High Resolution Stratigraphy in Modern and Ancient Marine Sequences: Ocean Sediment Cores to Palaeozoic Outcrop

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High resolution stratigraphy in modern and ancient marine sequences: ocean sediment cores to Palaeozoic outcrop

ROBERT B. KIDD 1 & ERNEST A. HAILWOOD 2 i Department of Geology, University College of Wales, PO Box 914, CardiffCF1 3YE, UK 2 Department of Oceanography, University of Southampton, Southampton S09 5NH, UK

The Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP), over its cesses such as sea level and climate change. initial ten years of operations, relied almost Sedimentologists attempting to establish rates of entirely on a developing biostratigraphy based erosional, transportational and depositional on microfossil groups for its stratigraphic con- processes, and palaeontologists specializing in trol. During that same period, high resolution evolutionary studies require particularly fine stratigraphic methods were developed for Quat- definition of geological events. ernary marine cores through combination of The striking advances that have been achieved microfossil biostratigraphy and paleomagnetic in fine-scale stratigraphic studies of ocean sedi- reversal sequences. The introduction of the ment sequences have depended upon inte- hydraulic piston corer in 1982 provided the gration of information from a range of means to extend the surface core studies to stratigraphic techniques, in particular the com- depth and amajor impulse to paleoceanographic bination of microfossil biostratigraphy (gener- studies. By the end of the DSDP programme in ally using more than one fossil group) with 1984, an integrated high resolution stratigraphy magnetostratigraphy and/or oxygen isotope for the North Atlantic had emerged, based on stratigraphy (e.g. Kennett 1982). By 1989, microbiostratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy and stratigraphic resolution of better than a few isotope stratigraphy which had extended the thousand years was being quoted for the Pleisto- identification of Milankovitch cycles to the Plio- cene by marine stratigraphers (Ruddiman et al. cene. 1989) and successes were well established in Through the Ocean Drilling Program's oper- extending the integrated magneto-biostrati- ations since 1986, integrated Cenozoic stratigra- graphic approach to Cenozoic marine strato- phies have been extended to all the major oceans types on land (Zijderveld et al. 1986; Channell et and emphasis is now placed on extending these al. 1988; Premoli-Silva et al. 1988). to land sections. Resolution in pre-Cenozoic marine sequences has begun to benefit from the same integrated approach along with emerging Concept of a "multidisciplinary" conference techniques such as strontium isotope stratigraphy and 'cyclostratigraphy'. on high resolution in stratigraphy The Geological Society Marine Studies Group Introduction and background has, for many years, been concerned with the dissemination of developments in marine geol- Stratigraphy: a rapidly developing field ogy to the wider land-based geological com- munity, through the promotion of national and The deciphering of geological events from the international conferences. The majority of the sedimentary record requires increasingly precise papers presented in this volume were originally stratigraphic resolution if we are to advance our given at a Geological Society conference in understanding of the Earth's system and its London, co-sponsored by the Marine Studies processes. An important development of the Group and the Stratigraphy Committee. The 1980s was the recognition that the record of principal aims of this meeting were (i) to focus orbitally-modulated late Cenozoic and Quatern- on recent advances in Quaternary and late ary climatic fluctuations might provide a key to Cenozoic stratigraphic resolution, with a par- improving resolution further back in the strati- ticular emphasis on developments in approaches graphic record (e.g. Imbrie 1985). It is important such as magnetic, isotopic, geochemical and to improve stratigraphic resolution on these molecular stratigraphy, (ii) to extend these longer timescales in order to explore the causal considerations to aspects of stratigraphic resol- relationships and driving mechanisms of pro- ution in the Mesozoic, Palaeozoic and beyond,

From HAILWOOD,E. A. & KIDD, R. B. (eds), High Resolution Stratigraphy Geological Society Special Publication, No. 70, pp. 1-8. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

