests and consequently the wide room for the grass species. As a result, they create diversity of animals that depend upon kelp habitat grasslands and salt licks in order to make other for survival. animals’ livesDRISHTI easier PUBLICATIONSto survive in their environment.69 QUICK BOOK Environment & Ecology
10 Biodiversity Conservation
Introduction Importance of Biodiversity Conservation Biodiversity Conservation is the planned management of biotic resources, to maintain the balance in nature and retain its diversity. It is the proper management of the biosphere by human beings in such a way that it gives maximum benefit to the present generation, and also develops To prevent the To save a To protect its potential to meet the needs of future generations. loss of genetic species from ecosystem It also includes wise use of biotic resources in such a way diversity of a becoming damage and that the needs of the present generation are met and at species. extinct. degradation. Conservationthe same time leaving Strategies enough forand future Methods generations. Conservation Methods
In-situ Methods Ex-situ Methods
Protection of Protection of Botanical Gene Cryo- Conservation at Habitat Species Garden Bank preservation Molecular Level In-Situ Methods Reserves; and Conservation Reserves. Other It is the process of preserving the species and z protected areas are marine protected areas, sacred groves, lakes and wetlands. populations of living organisms in a natural state in the habitat where they naturally occur. Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 provides for setting It includes the preservation of plants and animals z of the National Parks; Community Reserves; Protectionwithin their of naturalHabitat habitats or in protected areas. Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Conservation Reserves. Biosphere reserves are declared under UNESCO’s z National Parks Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme. z z It is the main method for conservation of biodiversity. National Parks are notified by the State The adoption of National Policy on Wildlife in governments under Section 35 of the Wildlife 1970 and enactment of the Wildlife (Protection) z (Protection) Act of 1972. They can also be notified z Act in 1972 led to a significant growth in protected by the central government. areas network. These sites are declared for the purpose of These include, National Parks; Community protection and propagation or development of Reserves;72 DRISHTI Wildlife PUBLICATIONS Sanctuaries; Biosphere wildlife therein or its environment. QUICK BOOK Environment & Ecology
Biosphere Reserves z z 18 biodiversity rich representative ecosystems These are representative parts of natural and have been designated as Biosphere Reserves in cultural landscapes extending over large areas of India.The concept of Biosphere Reserves was terrestrial or coastal/marine ecosystems which are launched in 1975 as a part of the UNESCO’s MAB, internationally recognized within the UNESCO’s Man dealing with the conservation of ecosystems and and the Biosphere Programme (MAB Programme). the genetic material they contain.
74 DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS International Union for Conservation of Nature QUICK BOOK
International Union 11 for Conservation of Nature
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) It is a membership union, composed of both government and civil society organisations. IUCN is an organization working in the field of It is involved in data gathering and analysis, research, nature conservation and sustainable use of natural field projects and education on conservation, resources. It is located in Gland, Switzerland and is IUCN Red List sustainable development and biodiversity. also known as the World Conservation Union. : In 1964, IUCN established the IUCN IUCN was founded in October, 1948 as the International Union for the Protection of Nature Red List of Threatened Species, which put forth a (or IUPN) following an international conference in comprehensive data source on the global extinction Fontainebleau, France. The organisation changed its risk of species and their conservation status in name to the IUCN in 1956. the world.
