House X at Kommos

HOUSE X AT KOMMOS

A Minoan Mansion near the Sea

Part 1. Architecture, Stratigraphy, and Selected Finds

An Excavation on the South Coast of Crete by the University of Toronto Restoration of the Lily Fresco from House X, Space 1. Digital rendering by Anne Chapin, with earlier restoration work by Élise Alloin, Giuliana Bianco, and Maria C. Shaw. PREHISTORY MONOGRAPHS 35

HOUSE X AT KOMMOS

A Minoan Mansion near the Sea

Part 1. Architecture, Stratigraphy, and Selected Finds

edited by Maria C. Shaw and Joseph W. Shaw with contributions by Maria C. Shaw, Joseph W. Shaw, Deborah Ruscillo, Anne P. Chapin, and John G. Younger

Published by INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 2012 Design and Production INSTAP Academic Press Printing and Binding Thomson-Shore, Inc., Dexter, MI

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Kommos: an excavation on the south coast of Crete / Joseph W. Shaw, Maria C. Shaw, editors. p. cm. — (Prehistory monographs ; 35) Includes bibliographical references and indexes. Contents: v. 1. The Kommos region and houses of the Minoan town. pt. 1. The Kommos region, ecology, and Minoan industries. pt. 2. The Minoan hilltop and hillside houses — v. 2. The final Neolithic through middle Minoan III pottery / Philip P. Betancourt — v. 3. The late Bronze Age pottery / Livingston Vance Watrous — v. 4, pts. 1 and 2. The Greek sanctuary — v. 5. The monumental Minoan buildings at Kommos — additional v. House X at Kommos : a Minoan mansion near the sea. pt. 1. Architecture, stratigraphy, and selected finds / Maria C. Shaw, Joseph W. Shaw, editors. ISBN 978-1-931534-64-2 1. Kommos Site (Greece) 2. Minoans. I. Shaw, Joseph W. II. Shaw, Maria C. III. Betancourt, Philip P., 1936– IV. Watrous, Livingston Vance, 1943– .V. University of Toronto. VI. Royal Ontario Museum. VII. American School of Classical Studies at Athens. DF221.C8 K66 1990 939'.18 20 89010817

Copyright © 2012 INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Dedicated to our son, Alexander, our daughter, Robin, and our grandchildren, William and Joseph Shaw and Elias and Zoë McKeon-Shaw Table of Contents

List of Tables...... ix List of Figures...... xiii List of Plates...... xvii List of Color Plates...... xxi Preface...... xxiii List of Abbreviations...... xxv

Chapter 1. The Architecture, Stratigraphy, and Diachronic Use of House X, by Maria C. Shaw...... 1 1.1. Introduction...... 1 1.2. A Survey by Space: Architecture, Stratigraphy, Diachronic Use...... 4

Chapter 2. The Frescoes, by Maria C. Shaw and Anne P. Chapin ...... 53 2.1. Introduction, by Maria C. Shaw...... 53 2.2. A Survey of the Plasters, by Maria C. Shaw...... 54 2.3. Interpretation, by Maria C. Shaw and Anne P. Chapin ...... 62 2.4. General remarks, by Maria C. Shaw...... 71

Chapter 3. The Miscellaneous Finds, by Joseph W. Shaw, Maria. C. Shaw, and John G. Younger...... 75 3.1. Introduction, by Joseph W. Shaw...... 75 3.2. Selected Objects of Metal (Copper, Bronze, and Lead), by Joseph W. Shaw...... 75 3.3. Loomweights and Spindle Whorls, by Joseph W. Shaw...... 78 3.4. Implements and Other Objects of Stone, by Joseph W. Shaw...... 81 viii HOUSE X AT KOMMOS

3.5. Miscellaneous Objects of Clay, by Joseph W. Shaw...... 84 3.6. Jewelry, Seals, and a Stone Mold, by Joseph W. Shaw and John G. Younger...... 85 3.7. Terracotta Sculpture, by Maria C. Shaw...... 88 3.8. Other Finds, by Joseph W. Shaw...... 90

Chapter 4. The Faunal Remains, by Deborah Ruscillo...... 93 4.1. Introduction...... 93 4.2. The Sample...... 93 4.3. Spatial Analysis of Faunal Remains...... 98 4.4. Chronological Overview...... 108 4.5. Glycymeris at Kommos and beyond during the Bronze Age...... 112 4.6. Catalog of Bone and Shell Objects...... 115 4.7. Conclusion...... 116

Chapter 5. Summary and General Perspective, by Maria C. Shaw...... 117 5.1. Setting...... 117 5.2. Architecture and Plan of the House...... 119 5.3. Change and Remodeling over Time...... 124 5.4. Finds as Evidence for Function...... 126

Concordance...... 131 References...... 139 Index...... 147 Tables Figures Plates Color Plates List of Tables

Table 1.1 Pottery groups by room in Kommos House X.

Table 2.1. Distribution and description of the principal fresco fragments from House X.

Table 3.1. Approximate findspots of utilitarian objects within, above, and outside House X.

Table 4.1. Species identified in various strata of House X. Table 4.2. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:1. Table 4.3. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:2. Table 4.4. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:4. Table 4.5. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:5. Table 4.6. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:6. Table 4.7. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:7. Table 4.8. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:8. Table 4.9. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:9. Table 4.10. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:10 from the study by D. Reese. Table 4.11. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X4:1W. Table 4.12. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X4:1E. Table 4.13. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X4:2. Table 4.14. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X4:3. Table 4.15. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X7:1. x HOUSE X AT KOMMOS

Table 4.16. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X7:2. Table 4.17. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X7:3. Table 4.18. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X7:4. Table 4.19. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X7:5. Table 4.20. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X13:1. Table 4.21. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X14a:1. Table 4.22. Summary of faunal remains from X14a not assigned to a pottery group. Table 4.23. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X14a:2. Table 4.24. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X14a:Misc/lower fill. Table 4.25. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X14a:Misc/upper fill. Table 4.26. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X14b:1. Table 4.27. Summary of faunal remains from X14b beneath the north wall, not assigned to a pottery group. Table 4.28. Summary of faunal remains from X14b by north and west walls, not assigned to a pottery group. Table 4.29. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:1. Table 4.30. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:2. Table 4.31. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:3. Table 4.32. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:4. Table 4.33. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:5. Table 4.34. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:6. Table 4.35. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:7. Table 4.36. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:8. Table 4.37. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:9. Table 4.38. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:10 from the study by D. Reese. Table 4.39. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X5:1 from the study by D. Reese. Table 4.40. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X5:2 from the study by D. Reese. Table 4.41. Summary of faunal remains not assigned to a pottery group from the LM IB lower blocking of the doorway between X5 and X8, studied by D. Reese. Table 4.42. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X5:3 from the study by D. Reese. Table 4.43. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X5:4 from the study by D. Reese. Table 4.44. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X5:5 from the study by D. Reese. Table 4.45. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X5:6 from the study by D. Reese. Table 4.46. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X8:1. Table 4.47. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X8:3. Table 4.48. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X8:4 from the study by D. Reese. Table 4.49. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X9:1. Table 4.50. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X9:2. Table 4.51. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X9:3. Table 4.52. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X9:4. Table 4.53. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3:1. Table 4.54. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3:2. Table 4.55. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3:3. Table 4.56. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3:4. Table 4.57. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3:5. LIST OF TABLES xi

Table 4.58. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3:6. Table 4.59. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3:7. Table 4.60. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X6:1. Table 4.61. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X6:2. Table 4.62. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X6:4. Table 4.63. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X6:5. Table 4.64. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X6:6. Table 4.65. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X10:1. Table 4.66. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X11/X12:1. Table 4.67. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X11/X12:2. Table 4.68. Summary of faunal remains not assigned to a pottery group from LM II floor deposit above slab pavement in Space X16. Table 4.69. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X16:1. Table 4.70. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X16:2. Table 4.71. Summary of faunal remains not assigned to a pottery group from the LM IIIB fill in Space X16. Table 4.72. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X15:1. Table 4.73. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X15:2. Table 4.74. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2N:1. Table 4.73. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X15:2. Table 4.74. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2N:1. Table 4.75. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2N:2. Table 4.76. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3N:1. Table 4.77. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3N:3. Table 4.78. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3N:4. Table 4.79. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X10N:1.

Table 5.1. Ceramic phases preserved in each room or space of House X. Table 5.2. Evidence for weaving activity: loomweights, spindle whorls, and needles. Table 5.3. Spatial distribution and chronology of implements and tools. Table 5.4. Cooking vessels listed by pottery group and date. List of Figures

Figure 1.1. Simplified plan of Kommos with excavated areas on the Hilltop, Central Hillside, and Southern Area (M. Nelson, G. Bianco). North at top. Figure 1.2. Simplified plan of original phase of House X, including adjacent northeast corner of Building T (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 1.3. Trench plan 1 showing earlier excavation of House X and the immediately surrounding area (G. Bianco). Figure 1.4. Trench plan 2 showing later excavation of House X and the immediately surrounding area (G. Bianco). Figure 1.5. Simplified plan of remodeled House X, with archaeological and architectural sections indicated (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 1.6. State plan of northern portion of House X (G. Bianco, M.C. Shaw). Figure 1.7. State plan of southern portion of House X, overlapping with Fig. 1.6 (G. Bianco, M.C. Shaw). Figure 1.8. State plan showing masses of stone and minor structures that were removed (G. Bianco, M.C. Shaw). Figure 1.9. Section K–K' running east–west through X1, view from the south (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 1.10. Key for types of soils depicted in the archaeological sections (G. Bianco). Figure 1.11. Plan of MM walls and floor under X1 and X4, with gray walls belonging to House X (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco) Figure 1.12. State plan (A) and phase plans B–D of X13 and X7 (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 1.13. Reconstruction of X5, with window looking into X4 on rear right and door leading to X8 on left, view from northeast (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 1.14. Plan of final floor deposit in X4 (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 1.15. Section L–L' (north–south) through X4, X7, and X14a, looking east (G. Bianco). xiv HOUSE X AT KOMMOS

Figure 1.16. Restored section of original staircase X13 and surrounding structures, looking north (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 1.17. Architectural phases in X13s, X14 a, and X14b (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco,). Figure 1.18. Section B–B' (west–east) in X14a and X14b, looking north (G. Bianco). Figure 1.19. Lower and upper layers of main floor deposit in X7 (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 1.20. Section C–C' (south–north) through Road 17, X8, X5, X2, and Y2, looking west (G. Bianco). Figure 1.21. Section G–G' (south–north), looking west through Road 17, X8, X5, X2, and Y2 (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 1.22. Elevation of doorway from X5 to X6, looking east (G. Bianco). Figure 1.23. Plan (left) and elevations (right) of remodeled doorways between X5, X6, and X3 (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 1.24. Stone pedestal (S 2295) found in X5 (G. Bianco). Figure 1.25. Later phase of Staircase X15, with entrance from X16 to X15w blocked and new doorway cut through the south end of wall separating X15 from X9 (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 1.26. Section H–H' (west–east) through X9 and part of X16, looking north (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 1.27. Plan of X6 after excavation, with sounding at its north end (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 1.28. Section A–A' (east–west) looking south through Building F and X12, X6, X5, and X4 (G. Bianco, M.C. Shaw). Figure 1.29. Section D–D' (west–east) through X11, looking north (G. Bianco, M.C. Shaw). Figure 1.30. Plan of original Staircase X15 with wooden steps suggested for upper flight X15w (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 1.31. Section J–J' (south–north) through X15s, X15w, X16, X12, X11, and X10, looking west (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 1.32. Plan and section A–A' of lower flight X15e with some steps still in situ (G. Bianco). Figure 1.33. Restored elevation of original Staircase X15, looking east (G. Bianco, M.C. Shaw). Figure 1.34. Restoration of Staircase X15, stages 1 and 2, looking east (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 1.35. Drawings of blocks, some possible steps of Staircase X15 found loose in X15s amid stone debris (G. Bianco). Figure 1.36. Section E–E' (south–north) through X15s, X15w, X16, X12, X11, and X10, looking west (G. Bianco). Figure 1.37. Section F–F' (south–north) through Y4, looking east (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 1.38. Section M–M' (north–south) through Y4, looking east (G. Bianco).

Figure 2.1. Plan of distribution of plasters (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 2.2. Incised lines (a graffito?) on part of the Stems Fresco (Fr 3). Figure 2.3. Preliminary orange/red lines on plaster fragment from the House of the Frescoes, Knossos (from Cam - eron 1968c, fig. 7, no. 41). Figure 2.4. Linear designs in sepia from the House of the Frescoes, Knossos (after Cameron 1968b, fig. 1, no. 1).

Figure 3.1. Various bronze/copper objects: knife blade (Me 16); “pendant” (Me 18); “trowel” (Me 19); needles (Me 21, Me 22); fishhooks (Me 27); lead weight (Me 30); bronze-sheathed lead object (Me 31). Figure 3.2. Stone and glass objects: axe (St 35); stone squat alabastron (St 40); fragmentary stone lamp (St 42); stone lids (St 44, St 46); stone ribbed chalice/pyxis (St 47). Figure 3.3. Clay objects: potter’s wheel (Cl 1); terracotta drain fragments (Cl 2–Cl 4). Figure 3.4. Glass vessel, jewelry, seals, and a mold: glass vessel (Ot 1); steatite shell pendant (J 10); pendant seal (J 14); cornelian amygdaloid seal (J 15); disk seal (J 17); cushion seal (J 18); jeweler’s mold for earrings (J 19). LIST OF FIGURES xv

Figure 3.5. Four terracotta figurines: F 1, F 2, F 4, F 5. Drawings by J. Clarke.

Figure 4.1. Summary of mollusks recovered from House X. Figure 4.2. Summary of animals represented in Minoan levels of House X. Figure 4.3. Age range of sheep and goat remains from House X. Figure 4.4. Age range of pig remains from House X. Figure 4.5. The spatial distribution of LM IIIA:1 Glycymeris worn valves.

Figure 5.1. Schematic plan of Kommos showing chief Neopalatial buildings excavated and roads connecting them (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 5.2. House X, restored plan of second floor indicating roofed areas (shaded) and open terraces (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 5.3. Isometric restoration of House X, view from the southwest (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Figure 5.4. Schematic plans of House X showing distribution of loomweights and related tools and of other stone and metal implements (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). List of Plates

All site photographs are by Joseph W. Shaw unless noted otherwise.

Plate 1.1A. View of west part of House X from north (M.C. Shaw). Plate 1.1B. Detail of northwest corner of X1 (M.C. Shaw). Plate 1.1C. Eastern wall of X1 (M.C. Shaw). Plate 1.1D. North part of X4 with blocked doorway and partial view of X1 from south. Plate 1.2A. General view of House X from west. Plate 1.2B. General view of House X from southwest. Plate 1.3A. Level with slabs in X1 from east. Plate 1.3B. Western part of south wall of X4 and blocked original doorway from north. Plate 1.3C. Threshold and cut doorjamb bases between X4 and X7 from north (M.C. Shaw). Plate 1.3D. East part of south wall of X4 (with restored jamb) and entrance to X7 and X13, view from north (M.C. Shaw). Plate 1.4A. General view of House X from southeast. Plate 1.4B. Staircase X13 and Space X4 with floor deposit from east. Plate 1.5A. West part of X5 with ashlar wall separating it from X4, view from west (M.C. Shaw). Plate 1.5B. Views of X4, X13 (foreground), X7, and X5 from west. Plate 1.5C. MM III slab floor with hearth and plaster benches under LM floor of X4, view from southeast. Plate 1.6A. X14b and X14a with slab floor in latter, view from south. xviii HOUSE X AT KOMMOS

Plate 1.6B. Southwest area of X8 with views of its floor, west wall, and blocked doorway from west (M.C. Shaw). Plate 1.6C. Pottery found on the floor in the northeast corner of Shrine X7. Plate 1.7A. Pottery and shells found scattered on stone table in Shrine X7. Plate 1.7B. Pottery, Triton shell, and pebbles from main floor deposit in X7, roughly positioned as found (see also Fig. 1.19). Plate 1.7C. Pottery from the latest use of Shrine X7 (T. Dabney). Plate 1.8A. North area of X2 with Cross Wall visible in foreground, view from south. Plate 1.8B. View of south area of X2 from north, with triangular slab at center placed over original threshold to raise its level. Plate 1.8C. East side of west walls of X2. Plate 1.8D. Exterior northwest corner and part of interior of X2 from west (M.C. Shaw). Plate 1.9A. Pithoi and slab structure in south part of X2 after removal of pebble floor, view from northeast. Plate 1.9B. Detail of southwest corner of X2 and finds in fill above pebble floor, view from northeast. Plate 1.9C. South part of X5, with drain and sump (arrow) and doorway (right) leading south to X8. Plate 1.9D. Rectangular stone stand (S 2295) built into low wall along the west side of the sump, view from south. Plate 1.9E. Column base next to stacked slabs surrounding the sump in X5, view from south. Plate 1.9F. Two successive thresholds in doorway between X5 and X6 from west (M.C. Shaw). Plate 1.10A. General view of east part of House X from south. Plate 1.10B. Trenchmaster S. Shubert and workmen with the large pithos (C 7990) in X5, view from south. Plate 1.11A. View of Road 17 and north facade of Building T looking south from X8. Plate 1.11B. Stone bench along north wall of X8 (M.C. Shaw). Plate 1.11C. View from south of X6 (middle), parts of X9 (bottom), and X3 (top) after removal of blocked doorways (M.C. Shaw). Plate 1.12A. Slab floor reached in sounding in area X15s of the staircase, directly east of entrance from X9, view from east. Plate 1.12B. Steps of lower flight in X15e found in situ, with parts of spaces under upper flight X15w and in X15s, view from east (M.C. Shaw). Plate 1.12C. North wall of X6 with blocking of door leading into X3, view from south. Plate 1.12D. Room X6 with washing slab and drain in its southwest corner, view from northeast. Plate 1.13A. General view of House X from northeast. Plate 1.13B. Central area of House X from northeast. Plate 1.14A. Staircase X15 with parts of nearby rooms visible north and west and Building F’s southwest corner at center right, view from south. Plate 1.14B. Steps of lower flight of X15e in situ, along with view of part of interior face of the east facade wall exposed next to lower step, view from west (M.C. Shaw). Plate 1.14C. Partially excavated X10 and X11 (at left and bottom right, respectively), with corner of Greek Building F on right, view from southwest. Plate 1.14D. Fallen stones, including parts of stone mortar (St 32), leaning against northeast pillar of X10, view from south. Plate 1.15A. View of X11/X12 with later north–south wall at center foreground, view from south. Plate 1.15B. Lobby X16 with view from west of scarp of unexcavated fill under Greek Building F. Plate 1.15C. Detail of west face of later wall seen in Pl. 1.15A. Plate 1.15D. Fallen blocks in the west part of X15s with threshold of new doorway on left leading to X9, view from southeast. LIST OF PLATES xix

Plate 1.16A. View of space under upper flight X15w from south (M.C. Shaw). Plate 1.16B. Superficial retaining wall, starting at the junction of the north facades of X2 and X3 and extending north, view from north. Plate 1.16C. North facade of X3 with retaining wall extending north, view from north (M.C. Shaw). Plate 1.16D. North facade wall of X3 rising above earlier wall in sounding in Y4, view from north.

Plate 2.1A. Detail of Stems Fresco (Fr 3) from Space X1. Plate 2.1B. Detail of painted plaster in situ at the base of the west wall of X4. Plate 2.1C. Northwest areas of X1 and X4.

Plate 3.1. Bronze/copper rods, strips, and wires: rods (Me 1–Me 4); strips and wires (Me 5–Me 7, Me 9, Me 10, Me 13). Plate 3.2. Various bronze/copper and lead objects: knife blades (Me 14, Me 16); sickle blade (Me 17); “pendant” (Me 18); “trowel” (Me 19); blade/anvil (Me 20); needles (Me 21, Me 22); tweezers (Me 23, Me 24); fishhooks (Me 27, Me 28); lead weights (Me 29, Me 30). Plate 3.3. Clay loomweights: discoid weights (Lw 42, Lw 45, Lw 48); discoid weight with tabular top (Lw 23); half discoid weight (Lw 50); cylindrical weight (Lw 53); trapezoidal weight (Lw 54). Stone and clay spindle whorls (Sp 1–Sp 3). Plate 3.4. Stone tools: cobbles (St 1–St 5); whetstones (St 6–St 8); cobble and hollowed slab (St 5 and St 27). Plate 3.5. Stone tools: cobbles (S 2191 and S 2205); abrader (St 9); pestle (St 10); handstone (St 11); pebble pendant(?) (St 13/J 9); weights (St 14, St 15); drill wedge (St 16). Plate 3.6. Stone tools: drill wedge (St 17); weight (St 18); cylindrical cobble (St 19); weathered stone (St 23); saddle quern (St 24); fragmentary basins (St 25, St 28). Plate 3.7. Stone tools: mortars (St 29–St 32); fragmentary stamnostates (St 33, St 34). Scales as indicated. Plate 3.8. Stone objects: axe (St 35); obsidian wedge (St 36); obsidian blades (St 37, St 39); obsidian core (St 38); stone squat alabastron (St 40); fragmentary stone lamp (St 42); stone lid (St 44); serpentine lid (St 45). Plate 3.9. Clay and glass objects: clay potter’s wheel (Cl 1); terracotta slab (Cl 6); glass vessel (Ot 1). Plate 3.10. Jewelry: shell bead (J 4); stone bead (J 5); shell pendant (J 8); two shell necklaces (J 7); steatite shell pendant (J 10); stone pendant (J 11); pebble pendants (J 12, J 13). Plate 3.11. Seals, mold, and figurine: conical stamp seal (J 14); cornelian amygdaloid seal (J15 with fish); lentoid seal with bird-woman (J16); disk seal (J 17); cushion seal (J 18); jeweler’s mold for earrings (J 19); terracotta figurine (F 1).

Plate 4.1A. Worked bone: flat bar (Bo 56); bone point with fragments (Bo 57); awl (Bo 59). Plate 4.1B. Glycymeris shell assemblage (Sh 10) from table in Shrine in X7. Plate 4.1C. Triton shell (Sh 11) from Shrine in X7. Plate 4.1D. Glycymeris valve with possible symbol (Sh 19). Views of underside, top with background erased to clarify markings, top side unmodified. List of Color Plates

Color Plate 1A. Reconstruction of Shrine X7. Digital rendering by Chris Dietrich. Color Plate 1B. The Lily Fresco (Fr 1, Fr 2). Extended reconstruction by Anne Chapin. Color Plate 2A. The Stems Fresco (Fr 3) from X1. Color Plate 2B. Strip of painted plaster (Fr 5) with abstract patterns from base of west wall in X4. Color Plate 2C. Two strips of painted plaster (Fr 6) with abstract patterns from the north wall of X4. Color Plate 3A. Fragment with Spiral Fresco (Fr 7) from X14a. Color Plate 3B. Reconstruction of the Spiral Fresco (Fr 7). Color Plate 3C. Fragment of plaster (Fr 8) with design in red from X8. Color Plate 3D. Fragment of a painted plaster molding (Fr 9) from X6. Color Plate 4A. Fragment of painted bands (Fr 10) from X11/X12. Color Plate 4B. Detail (left) of Kommos lily from House X, compared with (right) lilies from ancient Ialysos (modern Trianda), Rhodes (A.P. Chapin.). Color Plate 4C. Detail of riverine scene from Miniature Frieze in the West House, Akrotiri (from Doumas 1992, pl. 32). Preface

This study of House X, a work that has been some years in the making, fulfills to a large extent our obligation to publish a record and interpretation of the archaeological remains at Kommos. Its completion was delayed by the considerable job of preparing the Kom mos volumes published earlier in the Princeton University Press series (Shaw and Shaw, eds., 1995, 1996, 2000, 2006). An extensive preliminary report on the 1991–1992 sea sons appeared previously in Hesperia (Shaw and Shaw 1993). Although the publication task is nearly finished, efforts to safeguard the site, which will require future vigilance, still continue. Owing to the size and complexity of House X, its publication has been split into two parts, the present volume, Part 1, and another on the pottery, Part 2, being written by Jeremy B. Rutter. Fortunately we have been able to draw upon Rutter’s extensive preparatory study, complete with deposit numbers and stratigraphic and chronological information, for our own tasks herein. Other studies on pottery from Kommos have been carried out by Philip Betancourt (1990), Betancourt with Eleni Banou (unpublished), and L. Vance Watrous (1992). Maria and I are particularly grateful to three experts who contributed to this publication, Anne Chapin (frescoes), John Younger (seals), and Deborah Ruscillo, the last for writing the entire section on fauna here and for contributing substantially to the faunal section in our Volume V about the Kommos site. Ruscillo was also among those who came to us first as students (Eric Csapo, Mary Dabney, Debi Harlan, John McEnroe, Lucia Nixon, Katherine Schwab, Aleydis Van de Moortel, Helene Whittaker, James Wright, and others) and who, later, departed as seasoned col- leagues, having contributed substantially to both our excavation and publication efforts. Many hands other than those of the main authors have contributed to the production of this report. From the beginning of the excavations at Kommos, the architectural draw ings were executed by our talented excavation architect, Giuliana Bianco, whose un surpassable plans, sections, and reconstructions convey more than words can say. While most of the photographs of xxiv HOUSE X AT KOMMOS

the architecture and some of the finds were taken by Joseph W. Shaw, Taylor Dabney, Alexander Shaw, and Chronis Papanikolopoulos are re sponsible for many of the object photographs (for a more specific list, see Shaw and Shaw, eds., 2006, 3). Niki Holmes Kantzios wrote many of the original catalog entries, and Joseph Clarke made many of the object drawings. Cy Strom has been our general editor in Toronto, aided by Josée Sabourin, Mary Markou, Jennifer Lockie, and Peggy Haist. Martin Ahermaa has made the index. We would like to thank Barbara Hamann, Katharine Hall, and Élise Alloin, members of the Kommos Excavation team, for their contributions to the conservation of the plasters. Giuliana Bianco made sketches and drawings of a number of the plaster fragments both in the field and, following restorative work, in watercolor copies and reconstructions prepared in consultation with Maria Shaw and published in this volume. Some of the many photographs and slides taken over the years by our excavation photographers are reproduced here, while others served as pictorial documents that aided the process of writing. Anne Chapin graciously contributed her study of the Lily Fresco and prepared the digital color picture of the Frontispiece, using the two main segments of plasters Fr 1 and Fr 2 partially restored by the conservators and Maria Shaw, along with another and fuller restoration of the same composition discussed in her section of the text below. In the field two foremen, the late George Beladakis and Sifis Fasoulakis were in charge of groups of workmen from Pitsidia and other nearby villages. Lucia Nixon first “discovered” the mansion in a deep exploratory trench below meters of sand in 1977, and then, as excavation expanded, Steven Shubert, Robert Henrickson, Josée Sabourin, and Maria C. Shaw served as trenchmasters. During the period of preparation we were substantially aided by grants from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (recently Grants 410-2003–0653 and 410-2006–2399) and the Institute for Aegean Pre history. We are indebted to the staff at the Amer - ican School of Classical Studies at Athens for obtaining our excavation permit from the Greek Archaeological Service and also to the University of Toronto for providing a base for our research.

