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Atime to Enrol, a Time to Stop… A TIME TO ENROL , A TIME TO STOP … Policies, perceptions and practices influencing the right to basic education in Yemen Lucienne Maas © L.E.M. Maas 2012 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the author. Printed in The Netherlands. ISBN 978-94-91478-00-0 Ipskamp Drukkers B.V. Josink Maatweg 43 7545 PS Enschede Tel: 0031-(0)534826262 Fax: 0031-(0)534826270 http:// www.proefschriften.net A TIME TO ENROL , A TIME TO STOP … Policies, Perceptions and Practices Influencing the Right to Basic Education in Yemen Een tijd van beginnen en een tijd van stoppen met school… De invloed van beleid, percepties en praktijken op het recht op schoolonderwijs in Jemen Thesis to obtain the degree of Doctor from the Erasmus University Rotterdam by command of the rector magnificus Professor dr H.G. Schmidt and in accordance with the decision of the Doctorate Board The public defence shall be held on 12 April 2012 at 11.00 hrs by Lucienne Elisabeth Maria Maas born in Beverwijk Doctoral Committee Promotor Prof.dr. B.N.F. White Other members Prof.dr. W. Vandenhole, University of Antwerp Prof.dr. M.A.R.M. Salih Prof.dr. C.J.M. Arts Co-promotor Dr.ir. J.E. Mooij Dedication I dedicate this thesis to my father Jozef Maas who has shown me the delights of social inquiry in his own humble way. Contents List of Tables ix Acronyms xi Acknowledgements xiii Abstract xiv Samenvatting xx 1 EXPLORING BASIC SCHOOLING IN YEMEN 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Theoretical starting points 8 1.2.1 Current views 8 1.2.2 The research questions 16 1.3 Research approach and methods 17 1.3.1 From development work to academic research 17 1.3.2 Research locations 20 1.3.3 Data collection 22 1.3.4 Research tools 23 1.4 The situation in the research areas 36 1.5 Remaining chapters 39 Notes 40 2 SCHOOL COMPLETION : WHAT IS ENOUGH ? 45 2.1 Introduction 45 2.2 Global strategies and approaches, national policies and programming 46 2.2.1 Global strategies 46 2.2.2 Global approaches 50 2.2.3 National policies 53 vi Contents vii 2.2.4 National programming 56 2.3 The local situation 58 2.3.1 The research areas 58 2.3.2 Local views on school completion 64 2.3.4 Children’s time 73 2.3.5 Schooling and the future 76 2.4 Differences in views explained 81 2.4.1 Age in years and grades 82 2.4.2 Transitions to adulthood 84 2.4.3 Mass schooling and being schooled 89 2.5 Conclusion 93 Notes 95 3 WHY SOME CHILDREN COMPLETE MORE GRADES THAN OTHERS : STRUCTURES OF THE FAMILY 98 3.1 Introduction 98 3.2 Inequalities in school completion by gender and status 100 3.2.1 Gender inequalities in school completion 100 3.2.2 Status inequalities in school completion 102 3.3 Reasoning for stopping school 108 3.3.1 Reasoning by adults 109 3.3.2 Reasoning by children 117 3.4 Stopping school: pressures and the absence of support 122 3.4.1 Households 122 3.4.2 Mothers of children who had stopped school 124 3.4.3 Fathers of children who had stopped school 128 3.4.4 Siblings of children who had stopped school 129 3.4.5 Peer pressure 134 3. 5 Conclusion 137 Notes 138 4 STOPPING SCHOOL : THE ROLE OF SCHOOLING 143 4.1 Introduction 143 4.2 School practices: including and excluding children 145 4.2.1 School policies and their implementation 145 4.2.2 Resources 159 4.3 Classroom practices: including and excluding children 164 viii A TIME TO ENROL , A TIME TO STOP 4.3.1 Teachers’ practices 164 4.3.2 Teachers’ attitudes 170 4.4 Explaining school and teacher practices and attitudes 177 4.5 Conclusion 180 Notes 182 5 CONCLUSION – STOPPING SCHOOL : SO WHAT ? 187 5.1 Introduction 187 5.2 Findings of the research: Fatima’s story 188 5.2.1 Stopping school for Fatima 188 5.2.2 Fatima and views on stopping school 192 5.2.3 Fatima and inequalities in schooling outcomes 193 5.2.4 Fatima and schooling practices 195 5.3 Research findings beyond Fatima 196 5.4 Education development aid efforts in Yemen 200 5.5 Points of interest for education development practice in Yemen 204 5.5.1 Views on stopping school 204 5.5.2 Social positioning of adults 205 5.5.3 Schooling and teaching practices 206 5.6 Issues for education development policy 207 5.7 The effect of the research findings on my own views 209 Notes 210 References 213 Curriculum Vitae Lucienne Maas 236 List of Tables 1.1 Gross basic school enrolment Yemen 1998/1999 compared to 2007/2008 2 1.2 Gross school enrolment 2005/2006 data compared 3 1.3 Retention rates till grade six, 2006/2007 by