IUCN Protected Areas z z These categories are recognised by international In 1978, IUCN developed a preliminary system of bodies such as the United Nations and by many Protected Area Management Categories to help national governments as the global standard for defining and recording protected areas and as make sense of the world’s growing protected such are increasingly being incorporated into area network, aiming both to define and record The IUCN Red List of Ecosystems Categories and z Protected Areas Categories government legislation. the resources. Criteria z Ia (Strict Nature Reserve) It is a global standard for assessing the status of Ib (Wilderness Area) z ecosystems, applicable at local, national, regional II (National Park) and global levels. Assessments determine whether an ecosystem is III (Natural Monument or Feature) Peoplenot facing in Nature imminent (PiN) risk of collapse, or whether it IV (Habitat/Species Management Area) is vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered. z V (Protected Landscape/Seascape) VI (Protected area with sustainable use of It is an IUCN knowledge basket on the natural resources) interrelationshipsDRISHTI PUBLICATIONS between people and87 nature. International Union for Conservation of Nature QUICK BOOK
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. The ‘Red Data Books’ published by the International 3. Which one of the following is a Critically Endangered Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources species? (IUCN) contain list of (a) Golden Oriole 1. Endemic plant and animals species present in (b) Pygmy Hog biodiversity hotspots. 2. Threatened plant and animal species. (c) Indian Fantail Pigeon 3. Protected sites for conservation of nature and (d) Indian Sunbird natural resources in various countries. 4. Consider the following fauna of India: Select the correct answer using the code given below: 1. Gharial (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 only 2. Leatherback turtle (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only 3. Swamp deer 2. Which one of the following groups of animals belongs Which of the above is/are Endangered? to the category of Endangered species? (a) Great Indian Bustard, Musk Deer, Red Panda and (a) 1 and 2 only Asiatic Wild Ass. (b) 3 only (b) Kashmiri stag, Cheetal, Blue bull and Great Indian (c) 1, 2 and 3 Bustard (d) None (c) Snow Leopard, Swamp Deer, Rhesus Monkey and Answer Sarus (Crane) (d) Lion Tailed Macaque, Blue Bull, Hanuman Langur and Cheetal 1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d) DrishtiDrishti CurrentCurrent AffairsAffairs TodayToday What does UPSC seek? To test candidates’ general awareness on a variety of subjects, relevant for a career in Civil Services. To test candidates’ ability to analyse, and take a view on conflicting socio- economic objectives and demands. To assess the overall intellectual traits and depth of understanding of the candidates rather than merely the range of their information and memory. What does ‘DCAT’ promise? A 140+ pages of dynamic, exam-focused and well-researched magazine prepared by a team of experts. Rich 65+ pages of Current Affairs coverage analysed through the prism of General Studies accompanied with To The Points and Learning Through Maps for quick revision. Crisp and concise gist of major publications (EPW, Yojana, Kurukshetra, Science Reporter and Down to Earth). Practice MCQs, Mains answer writing practice and other sections to fortify your preparation.
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DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS 91 QUICK BOOK Environment & Ecology
12 Biodiversity in India
Introduction Biomes of India z z India, a megadiverse country with only 2.4% of the Tropical humid forests z world’s land area, accounts for 7-8% of all recorded Tropical dry or deciduous forests species, including over 45,000 species of plants and z India represents: Warm deserts and semi-deserts 91,000 species of animals. z Coniferous forests Two Realms; Five Biomes; Alpine meadows Ten Biogeographic Zones; and Twenty-five Bio- Biogeographic Zones Realmgeographic provinces. Biogeographic zone is defined as large distinctive units of similar ecology, biozone representation, A realm is a continent or subcontinent sized area with Realms in Indian Region community and species, for example the Himalaya, unifying features of geography, and fauna and flora. z and the Western Ghats. Biogeography deals with the geographical distribution Himalayan region is represented by Palearctic z of plants and animals. Realm. In India, conservation planning has been taken up on Rest of the subcontinent is represented by Malayan the basis of biogeographic classification. Realm. Within India, the biogeographic classification In the world, eight terrestrial biogeographic realms World Biogeographic Realms recognizes 10 zones, divided into 25 provinces. are typically recognised. Bio-geographic Provinces z z Nearctic Realm z The biotic province is defined as secondary units Palaearctic Realm within a zone, giving weight to particular communities z Afrotropic Realm separated by dispersal barriers or gradual change in z environmental factors such as North West and West Oceania Realm z Australasia Himalaya on either side of the Sutlej River. z Australian Realm TheThere Land are Region25 bio-geographic provinces in India. z Antarctic Realm Neotropic Realm Biome A tertiary set of units within a province, indicating different landforms, for example Aravalli Mountains and Malwa Plateau in Gujarat Rajwada Province. A biome is often referred to as a global-scale Bio-geographical Regions of India community of plants and animals and is the largest Trans Himalayan Region subdivision of the biosphere. It may contain many different kinds of smaller ecosystems. It is situated in the north of the Great Himalayas. The Flora: Biomes are typically distinguished on the basis of the area is very cold and arid. characteristics of their vegetation because it makes The only vegetation is a sparse alpine steppe. up the92 largestDRISHTI portion PUBLICATIONS of biomass. Extensive areas consist of bare rock and glaciers. QUICK BOOK Environment & Ecology