Maria C. Shaw Joseph W. Shaw List of Abbreviations

B bronze registration number J jewelry catalog number Bo bone catalog number Juv. juvenile animal C clay registration number kg kilogram ca. circa L lead registration number Cl clay catalog number L. length cm centimeter LC Late Cycladic d. diameter LH Late Helladic dim. dimension LM Late Minoan DP Deciduous premolar Lw loomweight catalog number EH Early Helladic m meter EM Early Minoan M molar (faunal tables) esp. especially max. maximum est. estimated min. minimum Excav. excavation Me metal catalog number ext. exterior Misc miscellaneous F figurine catalog number mm millimeter Fr fresco catalog number MM Middle Minoan frag(s). fragment(s) MNI minimum number of individuals g gram NISP number of individual specimens present GS ground stone tool registration number P plaster registration number h. height PM premolar Imm. immature animal pres. preserved Imm.+ immature or older animal S stone registration number int. interior Sh shell catalog number xxvi HOUSE X AT KOMMOS

St stone catalog number w. width Sp spindle whorl catalog number wt. weight sp. species ww waterworn shell th. thickness 1

Architecture, Stratigraphy, and Diachronic Use of House X

Maria C. Shaw

1.1. Introduction north–south Road 32/34, which led from the main door of House X to an entrance located in the northeast facade House X is by far the largest and best appointed of the of House T, where the line of the facade turns to the east Minoan houses excavated at Kommos, a Minoan harbor1 (Fig. 1.2; J.W. Shaw 2006a, 18–20, 48–49). The and settlement that later became the site of a Greek sanc- north–south road, here slab-paved (like all of Road 17) tuary (Shaw and Shaw, eds., 1995, 1996, 2000, 2006). came to a dead end at the door of House T and may not Situated on the seacoast of the western Mesara, Kommos have continued fur ther south, as no pavement or proper faces west toward the Libyan Sea. House X stands on the road surface was found where we excavated in that direc- southern edge of what we call the Minoan town, separat- tion along the east fa cade of House T. We assume that the ed by a large slab-paved road (Road 17) from the monu- north extension of Road 32/34 must have run alongside mental civic buildings built and used between the House X directly north of Road 17, but we cannot answer Protopalatial and Postpalatial periods (J.W. Shaw 1996a; the questions of how far it extended or whether it was M.C. Shaw 1996e; Shaw et al. 2006).2 A plan of the entire paved because of the la ter construction along this line of site (Fig. 1.1) shows the three main areas where excava- large Archaic Building F (Fig. 1.8), which also concealed tion took place over a period of approximately 15 years, in most of House X’s east fa cade (J.W. Shaw 2000, 36–37). the locations labeled the Hilltop, the Central Hillside, and Archaic Building V also par tially overlapped House X at the Southern Area—the last the location of House X, the its northwest corner, but that building’s much ruined state Greek Sanctuary, and associated buildings (Shaw and prevented it from being a serious impediment to excava- Shaw, eds., 2000). Plans of House X and of the associat- tion. We do not know whether there were other houses ed excavation trenches are shown in Figures 1.2–1.8. in this prime location on the hill, along the north side of The position of House X at the crossing of two major Road 17 to the west of House X, as the Greek Sanctuary roads and directly across from the east end of monumen- was later built on this strip. tal Building T marks its status as elite. The two buildings The excavation of House X began in 1977, when a were separated by east–west Road 17 but connected by small part of its northeast area was revealed in an 2 MARIA C. SHAW ex plor atory trench (Trench 11A). At the time, excava- was an open space immediately west of the house is tion was still concentrating on the Hilltop and the clear, for there were no signs of walls abutting against its Central Hillside. The trench that revealed House X was west wall, at least at the level of the top course we deliberately set some distance away from those two exposed in excavation. The north facade is even less areas, in what was then the southeastern corner of the straight than the west, but it was less jagged when origi- area designated for excavation, in order to determine nally constructed, its later irregular outline being the how far the town extended in that direction. The 1977 result of more walls that were built on top of it subse- excavation revealed portions of Spaces X10 and quently (Fig. 1.5). The builders may have taken liberties X11/X12 , along with the west facade of Archaic with the plan on this side, as the area beyond apparently Building F, which covered their eastern edge. An impor- had no lanes or immediately adjacent buildings except tant and massive Late Minoan (LM) II dump was discov- for some later north–south walls (Figs. 1.6, 1.7). This ered in X10. Its richly decorated pots prompted our area was tested in places by excavating for a distance of interest in further exploration, as did the discovery of some 3.50 to 5.00 m north of the house. With roads and one of X10’s two pillars, which suggested the presence lanes on three remaining sides, the house seems to have of interesting architectural features. Systematic excava- been freestanding, perhaps another sign of its elite status. tion was not resumed until 1984, however, and from that The situation contrasts with that of houses on the Hilltop, time on it continued sporadically until the 1990s. which appears to have been more thickly populated in Altogether, some 20 trenches were dug. Their locations Neopalatial times (Fig. 1.1). are shown in two trench plans (Figs. 1.3, 1.4).3 The character of the masonry of House X is general- House X seems to have been built in the earlier part of ly mediocre, not unlike that of the Neopalatial houses LM IA, its use coinciding initially with that of the mon- excavated in the other areas of the Minoan town, but it umental court-centered Building T, which was construct- displays occasional refinement. With few exceptions, ed somewhat earlier, in Middle Minoan (MM) III. House the choice of building blocks was eclectic and likely X was occupied far longer than House T, parts of which derived from a number of houses destroyed during an (including the northeast area with the entrance presum- earthquake that we believe struck Kommos in MM III ably used by the residents of House X) went out of use (Rutter and Van de Moortel 2006, 380, 385, 389, 411; already in early LM IA. Parts of House X continued in J.W. Shaw 2006d, 872). Variations in the construction use into LM IIIA:2, with extensive and ongoing remod- of the exterior and interior faces of the facade walls and eling, as indicated in a simplified plan (Fig. 1.5). To some in the construction of the interior walls of the house are extent, House X represents a microcosm of the history of discussed below in the context of specific architectural the Minoan site during the Neopalatial period. Although spaces. its plan is not atypical of many a Minoan house, some of The interior arrangement of the original plan of its functions may eventually have transcended those of a House X can be determined with some assurance (Fig. simple dwelling. 1.2). It is divided into what we choose to refer to as In its original state (Fig. 1.2), the house occupied a “spaces,” a generic term used for rooms, courts, or cor- rough ly rectangular area (ca. 205 m2), with its east–west ridors, whose functions changed over time due to the sides somewhat longer than the north–south ones. The drastic and prolonged remodeling the house underwent. east and most of the south facades are not visible today, For example, X7 was initially a passageway leading but their lines can be inferred on the basis of the east and south from X4 to X14, but it was later enclosed by south roads that ran alongside it, Road 32/34 and Road newly built walls (actually the blocking walls of two 17, respectively. It is likely that the two facades were earlier entrances) and used as a shrine (Fig. 1.5). straight, their lines predetermined by these roads. Road Architectural features and the perceived functions of 17 was laid out before House X was built, possibly even individual spaces suggest that the original plan is best before the construction of Building T. The estimated discussed in terms of three sectors: west, central, and dimensions of the house, therefore, are ca. 16.45 m east.4 “Formal” or “official” may be suitable epithets for east–west on the south side and 16.00 m north–south on the west sector. It is dominated by Space X4, whose walls the east. were likely graced by the Lily Fresco (Frontispiece), Of the visible facade walls, the west wall runs relative- fragments of which were dumped later in the small, clos- ly straight in its north part for slightly more than half its et-like Space X1 nearby. From X4 one could gain access length, to a point just beyond X13, south of which it turns to southern Spaces X14a and X14b through X7, which somewhat outward toward the west. Perhaps it follows also led to Staircase X13, its bottom flight starting at the the course of a preexisting north–south lane. That there northwest corner of X7. This was the smaller of the two ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 3 staircases in the house. It seems to have led upstairs only, mostly of MM III date—one apparently built in MM II. not outdoors. Staircase X15 was located in the southeast The many MM III remains around and under House X corner of the house, its lower flight likely leading up prompt the suggestion that buildings here may have from the main entrance to the house, which opened onto been destroyed by the same earthquake that apparently Road 32/34. The use of two staircases—one leading out- affected other areas of Kommos, including the nearby doors, the other smaller or “auxiliary”—is common in Central Hillside (J.W. Shaw 1996a, 392–393). larger Bronze Age houses in the Aegean.5 Dating the use of a space is not always easy. The ab - While size, frescoes, and architectural refinements in sence of evidence for one or more ceramic phases when X4 made it ideal for small gatherings or ceremonies, there is good reason to believe a space was used without there are indications that Spaces X2, X3, X5, and X6— interruption is a problem often encountered. One expla- all in the central sector of the house—had predominant- nation for such lacunae is undoubtedly the selective ly utilitarian functions. Most obvious is the case of X6, clearing of use debris by the residents—a process so where a stone slab was set on the floor in the room’s thorough at times that it hardly left any evidence of ear- southwest corner, next to a drain in the west wall. The lier use. This seeming zeal for “good housekeeping” may drain directed water or other liquids used in activities not necessarily have been motivated by our modern con- performed on or over the slab into Space X5, adjacent to cern for tidiness. Reasons may have varied. Sometimes the west. Space X3 in the same sector may have been we can infer why the inhabitants deemed it important to used for cooking. Activities in the large Spaces X8 and maintain the level of the original floor. In Space X4, for X9 are more difficult to infer, as there are few distinct example, no pottery earlier than LM III was found, even floor features and because evidence of earlier use was though the room was part of the initial plan of the house. blurred by later activity. Spaces X8 and X9 were each It is tempting to deduce that the residents removed use large enough to accommodate numerous people, but debris because they wanted to to maintain the visibility whether they were used for social activities, household of unique floor features or of the frescoes, which seem in functions, or both is a question to be considered later. this case to have covered the walls all the way down to The east sector of the house was evidently used for their base. There could also have been other and more communication with the outdoors, including the impor- practical reasons, to be discussed later. In contrast to X4, tant Road 32/34 running alongside the house’s east the accumulation of debris was allowed in nearby Space facade. This sector also helped provide access to the X7—a lucky circumstance for the archaeologist, for it upper story or stories by means of the large Staircase prevented thorough elimination of evidence of earlier X15. People entering the house from the road found use. The problems of interpreting depositional processes themselves in the east–west corridor or lobby X16, in domestic contexts have recently been stated clearly by from which they could proceed in multiple directions: LaMotta and Schiffer (1999). north to X11/X12 and from there to X10, west to Space In the remainder of this chapter I survey the archi- X9, and south to the stairs to the second story. From tecture, stratigraphy, and diachronic use of the spaces X16 one could also gain access to a sottoscala space within House X, proceeding from the west to the cen- under the west and higher of the two flights of the stair- tral and then the east sectors. My interpretation of the case (X15w; Fig. 1.2). This north entrance to the sot- building makes use of research undertaken both by the toscala was later blocked and replaced by another cut editors of this volume and by a number of specialists. through the east wall of X9 (Fig. 1.5), which now gave Stratigraphic studies for each space were conducted access to the south part of the sottoscala (at X15s). A independently by the present author and by Jeremy B. comparison of the two period plans just cited shows the Rutter (see Rutter, forthcoming, for the presentation of incremental but also drastic changes that affected the the House X pottery). His views and dating of the pot- shape and, therefore, the use of the house. tery (Table 1.1) are integral to the interpretations given Remains of buildings predating House X were here, although, as is to be expected, we have occasion- revealed in soundings in a number of locations, both al differences of opinion. The analysis of the activities under House X and directly outdoors. In location Y2, that took place in House X are based on the studies of north of X2 (Fig. 1.6), a room with a slab floor was finds that appear in Chapter 3, written by Joseph W. found packed with MM III pottery. Elsewhere, as under Shaw and others, and on Deborah Ruscillo’s analysis of the floors of X1 and X4, soundings revealed walls the faunal remains in Chapter 4. 4 MARIA C. SHAW

1.2. A Survey by Space: corner, where cut rectangular blocks were used (Fig. Architecture, Stratigraphy, and 1.6). The north and west exterior walls, each ca. 0.70 m thick, were wider than the interior walls. The two interi- Diachronic Use or walls, one on the south, the other on the east, are clearly slimmer, each being 0.50–0.55 m thick (Pl. 1.1C). Interior walls also differed in the construction of their West Sector of the House two faces in some parts of House X. This variation seems to have been determined by which side faced Space X1 onto a more important room and had to be better built. Both faces of the partition wall between X1 and X4 ARCHITECTURE were visible, but the southern side facing onto X4 was Space X1 (Fig. 1.2) seems to have served as a clos- clearly favored in the quality of the masonry, as can seen et used in conjunction with X4, from which it was sep- in photographs of the two sides (Pls. 1.1A, 1.1D). An arated by a slim partition wall (Shaw and Shaw 1993, effort was made here to use fairly regularly shaped, nar- 154–156). This partition stopped 1.70 m from the west row rectangular blocks, resulting in relatively regular wall, creating an opening that was perhaps too wide to courses. Only the top courses are notably irregular, have been closed by a door. The western part of X1 either due to some later remodeling in Minoan times or would thus have been constantly visible from within to the disturbance of the top of this wall by the construc- X4, acting as the latter’s extension. tion of the northeast wall of Greek Building V (Fig. 1.8). At the eastern end of X1, the north exterior wall of the The construction of the end of the partition wall, house projects somewhat to the north and continues in a which served as a kind of a jamb for the entranceway northeast direction, so that Spaces X2 and X3 have pro- between X1 and X4 (Pls. 1.2A, bottom left; 1.2B, top gressively greater north–south dimensions. Why the left), was similar to that of antae elsewhere in the build- north wall of X1 was not made parallel to the house’s ing. The mason used squared slabs to span the width of south line is a matter of speculation, but its orientation the anta, in alternation with courses built of small may have been affected by structures that lay to the north stones. The gaps in some of the courses in the anta of it and had to be cut down. As we shall discuss later, could either mark the original presence of small stones and as is visible in Figure 1.6, in area Y4 the north wall that fell out or pieces of timber that were used to rein- of X3 overlaps the north facade wall of an earlier build- force the corners and perhaps helped to secure a wood- ing. Other earlier walls may have existed farther west, as en framework for the doorway, whether or not there in the area under the later remains visible today north of were doors there. Antae are always the most vulnerable X1. That the north wall of X1 also angles slightly to the part of a wall and are the first to collapse with or with- northeast must have to do with the need for a wider area out wood reinforcement. One example of such a col- toward its eastern end, north of the partition wall separat- lapse occurred in the west jamb of the doorway leading ing it from X4. The closet proper, the area north of the from X4 to X7, which we ultimately restored. In X1, partition wall, measured ca. 3.25 m east–west, its the blockage of the entrance prevented the anta of the north–south dimension ranging from 0.80 to 1.30 m from partition wall from collapsing (Fig. 1.5; Pl. 1.1D). west to east. The size and the more secluded character of Another detail of construction worth noting is a square the east part of X1 would have made this area ideal for gap with a capping slab at its top visible in the north storage, with the west part serving as an entrance. wall’s interior face (Pl. 1.1B). This was clearly a socket The walls forming the facades of House X were built used to secure part of a wooden scaffolding. Several par- differently on their exterior and interior faces, as is evi- allels exist in the walls of Building T, where they were dent in the case of X1 where one can see both sides of sometimes set at intervals in a row, as in one of the long the north wall. The exterior face, exposed for six to seven spaces in the east wing, just discernible here in a photo- courses, was built of narrow rectangular blocks of rather graph showing the portion of that wall south of Space X8 6 uniform size, averaging ca. 0.18 m in height and ranging and along Road 17 (Pl. 1.1A, far upper left). from 0.35 to 0.50 m in length (Pl. 1.1A). The interior Also visible in Plate 1.1A is an odd pattern of preser- face, like that of the west wall (of which the outer face vation that requires a comment. The north wall of X1 is was not exposed in excavation), is different. As is clear- preserved unevenly, appearing lowest at the northeast ly visible in a photograph of the northwest corner of X1 corner, where the east wall was also destroyed (Fig. 1.6). (Pl. 1.1B), the building blocks varied widely in size and It is conceivable that this was no accident and that these often in shape, resulting in irregular courses. In addition, parts of the two walls were leveled intentionally to create there was no proper bonding between the two walls in a makeshift entrance into X1, once its one doorway lead- the interior; the walls were bonded only at the exterior ing south to X4 was blocked. The fact that X1 continued ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 5 to be used even after the door leading south was blocked Lw 1–Lw4 Loomweights Ch. 3.3 lends support to this possibility. F 1 Female figurine Ch. 3.7 J 4 Shell bead Ch. 3.6 STRATIGRAPHY, FINDS, AND USE J 15 Carnelian seal Ch. 3.6 The excavation of X1 and the strata encountered in it Pottery of LM IA Final date continues into the next can be understood by consulting the archaeological sec- context. tion K–K' (Fig. 1.9; see Fig. 1.5 for location) that cross- Pottery Group X1:2. Fill above X1:1, east of the es X1 east to west. The legends for the fills in this and entrance, from +5.15/5.22 m to +5.38/5.42 m. Trench other archaeological sections are provided in Figure 73A/118, 120, 122. LM IA Final. 1.10. The chronology of the stratigraphy is defined by Lw 6, Lw 8 Loomweights Ch. 3.3 Rutter’s pottery groups (Table 1.1; Rutter, forthcoming). Me 30 Lead weight Ch. 3.2 The labels used with each of these (as in Pottery Group Coarse plaster Ch. 2 X1:1, X1:2) refer sequentially to the name (here X1) of Pottery Group X1:3. Fill above X1:2, mostly east of the space; the number following the colon denotes the entrance, from ca. +5.38/5.42 m to +5.44 m (west)/+5.56 specific stratigraphic context in terms of the units (pails) m (east). Trench 73A/114, 115. LM IA Final/LM IB Late. with which a given stratum or feature was removed. Besides pottery, there were no other notable finds. Successive pottery groups also serve as headings for lists The more complete vessels in Pottery Group X1:3 of related finds discussed in Chapter 3, as well as the came primarily from east of the entrance, where they faunal remains dealt with in Chapter 4 and remains of had been stored earlier, and these date to LM IA Final. plasters discussed in Chapter 2. The scatter of sherds found in the west part of X1 was The presence of both MM III and MM II walls under 10 largely part of a dump deposited later, in LM IB Late. the floor of X1, also continuing south under X4 (Fig. The reason why very little pottery earlier than LM IB 1.11), testifies to the long use of this location at was found north of the entrance must be a simple one: Kommos, which can be explained by its strategic posi- the entrance to the closet was kept clean of clutter, tion next to the main roads.7 Other houses may have while stored items piled up in the closet proper. extended in a row west of House X, north of Road 17, As in Pottery Group X1:2, the pottery includes cups as we infer from stepped passages cut through the and pouring vessels, but there are also shapes not en coun - retaining wall that sustained the fill where the hillside tered earlier, such as a pair of cooking pots (C 9083, C was originally cut to create the road. The surface of 9328), a pair of bridge-spouted jars (C 9080, C 9087), Road 17 matches the primary floor of monumental and two trefoil-mouthed jugs (C 9319, C 9329). The Building T built to its south, but it is approximately 1 occurrence of pairing is a characteristic that Rutter de - m lower than the level on which houses were built on scribes as peculiar to this period. The cooking pots occu- the slope of the hill rising to the north. py mostly the upper part of the pile in the closet and could Space X1 was excavated in four trenches (Figs. 1.3, have been part of the dump, as Rutter has suggested. They 1.4).8 These revealed the initial floor of X1 and (in a were well preserved, however, and may alternatively have sounding) MM II and MM III remains. The pottery was been stored there. If so, a change in function for Space divided by Rutter into 12 pottery groups, starting with X1, from the storage of the utensils used for drink ing and the earliest floor belonging to this space as part of entertainment to the provisioning of more routine house- House X. The earliest preserved use dates to LM IA hold activities, may be suggested. This idea finds some Final (Pottery Group X1:1). support when we turn to the survey of adjacent space X4, This floor was made of compacted soil, consolidat- where cooking took place in later stages of its use. In the ed on the west and particularly at the entrance leading case of X1, the presence of sherds of a Canaanite jar (C to X4, with pebbles spread over its surface. Its level at 12041) in a context dated by Rutter to LM IB, joining the entrance was +5.03 m. Fill under this floor con- other fragments from fills above (where the pottery was tained mainly MM III pottery mingled with sherds of mostly LM II but also later), suggests that a disturbance Protopalatial date.9 The west and east areas were for the caused earlier materials, including some plaster frag- most part excavated separately, and the accumulation of ments, to appear in higher strata. well-preserved and even complete pots found in the Pottery Group X1:4. Fill above the floor dated by eastern part of X1 makes it clear that this area served X1:1, north of the entrance, from ca. +5.15 m to as a closet. The predominant shapes in this first phase +5.36/5.42 m. Trench 73A/117, 119, 121; Trench included a variety of cups and spouted pouring vessels. 81A/17–21. LM IB Late/LM II. Pottery Group X1:1. Fill over first floor, from +5.00/5.03 m to 5. 15/5.22 m. Trench 86B/8 (whole Lw 7 Loomweight Ch. 3.3 space), 9, and 10 (east and west). LM IA Final. Fr 1–Fr 3 Painted plaster Ch. 2 6 MARIA C. SHAW

Pottery Group X1:4 dates to LM IB Late–LM II. The The topmost part of the fresco dump (Pottery Group presence in the fill of bits of yellow plaster of the same X1:7) contains the largest and most numerous pieces of color as that of the background of the Lily Fresco painted plaster, found just north and northeast of the (Frontispiece) and the Stems Fresco is of interest. Some entrance, all within X1. The dumping within X1 and the were found as low as ca. +5.15 m, just above an accumu- blocking of its only doorway mark its disuse, as all com- lation of fill over the original floor directly north of the munication with the rest of House X thus came to an entrance. More and larger fragments were found directly end. Yet, as suggested earlier in the architectural discus- above in the stratum dated by Pottery Group X1:7. Vase sion, X1 could still have been used later on by people shapes in the deep fill of Pottery Group X1:4 are not dis- approaching it from outdoors, and it is possible that a similar to those of Pottery Groups X1:1 and X1:2, name- makeshift entrance was created by tearing down part of ly cups, here preserved in early sherds, but they differ the east end of its north wall for that purpose. The pres- from the shapes of Pottery Group X1:3, which also con- ence of more animal bones, which Ruscillo associates tained cooking pots. The one loomweight found in the with knife blade Me 16 (Ch. 4), may testify to such use. stratum of Pottery Group X1:4 may be a stray, or perhaps Since X1 was no longer part of House X, the subse- it was kicked up from a lower level through some distur- quent levels above that containing Pottery Group X1:7 bance—possibly the subsequent construction of the and the painted plasters will be treated in a more sum- walls blocking the doorway—and was once part of the mary fashion. The comments that follow are best group of other loomweights found in X1. understood by consulting section K–K' (Fig. 1.9). Pottery Group X1:5. Removal of the western block- One sign of later use in X1 is a floor (at ca. +5.50 m ing wall. Trench 80A/20. LM II. to +5.55 m) laid out in LM II and marked by two rows Lw 5 Loomweight Ch. 3.3 of rough stone slabs at its east end along the north and Fr 1–Fr 3 Plasters painted yellow Ch. 2 south walls. Rutter suggests these may have acted as pot stands, but they were perhaps too rough and too Pottery Group X1:6. Trench 80A/19. Removal of the irregularly laid out to have served such a purpose. eastern blocking wall. LM II. Moreover, the pottery associated with this level is Fr 1–Fr 3 Plasters painted yellow Ch. 2 scanty and gives no indication of any vessel types that 11 The entrance to X1 was surely blocked by LM II would have required such a setting. (Pottery Groups X1:5 and X1:6), but the dumping of the Pottery Group X1:8. LM II “floor” at +5.50/5.55 m plasters and other debris may have started earlier, as and fill above to 5.60/5.74 m. Trenches 73A/79, 81A/15. suggested by the dates of some of the plaster contexts Mixed Neopalatial through LM II. (X1:3 and X1:4). Bits of plasters were found both with- Me 25 Fishhook Ch. 3.2 in and under the two blocking walls (Fig. 1.8; Pl. 1.1D). On the basis of faunal remains and shells, Ruscillo The latter must have been built in quick succession, sees an association with the fill of the previous pottery since they were built at the same level and neither had a group. proper north face, suggesting the presence already of During LM IIIA:1, a rough pavement of slabs was dumps within X1, against which the two walls were laid out at the very west end of X1, its elevation of built in the manner of retaining walls. The blocking +6.12 m requiring one to step up to it from the level of walls’ preserved tops ranged from +6.12 m to 6.22 m ca. +5.75 m on the east (Pl. 1.3A). Pottery under the from west to east, and their bases on the north side were slabs points to construction of this pavement likely at at ca. +5.16 m. The western and somewhat better-con- the end of LM II (Pottery Group X1:8), while pottery structed wall must have been built first, allowing for above them points to the time it was used in LM III (the more dumping to be carried out using the remaining pottery in Trench 73A/74 in X1:9) until the area was narrow opening, which was blocked next. It must have taken over by the Iron Age settlers who built Archaic been through this opening that the larger fragments of Greek Building V. plasters were dumped, to judge by their location in X1, The next two pottery groups represent use from LM somewhat farther east of the smaller fragments found at II to LM IIIA:1 (Group X1:9) and later LM III (Group the westernmost part of X1. X1:10). Pottery Group X1:7. Fill marked by dumped painted Pottery Group X1:9. Fill over LM II floor up to slabs plasters, sloping up from east to west, from +5.44 m to of new floor above it at the west part of the space, from +5.56 m. Trenches 73A/82 and 81A/16. Mixed Neo - ca. +5.75 m to as high as +6.11/6.12 m on the west. palatial with a small amount of LM II. Trench 81A/12, 13, 14; Trench 73A/69, 72, 74, 75, 77. Me 16 Knife blade Ch. 3.2 LM IIIA:1. Fragments of frescoes Ch. 2 ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 7