location and gender 3 1.4 Grade repetition and dropout rates Yemen 2006/2007 4 1.5 Yemen Monitoring Learning Achievement (MLA) survey results 2005 5 1.6 Social and economic status as identified in the household survey 37 1.7 Social and economic status of households of children who stopped school as identified by author 38 2.1 Survey enrolment rates of all school aged children in the household by age and gender 59 2.2 Stopping school by children interviewed in-depth by grade, age and gender 60 2.3 Schooling outcomes siblings of children who stopped school (from in-depth interviews) 61 2.4 Grade repetition by gender of children who stopped school (from in-depth interviews) 62 2.5 Children’s positive experiences of school (multiple responses) 66 2.6 Children’s negative experiences of school (multiple responses) 66 2.7 Parents’ positive experiences of school (multiple responses) 68 2.8 Parents’ negative experiences of school (multiple responses) 68 2.9 Teachers’ perceptions of why girls attend school (multiple responses) 69 2.10 Teachers’ perceptions on why boys attend school (multiple responses) 70 ix x A TIME TO ENROL , A TIME TO STOP 2.11 Teachers’ perceptions on why girls do not complete basic education (multiple responses) 71 2.12 Teachers’ perceptions on why boys do not complete basic education (multiple responses) 71 2.13 Main daily activity of children who have stopped school (single answer) (N=30) 75 2.14 Parents and children on what they want to be in the future by gender of child (unprompted single answers) 77 2.15 Schooling essential to reach dreams: parents and children by schooling status 78 2.16 Boys interviewed in-depth and who stopped school; their activities and aspirations 79 3.1 School status of children in households of children who stopped school 99 3.2 Reasons for stopping school by gender and rural/urban (percentage share), 2005 109 3.3 General parents’ perceptions of reasons for stopping school for boys (multiple answers) 111 3.4 General parents’ perceptions of reasons for stopping school for girls (multiple answers) 111 3.5 Main reason for stopping school given by parents of children who stopped school (unprompted, single answers) 113 3.6 All parents on school costs (unprompted, multiple answers possible) 114 3.7 Children who have stopped school on reasons for stopping school (single answer, unprompted) 118 3.8 Summary reasoning for stopping school by person who gives the reason 120 3.9 Schooling outcomes siblings of children who stopped school 132 4.1 Teachers’ classroom practices 165 4.2 Teachers’ reasoning on why children do not complete basic education by gender (N=117) (unprompted, multiple answers possible) 171 4.3 Teachers’ reasoning on why children go to school by gender (N=117) (unprompted, multiple answers possible) 172 Acronyms AES Annual Education Survey BEDS Basic Education Development Strategy CCT Conditional Cash Transfer CSO Central Statistical Office DFID Department for International Development (UK) EFA Education for All GER Gross Enrolment Rate HBS Household Budget Survey IE Inclusive Education IDP Internally Displaced Person MDG Millennium Development Goal MENA Middle East and North Africa MLA Monitoring of Learning Achievement MoPIC Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation NER Net Enrolment Rate NGO Non-Governmental Organization PWP Public Works Project SFD Social Fund for Development UN United Nations UNCRC United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees UNHCHR United Nations High Commission for Human Rights xi xii A TIME TO ENROL , A TIME TO STOP UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund USAID United States Agency for International Development WFP World Food Programme Acknowledgements This thesis has been a delightful journey for me. I am grateful to all of the people around me who continued to be interested in what I was do- ing, with my mother as my greatest supporter. Doing this study alongside my activities as a development worker in Yemen provided an environ- ment in which I was constantly challenged, as I had to test my new in- sights in practice as a development worker. The challenges came from friends, colleagues, teachers, and children and their parents in Yemen. For this I thank them all. Children especially forced me to think differ- ently about many things, enriching my research, my analysis and my life. I also thank my supervisors Dr Ben White and Dr Linda Herrera, fol- lowed by Dr Jos Mooij.
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