96 DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS QUICK BOOK Environment & Ecology
104 DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS International Efforts for Biodiversity Conservation QUICK BOOK
International Efforts for 13 Biodiversity Conservation
World Conservation Strategy Agenda 21 and Statement of principles for the It is an intellectual framework and practical sustainable management of forest were adopted z Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) guidelines for conservation measures. by more than 178 governments. It was jointly developed by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the International It is dedicated to promoting sustainable Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and WWF development. International in 1980. It was conceived as a practical tool for translating Main Objectives of CBD It demarcated the priority activities of conservation the principles of Agenda 21 into reality. Objectives of World Conservation Strategy efforts. z The conservation of biological diversity. To maintain ecological processes and ecosystems The sustainable use of the components of that are important to human activities, like soil z biological diversity. regeneration, nutrient cycling, water cleansing, etc. z The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits To preserve genetic diversity of species on Earth. arising out of the utilization of genetic To ensure sustainable use of species and ecosystems z Conference of the Parties (COP): resources. which support communities and industries. It is the In 1991 UNEP, IUCN and WWF International governing body of the Convention, and advances published a document titled “Caring for the Earth”, implementation of the Convention through the which came to be known as the successor of the Aichidecisions Biodiversity it takes Targetsat its periodic meetings. UNWorld Conference Conservation on Strategy. Environment and Development Rio Declaration, 1992 It was adopted at COP 10 by the Convention on Outcome of the COP Biological Diversity (CBD) at its Nagoya conference. In 1992 the United Nations organised Conference z on Environment and Development (UNCED) at Rio z de Janeiro, Brazil, informally known as the Earth Nagoya Protocol on Genetic Resources Summit. Aichi Targets for biodiversity Rio Declaration of 1992 was the outcome of the At this meeting, the parties agreed to a plan, officially UNCED. It was signed by around 175 countries. known as “Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020”, The Rio Declaration consisted of 27 principles to save biodiversity. intended to guide countries in future sustainable This plan provides a set of 20 ambitious yet Key Declarations development. achievable targets, collectively known as the z Agenda 21 Aichi Targets. z Strategic Goal A: Classification of Targets Agenda 21 is a non-binding, voluntarily Address the underlying causes implemented action plan of the United Nations of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity with regard to sustainable development. across governmentDRISHTI PUBLICATIONS and society. 111 QUICK BOOK Environment & Ecology
India’s Efforts Towards 14 Biodiversity Conservation
Biodiversity Conservation genetic material and by-products (excluding value added products) with the actual or potential use or As required by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action value, but does not include human genetic material. Plan (NBSAP) for India was finalised by 2004. The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), a Statutory Autonomous Body, was established in 2003 NBSAP was carried out by the Ministry of Environment, z Forests, and Climate Change (MoEF & CC). Kalpvriksh, to implement this Act. Objectives of Action Plan an NGO, undertook technical coordination. The monetary benefits, fees and royalties, as a z result of approval by NBA are to be deposited in the National Biodiversity Fund, which will be Restoration and regeneration of degraded z used for conservation and development of areas ecosystems. from where the resource has been accessed, in z Recognition of community rights. consultation with local self-government. Development of alternative intellectual property The Act covers foreigners, non-resident Indians, body right systems appropriate for indigenous z corporate, association or organization that is either knowledge. not incorporated in India or incorporated in India Balancing of local, national and international with non-Indian participation in its share capital or z z interests related to biodiversity. management. Preventing deprivation of indigenous knowledge These individuals or entities require the approval The Biologicalof natural resources. Diversity Act, 2002 of the NBA when they use biological resources and associated knowledge occurring in India for commercial or research purposes or for the z The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 covers conservation, purposes of bio-survey