Lw 41 Loomweight Ch. 3.3 Pottery Group X1:12. From east to west: Trench St 42 Stone lamp fragment Ch. 3.4 66A/14; Trench 73A/29, 31; Trench 81A/10. Fill over Ruscillo sees this fill as a dump; parts of it (for surface at +6.20 m and up to +6.40/6.45 m throughout example, some shell beads) may have worked their way X1. Context mixed Minoan (through LM IIIA:2) and down to the levels of the two preceding groups. Archaic and Classical Greek. No noteworthy finds Because more beads were found in the present fill, she reported. suggests they may come from a necklace. Pottery Group X1:10. Fill over some slabs at the east SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS part of X1, from +5.72 m to +6.09 m. Trench 66A/19, For such a small space, X1 had a long and intriguing 22. LM IIIA:1. history. While in use as part of the house proper, with Me 17 Sickle blade Ch. 3.2 indoor access, it was a closet. Its earlier pottery (LM S 1908, S 1910, IA–LM IB Late/LM II) consisted of drinking and pour- S 1968 Three cobbles ing vessels, stored there to make them readily available for social occasions possibly held in the large Space X4. The next strata were marked by mixed pottery rang- Other finds from these levels were relatively few. They ing from Minoan to Archaic. Of interest was the discov- consisted of a few loomweights, a couple of beads, a clay ery of a hearth or little oven, which was built against the figurine, and a carnelian seal with a beautiful carving of north face of the south wall of X1 at a level of +6.43 m a pair of fish (J 15). In Chapter 3 Younger suggests this (located in part in Trench 73A/18, 22, in part in 66A/3). may have been owned by an individual with sphragistic It was much destroyed but had clearly been set up using duties who was active within the central administration at two flat stone slabs, one of which was still standing, the Kommos. The available evidence suggests that the resi- other lying flat. Its interest lies in its resemblance to a dents had more of a penchant for niceties in the earlier type of pi-shaped hearth known from several well-pre- period of use in Space X1, as observed in other spaces of served examples found in other Minoan houses at the house. This impression is reinforced by the discovery Kommos, again in later contexts (M.C. Shaw 1990; of the discarded fragments of beautiful floral frescoes 1996a, 122; 1996b, 42; 1996e, 357, 371, 372; McEnroe that seem to have been dumped in X1 just before its 1996, 225, 231; J.W. Shaw 1996a, 384, 388). Like some entrance was blocked, making X1 inaccessible from with- of these, the one above X1 preserved evidence of ashes in the house. and burning, but there was not enough evidence to date We can speculate that if stored here, the beads and it. Ruscillo (in her discussion of Pottery Group X1:9) seals would have been kept in some kind of a perishable sees more evidence for butchering of bones and does container, a leather pouch, for instance, or a wooden box, not exclude the possibility of cooking and eating taking the disintegration of which led to the scattering of these place north of X1; cooking pots and storage vessels objects. The reason for storing nine loomweights strains were found in X1 (Pottery Group X1:10). the imagination, unless individuals possessed their own Another stone installation was found immediately sets of weaving tools and stored them separately, retriev- outside X1, in the angle between its north wall and the northwest outer corner of X2. It consisted of a stone ing them when they participated in a weaving project. slab with a shallow round depression at the top (S As elsewhere in the house, imports of foreign pottery 2136). We have named this a stamnostatis, the Greek appeared just as House X went into decline and a number word for “potstand” (Shaw and Shaw 1993, pl. 23:a). of rooms began to go out of use, some perhaps as early as Glycymeris shells were scattered on it and in the imme- LM IB Late or LM II. Most foreign pottery found in X1 diate vicinity, creating the impression that both the slab dates to LM II and later, although, according to Rutter, and the shells were not just dumped here, but rather sherds of a Canaanite jar appeared in X1 in LM IB. In the were part of an assemblage that had been used in the higher levels of X1 there were also some western Ana - Minoan period and spared from later displacement tolian imports, dating to LM III. The earliest Knossian because of its secluded location.12 sherds in this particular space belong to LM IIIA:1–2. Pottery Group X1:11. Fill over surface at ca. +6.10 m Whether X1 was later used as a storage area by indi- and up to +6.20 m, throughout X1. From east to west: viduals who entered it from the north or whether the for- Trench 66A/16, Trench 73A/32, Trench 81/11. Mixed eign pottery recovered was part of a dump are questions LM IIIA:1, LM IIIA:2(?). best answered from the ceramicist’s point of view. It is clear, however, that X1 was used as a dumping place in S 1865, S 1867 Two cobbles LM IB Late, just before its entrance from the south was S 2129 Quern blocked, as the fresco fragments recovered are unlikely St 46 Stone lid Ch. 3.4 to have decorated the walls of X1. 8 MARIA C. SHAW

Space X4 One more adjustment was necessary: part of the south wall of X4 was cut back and rebuilt to serve as the new ARCHITECTURE doorway’s west jamb. The rebuilding was evidently poor- This spacious, rectangular room is one of the best ly done, and the west jamb separated from the rest of the appointed in House X (Shaw and Shaw 1993, 153–154). wall and came to rest on debris that in the meantime had It was set in the western section, among the more private accumulated over the threshold, which held it and pre- quarters and with no nearby access to the outdoors, yet vented further collapse. This enabled us to lift the it played a pivotal role in terms of circulation in that detached wall end and restore it to its original position area. X4 had three doorways: one that led north to clos- (Pl. 1.3D). et X1, another that led east to X5 (a room with a light- The north and west walls of X4 were described in the well), and a third that led south to Staircase X13, from survey of X1, where attention was drawn to the rather which one could either go upstairs or proceed south to careful building of the south side of the partition wall X14a and X14b by way of Corridor X7. separating X4 from X1. Of the remaining walls, the Privacy could also be attained in X4, since it was pos- eastern one is interesting both because it incorporated a sible to close the east and south doorways, as is evident large window (Pls. 1.2A, at center; 1.4A, top, center; from the provision in each of a L-shaped doorjamb base, 1.4B; 1.5A), and because it is the only one in the house a type usually accommodating a pivot in its inner angle to have been partly built of ashlar blocks. Two such on which to swing a door.13 The other base in each of blocks formed the top course, resting on lower courses these doors was a thin rectangular block. From this typically built of rubble and small rectangular blocks. arrangement it is clear that each of the doorways was The wall is ca. 1.53 m long and 0.52 m wide, and it rises closed by a single-leaf door. This makes sense as the to ca. 0.62 m above the floor. Evident on the upper sur- entrances were no wider than 0.66–0.70 m. From the face of the ashlar blocks, particularly the north one, positioning of the L-shaped bases we know that the door which was better preserved, were two cuttings along the of the eastern doorway swung open to the south, that of long sides, showing traces of chisel marks (Pl. 1.4B, the southern doorway to the west. The western jamb base right foreground).15 Horizontal wooden boards that were of the south entrance was eventually covered over by a part of a win dow sill would have been set in these cut- wall that blocked the original doorway, when the door- tings. The wood en framework would have continued way was relocated farther west, but we believe we have around the window and joined with the frame of the identified that base’s north end where it projects slightly doorway positioned directly south of it, as shown in a under the blocking wall (Figs. 1.6, 1.7; Pl. 1.3B).14 restoration (Fig. 1.13). Given the heavy traffic in this area, one would expect This arrangement of door and window finds parallels to find thresholds at the doorways. A threshold was lack- in several Bronze Age buildings, as well as in traditional ing in the eastern doorway, however, perhaps having been Greek architecture of modern times. Several are pre- removed and placed elsewhere in the remodeling of the served in the Bronze Age settlement at Akrotiri on Thera area, the phases of which are illustrated in a series of (Palyvou 2005, 95, 137, figs. 131, 198), as well as on drawings (Fig. 1.12:B–D). The original threshold of the Crete, in the Hall of the Double Axes in the Palace at southern doorway, a slab 0.68 m long, is seen today in the Knossos (Evans 1930, fig. 225). In the case of X4, the new doorway that replaced the original one after it was combination of door and window was clearly intended to blocked (Pl. 1.3B). In its original place within the earlier maximize the use of light coming in from the light-well doorway the slab was flanked on either side by a cut door- in X5. Space X4 seems to have been windowless except jamb base, as discussed above. The L-shaped base perhaps for a small one high up in the south wall. There remained visible and became part of the new doorway, is also a good possibility that another window opened but with the L maintaining its initial orientation, which from the west wall of Staircase X13, the wall that faced meant it could no longer contain a pivot on which to the outdoors. As is discussed later, the presence of a win- swing a door, since the entrance was now located at the dow above the landing in X13 may be attested by the dis- wrong side of the base (Pl. 1.3C). The threshold slab, covery there of a small slab with a pivot hole. Assuming however, was modified before being reused; its top sur- Minoan windows had shutters, the hypothetical window face was cut back slightly, but for a strip along its west in X4 could have been quite small and set high on the side, which was allowed to project and to serve as a base wall, in the manner of fengites (a modern Greek word), for the wooden frame of the new doorway. We cannot be small windows used in present-day vernacular Greek certain this doorway was provided with a door, given architecture with parallels at the Late Bronze Age site of how narrow the entrance was (0.55–0.58 m) and the Akrotiri on Thera (Palyvou 2005, 147). fact that the L-shaped base must also have carried the Like other floors in the house, the floor of X4 sloped wooden framework. down from north to south and from west to east (Figs. ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 9

1.6, 1.7). The highest level was at the northwest end (at original floor. The east half revealed the earliest pre- +5.02/5.03 m), where pebbles were found continuing served deposit in that area belonging to the use of north into the western part of X1. The lowest level of House X, but, in both cases, the pottery was no earlier the floor was in the central and southeast area, where than LM IIIA:2 Early, confirming the impression that one can see some four slabs laid out diagonally, their earlier debris was not allowed to build up but was sys- levels at ca. +4.91/4.92 m. It was made mostly of hard- tematically removed, probably in order to preserve the packed soil, with its slope further indicated by the posi- original absolute level of that floor. tion of sporadic pebbles and slabs used for its paving. Part of the later pavement in X4 included an enig- The doorjamb bases, concentrated in the southeast cor- matic small structure of unknown use. The structure ner, projected slightly above the adjacent floor, their consisted of a slab (0.28 m x 0.39 m; 0.08 m thick) set tops at +4.91–4.92 m. Of interest in terms of the con- flat against the north wall, directly east of the entrance struction is that the north jamb base of the eastern door- into X1, and another (0.53 m wide, 0.19 m high, 0.13 way did not consist of a separate block. It was created m thick) set upright along one of the flat slab’s sides. from the projecting part of one of the blocks of the bot- The upright slab bore traces of unpainted plaster and tom course of the ashlar wall to the south, its top at was thus once part of a wall. Perhaps, if the structure +4.89 m. (Figs. 1.6, 1.14; Pls. 1.2A, 1.5B). was used as a small cupboard, there was another verti- The areas the most free of traffic in X4 would have cal slab originally. None of the slabs bore any signs of been the most suitable for household activities. These fire or burning, excluding the possibility of the struc- were the southwest and northeast corners, the rest of ture having served as a hearth or a place in which the space having been used for circulation by people to cook. crossing X4 northward to go to X1 and southward to Painted plaster was found in situ at the very bottom of X7. After the door to X1 was blocked, a number of the walls and occasional loose fragments were found slabs were placed over the original floor in the north- nearby in the fill. The frescoes need not be dated by the west part of the room, which then became another area LM III sherds, which represent the extended use of the for household activities (Fig. 1.6; Pl.1.5B). room. They may belong to a colored wall revetment probably dating to when the house was first built, before the STRATIGRAPHY, FINDS, AND USE plasters were dumped in Space X1, likely in LM IB Late. The upper strata in the northeast part of the room Pottery Group X4:1W. Fill over west part of original were excavated in Trench 66A, which was stopped floor of X4 at +4.90/4.95 m and up to abandonment when the two ashlar blocks of the east wall appeared. surface at +5.07 m. Trench 73A/62, 68; Trench 86B/11, Thereafter, X4 was excavated mainly in two trenches. 12: LM IIIA:2 Early. Latest date: LM IIIA:2. Trench 73A was used to excavate the entire room down Ot 1 Egyptian glass paste bottle Ch. 3.8 to the original floor, while final cleaning and a sound- Fr 4 Plaster in situ, south wall Ch. 2 ing were finally carried out in Trench 86B, exposing Fr 5 Plaster in situ, west wall Ch. 2 MM III strata below the floor. Fr 6 Plaster in situ, north wall Ch. 2 Among the MM remains below X4 was a slab-paved S 2157 Pecked hand tool floor with built plastered benches (excavated in Trench 17 Glycymeris valves Ch. 4 86B). The bench in the northwest area ran north–south Bones (sheep/goat, pig, hare) Ch. 4 and turned east at its north end, its farther extension Loose pieces of plaster Ch. 2 hidden now under unexcavated fill there (Fig. 1.11; Pl. 16 Ruscillo reports that there is not enough evidence from 1.5C). Closer to the north part of the space and cen- the bones to indicate the consumption of meat or dining, trally located there was a simple hearth (Pl. 1.5C), an but there are some ornamental shells that may have been area of the floor characterized by successive burned 17 used, along with a shell-shaped bead (J 10), found in the layers of soil in the midst of the floor’s paving slabs. eastern part of the Group X4:1 deposit. That we are in an The initial floor of X4 was laid just above the MM era of international exchange is indicated by the Egyptian plastered benches and the associated leveled walls. glass paste bottle (Ot 1), of which only two small, much Excavation of fill immediately above the MM floor was worn fragments were preserved. carried out separately in the west and east halves, and Pottery Group X4:1E. Earliest floor in east part of its use was dated, respectively, by Pottery Groups X4. Trench 73A/63, 63A; Trench 86B/25: MM III, X4:1W and X4:1E (for latter group see Fig. 1.15, sec- from +4.84/4.86 m to +4.88/+4.91m. Trench 86B/26: tion L–L'). Excavation in the west half involved the MM III to LM IIIA:1, from +4.78 m to +4.84 m. Latest removal of the rough slab pavement, mentioned above, date: LM IIIA:2. that had been added along X4’s north wall over the 10 MARIA C. SHAW

Lw 58 Loomweight Ch. 3.3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS J 10 Shell-shaped bead Ch. 3.6 The character of the initial space—its size, strategic Me 10 Bronze strip Ch. 3.2 location, architectural refinements, and frescoed P 190 Plaster in situ on east wall Ch. 2 walls—mark it as special. In particular, the frescoes St 8 Whetstone (likely some of those found in X1) with flowers in land- 127 Glycymeris shells Ch. 4 scapes must have created a pleasant ambience, enhanc- Ruscillo notes the increasing number of Glycymeris ing the impression of spaciousness and making the in this area, with fewer in the west part of the room. Her space ideal for the occasional social gatherings that views on the use of the Glycymeris shells, which appear may have taken place here. The immediacy of X4 to subsequently in greater numbers, are discussed in Staircase X13 was an added convenience, especially if Chapter 4. The deposit in the east part of the room is the steps led to rooms used as private quarters. Finds also marked by the presence of stone tools,18 as well as are preserved only from LM IIIA:2 Early, and their a shell-shaped stone bead (J 10), both types of finds character and distribution, as known mainly from the that occur in the continued use of this floor at the high abandonment deposit (Pottery Group X4:2), allow us to level dated by Pottery Group X4:2. infer how the space was used at the end. Those found in As for the pottery itself, it consisted mainly of cups, situ, or directly over the floor, are shown in a drawing jugs, and jars, including fragments of transport stirrup that gives an idea of how parts of the room were used 19 jars from Chania and of a jug from western Anatolia. (Fig. 1.14). Of the two remaining higher strata (Fig. 1.15), the At least by LM III, the function of X4 was largely lower one represents the last use in X4 during LM IIIA:2 utilitarian. Indeed, X4 may have absorbed functions (Pottery Group X4:2, Trench 73A/55, 59, 60, 60A); the earlier carried out elsewhere in the house. Storage, for one over it (Pottery Group X4:3, Trench 73A/53, 54, 55 instance, would have been transferred to X4 after clos- in part) contains materials from a collapsed upper story et X1 was blocked. The later slab pavement in the of similar date, but contaminated by some LM IIIB and northwest part of the room may have provided a surface Archaic sherds. A collapse is suggested by the masses of on which to rest large vessels, but none were found rubble within X4, as well as the extensive preservation of directly on it; perhaps some scattering occurred at the the finds under this debris. time the space went out of use. Pottery Group X4:2. Fill throughout the room, from A variety of pots were associated with this phase. Of ca. +5.07 m to +5.38 m (central part of room) and the three conical cups, two (C 9006, C 9007) were +5.47 m (in northwest and northeast parts). Trench found leaning against the north wall next to the blocked 73A/55 (in part), 59, 60, 60A. LM IIIA:2. doorway, the third (C 9008) farther south and east. Cups C 9141 and C 9151, not shown in the plan, may Lw 57 Loomweight Ch. 3.3 have been associated with the collapsed upper floor, as J 5, J 12, J 13A Stone beads Ch. 3.6 they were found atop fill with tiny sherds that possibly Me 22 Bronze needle Ch. 3.2 represent floor material. A jug (C 9009) was recovered St 9 Small fine abrader Ch. 3.4 a short distance away, also to the east. Larger vessels St 25, St 26 Mortars Ch. 3.4 like the coarse jar (C 9004) were found in the room’s St 48 Stone vase lid Ch. 3.4 southwest corner, with a tripod cooking pot (C 9005) Faunal remains of non-meatbearing bones and the just to their north with only its base preserved. The jar absence of ornamental shells are noted in Chapter 4. was decorated with the imprints of chubby human Pottery Group X4:3. Collapsed upper story floor hands that had been previously dipped in dark paint. materials, at ca. +5.40 m and fill above to +5.78 m Perhaps the printing was intended as decoration, per- (north central)/5.85 m (northeast). Trench 73A/53, 54, haps as a magic spell. That some cooking took place in 55 (in part). LM IIIA:2, with some LM IIIB and X4 at this stage is suggested by traces of burning on the Archaic sherds. ground just south of the slab pavement in the northwest St 20 Slab with depressions Ch. 3.4 part of the room, not far from where the cooking pot St 28 Rough bowl/mortar Ch. 3.4 (C9005) was found. That cooking and perhaps eating took place in the same room is also supported by Some faunal remains here (see Ruscillo, Ch. 4) are Ruscillo’s identification among the faunal remains of more likely to belong with cooking activities on the last primary butchery material from sheep/goat and pig. use of the floor in X4, before the collapse of the upper floor. ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 11

The greatest concentration of finds, including large only (Shaw and Shaw 1993, 149). It had two flights. The vessels, was west of the window facing X5, in the north- steps of the lower flight (X13n) were made of stone, east corner along the room’s east wall. The largest vessel while those of the upper flight (X13s) must have been was an imported pithos from Cyprus (C 9013), and just built with wood. south of it lay the remains of a Canaanite jar (C 9167) Staircase X13 went through two main building phas- and a patterned amphora (C 9172). North of the Cypriot es, the initial one likely including a supporting struc- pithos were two champagne cups. One of these (C 9010) ture for the upper flight (Fig. 1.2), which may now lie was found close to the north wall. The other (C 9011) hidden under the south wall built during the second was found largely within a pyxis (C 9012), for which it phase and the area directly north of it (Fig. 1.5). The may have served as a lid, its handle perhaps intentional- plans in Figure 1.12:B–D show the development of the ly broken to allow it to stay in place (Shaw and Shaw staircase along with the adjoining Space X7, and its 1993, pl. 26:a, b; M. Shaw 2011). The holes in the rim of final appearance before the abandonment of the house the pyxis originally served to attach a lid, so the clay ves- is provided in a detail from the state plan of the area sel appears to have been a makeshift solution after the (Figs. 1.7, 1.12:A). original lid disappeared. That this area was used differ- The plan for the first phase (Fig. 1.12:B) restores the ently from that to the west is also suggested by the lack staircase as it may have looked before Doorway A was of animal bones and by where the presence of a hearth relocated farther west and indicates an hypothesized may be evidence for cooking. Hand tools, however, were upright wooden structure that would have supported the found scattered in both areas, though more of them were staircase’s upper flight. The plan indicates a wall (Wall found in the eastern area. 2) that is partly hidden under the north wall (Wall 4) of Other finds that reinforce the impression of differen- X7 and continues somewhat farther west. Excavation tial spatial organization are some beads and a good did not continue down far enough to determine whether number of Glycymeris shells that were found in the lev- this wall belonged to an earlier building, but the large els related to both areas, the majority associated with slab at level +4.80 m in the northwest corner of X7 Pottery Group X4:2 and fewer with X4:1E. One of the could well have been positioned directly east of the beads was found within the pyxis itself, the others out- lowest step of X13n, as shown in the restoration. The side; one was retrieved in the process of sieving fill rest of the floor in X7 at this stage was a soil surface from around and under the pyxis. Collectively, the beads that sloped somewhat toward the south. suggest the possibility of small-scale jewelry produc- The bottom steps of the original staircase were likely tion, perhaps using some of the shells as well. The uses removed later and reused to build a broader and higher for Glycymeris shells are discussed in Chapter 4. step at the entrance from X4 to X7, when the entrance The pyxis was perhaps used at some point as the con- from X4 was moved farther west and the floor was tainer for the beads. A string may have been threaded raised in X7 (Fig. 1.12:C). X4 retained its initial levels through the holes in its rim to allow it to be suspended till the end, first at +4.91, then at +5.06 m. The platform from a hook, perhaps from the lintel of the window. It or step was thus 0.23–0.25 m higher than the top of the was painted beautifully with crocuses and rocks (Shaw threshold directly north of it, the threshold’s level at ca. and Shaw 1993, 153). It may have been one of a pair +4.91 m being roughly that of the floor in the south part with the pyxis (C 8001) that was found in a similarly of X4. The construction was completed by setting a long dated context in adjacent Space X5. Pyxis C 8001 was rectangular slab on edge against the platform’s north decorated with religious symbols with possible military side to retain the soil upon which the old steps now rest- overtones; a double axe and a figure-of-eight shield ed (Pl. 1.3C). Since this retaining slab was not as wide were painted on one side, and a large rosette was depict- as the platform or step it was set against, small slabs ed on the opposite, presumably secondary side. would have been placed upright at the west and east The broad sill of the window was both wide enough ends; of these only the west one is preserved. and low enough for a person to sit upon as a bench. As can be seen today, the lower steps of the staircase This would have been an ideal spot to sit and work, consisted of roughly rectangular blocks, some of which whether a person was threading beads or performing were not long enough to span the full width of the flight more mundane household activities that required light. and had to be supplemented by smaller ones, set mostly on the south side (Fig. 1.12:A–D). Only the risers (the vertical visible side of each step) were cut straight, and Staircase X13 these varied in height from 0.15 m to 0.22 m, the latter measurement being the height assumed here for the two ARCHITECTURE bottom steps (Steps 1 and 2 in the plans).20 The lack of Unlike the large staircase X15, U-shaped Staircase further slabs beyond the eighth step suggests that the X13 seems to have been used for internal communication 12 MARIA C. SHAW landing, next to the house’s west wall, was made of wood, The sides of the north and south walls facing X13n likely boards that rested on horizontal beams set within are largely hidden by the steps. More visible are the sockets in Walls 9 and 10, with another beam extending south face of Wall 9 and the west face of Wall 8, as seen east to support the upper flight. All of these beams would from within X13s. Of these, the former was ca. 0.55 m also have been supported from below by a column or a wide, and preserves some nine courses ca. 1.00 m high, post, as restored in a plan (Fig. 1.12:B) and in a restora- built mostly with neat rectangular slabs (Pl. 1.2B). This tion of its elevation (Fig. 1.16). As seen in the elevation wall divides the two flights of the staircase and bonds drawing, the space under the staircase’s upper flight with Wall 8, which had about seven courses preserved. would have been readily accessible from X14b, and Wall 8 extends south, ending with an anta that acted as indeed it served as X14b’s northern extension. Later on, a jamb for two doorways: one on the south offering the wooden supporting post seems to have been replaced communication between X14b and X14a, and one on by a south wall with a narrow door (Fig. 1.12:C, D). This the east leading north–south. Eventually, Wall 11, pre- wall was built directly over soil, and it may be assumed served for some five to six courses, was built against that it did not replace an earlier built wall (for which this anta. It was constructed of mixed materials, includ- there is no evidence). ing cut blocks as well as rough stones of varying sizes. During its original phase, the upper flight may have Like the later southwest doorway in X13s, the doorway had five steps (Fig. 1.16), with the floor of the upper story east of Wall 8 was also blocked (Wall 7; Figs. 1.12:D, at an elevation of ca. +7.32 m. Assuming the thickness of 1.17, 1.18; Pl. 1.6A). the ceiling to have been ca. 0.30 m, we arrive at a head clearance of just under 2.00 m for a person standing on STRATIGRAPHY, FINDS, AND USE 21 the ground floor. The two flights were excavated in consecutive years, The presence of some eight steps in the original lower the north flight (Trench 73A) in 1991 and the south flight of X13 may be postulated with greater confidence. (Trench 80A) in 1992. The fill over the stone steps The restoration of this part of the staircase is based on the showed that the collapse of the related walls must have assumption that there were two more steps at the bottom, started already in LM IIIA:2. It may have continued in the area later occupied by the platform or step. The cal- during the Early Iron Age, when these and other culation of the number of steps is simple. The distance Minoan walls were likely quarried.25 be tween the base of Step 3 (at +5.13 m), which we as - Excavation in X13s stopped, more or less, at the base sume remained in situ, and the level of the initial floor in of the flight’s south wall. As in X13n, a stratum of soil at X7 (the large slab in its northwest corner at +4.80 m) was the top covered the wall debris.26 This debris continued ca. 0.33 m. Dividing that number in two (the two bottom down nearly to where excavation stopped, i.e., the base steps) allows for an average height for each riser of ca. of that wall’s north face at ca. +5.08 m, although the wall 0.16 m, a height not unlike that of the steps that remained debris on the south side continued somewhat farther in place. From these calculations, the top of the restored down. The fill in X13s, the sottoscala of the remodeled bottom step would have been at ca. +4.97 m, as shown in south flight, is dated by Pottery Group X13:1 primarily the restored plan of the initial phase (Fig.1.12:B). to LM II, but there was an admixture of sherds ranging The original staircase had a small sottoscala at its west from Protopalatial (particularly in 80A/22) to LM III. It part (Fig. 1.12:B), which could be accessed from the is conceivable that the earlier sherds derived from the south, from X14b, and was 0.70 m wide and as deep as construction materials of collapsed walls and that the the north–south span of the landing (Pl. 1.2B, bottom LM III material was a later intrusion. There is a chance 22 left). Used as a closet, it could have accommodated a that this sottoscala went out of use, along with X14a and tall vessel like a pithos or small vessels on shelves, but X14b, by LM II. 23 nothing except rubble was found in it. The entrance to Pottery Group X13:1. Fill of soil and stones from this closet was not blocked when the upper south flight of +5.07/5.10 m to +5.73 m. Trench 80A/16, 22, 23, and X13 was rebuilt, supported by a wall, and a larger sot- 39. LM I–LM II. toscala space was created (Fig. 1.12:C). Despite its size Sp 1 Spindle whorl Ch. 3.3 (2.12 m x 0.95 m), nothing was found in this later closet. Plaster Ch. 2 Its narrow entrance (ca. 0.55 m) in the southwest corner Shells and bones Ch. 4 was eventually blocked (Figs. 1.12:C, D). As mentioned in the discussion of X4, a small stone Noteworthy is the find of a single alabaster spindle block with a possible pivot hole (S 2135) was found in whorl. As usual, the fill contained occasional bones and the midst of wall debris over the landing of the staircase, shells, as well as small pieces of unpainted plaster. suggesting a window in the west wall, probably facing onto a street or a lane.24 ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 13