2 R.B. KIDD & E. A. HAILWOOD and (iii) to address problems of intercorrelation Contributions to the Volume between different stratigraphic schemes and The present volume makes no attempt to rep- their chronometric calibration, together with resent all of the various presentations and dis- developments in sequence stratigraphy and cussions at the October 1990 and January 1991 wire-line logging stratigraphy. sessions. All of the contributors were invited to The response to the call for papers was submit papers for peer-review and publication in outstanding and this necessitated extending the the volume. Many accepted, but others had originally-planned two-day conference to two presented review papers or contributions on separate, but closely-linked two-day meetings, developments in techniques that had been pub- one held in October 1990 and the other in lished or were planned to be published else- January 1991. This tremendous response is a where. Nevertheless, the volume brings clear indication of the extent of interest in together much of the proceedings of the sessions 'open-forum' discussions on developments in and, most importantly, provides under one stratigraphic resolution. The subjects addressed cover a representative cross section of the issues at the two meetings were broadly separated into discussed at this multidisciplinary gathering of two parts, the first focusing mainly on Quater- stratigraphers. nary and Tertiary topics, together with develop- The purposes of this editorial are (i) to ments in stratigraphic techniques, and the summarize some of the stratigraphic develop- second focusing largely on Mesozoic and Paleo- ments in marine geology that led up to the zoic topics. However, some mixing of topics conference, (ii) to highlight some particularly between the two parts was maintained and both significant topics addressed at the two meetings parts of the meeting were characterised by lively (especially where the corresponding conference discussions and debates. presentation did not result in a contribution to this volume), and (iii) to briefly consider some of What is high resolution in stratigraphy? the possible ways in which stratigraphic resolution may be improved in the future. One clear consensus on this question, arising from the four days of presentations and discussions, was the predictable: 'it depends on The ocean record where you are in the geological timescale'. Just as the meaning of 'hi-fi' is, to a large extent, in At the present day, approximately 70% of the the ear of the beholder, so is the definition of Earth's surface lies beneath a cover of 4 km or 'high resolution' in stratigraphy dependant on more of seawater. Open ocean pelagic sequen- the particular application! ces deposited in this environment offer the An attempt at a statement of achievable greatest potential for stratigraphic completeness resolutions for different parts of the geological available in the geological record. Sampling of timescale is shown in Table 1. This represents this record has been largely by piston coring the authors' view of the state-of-the-art in early techniques (Kullenberg 1947; Weaver & 1991. Some of these figures are already being Schultheiss 1990) or by ocean drilling (Storms improved upon, especially for the late Quater- 1990). nary, where concerns about global climate Until the early 1980s, two distinct levels of change are driving rapid developments over the stratigraphic resolution had been established for shorter timescales. Figures for a decade earlier the ocean record, relating respectively to the are shown in brackets to emphasise the rapid deep sea drilling cores recovered through the improvements in stratigraphic resolution in oceanwide activities of the JOIDES drilling recent years. vessel 'Glomar Challenger' and conventional piston cores taken by other research vessels. The Table 1. Achievable resolution for integrated drilling programme depended almost entirely on stratigraphy in marine sediment sequences (circa 1991) microfossil biostratigraphy for its age control whilst major advances were being made by Quaternary <1 to 3 ka (1980:c.20 ka) combining stratigraphic techniques in the study Late Cenozoic 5 to 10 ka (1980:c. 100 ka) of piston cores. Early Cenozoic 10 ka to 1 Ma Late Cretaceous 100 ka to 1 Ma Early Cretaceous c. 10 Ma Development ofan integrated stratigraphy Jurassic 50 ka to 150 ka* Triassic 225 ka to 2 Ma* The limit of penetration of conventional piston corers in pelagic carbonate-rich sequences is * See Cope (this volume). around 20 m subbottom. A sediment sequence Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

