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Paleoecology of Late Cretaceous Methane Cold-Seeps of the Pierre Shale, South Dakota

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Paleoecology of Late Cretaceous Methane Cold-Seeps of the Pierre Shale, South Dakota City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works All Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects 10-2014 Paleoecology of Late Cretaceous methane cold-seeps of the Pierre Shale, South Dakota Kimberly Cynthia Handle Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/355 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] Paleoecology of Late Cretaceous methane cold-seeps of the Pierre Shale, South Dakota by Kimberly Cynthia Handle A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Earth and Environmental Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The City University of New York 2014 i © 2014 Kimberly Cynthia Handle All Rights Reserved ii This manuscript has been read and accepted for the Graduate Faculty in Earth and Environmental Sciences in satisfaction of the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Neil H. Landman____________________________ __________________ __________________________________________ Date Chair of Examining Committee Harold C. Connolly, Jr.___ ____________________ __________________ __________________________________________ Date Deputy - Executive Officer Supervising Committee Harold C. Connolly, Jr John A. Chamberlain Robert F. Rockwell The City University of New York iii ABSTRACT The Paleoecology of Late Cretaceous methane cold-seeps of the Pierre Shale, South Dakota By Kimberly Cynthia Handle Adviser: Neil H. Landman Most investigations of ancient methane seeps focus on either the geologic or paleontological aspects of these extreme environments. In contrast, this thesis encompasses both disciplines to evaluate the paleoecology of these systems with greater detail than previously published either within the Western Interior Basin or elsewhere. This thesis addresses the following questions: 1) Are the changes in mineralogy of a seep discernable and predictable as a seep shifts from a clay-based environment to a carbonate-based environment? 2) What are the foundation organism(s) of Late Cretaceous methane cold-seeps? 3) Is there a correlation to the mineralogic changes and shifts in community structure? 4) What is the mediating factor of these shifts? and 5) Are there any spatial trends in seep formation and persistence? To help resolve these queries, seep cement material and fossils were collected from 25 locations from the Baculites scotti – Didymoceras nebrascense, Didymoceras cheyennense, and Baculites compressus zones spanning ~2 million years in the Campanian of the Pierre Shale in South Dakota. The mineralogy of cements was determined through microprobe and electron dispersive spectroscopy. These data was spatially analyzed and suggest that there is a potential shift in mineralogy due to relative fluid flow rates over space and time: Baculites scotti – Didymoceras nebrascense Zone was of consistent moderate flow rates, Didymoceras cheyennense Zone was dominated by low fluid flow rates, and Baculites compressus Zone contained an unusually large number of high fluid flow seep assemblages compared to other iv biostratigraphic zones. Over 8000 individual organisms were counted and identified to the genus or species level (where possible) and these data were then processed with a series of diversity indices. A faunal pattern was found and shows that the foundation organisms, baculites, inoceramids, and lucinids, always dominate these seep assemblages, unlike the foundation organisms in modern methane cold-seep analogs. These fossil data were then paired up with each location’s mineral data and a correlation was found between shifts in mineralogy and basic seep structure (general flow rate) and shifts in faunal compositions. Furthermore, specific fauna patterns and flow rates may indicate changes in oxygen or food availability. However, Akaike modeling techniques implemented found that the shifts in community composition within the cold-seeps of the Pierre Shale of South Dakota are most likely a reflection of sulfur availability according to the data. v For those who dream worlds around themselves vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This degree would not have been possible without the love, encouragement and support of innumerable people in my life. I extend my most sincere and deepest gratitude to my family, my mom most especially, who helped me cope with the sometimes brutal emotions and financial strains of this journey. I cannot forget my husband, friends, peers, coworkers, and students, also enduring much stress. They each in their own way have guided me through this process. Neil H. Landman, my primary thesis