Space X7 buildup through use (to +5.03/5.09 m), when the north and south doorways were blocked,27 and the initial north ARCHITECTURE doorway was moved to the west. The top layer of the As already mentioned, a wall ran under the north wall buildup served as Floor 3, and there is a chance that of X7, and its south side projected from it (Fig.1.12:B); raising the floor level brought about the construction of but we did not excavate deeply enough to date its con- the platform south of the southern entrance of X4, so struction. It could belong to an earlier building. Like the that people could step up from X4 to the higher floor in nearby spaces in the house, X7 had a complex history of X7 (Fig. 1.12:C). remodeling after its original construction, the most dras- Sherds and whole pots found above Floor 3 date to LM tic event being its conversion from a north–south pas- III A1. An interesting deposit (Pottery Group X7:3; Pl. sageway into a shrine (Shaw and Shaw 1993, 149–152). 1.6C) was found in the space’s northeast corner, near Because its remodeling affected adjacent X4 and X13, some stone slabs and partially covered by a slab of un - the discussion of X7 offered here complements discus- painted plaster at +5.09/5.24 m. Almost completely pre- sions of those other spaces and refers to the same set of served are two handleless jugs (C 9313 and 9314), a bowl phase plans (Fig. 1.12:A–D). or conical cup (C 9309), and a brazier (C 9310) . As noted in connection with the discussion of Stair - In these phases and the one that followed, the shrine case X13, the earliest floor associated with X7 (Floor 1), was a small room, nearly square, measuring ca. 1.90 m at +4.80/4.82 m, is indicated by the large paving slab dir - east to west and 1.80–1.85 m north to south. The first ectly south of the original north doorway leading to X4 evidence of a table having been used for offerings (Fig. (Pl. 1.3C, showing it as recut and reused; also Fig. 1.12:D) comes from Floor 4. The new floor, again made 1.12:A). The northern doorway (Doorway A), seen in the of compacted soil, was laid over fill some 0.16 m thick, same plan leading into X4, originally lined up with the rising to an average +5.22 m. The small stone table was door way leading south to X14a (Doorway B). This ar - set in the room’s southwest corner and consisted merely rangement turned the western part of the room into a pas- of two slabs, one that was set flat and supported on its sage. The eastern part, bracketed by three walls, may have southern side by the other, set upright. On its northern been used for some other function such as storage. We side it was supported by a stone projecting slightly from can assume that a threshold existed at that time in within the north wall. Because the shrine was aban- Doorway B, where it could also have served as a step up doned after this phase, the last objects used were left in from the lower-lying floor of X14a. Access between the situ, some atop the table, others under it and on the floor spaces is discussed further below in the survey of X14a. throughout the space (Pls. 1.7A–1.7C), although some Little comment can be made regarding the masonry shifting must have occurred when the ceiling finally of this early period, given its poor preservation and the collapsed. A reconstruction of the table and associated effects of the later remodeling, which included the offerings may be seen in Color Plate 1A. blocking of the original northern doorway (Pl. 1.3B). A vertical break visible in the east side of the east wall of STRATIGRAPHY, FINDS, AND USE X7 (Pl. 1.4A) but not in its west one (Pl. 1.2A) remains Space X7 was excavated in 1991 in a single trench unexplained. The break may well be the result of the (73A). Upon removal of the topmost strata, we chose manner of building, with teams of masons starting at not to remove the small stone table, but instead to exca- opposite points and occasionally meeting at the mid- vate selectively in the rest of the room to investigate the point in the wall. The segments of the wall north and lower levels. Later, as it became obvious that the histo- south of the crack in this particular wall (labeled 5a and ry of the shrine went back to earlier times, we decided 5b in Fig. 1.12:B–D) have the same width (0.55–0.60 to expose more of the pertinent levels by removing the m) and are similarly built. Odd and unexplainable table and digging the underlying strata. Subsequently breaks are not uncommon in other rooms, as in the we mended its top, which had been broken into three north wall of X2, discussed later. pieces in antiquity, and we reset it in its original spot The phase described above, or Floor 1, dated to LM when fill was brought back into the room. IB Late (Pottery Group X7:1), was followed by one in Pottery Group X7:1 (Floor 1). Fill over floor with which certain distinctive vessels (Pottery Group X7: 2) slabs at +4.80/4.82 m and up to +4.92 m. Trench were used. Rutter thus suggests that X7 was already a 73A/67A, 94B, 95A, 95B. Mixed Neopalatial to LM IB shrine in LM II, during the use of Floor 2 at +4.90–4.92 Late. No notable finds. m. This earthen floor was marked by some slabs at its There were few finds from Floor 1, since X7 was a southern end (Fig. 1.12:A, C; Pl. 1.2A). For X7 to have little more than a passageway when that floor was in acted as a shrine, it had to be converted from a passage use. The latest pottery, mainly sherds that came from into a room, which likely happened during the floor’s cups, was LM IB. This period was not represented in 14 MARIA C. SHAW nearby X4, although that space’s earliest floor must destruction deposits in X7 and X4.” He adds that this jar have been used along with that of X7; apparently, use must have fallen from a collapsed upper story. debris was not thoroughly removed from X7. Finds other than pottery included Glycymeris shells, Pottery Group X7:2 (Floor 2). Fill over soil and slabs some inside the conical cup that was placed on the table, (+4.90–4.92 m) and above to +5.06–5.09 m (southwest) some scattered around that cup, perhaps having spilled and +5.03–5.04 m (northeast). Trench 73A/66, 67, 80, out of it onto the table when the ceiling collapsed. The 81, 89, 94A. LM II. Triton shell (Sh 11), still in situ, had been set over a small Rutter discerns the first signs of ritual function in the flat slab lying flat on the floor. Pebbles were found next pottery of Floor 2 (Fig. 1.12:C), which included a “sprin- to it. Possibly a worshipper had accidentally dropped a kler” (C 9657), a fancy decorated jug (C 9257), a fine seal with the representation of a bird-woman (J 16) that spouted jug (C 8088, this with joins in Space X6), and a was found over the floor. Though not an uncommon basket-handled, twin-spouted jug (C 12021). There were motif in seals, Younger argues for its cultic status in this no other notable finds, though Ruscillo suggests that context. Ruscillo calls attention to the potentially reli- some ornamental shells may have been connected with gious character of the Glycymeris shells and to the the early use of X7 as a shrine. notable absence of any animal bones, which may point to Pottery Group X7:3 (Floor 3). Floor of soil at a separation of the sacred from the profane. +5.06/5.09 m (southwest), +5.03/5.04 m (northeast), Pottery Group X7:5. Collapsed second story(?) from and fill above to +5.22/5.25 m. Trench 73A/64A, 65, 70, +5.50/5.75 m to +5.75 m. Trench 73A/47, 51, 51A. LM 28 78, 84. Mixed Neopalatial to LM IIIA:1. IIIA:2 (mixed with sherds of the seventh century B.C.). P 297, P 299 Plaster bits Ch. 2 Plaster Ch. 2 P 298 Plaster in northeast corner Ch. 2 Shells Ch. 4 Shells Ch. 4 The uppermost material within X7, which contained The ritual use of X7 was clearly attested on Floor 3 thin slabs possibly from an upstairs pavement, suggests (Fig. 1.12:C). Found on it were parts of an Egyptian the occurrence of a collapse. The pottery in the fill (Pl. coarse amphora (C 12023) and pieces of plaster. The 1.7C) repeats types encountered in the shrine below. If large plaster piece (P 298) covered nearly intact pottery indeed it fell from upstairs, it may have come either found in the northeast corner of the room. The plaster from an additional shrine there or from a room where and other debris may have fallen from a collapsed religious paraphernalia was stored for the shrine below. upper floor. The vessels formed a group: a brazier (C The shapes consist of a brazier (C 9137), three lamps 9309) and two handleless trefoil-mouthed juglets (C (C 9139, C 9146, C 9149), a flask/sprinkler (C 9145), 9313 and C9314; Pl. 1.6C). and a fragment from the base of a snake tube (C 9659). Pottery Group X7:4 (Floor 4). Fill on floor at ca. Again, the shells found were Glycymeris, and no ani- +5.25 m and up to +5.50 m, including finds over the mal bones were recovered. stone table. Trench 73A/51, 57, 61, 76. LM IIIA:2. J 16 Steatite seal with bird Ch. 3.6 Spaces X14a and X14b Sh 11 Triton shell Ch. 4 Coarse plaster Ch. 2 ARCHITECTURE 14 Glycymeris shells on table Ch. 4 Spaces X14a and X14b were closely interconnected 29 Floor 4 (Fig. 1.12:D) held the stone table, and its floor for most of their history. Through their doorways, deposit included the masses of pottery that were found they also had direct access to X7 and the large Space more or less in situ both on the table (Pl. 1.7A) and on the X8 (Figs. 1.2, 1.7). The anta with which the short west floor (Fig. 1.19). In the photograph in Plate 1.7B, we wall of X7 ended on the south is still well preserved, arranged the pieces so as to roughly simulate their rela- and it has allowed us to restore a doorway between tive spatial distribution as found during the excavation. X14a and X14b directly south of it, even though the The two lamps at the top right were found tucked under north end of the dividing wall between the two spaces the stone table in the southeast corner of the Shrine. They is now destroyed (Fig. 1.12:B; Pl. 1.6A). Particularly were still full of ash from the last time they were used, a revealing of the situation is section B–B' (Fig. 1.18), poignant reminder that the inhabitants never returned to which shows, from left to right, the northern limit of use them again. A fragment of a Canaanite jar (C 9014) X14b and X14a, the south wall of the remodeled high- shows that foreign imports continued to be brought to er flight of Staircase X13 (north of X14b), and the Kommos and House X, and its join with other pieces blocked doorway that once led to X7. Visible at the from Space X5 points out, according to Rutter, “the con- extreme right is the blockage of the doorway that once temporaneity of the deposits of the LM IIIA:2 Early provided communication with X8. ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 15

As recorded in the state plan (Fig. 1.7), excavation in un known as its south end is missing. A single upright X14a stopped at a somewhat lower level than in X14b. slab was set at the west end of the northern enclosure In X14b we stopped at what appeared to be the base against the makeshift step that led to the higher floor in of the west wall, a rough surface at +4.73–4.83 m X7. How the enclosures were used is difficult to guess. (north–south). It now seems possible that the original They may have served for storing materials or even dry floor was lower, as in X14a, where the floor related to the foods. If covered with wooden planks, their tops could un seen lowest courses of an original wall over which unti- have functioned as temporary shelves. The northern dier courses are preserved today. The bend in the west enclosure was lo cated to the east of the blocked doorway, facade of the house may have resulted from less careful which suggests it was installed before the door leading to building later on. X7 was blocked. The southern facade wall has been restored on the Given the presence of such features, Spaces X14a and basis of evidence from adjacent spaces X8 and X9 (Fig. X14b may have been used for household activities. Some 1.2; see further discussion in Ch. 5). Based on details storage was also provided by the small sottoscala closet given later in the surveys of X8 and X9, we estimate that under the lower flight of X13, which could be accessed the north–south dimension of X14b and X14a measured directly from the north extension of X14b. ca. 2.50 m, with the addition, in the case of X14b, of the The masonry of the walls is not particularly unusual. area under the second flight of Staircase X13, which The anta in the doorway between X14a and X14b was the was accessible from the south (Fig. 1.12:B). best built part (Pl. 1.6A). Like other antae, this one was The line of walls that formed the northern limit to constructed of large squared blocks alternating with X14a (Fig. 1.7; Pl. 1.6A) poses a greater challenge to courses of small stones, possibly with occasional wood interpretation, as the walls involved—the south end of reinforcement in the corners, where gaps occasionally the east wall of X13s and the south wall of X7—were occur. This particular anta escaped final collapse because built at a somewhat higher level than the floor of X14a. it was held up by the later southern wall of the staircase It is possible that the slab floor in X14a was reused from and the blocking of the entrance leading to X7. an earlier building. The alternative option, that the construction of the west wall of Staircase X13 was later than STRATIGRAPHY, FINDS, AND USE the initial construction of the house, is problematic, for Spaces X14a and X14b were excavated in a single the house must have had a small staircase from the trench (80A). As can be seen in section L–L' (Fig. 1.15), beginning, as is typical in many Minoan houses (see fur- which crosses X14a north to south, excavation started at ther discussion and comparanda in Ch. 5). That the stair- a level of sand and soil, and we soon came upon Iron Age case existed from the beginning is also supported by the levels that reached down to some depth. The uppermost stratigraphy on either side of the walls in question. The levels included sherds of Hellenistic date (Trench dates of the pottery groups associated with section L–L' 80A/1–7). Below these were fills of the seventh century (Fig. 1.15) show that the earliest use of that line of walls B.C. (Trench 80A/8–18) that mingled in their lower lev- goes back to LM I on either side. The pottery groups to els with Minoan pottery of LM III date and were found be compared are X14:1 (LM IB) and X14:2 (LM II) rel- 30 in rubble from the collapsed or demolished higher cours- ative to X7:1 and X7:2, which have comparable dates. es of the Minoan walls (Trench 80A/27, 30). In the subsequent use of the slab floor, but before X7 Vivid examples of the Iron Age presence in this area was converted into a shrine with its south door blocked, were a circular hearth, built over accumulated fill in the it appears that a step leading to the north was installed northwest corner of X14b (located in 80A/25, at +5.60 on the floor slabs (Fig. 1.17B; Pl. 1.6A). m; Shaw and Shaw 1993, 156 and pl. 29:c), and a small Short, upright slabs set parallel to the north and west intact bronze bull found near the south edge of X14a, walls of X14a created enclosures that may once have one of the dedications later dumped here from the served as bins, each of which would have been ca. Geometric–Archaic sanctuary.32 Slag and iron ore pieces 0.30–0.35 m wide. The slab floor did not extend below attest to metalworking activity, too. these or within them, but the enclosure along the west wall preserved a plastered floor surface, which may once have been present in the northern enclosure as well, al - Space X14a though no plaster was visible there. Possibly it disap- The surface of the earliest floor in X14a, which con- peared later on during the extensive construction next to sisted of slabs and plaster, yielded a scant quantity of pot- it, including the blocking of the doorway leading to X7.31 tery datable to LM IB, although earlier sherds were also The northern enclosure was ca. 1.20 m long; the western present. A threshold may once have existed at the south one may have been similar in size, but its length remains end (an anta) of the west wall of X7. The threshold’s 16 MARIA C. SHAW north end may have been secured by insertion under that Pottery Group X14A:2. Fill over the “abandonment wall, which would explain the latter’s somewhat higher surface” from +4.76/4.77 m to +4.86/4.90 m. Trench level than the slab floor in X14a (Pl. 1.6A). Conceivably 80A/31, 34. LM II. the slab floor belonged to an earlier building and was J 7/Sh 12 Necklace of perforated shells Ch. 4 incorporated into House X, where it was used for a time. Fr 7 Spiral Fresco Ch. 2 The fill to which the pottery on this floor belonged rose Bones Ch. 4 from the floor at an elevation of +4.42/4.45 m and up to Shells Ch. 4 ca. +4.50 m in Trench 80A/94, 95. There were two finds of particular interest atop the Pottery Group X14A:1. Upper soil surface at +4.50 abandonment surface. One was a necklace made of a m and overlying fill below pebble floor at +4.71 m. variety of shells (Sh 12), first interpreted as two-strand- Trench 80A/38, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93. LM IB with much ed but now regarded as two separate necklaces. The Protopalatial. shells, which apparently had once been threaded, lay on Bones of sheep/goat Ch. 4 the ground in a way that helped us restore them, and 110 Patella shells Ch. 4 they were picked up by the excavator so as to maintain A larger amount of pottery came from the deposit the same order. The two strands or necklaces looked as above +4.50 m and below the pebble floor (Pottery if they had become accidentally twisted.35 The other Group X14A:1). The scanty remains of two cooking pots interesting find was a piece of plaster (P 182, Fr 7), (C 9402 and C 9407), which Rutter assigns to an earlier found face down and next to a flat slab. It proved to be Neopalatial date,33 may imply that this area was used for part of a painted frieze of spirals that had once graced cooking, and there is the additional evidence of a burned the walls of one of the rooms in the house (see Ch. 2). surface at +4.50 m.34 Bones from butchered animals The use of X14a ended with the collapse of a mas- (sheep and/or goat) were found at about this level, though sive stratum of rubble and soil, probably from surround- not in any significant numbers. Ruscillo (Ch. 4) points to ing walls. The rubble (concentrated in Pails 80A/27b the presence of enough limpets in the fill to represent the and part of 30, Pottery Group X14A:Misc.) rose from consumption or preparation of a meal here, however. ca. +4.90/4.95 to +5.50/5.66 m, sloping upward from There are no floor features at the level of X14A:1, north to south. It had an equivalent stratum in X14b though the tops of the upright slabs of the presumed (Trench 80A/27a and part of 80A/35). While the date of bins in earlier use were still visible and projecting from the pottery in the dumps spans the history of the shrine, the floor. They could have retained some utility as low from LM II to LM IIIA:1 (perhaps LM IIIA:2 Early) as benches or platforms on which to place objects. dated by Rutter in his preliminary reports, the rubble The next phase, still belonging to LM IB Late, is rep- stratum also includes Early Iron Age sherds. resented by shallow fill (excavated with Trench 80A/36) overlying the pebble surface noted above. The fill started Space X14b at +4.70–4.73 m, rising up to what Rutter named the Little can be ascertained about the history of X14b “abandonment surface” at +4.76/4.77 m. Finds included except for the collapse of its walls, which seems to have a bit of bronze, some bone, pieces of plaster, and shell occurred at about the same time as the collapse of those beads. Ruscillo points to four pierced shells that might of X14a. The chronology of the west wall’s construction have been used as jewelry, given the evidence of a neck- (or, rather, reconstruction) and the construction of a lace higher up in X14A:2. south wall for the southern flight of Staircase X13 (the The blockage of the east doorway of X14a, marking north wall of X14b) is uncertain. the end of communication of the latter room with the As noted above, the excavation of X14b did not reach rest of the house, must have occurred between LM IB as far down as in X14a. It stopped at what seemed to be Late and LM II.The base of the blocking wall reached the base of the west wall (at +4.85 m to +4.73 m down to a level that places its construction sometime north–south), since it rested on a layer of rubble, which between LM IB and LM II, the latter the date of the was taken down to level +4.60 m. This fill (relating to pottery lying over the abandonment surface, as dated Pottery Group X14b:1) dates to LM II, but it also con- by the vessels of Pottery Group X14A:2. That the tained sherds of earlier Neopalatial date. Its level and shrine existed by LM II is indicated by the presence in the great fragmentation of the pottery have been com- the latter group of lamps/censers of the type found in mented upon by Rutter. The situation resembles that of LM IIIA:1 levels within the shrine itself (Pl. 1.7C). the surface with pebbles over X14a, but in that case Thus, by LM II, X14a had become a dumping ground, there were no sherds later than LM IB Late. Taking this used by the shrine and possibly by other rooms. ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 17 into account, we might venture that this part of the west the “Earlier East Wall” (Pl. 1.8B, bottom left). It can be wall was built sometime between LM IB Late and LM followed north where it seems to stop at the Cross Wall. II. The LM II pottery in X14b is more likely to derive Its orientation is more northeasterly than the other from a dump rather than from use. The portion of the north–south walls in X2, and it appears to continue south, west wall uncovered in the excavation may represent a in the direction of Space X5, but we did not undertake to rebuilding of the original west facade of the house, pursue it there in soundings. courses of which, as suggested earlier, may exist Space X2 had only one door, located near its south- beneath it. The dividing wall between X14b and X14a east corner and provided with a threshold that also must have been leveled earlier, possibly in LM IB. served as a step leading down to the somewhat lower Pottery Group X14b:1. Fill of brown soil and rubble, floor of X5. The threshold’s top, at +4.93 m, is the same from surface underlying the west wall (+4.85 m in the as that of the threshold of the nearby doorway in X6’s north to +4.73 m in the south, to ca. +4.60 m). Trench northwest corner, indicating careful and likely contem- 80A/37. LM I–II. porary planning. St 41 Kernos/mold fragment Ch. 3.4 Cross Wall Shells Ch. 4 As preserved today, the Cross Wall is 2.35/2.40 long, Up to the level on which the south wall of Staircase 0.45–0.55 m wide, and 0.65–0.75 m high. Its maximum X13 was built, the ceramics in the rubble date to LM height is at +4.86 m, while its base rests nearly on IIIA, although earlier Neopalatial sherds were present. bedrock, at ca. +4.11/4.19 m (Pl 1.8A, forefront). Its There appeared to be a fugitive surface sloping down four to five courses are built of stones of varying sizes, from north to south (+5.22 m to +4.86 m), over the north with only a few squared, at least as visible in the case part of which the south wall of X13s was built. This of its south face. The north face is hidden by stone brackets the construction date of X13s to LM II–III, but debris that we did not undertake to excavate in the nar- LM II is the more likely since pottery found within X13s row space separating it from the north wall of X2. is no later than that date. This was the period of the final The Cross Wall likely predates the construction of use of the sottoscala, for the little entrance at its west end House X, but, as argued below, it may have been put to had been blocked by then. LM II was also the date of new, even if temporary, use in the earlier days of X2. As sherds within the blocking materials excavated in Trench can be seen in Plate 1.8A, the wall continued west, 80A/39 as dated by Pottery Group X13:1. Rubble rose where it was incorporated within the newly constructed higher against the west and north walls of X14b and is of west wall of X2, which was built south and north of that the same date as above, although sherds dating to the end. The north, shorter part turned east to act as the 36 seventh century were also present. north wall of X2, part of the north facade of the house. Of this north wall only the south face is visible, its north face hidden by a new north wall that projected Central Sector of the House further in that direction (Fig. 1.6). Pottery within X2 dates the reuse of the Cross Wall and the construction and earlier use of the west wall of Space X2 X2 to LM IA Advanced (Rutter Pottery Group X2:1), ARCHITECTURE with an occasional LM IB sherd. As this space has the lowest floor surface (ca. 4.20/4.24 m) found in the house, Like other locations in House X, Space X2 under- we may be dealing with a sunken area that had a special went extensive remodeling. The changes are particular- use.37 It is possible that the southern part of X2, south of ly difficult to interpret in this case as earlier the Cross Wall, may have served as what McEnroe has architectural remains were crowded into such a small nick-named a “doorless space” exemplified in a number area (Shaw and Shaw 1993, 144–148). A distinctive of Minoan houses. (McEnroe 1982, 10–12 and chart, p. landmark in the history of X2 is a pebble floor with 18). This is a basement-like area with a floor lower than three pithoi embedded in it (Fig. 1.6). Examples of the floors of adjacent rooms. We can imagine one in X2, embedded vessels, some pithoi, occur in other areas of covered by wooden boards the top of which would also the Kommos town, the closest in date to X2, belonging have served as part of X2’s proper floor. The wooden to LM I–II (Shaw and Shaw, eds., 1996, pl. 3:123). floor need not have extended all the way to the room’s Excavation in X2 reached down to bedrock in places, north wall; north of the cross wall it was simply soil. A revealing walls that predate the pebble floor. One, to be trap door in the wooden floor, opening toward the north nick named the “Cross Wall,” runs east–west in the north- as one stood in X2’s door, could have allowed access to ern part of the space (Figs. 1.2, 1.6; Pl. 1.8A, fore- its contents. Eventually, this basement went out of use. It ground). Another, very poorly preserved, is dubbed here 18 MARIA C. SHAW was filled in and covered entirely, probably by the peb- east part remains, rising to +6.95/7.06 m. While the two ble floor we found there, dated by the associated pottery first walls had the same width, the last one was narrow- (X2:3) to LM IB Late. er (ca. 0.55–0.60 m), its south face set somewhat back, Given the above abrupt fall in level within X2 com- while its outer north face continued up along that of the pared with its surroundings, its west wall also may have preceeding wall. The north facades of the two later walls served as a retaining wall for the the east wall of adjacent were built of rather regularly sized rectangular blocks Space X1, the walls of which were built at a higher level (Pl. 1.1A), an explanation for such a nicety being that (Fig. 1.6). Eventually, as the floor rose in X2 through they were quarried each time from the original wall. The use, its west wall was leveled and went out of use, the reason for extending X2 north, perhaps, was to compen- only wall separating X2 from X1, henceforth, being the sate for the space lost when the makeshift staircase of latter’s east wall, which is preserved today to a much three steps was installed within the entrance of X2 or greater height (Pl. 1.8C). A photograph taken of that area even somewhat north of it (Fig. 1.8). uses a scale set vertically to indicate where the north wall turned right to continue east and to form the house’s East Wall north facade wall (Pl. 1.8D). The north facade itself lies The east wall’s north end was built over stone debris hidden under a later wall that was built over the wall above the MM storeroom, as can be seen within X2 (Pl. being discussed but jutting north of it.38 1.8A). The wall is 0.65 m wide and is preserved for Plate 1.8C shows part of X2’s west wall proper, the some nine to ten courses, set on a level that sloped portion directly south of the Cross Wall. The left end of down toward the south (from +4.91 to +4.59 m), as the photographic stick there rests on a pillar of unexca- noted earlier. Its south end was built over the leveled vated fill in the southwest corner of X2. The masonry of remains of what we called the “Earlier East Wall,” the west wall splits into three horizontal layers, of which which may have served at this later point as a bench the middle one likely represents the destroyed upper part upon which to place objects. of the lowest wall. The bottom layer consists of some four South Wall courses, built of relatively small thick blocks, also used in the next two to three higher courses constituting the The north face of the south wall within X2 (Pl. 1.8B) wall’s middle layer. Above and for most of the remaining was the only one at least partially visible, and down to eight to nine courses, rectangular blocks varying in the wall’s base, but only in the area under the threshold, length but fairly uniform in height were used. A possible as its east end remained hidden behind a small platform explanation for the difference in masonry in the upper of slabs built at the end of the room later on, at a high- layer is that this portion may have extended above the er level, which we decided not to remove. Interestingly, level of the basement and was thus better built. that north side of X2’s south wall had no proper face, clearly because it was built only to hold up the thresh- North Wall old and to allow for the pithoi to be set there, partially The base of the north wall slopes down somewhat underground, without causing the threshold to collapse. from west to east (+5.03–4.91 m), and it turns south at The photograph shows the construction after the large its two ends to form the west and east walls, which were triangular slab was extracted and moved just to the also built on a slope rising from south to north (Fig. south to act as part of a higher makeshift threshold as 1.6). Indeed, the level of the east wall, which is not hid- necessitated by the rising floors. Smaller cut blocks den by later construction, drops dramatically south of were used for the building of the doorjambs. the Cross Wall, in the area suggested above to have The doorway, ca. 0.90 m wide, that led to X5 was acted as an underground doorless space. The rise of the located off center, closer to the east side of X2. Its posi- two walls toward the north relates to the construction of tion may have been determined by the need for more the north wall, which was built higher due to the pres- room in the southwest corner to accommodate use ence in Y2 of the remains of a MM storeroom with a (such as storage) that would not be interrupted by traf- slab floor that was only some 0.10 m lower than the fic. Another reason for its location could have been the facade wall of House X. convenience of access to and from X6. One only had to The north wall of X2 was remodeled at least twice. step from one threshold onto the other, as both thresh- Of the original wall, only the south face is now fully vis- olds were set at the same level (+4.92/4.93 m), and the ible (Pl. 1.8A), rising five to six courses high as leveled two doors were adjacent (Fig. 1.2). (to ca.+6.00/6.16 m). It was replaced by two later walls, The level of the original threshold was crudely the earlier of which overlapped it partially, leaving part achieved by breaking a sizeable piece of the threshold of it to project as a ledge within X2, a strip some slab and setting it where the ground surface had risen 0.35–0.38 m deep (Fig. 1.6). Of the third wall, only its through use (Pl. 1.8B). Eventually, because of the rapid ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 19 rise of use surfaces within X2, three rough steps were time of the pebble floor (Pl. 1.9A), but it likely installed in it (Fig. 1.8). The lowest of these consisted involved two building stages. Its lower part consisted of of a single slab (top at +5.23 m) positioned above the four slabs (one of red schist), whose surfaces lay at ca. al ready raised threshold. A second step projecting north, +4.90 m and covered an area nearly 0.65 m x 0.50 m. within X2, was made up of two slabs set side by side, Above these were two rectangular blocks (with average their tops at +5.33 m. The third step also used two blocks, sizes of 0.20 m x 0.30 m) set parallel to each other, their tops at +5.48/5.49 m. The steps can be seen in archi- their tops at ca. +5.13 m. tectural section C–C' (Fig. 1.20), rendered in gray. STRATIGRAPHY, FINDS, AND USE Doorless Space in X2 Strata higher than the pebble surface in X2 were This space, already mentioned above, measured excavated in Trenches 66A and 74A–B, while Trench rough ly 1.80 m east to west and 1.50 m north to south 80A carried on throughout the room in strata below the (Figs. 1.6, 1.20; Pls. 1.8B, 1.8C). It was accessed from the pebble surface, reaching bedrock in the area south of top, perhaps by lifting a wooden trap door. With that the Cross Wall (section G–G'; Fig. 1.21). Any finds closed, one could still use the entire room, the door over the proposed wooden floor would have disap- becoming part of the floor. peared once the doorless space was filled in and the The three pithoi found in X2 may have been used pebble floor covered that level. earlier and only later placed under the trap door. People The earliest of the extant strata is soil on bedrock (at entering X2 would step onto a wooden floor and not +4.20/4.24 m). This served as a rough floor. Pottery in onto the middle pithos, which would have been cov- this stratum is dated by Rutter’s Pottery Group X2:1 to ered. If the remaining pithoi, right and left of this one, LM IA Advanced,41 but it includes some LM IB mate- were originally set as low as the middle one (at ca. rial, generally limited to the area between the pithoi and +4.21 m), the level of the wooden cover or floor may 39 the south wall. None of this, of course, represents the have been ca. +4.90–4.94 m. A person could easily earliest use in X2 if one accepts my proposal, here, of retrieve goods from the storage space merely by stand- a space covered by a trap door and used for storage. ing on the room’s stone threshold without having to Stored objects would have been used or cleared out to step down to the sunken area. Stepping down to clean make room for new ones, especially if food supplies or organize the space remained an option, however. also were involved. If earlier remains were cleaned out, During the early phase under consideration, the pithoi prior phases of use may have left little trace, with the would have been freestanding and not embedded in a dirt LM IB finds representing contamination that occurred floor next to the south wall, as they were later. There when the two lateral pithoi were dug up from fill that would have been room to their north and around them for had accumulated around them and raised so that their further storage, perhaps of the many cups found in sherds rims and shoulders projected above the pebble floor. as well as perishable goods in containers that have since The MM sherds found in some number at the lowest disintegrated. One can even speculate that there may level might represent the time the Cross Wall was first have been a fourth pithos in the room’s southwest corner, built. Two of the three pithoi used in X2 were, indeed, later replaced by the raised slab structure built over the of MM III date. One is tempted to see them as having 40 pebble floor (Pls. 1.9A, 1.9B). been recovered for reuse from the ruins of MM store- Eventually the basement or sunken area went out of room Y2, located directly north of X2. use and was filled with additional soil. The top surface Three loomweights found in the lowest stratum in X2 was covered by a thin layer of pebbles. This marks a remind us that weaving took place in House X. It is not period of change, for it must have put the middle of the clear from their stratigraphic context, however, as to three pithoi out of use. Perhaps this, the tallest of the whether they belonged to House X or to its predecessor. three pithoi, was already broken, and so it was left there atop the basement floor while the two usable pithoi were Floor 1 elevated so that their contents could be accessible from As noted above, the middle pithos rested on the ear- the top. Their projection above the new floor would not liest floor (at ca. +4.21 m), and the other two were like- have posed a problem, since neither was positioned ly set at the same level originally. Other pottery at this where people stepped first when entering the room. The level consisted of numerous cups of various kinds, middle pithos was not raised, as people would have along with some pouring vessels and a kalathos. Rutter tripped over it on entering the room. Indeed, a little slab interprets this assemblage as suitable for drinking and was laid over it. feasting (“ceremonial”). The date (Pottery Group X2:2) A built platform also was added to the room’s south- is the same as that of the fill on the bedrock, LM IA west corner. It seems to have been introduced at the Advanced, with some LM IB sherds located around the 20 MARIA C. SHAW pithoi, presumably representing the time when the two Pottery Group X2:3. Makeup of pebble floor, from lateral pithoi were raised and the pebble floor was made. +4.58 (south)/4.67 (north) to +4.90 m at the south The fill rises as high as +4.58/4.78/4.88 m, and it is thus (north part not as well preserved). Trench 80A/48, 46, higher than the bases of the west and south walls (the 45, 50, from +4.78 (south)/4.87 (north) to +4.90 m. LM former at +4.35 m), although it is even with the base of IB Late. the east wall, which is higher, since it was partially built Lw 12–Lw 14 Loomweights Ch. 3.3 over the ruined or leveled Earlier East Wall. F 2 Female figurine Ch. 3.7 Pottery Group X2:2. Floor at +4.20/4.24 m and fill Bones Ch. 4 above to +4.58 m (south), 4.78 m (center), and 4.88 m (north). Trench 80A/49, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 66A, 66C, Faunal remains are again reported by Ruscillo, but 67, 67A, LM IA Advanced; Pail 61 with some LM IB their numbers were fewer. contamination. Pebble Floor 2: Earlier Use S 2201, S 2214 Hand stones The earlier use of Floor 2 is dated by Pottery Group St 16, S 2209, Drill wedge, other tools X2:4 to LM IB Late. The pottery consists mainly of cups S 2210, S 2309 and a few other shapes: some pouring vessels, a minia- S 2310 Polisher of metamorphic Ch. 3.4 ture brazier, and the pithoi embedded in the floor. As stone noted earlier, there may have been a fourth pithos (frag- St 45 Stone vase lid Ch. 3.4 ments C 9652) set on the built platform in the room’s Bones Ch. 4 southwest corner.42 A bronze utensil with a suspension Shells Ch. 4 loop (Me 18), similar to another found in the southeast Charcoal corner of X9 (Me 19), is reported to have been found on Pink plaster Ch. 2 or just behind the platform.43 From a related floor level Ruscillo reports extensive faunal remains suggesting were handheld stone tools found in a semicircle, starting food consumption, with only a few shells. The associa- east and northeast of the platform and ending northeast tion of faunal material with great numbers of what Rutter of the east pithos (Pl. 1.9A). These consisted of a square in his preliminary pottery report calls “ceremonial” ves- stone polisher (St 3), cobbles with evidence of wear from sels used for drinking and feasting may indicate that use (St 1, St 2, St 4, S 2191, S 2205), and a small and these finds were actually used elsewhere and dumped fully preserved oval quern (St 24). Finally, there were here in the end. In view of its size and architectural two seals with abstract decoration (J 17, J 18). appointments, the nearby Space X4 may have been the The assemblage, with the pithoi that continued in use, location of eating and drinking in earlier days, i.e., in LM suggests that this small room was still used for storage IA to LM IB. and also for some household activity. The pithoi were found empty, and thus they had held something perish- Fill beneath Floor 2 able. The tools and the quern imply grinding, perhaps of The pebbles used in Floor 2 were strewn over a layer grain. The seals were likely stored in X2. A piece of stone consisting of crushed shells and soil. This fill may have (St 16) with a semicircular piece missing from its side been dumped there to raise the level in preparation for appears to have been used as a drill wedge (Evely 1993, 44 laying the pebble floor. The floor rose to some +4.90 m, fig. 70). if not higher, in the south area and sloped up toward the Pottery Group X2:4. Earlier use of pebble floor from north, with fewer pebbles. Rutter dates the floor’s con- +4.89/4.90 m to ca. +4.99 m. Trench 74A/78 (east half of struction to LM IB I Late (Pottery Group X2:3). Most room), 74A/79 (sounding in northwest corner); Trench of the inventoried shapes are cups of LM IA Final and 80A/41, 41A, 42, 43, 44. LM IB Late. LM IB date. Rutter also believes that this was the date J 17 Bead seal Ch. 3.6 when the pithoi were brought into their present location J 18 Pillow seal Ch. 3.6 to be embedded in the pebble floor. An alternative sug- Me 18 Bronze tool with loop Ch. 3.2 gestion, made above, is that all three pithoi had been in S 2191 Small cobble Ch. 3.4 use from the beginning but that two were lifted up in S 2205 Oval cobble Ch. 3.4 LM IB and repositioned at a higher level before the peb- St 1 Pebble Ch. 3.4 ble surface was laid. St 2 Cobble Ch. 3.4 Finds in this fill other than pottery include a seated St 3 Rectangular polisher Ch. 3.4 female figurine and a few loomweights, which could St 4 Cobble Ch. 3.4 represent earlier weaving activity in the house, depend- St 24 Quern Ch. 3.4 ing upon where the fill beneath the floor originated. P 295 a–d Painted plaster Ch. 2 ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 21