INTRODUCTION 3 recovered by this method usually consists of a areas of the ocean basins, below the carbonate 6.5 cm diameter transparent plastic tube filled compensation depth (Berger & Vincent 1981), with the sediment, which has been cut into 1.5 m calcium carbonate is ubiquitous in the oceans. long sections. In the laboratory, these sections However, the proportion of carbonate present are split lengthwise, revealing a flat surface for in the sediment varies as a result of changing analysis. One of the split halves is usually organic productivity and ocean chemistry designated the 'archive' and is used for core through time and varying input of non- description, photography and a range of non- carbonate material, such as ice-rafted and wind- destructive physical logging investigations. The blown material. Core correlation based on these other half section is designated the 'sampling variations provides a useful first order frame- section' and from this is derived the material for work on which to 'hang' the other stratigraphic biostratigraphic and sedimentological analyses. parameters. The stratigraphic resolution offered The suite of stratigraphic techniques applied to by such correlations depends in particular upon such a core would generally involve: the degree of bioturbation and of redeposition of material, either as slumps or as turbidites, in the (1) Microfossil biostratigraphy. The essence of sediment sequence. this technique is the identification of first ap- pearance (FAD) and extinction (LAD) data for (4) Oxygen isotope stratigraphy. Downcore the calcareous foraminifera and nannofossils analyses of oxygen isotopic composition of cal- (Bolli & Premoli-Silva 1973; Martini 1971) or for careous foraminiferal tests provide detail on the the siliceous diatoms and radiolaria (Burckle past chemical state of the oceans and the nature 1972; Nigrini 1970), depending on site location, of glacial meltwater input (Shackleton & Op- water depth and other factors. Other microfossil dyke 1973). They also give information on groups may be used to enhance the biostratigra- glacial/Milankovich cyclicity and provide a phy if they are regionally abundant. Resolution further useful tool in core correlation. Resol- of the biostratigraphy alone depends in particu- ution of the oxygen isotope stratigraphy depends lar upon the characteristics and numbers of upon the availability of suitable foraminiferal groups and species of fossil organisms present in tests, on sedimentation rates and ocean turnover the core and on the extent of diachroneity of the parameters, on the extent of dissolution and data used. (Kennett 1982; Jenkins & Gamson redeposition of the carbonate and on biotur- this volume) bative processes. As with carbonate stratigraphy, first order age-calibration of oxygen isotope (2) Magnetostratigraphy. The identification of fluctuations, is achieved through use of bio- and records of geomagnetic polarity reversal magneto-stratigraphic information. sequences in oceanic sediment cores, by palaeo- Where possible, stratigraphic investigations magnetic analyses of whole sediment cores or of marine cores use these four techniques to- discrete samples, provides age-control points for gether, to form the basis of an 'integrated the biostratigraphic data (Ryan et al. 1974; stratigraphy'. Some workers in this field have Berggren et al. 1985; Hailwood 1989). The suggested that such integrated stratigraphies typical duration of magnetic polarity zones is in should form the basis of 'stratotypes' for the the range 105 to 106 years. For some intervals, marine Quaternary (e.g. Imbrie et al. 1984; resolution may be enhanced by an order of Bowen 1984). Numerical calibration of the time- magnitude or more, through the identification of scales derived form such studies is normally short-period magnetic 'events' or geomagnetic achieved by referring the magnetostratigraphy excursions. Downcore variations in magnetic to absolute ages derived from igneous rocks on intensity and susceptibility provide further land or, where suitable authigenic minerals are useful correlation tools. Magnetostratigraphic present, by absolute dating on the cored sedi- resolution is controlled in particular by the ments themselves. effectiveness of demagnetization techniques in Certain geological 'events' effectively provide removing magnetic overprints (Hailwood 1989) a stratigraphic control of their own and are and on the extent of bioturbative mixing of the sometimes used to enhance an integrated stra- sediment. tigraphy. Thus, subaerial explosive volcanism brings about regional or even global ash distri- (3) Carbonate analyses. Down-core variations butions which are deposited as tephras and form in CaCO3 content offer a powerful tool for particularly useful marker beds in marine cores inter-core correlation. They provide a record of (e.g. Kennett 1981). Some of these events can be Quaternary and older glacial cyclicity (Ruddi- tied to the historical record (e.g. Ninkovich & man & McIntyre 1976). Apart from the deepest Donn 1975). Older tephras, dated by K/At or Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