adviser, is thanked for the supportive and insightful discussions, for tirelessly reading and revising chapters and manuscripts, and for the gentle advice and guidance along the way. I would also like to thank Kirk Cochran for the sometimes heated but stimulating and clarifying discussions, Susan Klofak for words of wisdom, Bushra Hussaini and the volunteers at the American Museum of Natural History for keeping track of all my dirt, Morgan Hill, Juliane Gross, and George Harlow for their assistance with instrumentation, Jamie Brezina for his extensive knowledge of the field, Brenda Larson for welcoming me into her home, and her husband, Neal Larson for his guidance in the field. I would like to also thank the people who helped out in the field throughout the years; Matt Garb, Remy Rovelli, Kristen Polizzotto, Caitlin Baos, Ekaterina Larina, Corrine Myers, Alexander Krawchuk, and countless undergraduates from Brooklyn College. I hold a special thanks in my heart for my undergraduate students from Hunter College, Alexander Krawchuk, Mariya Mego Vela, and Eric Breitenbach, for their assistance and curiosity in my project and helping me take up ancillary questions to this thesis’ main focus in turn developing adventures of their own; your enthusiasm and presence in the lab, the field, and my dinner table forged memories and lessons I will hold close. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………………………..………iv DEDICATION ………….…………………………………………………………………………..vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………………………………..…….vii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………….……………………1 1.1 Terminology ………………………………………………………….…………..…..1 1.2 Objectives …………………………………………………………………………….2 1.3 Chapter Overview…………………..…………………………………………………4 1.3.1 Chapter 2 ………………………………………………………………………..4 1.3.2 Chapter 3 ………………………………………………………………………..4 1.3.3 Chapter 4 ………………………………………………………………………..4 1.3.4 Chapter 5 ………………………………………………………………………..4 1.3.5 Chapter 6 ………………………………………………………………………..5 1.3.5 Chapter 7….……………………………………………………………………..5 1.4 Overview of Modern Seeps …………………………………………………………..6 1.5 Overview of Ancient Seeps ……………………………………………………….….8 1.5.1 Seep Structure, lithology and mineralogy ………………………………..8 1.5.2 Faunal Composition …………………………………………………......14 CHAPTER 2: GEOLOGIC BACKGROUND …………………………………………………………..17 CHAPTER 3: METHODS …………………………………………………………………………..29 3.1. Characterization of Seep Structure …………………………………..……...……...29 3.2. Mineralogy and Carbonate Texture ……………………………….………...……...29 3.3. Diversity and succession ………………………………………………..…….…….31 3.4. Spatial Analysis ………………………………………………………………….…32 3.5. Akaike Modeling ………………………………………………………….………..32 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ……………………………………………………………………..……..34 4.1. Structure and Lithology ………………………….…………………………………34 4.2. Mineralogy …………………………………………….……………………………38 4.3. Mineraology by Biozone ……………………………………………………………48 4.4. Mineralogic Spatial Patterns…………………………………………………….…..48 viii 4.5. Faunal Composition and Diversity Analysis …...………….…………………….....53 4.6. Akiake Modeling …………………………………………….……………………..64 CHAPTER 5: SEEP STRUCTURE, MINERALOGY AND SEEP DEVELOPMENT ………….………..……66 5.1.1 Structure and basic lithology ……………………………………………………...66 5.1.2. Carbonate Formation Variables …………………………………………..68 5.1.3. Seep Structures ……………………………………………………………69 5.2 Seep Mineralogy ………………………………………………………………….…72 5.2.1. Clays ……………………………………………………………………...72 5.2.2. Paragenesis of Smectite, Kaolinite and Illite Clays ………………………73 5.2.3. Carbonates …………………………………………………………….…..75 5.2.4. Carbonates as Proxies for Fluid Flow Rate ………………...……………..75 5.2.5. Sulfur Minerals …………………………………………………….……..76 5.2.6. Mineralogy, Seep Structure, and Stages of Ancient Seeps …………….…83 5.3. Spatial Patterns in Seep Stages……………………………………………………...85 5.3.1. Black Hills Uplift and Sequence Exposure ……………………………….86 5.3.2. Sea level changes and Methane Emission ………………………………..87 CHAPTER 6: MACROFAUNAL SUCCESION …………………………………………………..…….93 6.1.1 Faunal Composition …………………………………………………………...…..93 6.1.2. Foundation Organism – Dominated Seeps…..………………………..…..95 6.1.3. Oyster – Dominated Seeps ……………………………………………….96 6.1.4. Gastropod – Dominated Seeps …………………………………………...97 6.1.5. Scaphitid – Dominated Seeps ……………………………………………98 6.2.1. Akaike Modeling ………………………..............................................................104 6.3.1. Simplicity and Parsimony …………………………………………..………...…105 6.4.1. Sulfur and Cold-Seep Faunal succession ………………………………………..109 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS ……………………………………….……………………….……113 APPENDIX I ……………………………………….………………………………………….....116 EDAX Reports …………………………………………………………………………116 Microprobe Traverse Data Results ……………………………………………….……143 APPENDIX II ……………………………………….……………………………………….…..166
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