Ruscillo reports the occurrence of some ornamental Floor 4 shells, but edible ones were few. The evidence for meat Floor 4 is the first to reverse the southward slope continues. seen in the preceding periods. It slanted down from ca. Floor 2: Later Use +5.40 m at the south to ca. +5.30 m at the north of X2. A makeshift staircase, a series of steps rising north, was The later use of Floor 2 is dated by Pottery Group installed either at this time or incrementally to lead up X2:5, again LM IB Late. The pots repeat some of the to the rising floors. Floor 4 was the latest one to have earlier shapes, mostly cups and some pouring vessels. been used with the original north wall of X2 before the Rutter draws attention to a stirrup jar or bridge-spouted addition of two further walls on top of it (Figs. 1.6, jug (C 9298) decorated with figure-of-eight shields. He 1.20, 1.21). It is difficult to explain the reversal of the sees this as a possible LM IB predecessor of a LM II slope. Perhaps there had been a partial collapse of the vase (C 9251), also with complex pictorial decoration, ceiling in the southern area. that was used later in Shrine X7. Storage, rather than a Pottery Group X2:7, belonging to this floor, still religious function, may explain the presence of this dates to LM IB, but Rutter comments on vases that may vase as well as the beads and seals found in the previ- point toward an early stage of LM II, the two best pre- ous level, however. Other finds are shells, bones, char- served being a baggy alabastron (C9364) and a spout- coal, and bits of plaster—all in quantities too small to ed teacup (C9366). He also suggests that the deep fill represent function. rising above this floor may have been a dump. It Pottery Group X2:5. Continued use of Floor 2, from reached ca. +6.00 m to the north and sloped down to +4.98/5.02 m to ca. +5.07/5.08 m. Trench 74A/77 and the south to nearly +5.40 m, as preserved. This dump is 77A. LM IB Late. No notable finds except for the pot- associated with the base of the later north wall, which tery and stirrup jar C 9298. was the penultimate wall there, built after the original Floor 3 wall (or just its southern half) was leveled (Figs. 1.20, 1.21). A contemporary building activity was the level- Floor 3 is associated with the raising of the level of ing of the west wall to +6.00 m (Fig. 1.6) and the con- the threshold (to +5.05 m) in the southern entrance, tinuation upward of the east wall of X1, which became with the addition of a triangular slab over the original the shared wall of both X1 and X2, with its built face one as described above in the architectural survey of on the east. Poor preservation deprives us of knowledge the room. Its date is, once again, LM IB. of any remodeling in the case of both the south wall and The use of this floor resulted in a substantial buildup, the southern part of the east wall. As X2, along with X5 reaching +5.35/5.40 m. Again, the finds—stone tools and and X4, was used later than other rooms of the house, im plements and even some luxury items, such as a carne - we can assume that these walls stood at an appropriate lian bead (J 6) and a squat stone alabastron (St 40)— height to hold the ceiling and conceivably a second show a continuity with previous levels. The tools story above that area. in cluded a small stone polisher, a quern, and a possible While the stratum under consideration is interesting metal tool (Me 20). Some bronze strips (Me 8), and a from the point of view of its ceramics, other finds are piece of worked bone (Bo 20) were also found. New in not particularly impressive, and if their origin is fill the pottery repertoire is a small cooking pot (C 9367), brought from elsewhere, they are irrelevant to the type which, if actually used for cooking, represents a new of activity that may have been conducted in X2, beyond function for X2, not seen before, unless it was only tem- its use as a dumping place. porarily brought there. Pottery Group X2:7. From +5.30/5.40 m to ca. +5.70 Pottery Group X2:6. From floor at +5.04 (south)/ m. Trench 66A/21; Trench 74A/74. LM IB Final and 5.09 (north) m to ca. +5.26/5.35 m. Trench 66A/25, 28 some Iron Age. (part), 30; Trench 74A/75, 76. LM IB. S 1902 Stone polisher J 6 Carnelian bead Ch. 3.6 S 1906 Whetstone Me 8 Bronze strips Ch. 3.2 S 1930 Cobble Me 20 Bronze blade or anvil Ch. 3.2 S 1952 Small cobble S 1922 Stone polisher Bones and shells Ch. 4 S 1923 Quern Charcoal S 1924 Large cobble St 40 Alabastron vase Ch. 3.4 Bits of charcoal Bits of plaster Ch. 2 Bones and shells Ch. 4 22 MARIA C. SHAW

For comparable reasons, the remaining upper levels higher (to +5.06/5.07m). Included among its building (Pottery Groups X2:8–X2:10) are interesting mainly materials were a boulder and a narrow rectangular object from the point of view of their ceramics and not for any in stone (to be discussed in more detail below), marked new light they throw on the history of the house. The by a square cutting at one of its narrow ends. Both these date for Group X2:8 is LM IIIA; X2:9 and X2:10 are stones rested in part over the eastern part of the room’s LM IIIB. Ruscillo’s comments on the increased number southern threshold (Pls. 1.9C, 1.9D), making it obvious of waterworn Glycymeris shells associated with Groups that this parapet was a later addition, as was probably the X2:9 and X2:10. case with the north one as well. More likely part of the original construction, but much Space X5 ruined now, were three stone slabs. One was set flat next to the base of the drain, but sloping down slightly toward ARCHITECTURE the west. The other two were set upright on either side of This nearly square room (3.00/3.10 m x 2.78/2.45 the drain opening in the wall (Pl. 1.9C, left). The whole m) occupies a central location within the house (Shaw arrangement was clearly intended to direct waste liquid and Shaw 1993, 148–149). The presence of four door- toward X5, whether there was a sump there or not. This ways shows it played a key role in circulation (Fig. 1.6). arrangement of a slab and a drain is known from other Other architectural features and a rectangular stone Minoan houses at Kommos. The best preserved is in stand found in the space offer further evidence of its Room 11 of the House with the Snake Tube, where the importance. liquid was merely absorbed by the soil (Shaw and Shaw, Space X5 consisted of two areas. The smaller of eds., 1996, foldout G). these was a light-well, located in the southeast corner. The floor of the portico in X5 was paved with stone The larger was a L-shaped “portico,” its north and west slabs. Typically for the Neopalatial period in the houses at sides bracketing the light-well. A wooden column was Kommos, slab floors were not continuous. Slabs occurred set on a small, disk-shaped column base (S 2269) of here and there and in places where traffic would be heav- purplish, veined metamorphic limestone, found in situ iest (Fig. 1.6). The slab pavement of the west wing of the in the angle of the portico, helping to support its ceil- portico started a short distance away from the west wall, ing. The light-well itself, naturally remained open to leaving the space’s northwest corner unpaved. It then con- the sky, as seen in a reconstruction offered here (Fig. tinued somewhat diagonally toward the east, ending on 1.13). Often, in elite Minoan houses, columns found in the south with some slabs positioned directly north of the light-wells were instead set within stylobates, but this doorway leading to X8. In the case of the north side of the was not the case here (Shaw 1973, 111). portico, most of the northeast area remained unpaved, Upon excavation, masses of stones were found except for a slab or two placed directly next to the throughout the room. Some were fallen from the sur- entrances into Spaces X2 and X6. In areas lacking slabs, rounding walls, others, consisting mostly of slabs, were the floor surface was stabilized with pebbles. parts of two pavements surrounding the light-well area. The original slab and pebble floor in X5 sloped down The light-well was not paved as a regular floor. It was from north to south, from ca. +4.86 m (the level of the found full of slanted slabs and other stones that stopped slab located south of the doorway leading to X2) to ca. at a small unpaved area, a soil surface that probably +4.77 m (the level of the room’s southern threshold). The acted as a sump intended to receive rainwater, although top of the column base was itself at +4.86 m, i.e., we never found a pipe associated with it. Another use approximate ly at floor level, although the base had likely for the presumed sump was to receive water or other subsided somewhat over the years in the absence of any liquids disposed of during activities that took place stones placed under it to serve as a foundation (Fig. 1.6; over the large slanted stone slab set in the southwest Pl. 1.9E). corner of X6. Some slabs were later added on the ground to match The slanted stones were retained by what seem to the rising floor in X5. The level of these slabs ranged have been two low parapet walls, one on the north, the from +4.92 m to +4.95 m. The large slab found at +4.95 other on the west side of the light-well area. The liquids m directly east of the entrance into X4 was probably the were directed to X5 through a drain at the base of the threshold of the latter’s southeast doorway, now robbed wall next to the large slab in X6. out to act as a step, for even though the floor in X4 rose Removal of extraneous slabs and stones from X5, in - toward the end of the house’s life, it seems to have been cluding some that seem to have fallen from the upper somewhat lower than that of the later floor of X5. parts of the parapets, helped us obtain a better idea of Removal of the later paving slabs from X5 revealed more how the light-well once looked, at least in a later phase floor areas at a lower level covered with pebbles only. (Pl. 1.9C). Of the two parapets, the western one rose ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 23

The west wall of X5 incorporated two well-cut ashlar object noted earlier were incorporated into the parapet’s blocks, their surfaces acting as the sill of a window, lowest course. Still later, the level of the threshold was described already in the survey of adjacent Space X4 (Pl. raised again, or, more likely, a small platform (rather than 1.5A). The importance of the light-well in X5 becomes a threshold) was built there (its top preserved at +5.04/ evident when we consider that this window and the door 5.16 m). Depending on its original height, this platform next to it probably admitted the only light to illuminate might have risen higher up and blocked the doorway Space X4. (Figs. 1.6, 1.20, 1.21). The best-preserved wall of X5 is the north one (Pls. 1.2B, center; 1.10A, top center), although its east end suf- STRATIGRAPHY, FINDS, AND USE fered some later damage, perhaps because it acted as a Space X5 was excavated mainly with Trench 66A jamb for the doorway leading to X2, which was was never (1985), with the exception of a portion of the southeast blocked and became structurally vulnerable. The remain- corner (the light-well) where higher levels had been ing part of the north wall was preserved in as many as removed with Trench 59A (1984), stopping at the top of nine courses (ca. 1.20 m high). It was carefully construct- a massive LM IIIA:2 deposit (Pottery Group X5:6). ed of rectangular blocks of similar size, resulting in regu- Trench 66A continued down everywhere in X5, and the 45 lar courses. The rather fine construction resembles that slabs of the later floor were removed during its excava- of the partition wall between X1 and X4, and one won- tion. Further cleaning and investigation were carried out ders why this is so, as the wall in X4 was likely covered in Trench 86C (1993), revealing more of the original by a wall painting and that in X5 may have been covered floor, including areas covered by pebbles.46 Excavation by plain plaster. Less can be said about the east and south dealt separately with the portico and the light-well once walls, of which fewer courses are preserved (the former built features made it clear that the two were architec- for some three courses, the latter some four courses), and turally distinct. because parts of them are concealed by the slanted slabs Some of the earliest pottery was found in the portico surrounding the area of the light-well. in a shallow sounding in the northwest corner (Trench The north and west doorways have already been dis- 66A/45) that revealed fill of soft, brown soil (some 0.10 cussed in surveys of X4 and X2. Of the remaining two, m thick, from +4.70–4.80 m). Pottery found here was a the eastern one led to X6 and the southern to X8. The mixture of large Protopalatial sherds and numerous tiny first remodeling of the east doorway raised the level of sherds dating to LM IA, including LM IA Advanced and the threshold from +4.87/4.93 m (north–south) to +5.08 Final. As this was not a sealed deposit (since the floor m by adding some slabs over soil that had accumulated was not entirely covered by slabs) and because of the tiny over the original threshold and then rebuilding and size of the sherds, the mixture obviously represents the extending the east wall of X5 to the north. The north end early use of the floor, rather than its construction.47 continued to serve as the door’s south jamb (Figs. 1.2, Another investigation (Pottery Group X5:1) concen- 1.5, 1.22, 1.23; Pl. 1.9F). The result was the narrowing of trating in the northeast corner produced similarly dated that doorway, which, ultimately, was completely blocked. pottery (LM IA Final), except for large Protopalatial The south doorway was originally furnished with a sherds. This exploration was supplemented with excava- large slab stone threshold (1.22 m x 0.62 m, its top at tion throughout the room (Pottery Group X5:2), in the +4.77 m), nearly as large as that of the southern doorway course of which the slabs of the upper floor were of adjacent Space X6 directly east (Figs. 1.6, 1.8). In the removed, and the slabs and pebbles of the lower one were first remodeling, probably a response to the raising of the revealed. The latest sherds were dated to LM IA Final. slab floor in X5, the level was increased by placing a tri- Dating the earlier phases of the light-well is more dif- angular slab over the original threshold, similar to the way ficult, as we are not dealing with a flat area and clear strain which the north entrance of X5 leading to X2 was ta. Excavation in the sump area produced a few sherds of raised (and at the same level, +4.91 m). Given that the LM II date (Pottery Group X5:3), but given the limited added slab was placed against the west jamb rather than area investigated, it is difficult to take that date as the in the center, we might assume that the doorway had time the sump went out of use. The sump would have become narrower. Indeed, like the northeast door of X5, continued to function for as long as the room was used, this door’s east jamb was rebuilt and extended westward. into LM IIIA:1–2, and until it was finally covered by The extension of this jamb is best visible from within dumps. The light-well would still have been open to pro- Space X8, as seen in a photograph looking north (Pl. vide light, while allowing rainwater to enter the space.48 1.10A), showing the upper courses at the west end of X5’s Fill rising directly over the later slab floor in the por- south wall, over and somewhat beyond the south end of tico area has been dated by Pottery Group X5:4 (LM X5’s west wall (Fig. 1.6). At the south end of the west wall IB–LM IIIA:2 Early). With this group, for the first a long boulder and the pedestal-like rectangular stone time, there were other types of finds besides pottery. 24 MARIA C. SHAW