or bio-utilisation. sustainable use of biological resources and associated Indians and Indian institutions do not require the knowledge occurring in India for commercial or approval of the National Biodiversity Authority research purposes or for the purposes of bio-survey when they engage in the above mentioned and bio-utilisation. activities. It provides a framework for access to biological However, they would need to inform the State resources and sharing the benefits arising out of such Biodiversity Boards prior to undertaking such access and use. activities. The Act also includes in its ambit the transfer of The Act excludes Indian biological resources that are research results and application of intellectual normally traded as commodities. Such exemption property rights (IPRs) relating to Indian biological holds only so far the biological resources that are resources. used as commodities and for no other purpose. The Act was enacted to meet the obligations under The Act also excludes traditional uses of Indian the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), to biological resources and associated knowledge when which India is a party. they are used in collaborative research projects The Act also defines Biological resources as “plants, between Indian and foreign institutions with the animals118 and micro-organismsDRISHTI PUBLICATIONS or parts thereof, their approval of the central government. Renewable Energy QUICK BOOK
15 Renewable Energy
Introduction Classification of Hydro Projects based on Installed Capacity Micro: The rising consumption of energy has resulted in Mini: the country becoming increasingly dependent on Up to 100 KW Small: fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas. However, rising 101 KW to 2 MW Mega: prices of oil and gas and their deleterious effect on 2 MW to 25 MW the environment has raised reservations about the Hydro projects with installed capacity more future of fossil fuels. Advantagesthan or equal to 500 MW. Energy sources like solar, wind, hydro, geothermal and biomass are sustainable, renewable, more equitably distributed, environmentally friendly It uses but does not consume the water for generation and cheaper than conventional sources. They are of electricity in an open cycle. obtained from the regular and repetitive flows of No consumable involved; there is very little recurring energy happening in the natural environment. cost and hence, no high long term expenditure. The alternative sources of energy have become It is cheaper as compared to electricity generated Hydroelectricespecially relevant Energy in the wake of climate change. from coal and gas fired plants. It also reduces the financial losses due to frequency fluctuations and it is more reliable as it is inflation Hydroelectric energy is a form of energy that free due to non-usage of fossil fuel. harnesses the power of water in motion, such as water Due to its unique capabilities of quick starting flowing over a waterfall to generate electricity. It uses and closing, hydropower stations are found to be hydroelectric power plant which consists of a high dam Disadvantageseconomical choice to meet peak loads in the grids. that is built across a large river to create a reservoir, Resettlement and Rehabilitation Problems: and a station where the process of energy conversion Stepsto electricity in the takes Generation place. of Hydro Power Hydroelectric projects involve submergence causing displacement of project area. Many times, it is one Collection of run-off water of seasonal rain and of the main reasons for the delay in the execution Environment and Forest Issues: snow in lakes, streams and rivers, during the resulting in time and cost overruns. hydrological cycle. Hydro Projects Flow of collected water to dams downstream and often require forest land for their implementation then into the turbine of the hydropower plant. and compensatory afforestation on the non- Reservoir Induced Earthquakes: The turbine converts the energy of falling water forest lands. into mechanical energy to drive the generator. Earthquakes The generator connected to the turbine generates induced by reservoir have been experienced in electricity and this is transmitted through the some parts of India. For Example – Koyna Dam transmission lines to the end user. (Maharashtra).DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS 127 Renewable Energy QUICK BOOK
In India, the National Policy on Biofuels, released Also, the Policy has the objective of reaching 20% by the Government of India in 2018, envisages ethanol-blending and 5% bio-diesel blending by the production of biofuel from Used Cooking Oil (UCO). year 2030.
Waste to Energy
matter into simple substances. Compost is organic Energy recovery in the form of electricity, heat and matter that has been decomposed and recycled as a fertilizer and soil amendment. Compost is a key fuel from the waste using different technologies is possible Biomethanation: through a variety of processes, including incineration, ingredient in organic farming. gasification, pyrolysis and anaerobic digestion. These It is an anaerobic slurry-phase processes are often grouped under “Waste to Energy process that can be used to recover both nutrients technologies”. Two groups of technologies could be used and energy contained in biodegradable waste. Biogas Bio-chemicalfor processing the Waste fractions to Energy of wastes: Technologies can be used either as a source of thermal energy or to Thermo-chemicalgenerate electricity Waste by using to gas Energy engines Technologies and turbines.