4 R.B. KIDD & E. A. HAILWOOD

C14 single crystal dating techniques, or DSDP to ODP. The rotary drilling technique magnetostratigraphy of their host sediments can with wireline coring that was the mainstay of the provide excellent control points in an integrated Deep Sea Drilling Project's drilling operations stratigraphy (see Knox this volume). In some with the drillship Glomar Challenger, was effec- marine cores from enclosed basins, organic tive in recovering sediments and rock through to carbon-rich sapropel layers provide marker beds the oceanic basaltic basement. However, in the of particular value in core correlation (McCoy upper 100 m or so of unlithified sediments the 1974) whilst in open ocean high-productivity core recovery was generally poor. In most cases, settings laminated 'varves' can offer the poten- the superposition of successive sedimentary tial for annual, even seasonal, levels of resol- units was preserved but the sequence was dis- ution (Suess & Thiede 1983). turbed to varying degrees. Marine stratigraphers were left with a dichotomy of resolution, from the 'high resolution' integrated stratigraphy of Milankovitch and CLIMAP. Probably the most the surface piston core (with the 10 000-50 000 comprehensive use of integrated stratigraphy on year resolution provided by the oxygen isotope sets of piston cores was that of the CLIMAP stages) to the much lower resolution (at the project, a multi-disciplinary effort to provide biozone-level) in the drill-cores recovered from maps of oceanwide sea-surface temperatures deeper in the sequences. and other climatic parameters for the last few The development by the DSDP of the Hy- glacial cycles, derived from sediment and micro- draulic Piston Corer (HPC) in 1982 provided the fossil analyses (Hays et al. 1969; Imbrie & Kipp impetus for a major leap forward in marine 1971; Ruddiman & Mclntyre 1976). The CLI- stratigraphy. In HPC coring, a specialized core MAP group utilized an extensive collection of barrel is lowered down the inside of the drillpipe piston cores held at the Lamont-Doherty Geo- to the drill bit, as in standard wireline coring, but logical Observatory, New York to successfully is then hydraulically 'shot' into the undisturbed map the state of the oceans at the maximum of sediment beyond the current base of the hole. the last glacial cycle, 18 000 years BP (Cline & After recovery of each core, the drill string is Hays 1976). The CLIMAP studies were instru- then lowered to the next level for hydraulic mental in establishing the applicability of Milan- piston coring and the HPC is fired again, so that kovitch's (1920) concept of climatic cycles to the a continuous sediment section, undisturbed by interpretation of fine-scale stratigraphic vari- the normal rotary and washing action of drilling, ations. Predictable changes in the Earth's orbital is recovered. This development allowed the parameters, namely the eccentricity ('stretch' of acquisition of superior quality cores down to the orbit around the sun) with a 100 000 year depths of 150 to 200m below the sea floor, periodicity, the obliquity (tilt of the Earth's beyond which the sediment normally becomes rotational axis) with a 41 000 year periodicity, too lithified for further penetration by the HPC and precession of the equinoxes (a 'wobble' in tool. A second coring development by DSDP at the longitude of the perihelion) with a 23 000 around the same time, the extended core barrel year periodicity (Imbrie et al. 1984), combine to (XCB) corer, allowed relatively undisturbed produce cyclic variations in oceanic pro- sediment cores to be recovered through to ductivity, which are reflected in pelagic sediment igneous basement. In this device, a wireline core sequences. The periodicities have not changed barrel with its own cutting edge latches into the through the relatively short duration of Quater- drillbit and extends about 15cm beyond the nary glacial history and are easily detected in the roller-cones and wash nozzles that cause disturb- frequencies of variation in oxygen isotope par- ance at the base of the hole in standard rotary ameters, carbonate content, foraminiferal abun- drilling. By the end of the DSDP programme in dances, etc. of sediment cores. CLIMAP's 1984, it had become routine on a drilling cruise successor SPECMAP extended these studies with paleoenvironmental objectives to attempt through the entire interval of Plio-Quaternary to recover complete, undisturbed, sediment glacial history (see Imbrie & Imbrie 1988) and sections down to oceanic basement, using com- the ages of the isotope stage boundaries are now bined HPC/XCB coring (Ruddiman et al. 1987). known with an accuracy of about one thousand Stratigraphic studies now had the benefit of years (see Weaver this volume). Stratigraphies integrated biostratigraphy and magnetostra- developed by such studies on mainly pelagic tigraphy defined from shipboard analyses of sequences have been extended to other settings, discrete samples from the cores (Weaver & and have aided the identification of redeposition Clement 1986). These provided an important events (Weaver & Kuipers 1983; Weaver this control for the drilling operations and in most volume). cases a second or even third borehole was drilled Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