Since the contexts just discussed seem to represent Pottery Group X5:5 (2a). Lowest part of dump with- continued earlier use in the portico area, they are tabulat- in light-well, above floor from +4.90 m to +5.02 m. ed here with the finds related to them, before the discus- Trench 66A/35. LM IIIA:2. sion moves to the light-well area and the upper levels. Pumice Pottery Group X5:1. Fill below pebbles in northeast Shells and bones Ch. 4 corner of room, from +4.73 m to +4.81 m, and expo- Bronze bits sure of lower slab paving. Trench 66A/44. LM IA Final. No notable finds. Pottery Group X5:5 (2b). Part of deposit in light-well Pottery Group X5:2. Removal of slabs in the portico area of X5, from +5.02 m to ca. +5.25 m. Trench area at +4.91/4.92 m, revealing layer of pebbles in 66A/29. LM IIIA:2. northeast corner and the underlying initial slab pave- S 1926, S 1929, ment. Trench 66A/38. LM IA Final. No notable finds. S 1931, S 1934 Hand tools Pottery Group X5:3. Fill in the light-well area below Bones and shells Ch. 4 a lifted slab, from +4.42 m to +4.83 m. Trench 66A/43. Charcoal LM II. Bits of bronze Bones and cowrie shell Ch. 4 Pottery Group X5:5 (2c). Upper floor deposit in X5 Plaster bits Ch. 2 (excluding the light-well area), at ca. +5.10–5.73 m. Trench 66A/24, 32. LM IIIA:2. Pottery Group X5:4. Fill over slab floor in the porti- S 1915 Hand stone co areas, from +4.90 m to +5.00 m. Trench 66A/33. S 1939 Pivot slab LM IB–LM IIIA:2 Early. Shells and bones Ch. 4 Lw 17 Loomweight Ch. 3.3 Charcoal Bones Ch. 4 Pumice Charcoal Ruscillo comments on the presence of extensive fau- Plaster Ch. 2 nal remains (as earlier identified by Reese), consisting of Rutter notes that many of the earlier sherds exist in both bones and shells and including a great number of tiny pieces. This must be the result of their having been Glycymeris. These were often incorporated in subfloors, crushed and ground over the hard slab floor by people a use appropriate perhaps for a light-well, though no such constantly using the porticoes to reach the spaces sur- floor existed to prove this function. A number of shells rounding X5. The first signs of the porticoes’ use for were defined as ornamental and thus were possibly used activities other than circulation occur in the context of in jewelry. They might have been connected with orna- Pottery Group X5:4, indicated by the presence of shells mental shells found in nearby Space X4. and bones, and charcoal. This tendency becomes even Later contexts fall within Pottery Group X5:6. It was clearer in Pottery Group X5:5, in which the pottery during the excavation of the upper deposit 3a, in Trench includes large shapes, contrasting with the earlier cups 66A, that the top surface of the ashlar wall separating X5 and bowls. This change probably came about as door- from X4 was revealed. Found on top of the southern part ways leading to other spaces started to be blocked. of the wall, where they may have originally been placed, Rutter interprets Pottery Group X5:5 as a single mas- were three cups (C 7991–C 7993). Earlier in this chap- sive floor deposit throughout X5, with the latest sherds ter, it was suggested that a fine pyxis (C 9012), found dating to LM IIIA:2. He originally subdivided it into fallen on the floor of X4, may once have been suspend- subgroups 2a and 2b, both located in the light-well area, ed from the window’s lintel by means of a string thread- and 2c in the portico. We maintain this arrangement ed through the holes in its rim. More recently, Rutter here. Characteristic of X5:5 are the large vessels just raised the question of whether another, equally fine mentioned, including a nearly complete pithos (C 7990) pyxis (C 8001), found in X5 in the LM IIIA:2 stratum found in the northwest part of the space,49 as well as under consideration, formed a pair with C 9012, with amphorae and a number of cooking vessels (Pl. 1.10B). both vases having been placed on the window sill. Shells, bones, and evidence for burning occur particular- Pottery Group X5:6 (3a). Upper part of floor deposit ly in the room’s northeast corner (Trench 66A/24, 25) from +5.22/5.24/5.29 m (north), +5.09/5.12/5.14 m and raise the question of whether cooking, a task that (south), and +5.15 m (center) to ca. +5.50 m. Trench was likely carried out previously in Space X3, took place 66A/20. LM IIIA:2. here at this stage. A notable quantity of imported pottery, Me 15 Bronze blade50 Ch. 3.2 mostly Canaanite jars and some Mycenaean smaller ves- S 1000, S1897–S1900 sels, was also found. S 1900B Cobbles ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 25

S 1885 Whetstone (S 2295) measured 0.535 m in length and 0.132–0.140 m S 1888 Hand stone x 0.124 m in width (Fig. 1.24). Of its two short ends, one Bones, shells Ch. 4 is marked by a shallow, nearly square depression ca. Bits of plaster Ch. 2 0.014 m deep and 0.095 m x 0.080 m wide; the other is flat. Although it was not found in its original position, I Pottery Group X5:6 (3b). From +5.53 m to +5.96 m. suggest that it was once used in this room. Trench 66A/17. LM IIIA:2. The stand’s original function is not known, but it ap - Me 3 Metal bar Ch. 3.2 pears to be similar to two objects found in the Minoan S 1875 Cobble Villa at Pitsidia in the western Mesara, at the site known Bits of plaster Ch. 2 as Plakes, south of Hagia Triada and east of Kommos. The results of the excavation are, so far, known only from With Pottery Group X5:6, Ruscillo points (pp. 104, preliminary reports. Stand A from Plakes was found in 112–115) to the continuation of significant amounts of situ in Room VIII, which was located on the east facade Glycymeris shells, which extend into the upper levels of the villa and next to the building’s only entrance of X4 and X2, always from contexts marked by sherds (Vallianou 1997, 1058, fig. 1). The stand was secured of LM IIIA:2. She believes that these shells having with in two sockets. One of these was long and shallow, been used for a floor and to protect against rainwater, and it was cut vertically into the room’s west wall. The given the presence of a light-well in X5. other was just larger than the base of the stand and was The stratigraphy discussed above and the associated cut within a low, slab-paved bench or platform, in a room pottery throw some light on the remodeling of X5 over that was interpreted by the excavator as a shrine (Val - time, including, in some cases, the final blocking of the lianou 1996, 156, fig. 3). space’s doorways. The raising of the level of the thresh- Stand B from Plakes was discovered in the earlier days olds in the north and south doorways appears to be of the excavation of the same villa, in this case south of contemporary, and thus it is no coincidence that they Room VIII. It lay on its side in a pile of stone debris, employ the same method: placing a triangular slab atop some 0.40–0.50 m above the level of the floor of the the original threshold. Raising these could have followed house—information passed on to me orally by the exca- immediately upon the installation of the raised slab floor 51 vator, who published a photograph of it after it was re - in X5 in LM IB, and it is not unlikely that the same moved and cleaned (Vallianou 1988, pl. 331:d). The event brought about the raising of the threshold in the excavator dated the construction of the villa to LM IA northeast door leading to X6, where two stone slabs were and its destruction, most likely by an earthquake, to LM placed over the original threshold (Figs. 1.22, 1.23; Pl. IB (Vallianou 1996). This stand is presently kept in a 1.9F). Such makeshift remodeling clearly points to a loss storeroom at Gortyn, where I had a chance to see it in the of interest in maintaining the earlier quality of the archi- summer of 2007 in the company of Dr. Vallianou, whose tecture, in this case represented by the previous use of comments were extremely useful. single large stone slabs as thresholds. The remodeling in Some general observations can be made regarding the X5 may coincide also with the laying of the pebble floor character and setting of the three similar objects. It ap - in X2, the latter clearly dating to LM IB. pears that that these items were used only in the Mesara, The last remodeling of the southern doorway, as ar - as my research has failed to locate examples from else- gued above, was either a blockage of the doorway that where on Crete, though some may be still found in the was not preserved at its initial height, or a deliberately future. With regard to their purpose, the practice of secur- low wall that one could climb over. Whichever was the ing the stand in a socket (as observed in the case of Stand case, its ceramic date should be bracketed between LM A) indicates that keeping it in place and preventing it IB—the proposed date of the added triangular slab, from falling was deemed important. Making it a perma- which it clearly postdates—and the date of the relative- nent fixture of the room suggests a particular function for ly thin layer of soil that covered it, which dates to LM the space in which it was set. The shape of the stone block IIIA:1. Another wall was later built over this soil sur- 52 and the cutting at its top are basically the same in all three face, conceivably one that belongs to the Iron Age. examples, although there are variations in size. The greatest variation is in the block’s height; the Kommos stand is STONE STAND FROM SPACE X5 0.535 m tall, ca. 0.240 m shorter than Plakes Stand A and In the discussion of the architecture of X5, it was ca. 0.16 m shorter than Stand B. In all three cases, the noted that a rectangular stone object with a square cut- stands are less than one meter tall, with the top of each ting at one of its narrow ends was found within the build- roughly waist high, making it easy to place something on ing materials of the parapet wall set at the southern it. The cuttings at the top are square rather than round in entrance into the room (Pl. 1.9D). This limestone block 26 MARIA C. SHAW each of the three known examples, although they vary the light-well, presumably to provide illumination to somewhat in their dimensions. The cutting on the Kom - the surrounding rooms at night. mos stand is the smallest, measuring 0.095 m on its longest side, or ca. 0.10 m less than the horizontal dimen- SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS sions of Stand A and 0.05 m less than those of Stand B. The original use of X5 is self-evident, given the The depth of the cutting in the Kommos stand is 0.014 m, presence of a light-well and of the drain connecting it while that of the Plakes examples is 0.005 m. These cut- with activities in X6. X5 may also have served as the tings may have been used to secure a single object. They provider of light for adjacent spaces, particularly Space are too shallow to have been used as containers, and none X4. I would suggest that a L-shaped balcony, presum- of them display any signs of burning. ably with a wooden floor, stood above the portico or While the possibility that the stands were used for dis- slab-paved area below. The balcony would have left an playing some precious or decorative object cannot be area open to the sky for the light-well. Thus, spaces in excluded, this author prefers a more utilitarian solution. the second story would have had much light coming in The object positioned on the stand was probably relative- from the outside. It is reasonable to assume that House ly squat, with its base squared rather than round. If the X consisted of only two stories. object was a lamp, that would explain the great care taken It is possible that X5 may have played a similar role to secure Stand A within a wall in the Pitsidia Villa, as at night in providing light, given its central position in this measure would have prevented it from tipping and the house. The small stone pillar discussed in the pre- causing a general conflagration. Vasso Fotou suggested to ceding section could have been used as a pedestal to me the possibility that stone vessels with squared and hold a lamp, or (less likely) the square cutting at its top stepped bases may have been set in the squared depres- might have been filled with enough fuel for a flame to sions of such stands, and, indeed Gesell has illustrated last the night. and described as a libation table a stone vessel with a tenon projecting below it (Gesell 1985, 204, fig. 136). There is no real socket for a tenon in the stand here, how- Spaces X8 and X9 ever. Another illustration of a columnar pedestal with a Adjacent spaces X8 and X9 are among the largest in squared libation table fitted on top of it (Gesell 1985, fig. the house, and they have a similar shape. They were 137) provides a good model of how a lamp could have exposed nearly completely in excavation, except for the been made to fit atop our three pedestals, had there been south edge of X9 (Fig. 1.7). A sounding revealed part of squat stone lamps with square bases. All examples of Road 17 south of X8, but the space’s south wall was no libation tables illustrated by Warren have squared stepped longer there, having collapsed in antiquity (Pl. 1.11A). bases (1969, nos. P 326–340). Lamps of clay are known The south walls of the two spaces, like the south wall of to have round bases, however, which is also the most X15 to their east, being part of the south facade of the common base in the case of stone vessels. Still, the pos- house, must have followed the straight line of the road sibility that some lamps had square bases cannot be (Fig. 1.2). The north line of the road pavement was excluded even if examples are lacking to date. revealed south of X8, some 1.25 m lower than the floors Though at Plakes daylight may have been provided of X8 and X9 (Figs. 1.7, 1.21).53 Knowing its position, within Room VIII through a window on the incom- it is possible to estimate the north–south dimension of pletely excavated east side, a lamp placed on our Stand X8, for its south wall would have stopped at or some- A would, nonetheless, have provided light at night near what north of the retaining wall that continued down to the entrance to the house and to the staircase leading to the surface of Road 17.54 This information, along with the sec ond story. As the excavation of the Plakes site the presence of two blocks still in situ along the south began as a salvage operation following disturbance by edge of X8 (their tops at +4.62 m and +4.60 m, Fig. illegal dig ging, the original location of Stand B remains 1.7), suggests that the north–south dimension of both an open ques tion. It might have stood in the corridor X8 and X9 was ca. 5.10 m. The two spaces also had the directly south of Room VIII, or it may have fallen from same width, ca. 3.25 m from east to west. upstairs, given its discovery among stone debris above floor level. In the case of Kommos House X, it may not Space X8 be a coincidence that the stand was found in Space X5, a central room with a light-well that provided light dur- THE ARCHITECTURE ing the day to nearby rooms on the ground floor such as Space X8 communicated directly with two other X2, X4, and X6. The stand and the assumed lamp spaces in addition to X9: X5 to the north and X14a to would have been set in a part of Space X5 away from the west. The large central opening between X8 and X9 ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 27

(Fig. 1.7) was flanked to the north and south by two standing ca.1.00 m high. The south one, found leaning to short walls, the ends of which acted as the opening’s the north, is now restored to ca. seven courses and meas- doorjambs. Midway between them was a large stone ures 0.80 m in height. slab set flat on the floor, suggesting that the opening The floor in X8 was made largely of compacted soil, was divided in two parts. An upright wooden post though there were areas paved with stone slabs, near would have been set on the slab to carry the long lintel which pebbles were often found (Fig. 1.21). There was of this double doorway. Found in association with the a single slab in the floor’s northeast corner (at +4.56 m) southern doorjamb was a L-shaped base, the direction and a pair of slabs in the southeast corner (at +4.46/4.47 of the L clarifying that the door there was closed by m), their respective levels secure signs that the floor swinging it toward the east. sloped down from north to south. Corners with slabs, There must have been another such jamb base at the being protected areas, were often chosen for the place- northern side of the doorway, but none was found. In - ment of breakable household equipment such as large stead, two small overlapping slabs were found next to the vessels. This must have been the purpose of the slabs north jamb, possibly a makeshift arrangement for a base here, even though no such vessels were found. that replaced the original one. Household activity was probably carried on in the The west wall of X8 consisted of two parts, divided central area of X8, which was paved with several large by the door leading to X14a (Pls. 1.4A, 1.6B). The slabs, some of limestone, some of purple schist, placed southern part is very poorly preserved except for its on compacted soil or clay. The average level of these north end, which acted as the south jamb of the door. slabs was the same as that of the slab in the space’s This end is preserved for some six to seven courses, northeast corner. There is evidence of burning on some and, as usual with jambs, its construction was better of the central slabs, which implies the use of fire for than that of the rest of the wall, incorporating large rec- cooking and perhaps also for warmth or light. tangular blocks in carefully laid courses. The same is A line of large and smaller slabs was laid just west true of the north jamb of this door, preserved with the of the central pavement and along the west wall of associated wall that had nine or 10 rough courses. As Space X8, with a few stones continuing south. Once usual, the masons made use of building blocks of vary- again the levels reflect the incline of the floor, sloping ing sizes and shapes. down from north to south (+4.64 m to +4.55 m). This A peculiar and irregular crack or break occurs at row of slabs might be a western extension of the slabs midpoint in the north part of the west wall, visible only in the room’s center, but, rather typically, they were also on the wall’s east face, a fact already mentioned in the placed along a path of traffic, leading from X5 to X8 or discussion of Space X7, which shares this wall with on to X14a. X8. In this writer’s view it is not the result of deliberate The slabs of the pavement in X8 may have been reused remodeling.55 The wall turns west at its north end to from an earlier building that preceded House X.56 Years form the north wall of X7, and it is that corner that acts after excavation had been completed in this space, a as the west jamb of the northwest doorway of X8 lead- length of an east–west wall was found in the north part of ing to X5. X8, exposed by the rains (Fig. 1.21). Only the lowest Equally eclectic in construction is the north wall of X8 course was preserved, and this scantily, but it reveals, (Pls. 1.2B, 1.11B), preserved for some five to six cours- along with other evidence, that a rather drastic leveling es. It was noted earlier in the discussion of X5 that this operation had been undertaken before House X was built. wall’s west end was later extended west to reduce the size The stone bench at the north end of X8 consisted of of the door leading to X5—the latter’s original width hav- three beautifully cut oblong blocks, the south faces of ing been approximately 1.20 m, the size of the threshold. which bore marks of fine chiseling (Pl. 1.11B). The The original east end of the opening must have lined up blocks were clearly retrieved from the walls of some more or less with a large rectangular block we see at the earlier building, conceivably Building T, parts of which base of the wall (Pl. 1.11B), the stone east of the block went out of use in LM IA Early. As argued above, this representing the extension of the jamb farther west. If bench may not have been installed from the very begin- this interpretation of the remodeling is correct, the rec- ning; it appears to have been added after the narrowing tangular blocks set at the north end of the floor in X8 to of the entrance leading from X8 to X5. serve as a bench should also be viewed as a later addition, Concerning the question of light, it can be suggest- since they line up with the new doorjamb. ed that the south facades of X8 and X9 were provided The masonry on the east side of X8 requires little with enough windows for daylight to come in.57 We can com ment, except for the fact that the north and south also speculate that a window might have existed in the walls on either side of the double door were similar in north wall of X8, bringing in light from the light-well length and width. The north one was the better preserved, in X5.58 28 MARIA C. SHAW

STRATIGRAPHY, FINDS, AND USE Charcoal found on the floor of X8 raises the possibility that cooking was practiced, perhaps in the later Excavation in X8 was carried out in three trenches. 59 A large portion of the east side was excavated in Trench phases of the slab floor’s use. 59A1 (1984), which also included a small area of X9. The next stratum (Pottery Group X8:2) dates to LM II The west side was excavated in Trench 80A (1992). A with some later contamination. Rutter thinks the fill was small area south of the doorway leading to X5 was used to cover the preceding level to create a new surface excavated in Trench 66A (1985) in the process of at +5.10 m. Given the thickness of this fill (some 0.20 m) removing that door’s blocking materials. and the presence of stone debris that seems to start as low The earliest evidence of use in X8 is the clearest due as +4.85 m, the raising may have been preceded by the to the contamination and destruction of the upper strata collapse of the walls, perhaps in LM II. Later use in LM from erosion, which affected the southern parts of the II–IIIA:1 is represented by Pottery Group X8:3. The house the most. The general excavation strategy was to stones fell in a domino-like pattern, the tumble starting at separate the space into northern and southern parts—the the northernmost door of the double doorway and contin- latter being the one that suffered the most from the dep- uing in a southwestern line within X8 (Fig. 1.21). Some osition of fill that washed downhill from the north. blocks also lay to the west of the south segment of X8’s Pottery Groups X8:1–X8:3 represent three basic strata. east wall. These probably collapsed from that wall, Group X8:1 consists of pottery of LM I date, particu- including its north part, to judge from the blocks found larly LM IB; it also contains some LM II material. Lack in the northwest corner of X9. of more substantial evidence for LM IA pottery is not Pottery Group X8:2. Stratum of soil added over pre- surprising, for in rooms with floor features, such as the ceding use and after a major wall collapse in X8 to raise partial slab pavement in X8, the original level of the floor the ground level from +4.90 m to +5.10 m. Trench was maintained for as long as possible by systematically 59A1/71, 74. Mixed Neopalatial through LM II (–LM removing debris (as is well attested in Space X4, already IIIA:1). No notable finds. discussed). Between LM IA and LM II, the fill rose some Pottery Group X8:3. Fill over floor at +5.10 m (level 0.30 m over the slab floor, i.e., to ca. +4.90 m, with most at the center of the room) rising to ca. 5.20/5.22 m. of the buildup occurring in LM II. According to Rutter, Trench 59A1/67, 68, 72, 74 (the last one in part); LM IB is best represented in the northern part of the 80A/21 (in part), 24, 28 (in part). LM IIIA:1. space (especially 59A1/82), while the bulk of the inven- Lw 26 Loomweight Ch. 3.3 toried LM II pottery comes from the south (especially S 1711 Cobble 59A1/83). As was typical elsewhere, remains of the first St 21 (GS 600) Stone disk Ch. 3.4 phase of use suggest an era of refinements that faded St 22 (GS 601) Stone disk Ch. 3.4 with time; finds included the lid of a stone vase, a stone Bones and shells Ch. 4 disk, and most importantly, the remains of painted and Loose bits of plaster Ch. 2 patterned plasters (Fr 8 and P 296). These may have The stone disks were found in the southern half of come from the walls of this space, to judge by their find Space X8 in 59A1/74. spots, mainly the west wall; a few more were found over Rutter interprets X8 as having served in this phase as the slabs located more centrally. a drinking area—much like the terraces in contemporary Pottery Group X8:1. Surface at +4.45 m (south), Cretan bars or cafes. He bases this view on the presence +4.55 m (north), and fill over it to ca. +4.90 m. Trench of pouring vessels, decorated teacups, and pedestaled and 59A1/77, 78 (mixed with slope wash through LM handled cups used for drinking. Once again, it is interest- IIIA:2, perhaps even LM IIIB), 80, 82, 83, 84 (shared ing that in this era, when the once elite house has fallen with X9), 85; Trench 80A/28 (in part), 29, 29A. LM IB into a rather debased state, there is evidence for an and LM II, and some later contamination. increase in foreign imports as indicated by the pottery, Perforated pebble some Canaanite and some western Anatolian. J 13 (pendant?) Ch. 3.6 Two stone disks (St 21, St 22) were also associated Fr 8, P 183 a–c, with this phase.60 A third such object (S 1966, listed be - P 296 Plaster Ch. 2 low under X8:4) was found in fill accumulated over the S 2211 Fragment of a quern three-course wall blocking the doorway leading north to St 8 Ringed pounder Ch. 3.4 X5 and under a later blocking wall built above this low St 44 Lid of a stone vase Ch. 3.4 wall.61 Stone disks were found in other Minoan houses at Shells Ch. 4 Kommos, and their shape, size, and weight have led to Charcoal, pumice their interpretation as possible lids for large vessels.62 ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 29