Bio-chemical conversion of biodegradable waste can be categorized into composting, biomethanation Thermal processing of waste can be accomplished Composting: in several ways, including incineration, pyrolysis, and fermentation. Incineration: It is a natural biological process, carried gasification and mass burning. out under controlled aerobic conditions (requiring It is the complete combustion of waste oxygen). In this process, various microorganisms, with the recovery of heat, to produce steam, which in including bacteria and fungi break down organic turn producesDRISHTI power PUBLICATIONS through steam turbines.135 Pollution QUICK BOOK
16 Pollution
Pollution Pollutants
It may be defined as addition of any physical Pollutants are the agents, which cause environmental substance such as solid, liquid, or gas or any form of energy such as heat, sound, or radioactivity in the pollution. environment at a rate greater than its conversion into “Environmental pollutant” means any solid, some harmless form. liquid or gaseous substance present in such As per the Environment Protection Act (EPA), 1986, “Environmental Pollution, is the presence of any concentration as may be, or tend to be, injurious Classificationpollutant in the ofenvironment.” Pollutants to the environment.
AIR POLLUTANTS
Source Mode of release Chemical composition and size
Primary Secondary Indoor Outdoor Particulate Gaseous matter (PM)
Direct emission Reaction with Cooking, Industrial Solid or liquid Miscible with air, into atmosphere atmospheric smoking, air processes, aerosols in vapour form pollutants conditioning, transportation etc.
SO , NO , CO, CO , 2 x Ozone, 2 PM, CO, PM0.1, SOx, ozone, CO, PM VOCs NOx NOx, VOCs PM2.5, PM10 NOx, CO, VOCs
On the Basis of their Existence in Nature Substances which normally occur in the environment get the status of a pollutant, when their concentration Quantitative Pollutants increases due to anthropogenic activities, for example, Carbon dioxide, when its concentration increases, causes harmful effects on the flora and fauna. Substances which do not normally occur in nature but are added by humans, for example, insecticides, pesticides, Qualitative Pollutants etc.
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS 137 Pollution QUICK BOOK
Death of the primary consumers adversely affects Thus eutrophication leads to destruction of the food chain. Measuresbiodiversity. to Control Surface Water Pollution Further, more oxygen is taken up by microorganisms during the decomposition process of dead algae, plants and fishes. Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs) should be set up to treat the effluent emanating from the The new anaerobic conditions (absence of oxygen) clusters of compatible small-scale industries. created to promote the growth of bacteria such as Waste Water Treatment Plants should be constructed Clostridium botulinum which produces toxins deadly to treat wastewater, removing toxic elements like to aquatic organisms, birds and mammals. heavy metal before discharging into the rivers. Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) and Use of Treated Effluent for Irrigation: As a result of treatment, the sewage gets rid of silt, water becomes colourless, the number of pathogenic bacteria decline to almost zero, biological oxygen demand (BOD) and coli count go Groundwaterdown,and the Pollution toxic wastes are neutralised.