INTRODUCTION 5 at each location so that overlapping cores could to turn their attention to the stratotype sections be taken to ensure continuous recovery of the exposed in outcrop, with a view to integrating section. The most striking utilization of these the original biostratigraphic data with new data techniques was in DSDP's targetting of Quater- from magnetic and other stratigraphic tech- nary climate change and Milankovitch cyclicity, niques. The position of the Miocene/Pliocene by extending the integrated surface core strati- boundary at Capo Rosselo and at Capo Sparti- graphies to much greater depth. The onset of the vento, Italy was refined using magnetic and Northern Hemisphere glacial cycles was identi- planktonic foraminiferal analyses by Zijderveld fied at 2.5 Ma, well into the Pliocene, in the et al. (1986) and Channell et al. (1988) respect- Atlantic, and the base of the Quaternary was set ively and the Eocene-Oligocene boundary at at 1.65 Ma, at the start of oxygen isotope stage Massignano, Italy was refined using the same 22 (Ruddiman et al. 1986). techniques by Premoli-Silva et al. (1988). Hand- The ability to study long-term climate change held devices for magnetic susceptibility logging became one of the prime reasons for the inter- have now become popular in the reassessment of national impetus to enter a new phase of scien- outcrop sections (Weedon 1992) and gamma ray tific ocean drilling, leading to the launch of the logging has been used by exploration teams to Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) in 1985. The correlate between boreholes and outcrop. Many new drillship 'JOIDES Resolution' is equipped of these kinds of studies are currently being with facilities for shipboard whole-core logging mounted on land sections and, whilst stratotypes of magnetic and other physical properties before for epoch boundaries are unlikely be relocated, the cores are split. A range of specialized there remains the possibility that marine 'strato- downhole logging techniques, able to resolve types' may prove to be the only continuous fine-scale variations such as glacial cyclicity sections available for some stage boundaries. (Jarrard & Arthur 1989) have been developed by ODP. Shipboard scientists now have a wide range of stratigraphic and proxy-stratigraphic techniques that can be integrated together in the Developments in sequence stratigraphy pursuit of high resolution stratigraphy. The One of the major stratigraphic advances of linked biostratigraphic-magnetostratigraphic- recent years has been the application of oxygen isotope scale has been extended to sequence stratigraphic concepts to seismic pro- 3.3 Ma, representing a total of 137 isotope stages files (Vail et al. 1977; Mitchum et al. 1977). (Ruddiman et al. 1988) and the present emphasis Although this conference attracted presen- is on extending this fine scale stratigraphy tations that addressed regional interpretations further into the Cenozoic. of stratigraphy using sequence nomenclature, Other techniques that were developed during this type of study was not central to the main the early years of ODP include magnetic sus- theme of the meeting and none are included in ceptibility core logging (Robinson this volume), this volume. Although changes in relative sea P-wave and gamma ray core loggings (Weaver level are widely believed to be the main driving this volume) and molecular stratigraphy (Smith mechanism for sequence development (Vail et et al. this volume). Balanced against the striking al. 1977; Haq et al. 1988), there is still a great developments in high-resolution stratigraphy deal of controversy over the role of tectonics in arising from ODP, some of the problems and the development of sequence architecture (Mac- limitations inherent in the original surface core donald 1992). The reader is referred to the studies remain, such as the effects of dia- review by Wilson (1990) for a balanced presen- chroneity of microfossil FADs and LADs (see tation of sequence stratigraphy as an interpre- Jenkins & Gamson this volume), limitations of tational tool. One important development of magnetostratigraphy in low latitudes, and the sequence stratigraphy has been the application effects of species variation on oxygen isotope of the integrated approach, involving a number stratiography. However, refinements in resol- of different biostratigraphic zonation schemes, ution continue, as outlined below. along with magnetic stratigraphy, to the study of outcrop sections on a regional basis. Ali et al. The changing face of outcrop stratigraphy (this volume) address the problem of age- calibrating early Eocene sequence boundaries Applying integrated stratigraphy to the using the magnetic time scale. Several authors outcrop have constructed integrated stratigraphies for different European and American sections, bas- At around the same time as the launch of the ing their interpretations on sequence strati- ODP, groups of Cenozoic stratigraphers began graphic interpretations. 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6 R. B. KIDD-& E. A. HAILWOOD