Fill in the abandonment phase is also dated mainly The creation of this new doorway followed the block- to LM IIIA:1–2 Much of it surely washed down the ing of access into the sottoscala from the north, i.e., slope from farther north at an early stage. from X16. The blocking wall was built against rubble Pottery Group X8:4. Fill in wash levels from ca. debris piled up within the sottoscala under the upper +5.20/5.22 m to +5.55 m. Trench 59A1/23, 25, 43, 45, flight of the staircase, X15s. The blocking wall between 47, 62, 63, 65; 66A/23. LM IIIA:2 Early. X16 and X15w then turned south, built in one layer of Lw 25 Loomweight Ch. 3.3 stone, applied on the preexisting west face of X15’s west S 1743 Whetstone wall. This strange activity may have been prompted by S 1966 Flat oval stone the need to strengthen that wall and to keep the block- 118 Glycymeris shells Ch. 4 ing stones in place (Fig. 1.25). By contrast, the original east face of this wall remained visible till the end, as Ruscillo thinks the Glycymeris shells are related to seen from within the staircase (Pl. 1.12B, top left). It those found in the light-well area of X5. was well built of regular rectangular stones, perhaps the best construction encountered in this house. Space X9 Unlike the floor in X8, that in X9 was made entirely of compacted soil, with just a few slabs set apart from ARCHITECTURE each other along the east wall. The incline of the floor As X9 was used in conjunction with X8, much of surface is similar, however, sloping toward the south and what was noted about the architecture and history of somewhat less toward the east. As there were nearly no the latter applies here as well. fixed floor structures, it is difficult to say what X9’s orig- Besides the double doorway leading to X8, X9 had inal intended use was, although some inferences can be direct access to two more areas. One doorway, with a drawn from the space’s location. With close access to the threshold nearly as large as that in the north doorway of main entrance of House X via X16, it can be argued that X8 before it was shortened, led north to X6. Another, X9 was less private than X8. Space X9 might have been marked by some stone slabs at +4.63 m, led east to cor- ideal for receiving goods to be transferred to the rest of ridor or lobby X16, which, in turn, led to the main the house, including the utilitarian spaces west of it such entrance of the house (Figs. 1.2, 1.7). Today that entrance as X8 and X14a. The large double door leading to X8 lies hidden under Greek Building F (Fig. 1.8). The slabs would have proved convenient, though is probable that on the rough eastern threshold seem to have acted as a the doors between X8 and X9 could have been closed step down to the slightly lower slab floor of X16. and/or locked as necessary. In addition, X9 had direct Whether there was originally a door blocking X9 from communication with X6, the space where the slab instal- X16 is unknown. lation was set. Again, the large doorway between the two Given the presence of these doorways, the only parts spaces may not have been an accident. Several stone of X9 that were excluded from traffic and thus likely implements found in X9, including the stone mortar (St used for household activities were the large southeast 29) embedded in the northwest corner and hand tools and southwest corners, as well as the small one in the scattered around the room, may offer further evidence northwest where a mortar was found embedded in the for the room’s utilitarian function. floor (Pl. 1.11C). It was only later that a new doorway Later in the architectural history of X9 a rough block- was introduced in the southeast corner of X9 leading to ing wall was built in the northeast corner, putting an end the southern part of the sottoscala area of Staircase to communication with X16 as well as with X11/X12 and X15 (i.e., to X15s; Fig.1.5; Pls. 1.2A, top right; 1.4A, X10 to its north (Figs. 1.5, 1.26). This change, more bottom right). This remodeling entailed making an importantly, ended access to the outdoors through the opening at the southern end of X9’s east wall, rebuild- house’s main eastern entrance. By then, however, the ing the remaining parts of the wall north and south of it spaces to the north, mentioned above, had already gone to serve as jambs, and providing the entrance with a of use and entry into the still usable areas of the house threshold (Fig. 1.5; Pl. 1.12A). The threshold (at +4.50 could have been gained from another direction, perhaps m) had a pivot hole at its south corner, indicating that from Staircase X13, which may now have opened onto a the access to X15s; could be closed. The level of the passage running along the west facade of the house. The threshold is just slightly higher than the original floor blocking wall in X16 was preserved for three to four of X9. The distance between the threshold’s south end courses, rising +5.00/5.04m, that is, more than 0.30 m and the newly built north jamb is ca. 0.70 m, which above the original slab-paved surface of X16. gives us the width of the now incomplete doorway, as The lack of any central support in either X8 or X9, the south jamb is now missing. both of which were large spaces, raises the question of 30 MARIA C. SHAW whether a proper upper story could have been placed St 34 Stamnostatis Ch. 3.4 over them. It is possible that they were covered by a Plain and painted plaster bits Ch. 2 roof that was used as a terrace, possibly with a parapet Bones Ch. 4 wall or balustrade on the side facing the road on the The finds just listed suggest a continuation of the util- south, as further discussed and illustrated in Chapter 63 itarian use of X9. This impression is reinforced by the 5. This interpretation gains some support from the presence of a fragmentary tripod cooking pot (Group presence of three fragments of drains found in the west- 9:2/14, C 11886) and some large storage vessels. Another ern area of X9. These could have been installed on the significant find is a trowel-like blade (Me 19), found roof along the south edge of X5 and X6, with spaces 70 64 directly outside the entrance into sottoscala X15s. It is that rose up to two stories high. similar to Me 18 from X2. Each was equipped with a loop for suspension.71 Ruscillo also reports “some hear ty STRATIGRAPHY, FINDS, AND USE meat-bearing bones” from Group X9:2. As noted under X8, excavation in Trench 59A1 includ- It was suggested above in the discussion of X8 that the ed the west portion of X9. The rest of it was excavated collapse of walls there and in the northwest corner of X9 with Trench 81C (1992), which also included two shallow may have occurred in LM II, given the level at which the soundings, one in the northwest corner65 and the other debris starts (+4.85/4.88 m). The stratigraphic situation alongside the north part of the east wall.66 Both contexts in X9 is quite muddled, however, owing to the contami- yielded LM IB Final and LM II sherds (Pottery Group nation from erosion and the transfer by rain of fills and X9:1), clearly attributable to earlier use of the house and material once located in areas further north, as in X8. The not its construction.67 evidence obtained through the study of the pottery was Pottery Group X9:1. Soundings at northwest (Trench dramatic, and shows the deposition of fill containing 81C/58, 59) and at the center, along the wall (Trench masses of pottery of LM IIIA:1 (Pottery Group X9:4) 81C/60, 60A); also southwest area (Trench 59A1/87) over levels of use dating to LM IIIA:2 Early (Pottery below and floor at +4.45/4.50 m. LM IB Final. Group X9:3). The sequence to be followed in the discus- Lw 29 Loomweight Ch. 3.3 sion below will, as usual, start with the lower strata, St 11 Marble pounder Ch. 3.4 notwithstanding the odd patterns of the dates of the asso- St 29 Mortar in situ Ch. 3.4 ciated pottery. Bits of plaster Ch. 2 The collapse of the walls may have occurred before the Bones and shells Ch. 4 accumulation of the fill represented by Pottery Group X9:3—possibly late in LM II, with further collapse later A fine object made of marble (St 11)68 may have on. Indeed, within the rubble there were pockets of almost been a pounder used in connection with the quern (St pure LM II (and some LM IB) pottery (notably in Trench 29) embedded in the northwest corner of X9,69 even 81C/54). Other pottery came from within the collapsed though the cobble was found a short distance south and walls. The later pottery (LM IIIA:2 Early) reminds us that near the east wall. the area was still visited by people. Perhaps there was The use of the initial floor in X9 dates to LM II and dumping at this stage in X9. The construction of the is represented by Pottery Group X9:2, complementing blocking wall between X9 and X16 might belong to this that derived frim X9:1. This was probably the time when phase. the opening for the new doorway in the southeast corner Pottery Group X9:3. Fill in rubble from collapsed of X9 was made as well as when the west face of X9’s walls, and wash from farther north, from +4.70/4.75m to east wall was covered with a new layer of stones. The +5.25/5.30 m. Trench 59A1/73, 75, 79; Trench 81C/47, attribution of the new doorway to this phase is based on 52A, 54. LM II–LM IIIA:2 (IIIB?). the level of the threshold, which at +4.52 m is somewhat higher than the level of the initial floor (ca. +4.45 m) in S2189 Cobble the southern area of X9. From the threshold, one St 33 Stamnostatis Ch. 3.4 stepped down to the floor within X15s. The topmost stratum contains much LM IIIA:1 pot- Pottery Group X9:2. Fill over floor at +4.45 m (south) tery and other finds that may not have anything to do and 4.50/4.63 m (north) up to +4.70/4.75 m. Trench with the use of the room. This material is more likely fill 59A1/81, 84, 86; Trench 81C/55, 57, 57A. LM II. that washed down from elsewhere. Ceramic imports, Cl 2 Terracotta drain Ch. 3.5 already attested in Pottery Group X9:2, continued at this Me 19 Bronze blade Ch. 3.2 level, in cluding a closed shape from western Anatolia, Me 28 Fishhooks Ch. 3.2 part of a Canaanite jar, and an Egyptian amphora. These St 30 Mortar Ch. 3.4 finds hint at an evolution of international trade at a time ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 31 when House X was largely going out of use and the LM the north wall’s east end had been intentionally disman- III mon umental buildings in the Southern Area at Kom - tled with that purpose in mind (Fig. 1.6; Pl. 1.10A).72 The mos were thriving. The potential historical implications new east wall also lacked an east face. It appears that for of this de velopment will be considered in the conclud- its length the original east wall’s interior (or west face) ing chapter. had been dismantled and its blocks reused to build the Pottery Group X9:4. Deposition of soil with rich LM new wall’s west face (Pl. 1.13A). Thus, the new east wall IIIA:1 ceramic contents over collapsed rubble of walls in was built like a retaining wall. The only part of the old east half of room, from ca. +5.25/5.30 m to +5.40/5.45 east wall that was not affected was the part that project- m. Trench 81C/42. LM IIIA:1. ed north of the house’s north facade, where it acted as a Bones Ch. 4 pier, as will be further discussed under the survey of Shells, including 34 Space X10. Glycymeris valves The base of the new east wall in X3 was built at +5.26/5.28 m on fill that had accumulated over the Finds in higher levels (mixed Minoan and Iron Age) original floor. This floor sloped down somewhat, from included bronze tweezers (Me 24) and more drain frag- +5.10/5.14 m to +5.00 m north to south, following the ments (Cl 3, Cl 4). It is worth noting that Iron Age use slope of the hillside, which, as in other rooms, was not was quite invasive in this area of House X, as evident leveled completely. In turn, the floor in adjacent Space from a hearth that was set in X9 as low as +5.37 m. The X6 stepped down also. Minoan sherds at this level included some of LM IIIC What led to the replacement of the east wall remains a as well as LM IIIB date. question, but the same problem may have prompted the construction of the long and messily built north–south Space X3 retaining wall, the south end of which abutted against the exterior side of the north wall of X3 (Fig. 1.6). Perhaps it ARCHITECTURE was built to stabilize the house’s north wall, or it may also Originally a square room measuring ca. 2.90 m x 2.95 have served to separate the outdoor areas east and west of m, Space X3 was narrowed to 2.30 m east–west when a it, where the terrain rose at different levels, and to prevent new east wall was built against the original east wall sep- erosion. The west face of the retaining wall continued arating it from Space X10. The original east wall contin- deeper down than in the east, where only two or three ued south and remained in use as the east wall of X6 very rough courses were preserved (Fig. 1.6; Pl. 1.13A). (Figs. 1.2, 1.5, 1.6). That X6 was the only room with which X3 communicated directly suggests interrelated South Wall activities in these two spaces. The one doorway of X3, The entrance into X3 was marked by a threshold with located in the room’s southwest corner, was provided slabs that rested over a rough east–west wall, which con- with a threshold at +4.99 m. From this doorway one tinued down below X2’s floor and stopped at an earth stepped down onto the somewhat lower floor of X6. surface, marked by a north–south wall on the east that Of the original walls of X3 (Fig. 1.5), those on the was preserved very poorly (Pl. 1.8B). In the same illus- north and east were the broadest (ca. 0.75 m wide). The tration, we also see a pavement of small slabs resting on former was part of the building’s north facade, contin- earth, its level being that of the pebble floor of the room uing west to serve as the north wall of X2. The latter at that location. Plate 1.9A shows the stone table and the served as a facade wall, as it was the west wall of Space tops of the pithoi projecting above the floor, though the X10, a portico and thus a semihypaethral space. pebble surface must have risen initially somewhat high- The north wall preserves approximately 12 courses, er than we see in the photo, thus covering the shoulders ca. 1.60 m high (Pl. 1.10A, top center). It is thus some- of the pithoi somewhat more. what higher than most of the west wall, which is pre- There are signs of later construction in X3, postdating served to a height of ca. 1.00 m, and it shows no signs the use of House X proper. One consists of the remain- of remodeling (Pl. 1.13A, right). Its construction, as ing small portion of a wall partially built over the north seen from inside X3, consists of the usual assortment of and west walls of X3 (Figs. 1.5, 1.8; Pl. 1.13B). The top blocks. As shown in a sounding along the north facade level of the preserved portion of the room’s northwest of X3, the north wall continued down, resting upon an corner (+6.91 m and +6.87 m) is similar to that of the earlier, leveled east–west wall belonging to a building nearby and also later wall built over the north wall of X2 that preceded House X (Fig. 1.6). (Fig. 1.6), suggesting that both sets of walls may have The new east wall built within X3 was bonded with the been contemporary. Definitely later are segments of two north wall, for it appears that at least the interior face of walls built over fill within X3’s northwest corner (Fig. 32 MARIA C. SHAW

1.8). The walls met at right angles, but because they start and on the floor at +5.10 m may suggest some localized at slightly different levels and do not bond, they could wall collapse. This debris was left there and covered have been built at different times.73 The tops of both the over by a new floor.75 old and new east wall of X3, east of the fragmentary Pottery Group X3:3. Fill over floor at +5.22/5.24 m. walls, are preserved at roughly the same level as that of Trench 74B/74A, Trench 93E/100. LM II, with LM IIIA the fill over which the later walls were built. The dates of and some Iron Age contamination in Trench 74B/74A. these walls are unknown, but they possibly could be Iron Lw 16 Loomweight Ch. 3.3 Age; the erosion at this level makes it difficult to deter- Lw 55 Loomweight Ch. 3.3 mine if that was the case (Figs. 1.6, 1.8). St 5 Stone hand tool Ch. 3.4 St 17 Drill wedge Ch. 3.4 STRATIGRAPHY, FINDS, AND USE St 27 Slab with depression Ch. 3.4 Space X3 was excavated in three trenches. The first, Extensive faunal remains Ch. 4 59A (1984), was limited to the uppermost levels of the Pottery Group X3:3 was associated with the use of 74 southwest part of the room. The second, 74B (1991), the new floor at +5.22/5.24 m, with accumulation over uncovered the entire room down to the primary floor, it (some 0.10–0.15 m thick) dating still to LM IB Late. except for the northwest corner, for it was initially Contamination continued, as before, in the east part of decided not to remove the remains of the two upper- the space, Trench 74B. Ruscillo reports meat-producing most walls postdating the house. The walls were even- bones in some numbers, which supports the idea offered tually removed with Trench 93E (1994), however, as here that Space X3 may have functioned as a kitchen at they were being undermined by erosion, and excavation this point. reached the basal levels within X3. Pottery Group X3:4. Fill with burning overlying the Pottery Group X3:1. Fill over the original floor at ca. floor at +5.22/5.24 m. Trench 74B/73A; Trench 93E/98, +4.97/5.06 m. Trenches 74B/76B, 93E/101A. LM IA 99. LM IB Late (and with possible LM IIIA:2 and Iron Final. No notable finds. Age sherd contamination in the east area, excavated in The use of the lowest and probably the original floor Trench 74B/74A). in X3 is dated by Pottery Group X3:1 to LM IA Final. There are organic remains and traces of burning on the The pottery, consisting mostly of conical cups and a floor, mostly in the northwest corner of the room, where couple of pouring vessels, is not revealing as to the we found the remains of a possible hearth made up of function of the space beyond the possibility that the small upright slabs.76 These finds suggest that X3 contin- vessels actually were stored there. ued to serve as a kitchen. Once again, conical cups were Pottery Group X3:2. Fill over surface at +5.08/5.14 m the most common shape. and up to +5.20 m. Trenches 74B/75A, 76A; 93E/101, It is probably during this last phase that the only door 101A, and 110 (the last one representing accumulation leading into X3 was blocked, thus putting that room out over the threshold). Trench 93E/112 was used for clear- of use (Pl. 1.12C). The base of the blocking wall at +5.23 ing the location with the plaster debris. LM IB Late. m falls between Pottery Groups X3:4 and X3:5. Lw 52 Loomweight Ch. 3.3 Pottery Group X3:5. Fill on surface at ca. +5.30/5.35 Plaster debris Ch. 2 m and up to +5.35/5.40 m, below a fill of soft brown soil. Bones and shells Ch. 4 Trench 74B/72A, Trench 93E/96 (lower fill over floor). Bo57 Worked bone Ch. 4 LM IB Late or Final. The phase associated with Pottery Group X3:2 repre- Lw 15 Loomweight Ch. 3.3 sents continued use over a surface dating to LM IB Late. Lw 54 Loomweight Ch. 3.3 This fill extends over the room’s threshold as well. Frag - Faunal remains Ch. 4 ments of two cooking vessels, as well as signs of burning Typically for the LM III period, the pottery includes and of charcoal and faunal remains (some shells and for eign imports, in this case a Cypriot White-painted meat-bearing animal bones) may constitute refuse from Wheel-made I jug (C 10366). Some other shapes led food consumed or prepared in the room. On the basis of Rutter to suggest that this phase in X3 may be contem- the date of the pottery, Rutter suggests that this floor may porary with the earlier of the two use phases in X7 dat- have been contemporary with the earliest surface in the ing to LM IIIA:1–2. The soft brown soil topping the Shrine in X7 (at +5.30 m) and with the phase associated strat um may represent part of the collapsed ceiling and with Pottery Group X2:7 in Space X2. the packing of the upper floor. Household objects, most A small pile of debris (stones and pieces of disinte- notably the loomweights, could have come from a well- grated plaster) found in the room’s southwest corner lit space upstairs. ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 33

Pottery Group X3:6. Upper fill from +5.35/5.40 m to Space X3 shares similarities with X2, namely a small +5.55/5.60 m, sealed at the top by a deep rubble fill. size, a location along the north facade of the house, and Trenches 59A/13, 74B/71A, 93E/95. LM IIIA. the presence of a single door, which in X3 had direct Lw 56 Loomweight Ch. 3.3 access only to X6. The latter’s slab installation relating to Bones and shells Ch. 4 the use and disposal of water may explain this direct connection, since cooking, assumed to have been the main Fill within X3 reaches higher up, but no longer as a activity in X3, is often associated with washing and other result of use. The fill dating to LM III (related to Pottery use of water. Groups X3:6 and X3:7) probably derives both from a gradual collapse of the upper story and from dumping. Pottery Group X3:7 is, in fact, a dump likely intended to Space X6 level the area for the construction of the two walls built ARCHITECTURE within X3, suggested above to have been built in the Early Iron Age. Space X6 is a roughly square area, measuring ca. 3.26 Pottery Group X3:7. Fill dumped as a foundation for m east–west, 3.05 m north–south on its west side, and an Archaic floor at ca. +5.95 m, related to the two upper- 3.67 m north–south on its east side. The longer east wall most walls in the northwest corner of X3. Trenches may have been required to bring the southeast corner of 59A/10; 74B/68A, 69A, 70A; 93E/89, 92, 93. LM X6 close enough to the north end of the west wall of X15 IIIA:2–IIIB and Archaic. for a door to be installed there. Such a door, had there been one, would have controlled access to the main part Cl 6 Terracotta slab Ch. 3.5 of the house for outsiders entering from the corridor or Me 26 Fishhook Ch. 3.2 lobby X16. On the other hand, locking such a door still Bones and shells Ch. 4 would have allowed people coming into the house to be Ruscillo notes the presence of bones and shells, directed north, to areas X11–X12 and semihypaethral including 52 Glycymeris. She makes the interesting sug- X10, where outsiders might have been allowed to either gestion that this dump may derive from either X2 or X7, deliver materials or work for the day. given the presence of pottery suggested by Rutter to have Along with the immediately adjacent spaces X3, X2, religious associations. Of the two spaces, this author and X5, X6 was part of the core of the house (Fig. 1.2). would prefer a derivation from X7, as X2 became in later The most striking evidence for its utilitarian function is times a dumping ground but may or may not have func- the large stone slab that was set on a low platform in the tioned as a shrine earlier on. space’s southwest corner. The slab tilted down slightly Recovered from the level above, in 74B/62C, was a toward the west, next to an opening in the wall that served stand ing female figurine F 4 (discussed in Ch. 3.7). as a drain and helped channel liquid used on or over the slab to a sump in the southeast corner of X5. In this cen- SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS tral group of rooms, it may not be an accident that after Space X3 was a much-used space, marked by rather X5, X6 had the most doorways; X5 had four, X6 three extensive remodeling. It seems to have served as a kit - (Fig. 1.27). chen nearly from the beginning, as shown by the presence There are further symmetries in plan between X6 and of cooking pots, burned surfaces, the remains of animal X5. For instance, each had direct access through a north species used for food, and, later on, a possible hearth. The door to another space (respectively, X3 and X2) with only predominance of conical cups might suggest that con- one door. X6 and X5 had direct communication with sumption of food took place in the same space or that X3 each other through a connecting door. This was located served as pantry as well as kitchen. centrally between the two doors in X2 and X3 on the Later remodeling involved the installation of the new north. Finally, X6 and X5 each had south doors (leading, east wall, the partial rebuilding of the south wall in respectively, to X9 and X8) that were the largest in the 77 order to narrow the width of the doorway, and finally, house. The lack of cut doorjamb bases as well as of spe- the blocking of the doorway. All these events appear to cial cuttings on the thresholds raises the question of have happened during LM IB Late. After the blocking whether any entrances were equipped with doors; they of the doorway, the room must have been used as a may simply have had wooden frames, but for the entrance dumping place, with some materials deriving from the in X5, leading to X4, where doorjambs in stone suggest a Shrine (X7), as Rutter’s preliminary ceramic reports door. Eventually, all of the doorways of X6 were blocked indicate. The end of X3’s history is marked by the level- (Fig. 1.5), the northern two having been narrowed first, as ing of what remained of its upper walls and the dump- discussed in the surveys of X5 and X3. Be fore the south- ing of soil in preparation for Iron Age construction. ern doorway in X5 was blocked, a number of slabs were 34 MARIA C. SHAW added to its threshold, whereas in the case of X3, the floor slab (ca. 1.00 m2) was tilted, its upper surface slop- blocking materials were set on fill that had accumulated ing toward the west from +5.04 m to +4.93 m. It had over its threshold, as build-up over its original floor. been pos itioned in such a way that its axis lined up with The east wall of X6 was the thickest, measuring ca. the drain. Perhaps to maintain its position and slant or to 0.75 m (Figs. 1.6, 1.27; Pls. 1.10A, 1.11C, 1.12D). The provide a step up from the somewhat lower floor, there reason for this is that it was also the southern extension of was a row of smaller slabs positioned along the slab’s the west wall of X10, which, being part of a semihy- east and south sides. Most were roughly rectangular, the paethral portico, required extra strength. The east wall exception being a large triangular one with its longer was preserved at its highest for five to six courses that straight side along the big slab’s eastern side. This was were 0.70–0.80 m high, which also was the preserved clearly used as a step. height of the east part of the south wall. The western part As noted above, the original room and its doorways in stands to about the same height, but much of its north particular were remodeled. The doorway leading to X5 face is partially concealed by the installation in the room’s has already been discussed in the survey of that space. corner of the slanted slab surrounded by stones, which As seen from X5, the two thick slabs serving as the new also limits what we can see of the south part of the west threshold sat on fill accumulated over the original wall of X6 (Fig. 1.27).78 threshold (Pl. 1.9F), but within X6 a row of small blocks When first excavated, each of the interior faces of the supported them (Fig. 1.27). Evidence from X5 suggests north and west walls of X6 was concealed by later walls that the laying of a new threshold and the narrowing of built up against them (Figs. 1.5, 1.8). Both were built like the door may have been carried out in quick succession. retaining walls, i.e., they consisted of only one face, a sec- The doorway was narrowed from 0.92 m to ca. ond face added higher up when each acquired full width, 0.55/0.60 m (Figs. 1.22, 1.23). Building a new doorjamb with a second face added there. Of the two later walls, the for the new doorway was not a simple operation. To allow north one (some five irregular courses preserved ca. 0.80 the new segment of the wall to bond, the earlier jamb was m high) started at ca. +5.71 m as measured at its center dismantled first and then allowed to extend north. and at +5.53 m farther west. The west wall started at the Interestingly, the seam between the old and new parts is room’s northwest corner, covering the east face of the still visible from within X6 (Fig. 1.8). The cleaning of blockage of the doorway that once led to X5 (Figs. 1.5, that area and removal of part of the west wall revealed the 1.6),79 but it was preserved for only 1.50 m, its southern previously concealed base of the original wall, which on part having been robbed out, likely in Iron Age times.80 It this side juts out for a short distance just east of the new consisted of four to five untidy courses, ca. 0.63 m high, wall and jamb, where it was covered by a single upright and it measured 0.30–0.40 m in width, with its base slop- slab (Fig. 1.27). As for the blocking of the doorway, its ing from +5.37 m to +5.32 m north to south. eastern side facing into X6 is rougher than that seen from The single-faced later walls were removed by us, al - X5, probably because X6 went out of use earlier than X5. low ing us to reach the original floor under them in X6. The history of the southern entrance into X6 is sim- This floor was mostly exposed in the north part of the pler. It was simply blocked by a rather solid wall and room (Fig. 1.27) and was made of hard-packed soil with does not seem to have been narrowed. some slabs set mostly along the north wall and a few others scattered midway along the east wall. The slabs STRATIGRAPHY, FINDS, AND USE helped determine the level of the initial floor, which was Space X6 was excavated in four trenches. The exca- ca. +4.88/4.90 m. From there one stepped up to go into vation of Trench 59A (1984) and Trench 66A (1985) X3 and X5 (the level in the latter sloping toward the south exposed the west side of the room, the former remov- from +4.93 m to +4.87/4.85 m). The floor in X6 also ing the upper levels and the latter continuing down to sloped, as we know from the level of the threshold of the the floor. Trench 73B (1991) exposed the eastern part, southern doorway, its top surface at +4.70 m in the cen- while Trench 93A (1994) removed the remnants of the ter, where it had cracked and subsided, and +4.73 m at the later north wall and also cleared fill along the original two ends. wall, revealing the paving slabs of the original floor. There are good reasons to believe that the stone slab Excavation at the level of the slabs and the surface of and the drain were already in place at the time of the the soil around them was limited to the north half of the original floor. That the drain, a nearly square opening room. Fill dated to LM IA Final (with some MM II (measuring 0.20 m in width and 0.40 m in height) in the sherds) represents the earliest preserved use. Few of the room’s west wall, was an integral part of the original wall small finds were indicative of function, and the pottery is indicated by the presence of a slab spanning the aper- was quite broken up, although sherds from other areas of ture at the top and the fact that the courses immediately Crete and from Cyprus are nevertheless of some interest. above it show no sign of having been rebuilt. The large ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 35

Pottery Group X6:1. Fill from +4.75 m (a possible sur- collapsed from a room upstairs. There were a few tools (a face) to +4.80/4.85 m (base of the paving slabs; Trench whetstone, a piece of bone with a worked point, and a 93E/107). Mixed MM II and LM IA Final. quern) as well as remains of weaving activity (a spindle St 36 Obsidian wedge Ch. 3.4 whorl, a loomweight, and a needle). The weaving tools A few bones Ch. 4 are more likely to derive from a space upstairs. Weaving is also suspected to have taken place over X3, as further Pottery Group X6:2. Fill from surface at +4.85 m to discussed in Chapter 5 below. +4.90 m. Trenches 66A/40; 73B/112 and 116; part of The pottery shapes represented are mostly cups and 93E/103. LM IB Late. jugs, as in the preceding phase, but an amphora and parts Lw 18 Loomweight Ch. 3.3 of one or more stirrup jars are also present. Rutter calls Me 13 Metal strip Ch. 3.2 attention to the close resemblance of some of the pottery S 2284 Saddle quern to that from the LM II dump in X10. Therefore, the S 2285 Saddle quern dumping best represented by Pottery Group X6:5 may St 6 Whetstone Ch. 3.4 have started as early as LM II. This would naturally sig- Bones and shells Ch. 4 nify the end of use of X6 as a room proper and the begin- The next higher level was excavated throughout the ning of its function as a dumping place. room and dates to LM IB Late. There were a few small Ruscillo’s study shows that the faunal remains included meat-bearing and non-meat-bearing mammal bones, finds and a Knossian ceramic import. The single loom - along with fish bones and more shells of the types found weight (Lw 18) may have come down from a collapsed in the previous pottery group. She raises the question of upper story, where weaving may have taken place. Of the whether these fell from an upper floor, given the sugges- two saddle querns found (S 2284 and S 2285), one was tion made by the present author that this may be the found directly east of the entrance to X3, while the other derivation of other objects found at this level. She also was found in the southeast area, near the east wall. They sug gests that the food materials may have been on the could have been used for food preparation, an activity ground floor and that the objects related to weaving had also suggested by the presence of shells and meat-bear- 81 fallen on top of them. I favor the idea that food prepara- ing bones (identified by Ruscillo, Ch. 4). tion (or even consumption) is more likely to have taken It must have been some time after this phase that the place upstairs. southern doorway of X6 was blocked, although the LM Pottery Group X6:5. Fill overlying a surface at IB Late sherds obtained from the blocking materials +5.05/5.14 m and up to ca. +5.75 m. Trenches 66A/26, (Pottery Group X6:3) are not necessarily dependable 27, 31, 34, 36; 73B/71, 99, 101, 102, 106, 108, 110, 111, for dating the blocking, which may have occurred later. 113 (in part). LM IIIA:1. Pottery Group X6:3. Fill from the removal of the Lw 19, Lw 22– blocking wall of the southern doorway in X6. Trench Lw 24, Lw 53 Loomweights Ch. 3.3 93E/104. LM IB Late. No notable finds. J 11 Stone pendant Ch. 3.6 Pottery Group X6:4. Fill or dump (as suggested by Me 7 Wire or hook Ch. 3.2 Rutter) on floor at ca. +4.90 m and up to ca. +5.05/5.14 Me 9 Metal strips Ch. 3.2 m. Trenches 66A/37 (in part); 73B/110, 111, and 113 Fr 9 Plaster molding Ch. 2 (in part); 93E/103 (in part); 81C/40. LM II. S 1936 Whetstone Lw 20 Loomweight Ch. 3.3 St 7 Whetstone Ch. 3.4 Sp 64 Spindle whorl Ch. 3.3 St 10 Pestle Ch. 3.4 Bo 30 Bone with worked point Ch. 4 The stratum associated with Pottery Group X6:5 is F 3 Horn of bull(?) figurine Ch. 3.7 shown by the character of its pottery likely to be a dump Me 21 Needle Ch. 3.2 dating to LM IIIA:1 Early. Because of the character of S 1947 Quern this fill, neither the small finds nor the pottery can be Bones and shells Ch. 4 viewed as diagnostic of the room’s use. The dump can be P 293 a–c Plaster pieces, floral Ch. 2 informative, however, about the status of the house as a The last clear phase of use in X6 is represented by fill whole in this particular phase and about activities taking over a surface at +4.90 m and up to ca. +5.05/5.14 m, place. The most crucial evidence is the pottery, and not which is level with and just higher than the raised thresh- only because it informs us of widespread foreign imports old of the northwest doorway. This fill dates to LM II, and (from Egypt, the Cyclades, and the Greek mainland), but the finds, including the washing slab, may offer some evi- also because joins with pottery from the basal levels in dence for the interpretation of the use of the room, unless the Shrine (X7) suggest, according to Rutter, that many the fill is a dump or it is partially made up of materials of the dumped vessels may derive from there. 36 MARIA C. SHAW