An aquifer can be contaminated due to seepage from industrial and municipal wastes and effluents, sewage channels and agricultural runoff. The quality of groundwater has undergone a change to an extent that the use of such water could be hazardous. DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS 149 QUICK BOOK Environment & Ecology
17 Climate Change
Climate Change z In this way, GHGs act like a blanket, making Earth warmer than it would otherwise be. This process Climate change is the long-term alteration of is commonly known as the ‘Greenhouse Effect’. temperature and normal weather patterns in a region. Life on earth has been possible because of this natural It refers to the broad range of changes that are greenhouse effect which is due to water vapour and happening on our planet such as rising global small particles present in the atmosphere. Without warming, rise of sea levels, shrinking mountain this phenomenon, average global temperatures glaciers, accelerating ice melt in Greenland, might have been around –170°C and at such a low Antarctica and the Arctic, and shifts in flower/plant temperature life would not have been possible. blooming times. Causes of Climate Change Since the Industrial Revolution began around 1750, Factors Sources human activities have contributed substantially to climate change by adding CO2 and other heat- Natural Factors Changes in the Sun’s intensity. trapping gases to the atmosphere. Volcanic eruptions. These greenhouse gas emissions have increased Natural processes within the climate system the greenhouse effect and caused earth’s surface such as changes in ocean current circulation. temperature to rise, further resulting in ‘Global Anthropogenic Emission of Carbon dioxide (CO ) due to 2 Warming’. Factors burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas. The primary human activity affecting the amount and (produced by Emission of Methane (CH ) and Nitrous oxide 4 rate of climate change is greenhouse gas emissions humans) (N O) from agriculture. 2 from the burning of fossil fuels. Emissions through land use changes such as deforestation, reforestation, urbanization, desertification, etc.
Factors Controlling Climate Change Greenhouse Effect
When sunlight reaches the Earth’s surface, it can either be reflected back into space by bright surfaces suchz as ice and clouds, or can be absorbed by Earth’s surface and atmosphere. Once absorbed, the planet releases some of the z energy back into the atmosphere as long wave infrared radiation. 4 Greenhouse gases (GHGs) like water vapor (H2O), Carbon dioxide (CO2), and Methane (CH ) absorb the heat energy, slowing or preventing the loss of heat168 to space.DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS Climate Change QUICK BOOK
(d) plan of action outlined by the countries of the (c) 1, 3 and 4 only world regarding Sustainable Development Goals. (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 6. Consider the following statements: 7. Which one of the following is associated with the issue Chlorofluorocarbons, known as ozone-depleting of control and phasing out of the use of ozone-depleting substances, are used substances? 1. in the production of plastic foams. (a) Bretton Woods Conference (b) Montreal Protocol 2. in the production of tubeless tyres. (c) Kyoto Protocol 3. in cleaning certain electronic components. (d) Nagoya Protocol 4. as pressurizing agents in aerosol cans. Answer Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1, 2 and 3 only 1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (b) (b) 4 only
DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS 185 QUICK BOOK Environment & Ecology
18 India and Climate Change
Impact of Climate Change On Biodiversity On Agriculture Climate change is likely to have a number of impacts on biodiversity from ecosystem to species level. Agriculture sector in India is vulnerable to climate The most obvious impact is the effect that temperature change. and precipitation have on species, ranges and Rainfed agriculture and irrigated crops will be ecosystem boundaries. Those species living at affected due to rainfall variability, eventually reducing the edge of their ranges may need to move due to yield across agro-ecological regions. climate change. Analysis of impact of climate change under National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) Habitat loss and climate related stressor have led to project has found that climate change is expected to species extinction or on the verge of extinction for affect yields, particularly in crops like rice, wheat example, Cheer pheasants with a range primarily in Northern and Western Himalayas, are declining due and maize. Climate change is also predicted to lead to boundary to loss of the habitat. changes in areas suitable for growing certain crops. Increased temperature will raise sea level and Eastern regions are predicted to be most impacted mangrove will be affected leading to catastrophic by increased temperatures and decreased radiation, Oneffect Weather of disasters like tsunami. resulting in relatively fewer grains and shorter grain filling durations. With increase in drought, crop failures and cattle India is already experiencing a warming climate. mortality have become common. This has an adverse Unusual and unprecedented spells of hot weather impact on farmers’ lives. are expected to occur far more frequently and cover It also has a negative impact on commercial