Pre-Pliocene Milankovich cycles grated with other fine-scale stratigraphic techniques, offer the potential for recognition of With the recognition of Milankovich cyclicity in seasonal-scale cyclicity (Leg 138 Shipboard the Plio-Pleistocene as a powerful tool for party 1992). This is leading to exciting potential stratigraphy (e.g. House 1985; Berger 1988; developments in the characterization and inter- Fischer et al. 1990) it became clear that the pretation of pre-Cenozoic sedimentary cycles on potential of this approach should be realisable the finest scales. for much of geological time. This prospect has excited much interest among sedimentologists We are grateful to the many participants at the London and stratigraphers interested in the interpre- meeting, who contributed to the lively discussion and tation of cyclic sequences throughout the geolo- debate on the current status of high resolution stra- gic record. Schwarzacher (this volume) outlines tigraphy. We thank those who submitted papers to this the basis for Milankovich-related studies in the volume, and the many diligent referees who helped us pre-Pleistocene, while House & Kirchgasser to achieve the set of high quality contributions con- (this volume) link goniatite stratigraphy in the tained herein. We are particularly grateful to the Devonian to Milankovich cyclicity. Clearly this following Companies, who generously made do- is an avenue of great future potential for high nations towards the costs of running the conference and producing this volume: Amoco UK, BP Pet- resolution stratigraphic studies of the Mesozoic roleum Development, Clyde Expro, Fina Explor- and Palaeozoic. ation, Shell UK and Unocal UK.

Pre-Cenozoic developments A number of the contributions to this volume References report refinements of biostratigraphic zonations ALI, J. R., KING, C. & HAILWOOD, E. A. 1993. or the limitations that can be placed on the use of Magnetostragraphic calibration of early Eocene certain fossil groups in the search for higher depositional sequences in the Southern North Sea resolution. For the Mesozoic and Palaeozoic, Basin. This volume. perhaps the most notable new techniques to BERGER, A. 1988. Milankovitch theory and climate. Reviews of Geophysics, 26,624--657. come to the fore include strontium isotope BERCER, W. H. & VINCENT, E. 1981. Chemostratigra- stratigraphy (see McArthur et al. this volume) phy and biostratigraphic correlation: exercises in and the use of tephras and geochemical marker systematic stratigraphy. Oceanologica Acta, 4, horizons in regional correlations (Knox this 115-127. volume; Wray & Gale this volume). BERGGREN, W. A., KENT, D. V. & VAN COUVERING,J. A. 1985. Neogene geochronology and chronostratigraphy. In: SNELLING, N. J. (ed.) The Future needs and developments Chronology of the Geological Record. Geological Society, London, Memoir, 10, 211-260. The lively discussions that were a conspicuous BOLLI, H. M. & PREMOLI-SILVA,I. 1973. Oligocene to feature of the London conference, articulated a Recent planktonic foraminifera and stratigraphy number of themes that have become central to of Leg 15 sites in the Caribbean Sea. In: EDGAR, subsequent stratigraphic developments and N. J., SAUNDERS, J. B. et al., Initial Reports of have pointed the way to future needs for high DSDP, 15. US Govt. Printing Office, Washing- resolution stratigraphy. ton, 475-497. There will obviously be a continued trend to BOWEN, D. Q. 1984. Quaternary geology: a strati- utilize integrated stratigraphic techniques on graphic framework for multidisciplinary work. Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK. 237pp. outcrop investigations and further attempts to BURCKLE, L. H. 1972. Late Cenozoic planktonic rationalise sequence stratigraphy with this ap- diatom zones from the eastern equatorial Pacific. proach. As the magnetic polarity timescale Beih. Zwr. Nova. Hedwegia, Hell, 39,217-246. becomes further refined for Cretaceous and CANDE, S. C. & KENT, D. V. 1992. A new geomagnetic earlier periods (e.g. Cande et al. 1992) there will polarity time-scale for the Late Cretaceous and be further impetus to refine biozonations. The Cenozoic. Journal of Geophysical Research, 97, study of Milankovich cyclicity in the Mesozoic 13 917-13 951 and Palaeozoic is likely to prove increasingly CHANNELL, J. E. T., RIo, D. & HILGEN, R. C. 1988. fruitful. Miocene-Pliocene boundary magnetostratigraphy at Capo Spartivento, Calabria, Italy. Ge- Whilst the land specialists continue their re- ology, 16, 1096-1099. finements, the marine stratigraphers are enter- CLINE, R. M. & HAYS, J. D. (eds) 1976. Investigations ing a new phase of ODP core analysis with the of Late Quaternary paleoceanography and paleo- development of shipboard core-colour logging climatology; Geological Society of American techniques (Mix et al. 1992) which, when inte- memoir, 145. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021

INTRODUCTION 7

COPE, J. C. W. 1993. High resolution biostratigraphy. Lithosphere. Wiley-Interscience, New York, This volume. 1373-1436. FISCHER, A. G., DE BOER, P. L. & PREMOLI-SILVA, I. -- 1982. Marine Geology. Prentice-Hall Inc, Engle- 1990. Cyclostratigraphy. In: GINSRURG, R. N. & wood Cliffs, N.J. BEAUDOIN, B. (eds) Cretaceous Resources, Events KNOX, R. W. O'B. 1993. Tephra layers as precise and Rhythms. Reidel, NATO ASI Series C, 304, chronostratigraphic markers. This volume. 139-172. KULLENBERG, B. 1947. The piston core sampler. HAILWOOD, E. A. 1989. Magnetostratigraphy. Geo- Sveska Hydrogr. Biol. Komm. Series 1. logical Society, London, Special Report, 19. MACDONALD, D I. M. 1991. Sedimentation, tectonics HAQ, B. L., HARDENBOL, J. & VAIL, P. R. 1988. and eustasy: sea-level changes at active margins. Mesozoic and Cenozoic chronostratigraphy and In: MACDONALD, D. I. M. (ed.) Special Publi- cycles of sea-level change. In: WILGUS, C. K,, cation of the lnternational Association of Sedimen- HASTINGS, B. S., KENDALL, G., POSAMENTIER, H. tologists, 12. Blackwell Scientific Publications, W., Ross, C. A. & VAN WAGONER, J. C. (eds) Oxford. Sea-level Changes: an Integrated Approach. MARTINf, E. 1971. Standard Tertiary and Quaternary Special Publication of the Society of Economic calcareous nannoplankton zonation. In: FARI- Paleontologists and Mineralogists, 42, 71-108. NACO, A. (ed.) Proceedings of the II Plankton HaYs, J. D., SAITO, T. S., OPDYKE, N. D & BURCKLE, Conference Roma, 1971. Rome, 739-777. L. H. 1969. Pliocene-Pleistocene sediments of the MCARTHUR, J. M., THIRLWALL, M. F., GALE, A. S., eastern Pacific: their paleomagnetic, biostrati- KENNEDY, W. S., BURNETT, J. A., MATLEY, D. & graphic, and climate record. Geological Society of LANEL, A. R. 1993. Strontium isotope stratigra- America Bulletin, 80, 1481-1514. phy for the late Cretaceous: a new curve, based on HOUSE, M. R. 1985. A new approach to an absolute the English Chalk. This volume. timescale from measurements of orbital cycles McCoY, F. W. 1974. Late Quaternary sedimentation in and sedimentgary micro-rhythms. Nature, 315, the eastern Mediterranean Sea. PhD Thesis, Har- 712-725. vard University, 132pp.

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