poultry much larger areas. Ondue Environment to heat stress. Under 4°C warming, the west coast and southern India are projected to shift to new, high temperature Onclimatic Marine regimes. Life India is one of the most vulnerable countries in the world because of climate change. Impacts of climate change, include water stress, heat Marine life faces challenges from warming waters waves and drought, severe storms and flooding, and and ocean acidification. associated negative consequences on ohealth and livelihoods. Warming waters alter the latitude and depth at which certain species are able to survive. Many species are At the national level, an increase of –0.4 C has been moving deeper or farther north in the Atlantic to observed in surface air temperatures over the past century. find cold water. More acidic oceans hinders the development of Warming trend has been observed along the west crustaceans, coral, and other organisms. coast, in central India, the interior peninsula, and north-eastern India. Coral bleaching, coral disease, and coral mortality Cooling trends have been observed in north-west events are increasing due to high water temperatures India186 and partsDRISHTI of south PUBLICATIONS India. attributed to climate change. Sustainable Development QUICK BOOK
19 Sustainable Development
Origin z The idea of limitations imposed by the state One of the first uses of the term ‘sustainable’ in the of technology and social organization on the environment’s ability to meet present and contemporary sense was by the Club of Rome in 1972 in its classic report on ‘Limits to Growth’. Globalfuture Efforts needs. for Sustainable Development In 1983, the United Nations (UN) set up the World Commission on Environment and Development Rio Earth Summit (WCED)z with Gro Harlem Brundtland as the chairperson. The WCED Report (Brundtland Report), also In 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the UN Conference on Environment and Development published the z known as ‘Our Common Future’, was published in 1987. Earthst Charter, which outlined the building of a just, sustainable, and peaceful global society in the z The report emphasized the need for an integration of economic and ecological systems. 21 century. z The Brundtland Report defined Sustainable The main outcomes of Rio meet were: Development as “development that meets the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development z needs of the present without compromising listing 27 Principles of Sustainable Development the ability of future generations to meet their z The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) own needs”. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) – a climate change agreement that led to the Kyoto Protocol and now z Paris Accord. United Nations Convention to Combat z Desertification (UNCCD) z Global Environment Facility (GEF) Agenda 21
Sustainablez Development consists of two key concepts: The concept of ‘needs’, in particular, the essential needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given. DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS 193 QUICK BOOK Environment & Ecology
Environmental and Social 20 Impact Assessment
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) The core values of EIA include integrity, which Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process ensures that the environmental project is in of evaluating the likely environmental impacts of a accordance with the standard principles; proposed project or development, taking into account sustainability, which provides for an environmentally interrelated socio-economic, cultural and human- sound development so that resources are not Needcompromised for EIA for future generations. health impacts, both beneficial and adverse. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) defines Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as Almost every human activity has some impact on the a tool used to identify the environmental, social and environment, and more often than not these impacts economic impacts of a project prior to decision- are harmful to the environment. making. But infrastructural and other developments are even EIA aims to predict environmental impacts at an early necessary to fulfill the ever increasing needs of food, stage in project planning and design, find ways and security and other essential human needs. means to reduce adverse impacts, shape projects to So, it is necessary that these developmental effects suit the local environment and present the predictions are environmentally sustainable and hence, there is and options to decision makers. a need to consider environmental concerns related to a project which should be incorporated at the Scientific Change beginning of the project cycle so that it could be Predictive techniques, accountedSolid Waste for & in the project design. Accountability, etc. Hazardous Waste Soil Land use Deisgn and Managmenet Conservation Stakeholders Engineering Risk & Hazards Empowerment Air Pollution Control Change Management Awareness, Values, Visioning, Environmental Design decisions, Capacity, etc. Air Quality Modeling etc. EIA Geology EIA Study
Institutional Hydrology, Ground Water Pollution Water and its Corporate Change Change Control Environmental Conservation Beliefs, Structure, Socio- capacity, Consent Economic Ecology & Economics, etc. decisions, Noise & Vibration Biodiversity Accountability, etc.
Fundamental Components of EIA Screening Both environmental and economic benefits can be z achieved by using EIA, such as reduced cost and time of project implementation and design, less treatment/ It is done to determine which projects or clean-up costs and implementation of laws and developments require a full or partial impact regulations.212 DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS assessment study. QUICK BOOK Environment & Ecology
Quick Revision
Wetlands of India A natural backwater in Kollam district. Ashtamudi River Kallada and Pallichal drains into it. Wetland (Kerala) It forms an estuary with sea at Neendakara which is a famous fishing harbour in Kerala. National Waterway 3 passes through it. The core area of Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary was declared as Bhitarkanika National Park. Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary includes Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary. Bhitarkanika Bhitarkanika Mangroves, a part of Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary were designated a Ramsar Wetland of International Mangroves (Odisha) Importance in 2002. It is famous for its salt water crocodiles and Olive ridley sea turtle. The Bhoj Wetland consists of two lakes located in the city of Bhopal. The two lakes are the Bhojtal and the Lower Lake. Bhoj Wetland It is a manmade reservoir. (Madhya Pradesh) A total of more than 20,000 birds are observed annually. The largest bird of India, the sarus crane (Grus antigone) is found here. Chandra Taal Sitiuated in Spiti. (Himachal Pradesh) Gets its name from crecent shape. It is the largest coastal lagoon in India and the second largest brackish water lagoon in the world. Birds from as far as the Caspian Sea, Aral Sea and other remote parts of Russia, Central Asia, and Himalayas come here. In 1981, Chilika Lake was designated the first Indian wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention. Chilika Lake (Odisha) Nalbana Island is the core area of the Ramsar designated wetlands of Chilika Lake. The Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) is the flagship species of Chilika lake. Chilika is home to the only known population of Irrawaddy dolphins in India. It is classified as endangered, in five of the six other places it is known to live. Deepor Beel (‘Beel’ Deepor Beel has both biological and environmental importance besides being the only major storm water storage stands for lake in basin for Guwahati city. Because of the richness of avian fauna Deepor Beel has been selected as one of the Assamese language) Important Bird Area (IBA) sites by BirdLife International. (Assam) Only Ramsar site in Assam. East Calcutta The wetland forms an urban facility for treating the city’s waste water Wetlands (West The wetland provides about 150 tons of fresh vegetables daily, as well as some 10,500 tons of table fish per year. Bengal) Harike Wetland An important site for breeding, wintering and staging birds, supporting over 200,000 Anatidae (ducks, geese, (Punjab) swans, etc.) during migration.
218 DRISHTI PUBLICATIONS AiChi BioDiversity tArgets
Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society
Target 1:
By 2020, at the latest, people are aware of the values of biodiversity and the steps they can take to conserveTarget 2: and use it sustainably.
By 2020, at the latest, biodiversity values have been integrated into national and local development and poverty reduction strategies and planning processes and are being incorporated into national accounting, as appropriate,Target 3: and reporting systems.
By 2020, at the latest, incentives, including subsidies, harmful to biodiversity are eliminated, phased out or reformed in order to minimize or avoid negative impacts, and positive incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity are developed and applied, consistent and in harmony with the Convention and otherTarget relevant 4: international obligations, taking into account national socio economic conditions.
By 2020, at the latest, Governments, business and stakeholders at all levels have taken steps to achieve or have implemented plans for sustainable production and consumption and have kept the impacts of use of natural resources well within safe ecological limits. Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use
Target 5:
By 2020, the rate of loss of all natural habitats, including forests, is at least halved and where feasible broughtTarget 6: close to zero, and degradation and fragmentation is significantly reduced.
By 2020 all fish and invertebrate stocks and aquatic plants are managed and harvested sustainably, legally and applying ecosystem based approaches, so that overfishing is avoided, recovery plans and measures are in place for all depleted species, fisheries have no significant adverse impacts on threatened species and vulnerable ecosystemsTarget 7: and the impacts of fisheries on stocks, species and ecosystems are within safe ecological limits.
By 2020 areas under agriculture, aquaculture and forestry are managed sustainably, ensuring conservation ofTarget biodiversity. 8:
By 2020, pollution, including from excess nutrients, has been brought to levels that are not detrimental toTarget ecosystem 9: function and biodiversity.
By 2020, invasive alien species and pathways are identified and prioritized, priority species are controlled orTarget eradicated, 10: and measures are in place to manage pathways to prevent their introduction and establishment.
By 2015, the multiple anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs, and other vulnerable ecosystems impacted by climate change or ocean acidification are minimized, so as to maintain their integrity and functioning.