The small finds included stone tools and imple- Eastern Sector of the House ments, and, more interestingly, a good number of loom - weights. Al though these, too, may have been part of a Space X10 dump, they could also have derived from a collapsed upper story where weaving took place, given the con- ARCHITECTURE AND TOPOGRAPHY centration of loom weights in the upper levels of the Space X10 is located in the northeast corner of the ground floor rooms. Thus, the makeup of the fill may house and, from the extent that it could be excavated, combine dumped and collapsed materials. we know that it is defined by two walls, one on the west Ruscillo offers a long list of faunal remains. As with and the other on the south, the latter with a lateral door the remains discussed under the preceding group, these leading to X11/X12. X10 probably had no wall on the may have derived from a big dump in X6. She also lists east; the two pillars set there in a north–south line sug- a good number of ornamental shells and some 160 gest it was a portico, open to the outdoors both on the water-worn Glycymeris valves. Because of their strati- east, onto Road 32/34, and, likely, also on the north, graphic location, she argues that these must have been onto the hillside (Fig. 1.2). part of a subfloor that allowed the drainage of rainwater. In addition to the two pillars, support for the ceiling Pottery Group X6:6. Fill over surface at ca. +5.70 m. was provided by the west and south walls. The north Trenches 59A/20, 21, 22; 73B/98. LM IIIA:2 and sev- extension of the former projected ca. 0.75 m beyond the enth century B.C. facade of House X and was constructed like a pier (Pl. Bones and shell Ch. 4 1.13A). This projection lined up with the northern of the two pillars, standing some distance to its east. Further The level associated with Pottery Group X6:6 may support for the idea that there was a portico here is pro- represent fill over a soil surface, perhaps the floor asso- vided by the thickness of the space’s west wall, which ciated with the later walls described previously as hav- matches that of the house’s north facade. The west wall ing been built partly against and on top of the original thus functioned as a back wall in a semihypaethral space. (and now leveled) north and west walls. The date of this Based on the reconstruction of the line of the house’s east fill is LM IIIA:2 or LM IIIB, mixed with seventh-cen- facade, it is proposed that the two pillars were not set tury sherds. Aside from the pottery there were no along the north–south axis of X10 but were instead clos- notable finds. The presence of Iron Age sherds suggests er to the space’s east edge. Part of the west face of the east that this surface was reused as an outdoor area, and that wall of the house was located farther south, in X15e (Fig. a simple, nearly square hearth found on it was used for 1.2; Pls. 1.14A, 1.14B), and given that the east facade cooking and perhaps other activities that required fire. would have followed the line of the road, this wall should have continued north in a straight line.82 If it ran far SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS enough north, this unseen east wall would have passed Space X6 was used for domestic and for possibly just east of the pillars, but it would not have risen above industrial purposes, given the installation of the slab. floor level, or not much. The idea of a portico is also sug- Otherwise few diagnostic finds remain to testify to the gested by the lack of a north wall, which could be veri- space’s initial use, which was largely eradicated. Over fied, since we were able to extend the excavation over the LM II floor and in higher strata, the most frequent 2.00 m north of the pier and the north pillar without finds besides pottery and stone tools are loomweights, encountering such a wall. Had there been a wall farther which may have fallen from an upper story. It is clear north, it should have turned south directly north of the that the south doorway of X6 was blocked by LM II. If pier to act with it as one of the jambs of a doorway giv- the door leading to X5 was not blocked at the same ing access to the interior, but no such return or jamb was time, then it must have been soon after, given the dis- found. covery among the dumped fill in X6 of sherds joining It is reasonable to assume that the ceiling of X10 ex - with LM IIIA:1 pottery from basal levels in the Shrine tended somewhat beyond the floor area, the overhang in X7 (Pottery Group X6:5). The latest use of X6 is ensuring shade and keeping out the rain. On the basis of associated with walls built atop the ruined walls of the this reconstruction, the dimensions of X10 would be room, and these surely belong to another era of con- approximately 5.20 m north–south and a maximum of struction that may or may not have been undertaken by 4.40 m east–west. It was not uncommon for Minoan por- descendants of the original inhabitants of House X. ticoes to face the outdoors and, occasionally, even a As an addendum to the history of this area, it should road.83 The level of X10’s floor was likely higher than be noted that a stone spindle whorl (Sp 62) and a jew- Road 32 on its east, but by how much it is now impossi- eler’s stone mold (J 19) were found higher in mixed ble to calculate, as we do not know how steep this road Archaic and Minoan levels. was. If Road 32 was higher than Road 17 to the south of ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 37

House X, then at the intersection of these two roads there north–south, 0.72 m east–west, and 0.70 m in height may have been steps leading up to Road 32 as it climbed (level at top: +5.92 m, level at bottom: +5.22 m). The the hill.84 Whatever the relative levels of the floor and the southern pillar measures 0.70 m north–south, 0.72 m road, it is possible that a low parapet was built along the east–west, and 0.58 m in height (level at top: +5.81 m, east edge of X10, if not to prevent someone from climb- level at bottom: +5.25 m). Thus, the blocks were nearly ing into the room from the road, then at least to mark it equal in size, except for their height, the southern block as a private space. being some 0.12 m shorter. It is probable that the area north of the portico was un - While some Minoan pillars rested on a wide, low, structured and used as a yard for carrying out household stone platform set within the floor,89 this was not the case chores. It could also have been used for planting food with the two pillars at Kommos. Small slabs were placed crops or a pleasure garden.85 Security may not have been under them here and there, clearly helping to level the a concern if no portable valuables were stored in X10. bottom block, but these may not have projected above More over, access to the rest of the house would not have floor level, except in the case of the southern pillar, where been available once the southern door of this space was such support projected somewhat beyond the block (Fig. locked. 1.6; Pl. 1.14C).90 In both of the pillars, the blocks were Among the refinements in the construction of the por- made of a type of sandy fossiliferous stone, which was tico is the consistency in the distances between the suc- occasionally used in stone implements, including the tall cessive upright supports (the pier and the pillars), as well mortar found in X10 (Blitzer 1995, 419, 481). More in - as between the south pillar and the room’s south wall, all teresting is that blocks of the same unusual material were of which were approximately 2.00 m apart. The two pil- found built into the foundation course of the three visible lars and the pier were also similar in size, their sides rang- walls of Greek Building F. The obvious conclusion is that ing from 0.70 m to 0.75 m. The wall construction is not the Greek builders helped themselves to blocks once used as exceptional, at least on the face of the west wall visi- in the Minoan pillars. In the case of the southern pillar, a ble from within X10. The north face of the south wall block may still have been sitting atop the one we found in could not be exposed in excavation, concealed as it was situ. All the Iron Age mason had to do was to lift it up and by fill underlying a later wall built over it. reposition it, in this case, two steps away, at the northwest The north end of the west wall with its pier (Fig. 1.6; corner of the foundation course of Building F (Pl. 1.14C). Pl. 1.13A) preserved for some eight to nine courses With regard to the superstructure above the pillar por- (+6.53 m at the top level) is unusual in its construction. tico (further considered below in Ch. 5), there are three This structure was provided with a solid foundation not possibilities. (1) The pillars merely carried a roof. (2) common in Minoan non-elite domestic architecture: a There was a large room upstairs, as wide as X10, with massive uncut stone projecting irregularly beyond all windows on the north and east. This latter possibility is three sides of the pier.86 The builders’ concern was clear- raised by the presence of loomweights in X10, where ly to prevent subsidence, given the considerable weight some of the weaving tools may have ended up when the put on this support from the overlying superstructure. upper floor collapsed.91 (3) There was a portico-like Also impressive is the evidence for timber reinforcement space above the ground floor portico, as noted earlier inferred from a reasonably preserved course of the pier’s with reference to examples elsewhere on Crete. masonry, which shows the use of a single large stone Weathering patterns on the two pillar blocks may be block spanning the whole width of the pier (Pl. 1.13A). It relevant to the later history of X10, as weathering sug- is possible that the alternate courses above and below gests a long exposure. The north pillar seems to have suf- such large blocks incorporated segments of wooden fered the most, as its surfaces were blackened through beams set longitudinally and transversely at one or the exposure and pieces of the stone flaked off, particularly other of the pier’s two corners, where they may have around its southeast corner, which faced the road. On the acted as braces.87 Smaller stones used as further support southern pillar, contrastingly, the stone retains its yellow- and to chink the gaps fell out as soon as the wood ish hue from the sand content, and one can see white decayed. Longer pieces of wood set transversely along specks from shells or fossils in it. the longer sides of the pier tied the narrow end of the pier The replacement of the east wall of Space X3 (Figs. to the wall with which it continued south. 1.5, 1.6; Pl. 1.13A), initially the thick west wall of the The pillars consisted of superposed squared stone por tico X10, must have been undertaken because it was blocks that were kept in place merely through their damaged. The damage must have occurred sometime weight, except for the highest block, which would prob- between LM IB and LM II and may have signaled the ably have been secured by means of wooden tenons to a end of the use of X10, when the doorway leading south wooden framework attached to the ceiling.88 Of the bot- to X11/X12 and the remaining parts of House X was tom blocks, the northern pillar measures 0.78 m also blocked. 38 MARIA C. SHAW

Construction postdating House X in the area of X10 and somewhat to the west, locating in the process the is represented by an east–west wall with a short southern base of the pier and a later wall extending north from return on the west, built over the south wall of X10, the just west of the pier and north of X3 (Fig. 1.6; Pl. door of which was already blocked. The northernmost of 1.13A). the two later walls could be followed in excavation as it The levels reached in excavation varied somewhat. continued ca. 2.20 m east, running under the floor of Trench 11A continued down to bedrock (at ca. +4.30/ Greek Building F (Fig. 1.6). Its preservation there was 4.32 m) in a sounding set in the room’s southwest cor- somewhat lower (ca. +5.54 m versus +5.85/5.88 m on ner. Above it lay a sandy fill ca. 0.50 thick containing the west), probably as a result of leveling in the Greek Protopalatial sherds (Betancourt 1990, 65–68). Over the period. It is built of good-sized rectangular blocks that sand lay a thin layer of soil containing MM III–LM IA may have been robbed from the underlying and leveled sherds (Trench 11A/40) topped by the first recognizable adjacent walls, and it measures ca. 0.55 m in width like floor (made of soil) at ca. +4.95 m (the top part of its south return, of which only a small part was pre- Trench 11A/40). In his ceramic report, Rutter treats this served. last level as the first surface associated with X10, inter- Two walls were also revealed at the east scarp, bare- preting the pottery over it (Pottery Group X10:1) as a ly projecting from it (Fig. 1.6; Pl. 1.13A). These were dump of LM II date. Of similar date, and treated as part set above the original floor of X10. The northern one of the same pottery group, was pottery excavated in the (approximately 0.68 m wide, its elevations at ca. +5.41 north part of X10 and outdoors to the north. m at the bottom and ca. +6.36 m at the top) was placed Lack of earlier pottery in X10 is likely due to the sys- roughly across the north pillar, but not in line with it, tematic clearing of debris from earlier use, perhaps to and it seems to end on the west with a sloppily built anta maintain the level of the floor, rather than being an indi- made of rubble and cut stones clearly quarried from ear- cation that X10 was not part of the plan of the original lier walls. The southern wall (ca. 0.85 m wide), also House X. The surface of its floor rose toward the north, roughly built, projects some 0.75 m west of the scarp, as also indicated by the west wall of X10. The base of and it is preserved for three to four courses (its eleva- that wall reached as high as +5.20/5.22 m, a level tions at +6.36 m at the top and +5.66/5.70 m at the bot- matched by the area farther east of it, where the north tom). It was built just north of the southern pillar, and its pillar was located. The LM II dump itself sloped down destroyed west face suggests that it may have once con- toward the north from its highest point, where it was tinued west, just north of the pillar. dumped first against the south wall of X10. Another feature of a later date is what the excavator Pottery Group X10:1. Fill on surface at +4.96 m and described as a platform—a small area (ca.1.10m x 0.80 up to +5.60/5.65 m in the southern three-quarters of the m) along the north side of the northeast pillar roughly room: Trench 11A/19, 20, 21, 24, 26, 31, 35; fill on the covered by slabs of varying sizes and shapes, their top same surface from ca. +5.11 m and up to 5.79/5.82/5.83 levels ranging from +5.99 m to +6.08 m, their bases from m in the northern part of the room: Trench 87A/46, 49, +5.87 m to 5.92 m (Figs. 1.6, 1.20). However, since the 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 60, 64, 66, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73. LM II. so-called platform is immediately adjacent to a pile of J 3 Glass bead Ch. 3.6 stones and slabs that seem to have come from a collapsed Lw 30–Lw 35, wall (its top at +5.80/6.00, its base at +5.35/5.45 m), it Lw 50, Lw 59, may simply be part of that pile. At least one large squared Lw 60 Loomweights Ch. 3.3 stone found next to the pier’s northeast corner and lean- GS 519 Cobble Blitzer 1995, ing against it had likely fallen from the pier (Fig 1.8, top pl. 8.42 GS 244 Whetstone Blitzer 1995, right; Pl. 1.14D). pl. 8.15 GS 002 Cobble Blitzer 1995, STRATIGRAPHY, FINDS, AND USE pl. 8.3 The southern portion of X10, along with the north- GS 649 Quern Blitzer 1995, ern part of X11/X12, was the first part of House X to 480 S 144, S 342, be discovered in 1977, when an exploratory trench S 139, S 334, (11A) was set some distance away from the principal S 2341, S 2324 Stone tools foci of excavation at the time, namely, the main part of S 2241 Fragment of the Minoan town to the north. Excavation of X10 was quern resumed in 1993, when Trench 87A revealed the north- Me 2 Metal rod Ch. 3.2 ern portion of the space and a small area to its north. St 31 Quern Ch. 3.4 Finally, the excavation of Trench 93E (1994) removed St 32 Mortar Ch. 3.4 fill left at a level higher than the floor north of the pier ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 39

As it was part of a dump, the fill and finds associat- as far down as the level of the top of the bottom block of ed with Pottery Group X10:1 cannot be trusted to the south pillar.92 Blocks must have been available above reveal the types of activities that took place within X10, this level, whether still in situ or fallen and scattered, and and this is particularly true of the pottery. There is a their reuse in the foundations of Building F clearly dates considerable quantity of bones from this deposit, but to the time of the latter’s construction in the late sixth 93 few shells. Whether these remains derived from food century B.C. It is interesting and probably not coinci- processing or preparation in this area is unclear. There dental that the long west wall of the Greek building was is a chance, however, that some of the objects found positioned directly south of the pillars and in the same may have been deposited before the dumping took north–south axis, which made it easier for the Greek place, and these could throw some light on the use of builders to lift the blocks off the south pillar.94 this area. For example, the heavier stone implements could plausibly have been used in X10, a large and Space X11/X12 well-illuminated space with immediate access to the hillside to the north. A tall cylindrical mortar and a ARCHITECTURE quern (St 32, St 31) were probably used for food pro- This space appears originally to have been a single cessing. The mortar was made of the same granular large room that was later divided into two corridor-like sandy stone as the pillars in X10. Quite possibly the spaces when two walls meeting at right angles were mortar was carved out of a piece of stone left over after installed in it (Figs. 1.2, 1.5, 1.6; Pl. 1.15A). The original the pillars were built. Both the main part of the mortar north–south dimension of the space (2.85 m) is clear, but and the quern were found in the heap of stones lying the east–west dimension (3.10 m) can only be inferred directly west of the northeast pillar and extending west from our estimate of the line of the house’s east facade. to the pier. A smaller piece of the rim of the mortar was The width of the space’s southern entrance, of which the exposed through erosion some years after formal exca- west jamb is visible, but not the east one, is unknown. In vation had ended, in fill that was left unexcavated Figure 1.2 we have restored the entrance in a nearly cen- against the south wall of X10 and under the somewhat tral position, with the east part of the south wall being projecting wall that had been built over it later on. The somewhat shorter than the west one. This may have actu- numerous loomweights may have fallen from a weav- ally been the case, as we restored the east wall of ing room above X10. X11/X12 along the line of what we can be certain repre- Pottery Group X10:2. Contents of floor (above the LM sents the interior face of the east facade wall of the II dump), from +5.70 m to +5.80 m. Trench 11A/17. LM house. A small portion of the facade running IIIA:2. north–south along some of the bottom steps was exposed C 5644 Clay disk during the excavation of X15e (Pl. 1.14B, middle rear). Me 6 Metal strip Ch. 3.2 The fairly large size of X11/X12 made it suitable for Pottery Group X10:3. Fill over floor at +5.80 m and household activities. It may therefore have been more up to +5.88 m. Trench 11A/15. Late Minoan IIIA:2. No than a simple passageway to and from the northern notable finds. rooms, although the latter function must also have been The next floor was found at a considerably higher a prominent one. The traffic may have included people level, as high as +5.80/5.82 m, and this creates a prob- coming daily from elsewhere to participate in activities lem for dating the two walls jutting out from the east taking place in the large and partly hypaethral Space X10 scarp, the bases of which are higher than the original to the north. In view of the hypothesis that outsiders may walls but lower than the top level of the dump. Possibly have used the latter area, it would also make sense for they were built at a point in between, and dumping took X11/X12 to have had a proper door to prevent access to place incrementally. As very little is known about these the rest of the house, including the large staircase (X15) walls, their use remains a mystery. Rather problematic positioned next to the entrance from outdoors. The idea also is the date of construction of the east–west wall of outsiders partaking of activities in X10 and in partic- over the south wall of X10. ular of coming to the house to receive manufactured or Rutter has called attention to the presence of tiny prepared goods to take to the palace finds further sup- sherds in this stratum that he suggests represents the com- port in the proximity of X11/X12 to the main or only position of the floor (Pottery Group X10:2). In view of exterior door of the house. Exiting through Lobby X16, the date, this may represent a surface laid out during the the carriers of whatever materials were involved could use of LM III monumental Building P, though little is simply take the slab-paved south road leading directly to known of its use, given the scarcity of finds. the entrance of the storage areas in the northeast quarters The Iron Age reoccupation of this area provides a of Building T (Fig. 1.2). Although a phase of destruction sequel to the history of House X. Greek sherds appeared in LM IA put some rooms in the northeast corner of 40 MARIA C. SHAW

Building T out of use, the building’s east wing may have The gamma-shaped structure was poorly built (Pl. continued in service until it was replaced by Building P. 1.15B), and it was leveled when later construction took The construction of the original walls in X11/X12 place farther north. Little remains of that activity, except was not unlike that in the rest of the house. The west for a large block found resting on soil above the earlier wall is the southern continuation of the west wall of wall (Pl. 1.15C). Whether this was part of LM III or Iron X10, with the same thickness of 0.70–0.75 m, typical Age construction is unknown. The level of the block at of the width of the north facade of the house as well. It +5.71 m is indicated in the state plan (Fig. 1.6); that of is preserved for four to five courses, ca. 0.95 m high the Minoan wall below is at ca. +5.53 m. (the maximum level at its top is +5.71–5.75 m). Of the gamma-shaped structure’s two walls, only the Only the north wall’s south face remains visible from west wall (Pl. 1.15C) has been completely exposed (its within X11/X12, along with the blocking of the door- width 0.55–0.57 m), although its proximity to the east way (Figs. 1.3, 1.5; Pl. 1.14C). As seen in an architec- scarp does not allow us to see fully its east face there. tural section, the blocking masonry was badly Again, only the outer or north face of the north wall is destroyed, while the wall itself was preserved for about visible, with the interior south face vaguely discernible five courses (central part of section D–D'; Fig. 1.29). only from the top (Pl. 1.15A). The two late walls were As some of the stones were missing from the bottom built very far down, the north one at ca. +4.78 m, the west course of the anta, while the blocking masonry started one at +4.83 m. The practice of setting a later structure so somewhat lower down, it is possible that there might deep is paralleled by the blocking of the doorway in once have been a threshold that was removed at the X11/X12. Both the blocking process and the wall evi- time the blocking was installed, perhaps for reuse else- dently preceded the construction of another wall with the where. The width of this doorway is ca. 0. 60 m. Only south return built atop both the north wall of X11/X12 ca. 1.20 m of the wall is visible today, but it is clear that and the blocking of the doorway leading to X 10 (Fig. it continued east under Greek Building F, ending at the 1.6; Pl. 1.14C). house’s east facade wall. The visible portion consists of five courses (ca. 0.80 m high). There is nothing note- STRATIGRAPHY, FINDS, AND USE worthy in its construction. The stratigraphic phases in X11/X12 are similar to The visible part of the south wall of X11/X12 is those encountered in X10, but the insertion of the some 1.40 m long (Pl. 1.15A). It too was constructed of gamma-shaped structure is difficult to date, except in rel- a variety of stones, except for its anta, which was built ative terms, given the depth at which its two walls were with somewhat larger cut blocks. The wall was ca. 0.60 set and the fact that we could not dig deep enough with- m wide as measured at the anta, which is fully pre- in it. We thus have no knowledge of the initial floor. served, unlike the south face of the wall that was appar- Excavation was carried out in two trenches, 11A ently dismantled and rebuilt, bringing its width to ca. (1977) in X11 and 73B (1991) in X12. A deep stratum 0.80 m. As visible from within X16 to the south (Pl. of Protopalatial date was revealed in the north part of 1.15B, left rear) where its base was reached, the added the space, where excavation with Trench 11A contin- southern face is preserved for some four courses. From ued down to a greater depth (Trench 11A/36, 38, 41, this side, it is obvious that the new face started at a level 33). Partially exposed fill of similar date in the south- somewhat below that of the paving slabs (at ca. +4.60 ern part (Trench 73A/109, in part) also contained MM m) in X16, and there is a chance that slabs were III–LM IA sherds above what may have been the orig- removed when this face was built. inal floor at ca. +4.85 m. The character of X11/X12 changed radically when Because of its better-preserved and more representa- the gamma-shaped structure was built within it (Figs. tive pottery, the next Neopalatial floor (at +5.00/5.05m) 1.5, 1.6; Pl. 1.15A). The north–south wall of this struc- was the first to be treated as a pottery group (X11/X12:1), ture was built against the north side of the southern door- dated to LM IB Late. The pottery, consisting of cups and way’s west anta. At its north end it turned east. If this pouring vessels, is not suggestive of any specific func- return continued to the house’s east wall, as it likely did, tion, but the presence of ceramic imports from other areas it would have blocked the doorway that led originally to of Crete is of interest. corridor X16. A small area in the southeast part of Pottery Group X11/X12:1. Floor at ca. 5.00/5.05 m X11/X12 would still have been accessible for use, possi- and fill above it to ca. +5.10/5.20 m. Trenches 11A/30 bly storage. It is a matter of speculation, but it is tempt- and 73B/107. LM IB Late. ing to asssociate this remodeling with the drastic change J 8 Shell pendant Ch. 3.6 in Staircase X15 made by blocking the entrance from Bones and shells Ch. 4 X16 into its sottoscala. ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 41

Ruscillo notes the presence of many ornamental Space X16 shells. She suggests that X11/X12 was a closet, used also to store jewelry, but the space might be too large for ARCHITECTURE such a function, not to mention its being right in the path Space X16, a corridor and lobby, played a crucial role of individuals entering the house from outside and pro- in circulation within House X. The main entrance to the ceeding to X10 and outdoors to the north, rather than house was located on its east side. From X16 it was pos- being closer to more private quarters, in the house’s sible to access Staircase X15e, and, through an entrance western rooms. under the staircase’s upper flight (X15w), one could Pottery Group X11/X12: 2. Dump over the LM IB Late enter a sottoscala area probably once used for storage floor, rising from ca. +5.20 m to +5.50/5.60 m. Trenches (X15s). One could also proceed west from X16 to X6 11A/25, 27 and most of Pails 18, 22, 23, 25, 27; and X9, each providing access to other rooms. 73B/parts of Pails 100 and 104. LM II. Today the main entrance to the house is invisible, lying Bo 4F, Bo 5 Worked bone Ch. 4 as it does below Greek Building F, but there is no reason Cl 5 Drain fragment Ch. 3.5 to doubt that it was located where we have restored it J 2 Bead Ch. 3.6 (Fig. 1.2), directly northeast of the staircase’s lower flight (X15e), an arrangement quite typical in houses of the Me 1 Metal shaft Ch. 3.2 97 Me 23 Tweezers Ch. 3.2 Bronze Age Aegean. Suitably, the entrance to the house St 12 Elongated cobble Ch. 3.4 was a short distance north of the intersection of Roads 32 Fr 10, P 292 Plaster fragments Ch. 2 and 17, the two roads skirting the house respectively on Bones and shells Ch. 4 the east and south. The dimensions of X16 can be calcu- Pumice and charcoal lated as ca. 2.60 m east–west and ca. 1.50 m north–south. The corridor narrowed toward the west, however, with the Like X10, X11/X12 was ultimately used for a dump, distance of ca. 0.70 m between the northwest corner of in this case a LM II deposit ca. 0.25 m thick, rising near- the staircase and the southeast corner of X6, an opening ly to the top of the walls as now preserved. Rutter notes that may have been closed by a door. the mixture of LM III sherds in the north part of this The exposed part of X16 is paved with stone slabs, dump and even historic sherds at the same level further except for a narrow strip along its north wall where one south. Finds other than pottery cannot be indicative of might have expected the slabs to continue (Pl. 1.15B). It use, since the dump must have contained objects discard- is possible that they were removed during a remodeling ed from different locations. Painted plaster fragments (P of the south wall of X11/X12, as suggested in a restored 291, P 292), the former cataloged as Fr 10, were either plan where the invisible or restored slabs are dashed dumped here or had fallen gradually from the space’s (Fig 1.30). The paved floor of X16 ended with a low walls (if these were painted). They are included here, step on the west (top at +4.63 m) leading up to the although the excavation unit to which they belong somewhat higher level of the soil floor of X9 to the east. (Trench 81C/32, 33) was not of sufficient ceramic impor- The pavement sloped down to the east, its lowest visible tance to be included in the pottery group. Other finds may slab there being at +4.55 m. The purpose of the slope not necessarily have been brought here from another may have been to minimize the difference between the location. For instance, pieces of a clay drain (Cl 5) could floor level of X16 and that of the road, thus requiring have fallen from the drain’s original position along the fewer steps at the entrance into the house if the street east facade of House X, where it would have carried rain- surface was considerably lower.98 Tentatively, we sug- water onto the road (J.W. Shaw 2004, 173–188). gest two steps, one set on the road along the east facade The next level represents the use of an upper structure of the house, the other acting as a threshold.99 with two walls, one built over the north wall of X11/X12, The road system and the location of entrances into the other that wall’s very partially preserved south return House X and Building T facilitated movement and com- on the west. The lower part of the related stratum is char- munication within their vicinities (Fig. 1.2). Slab-paved acterized by a mixture of LM II and III sherds (Trench Road 17 clearly led westward to the sea, but it probably 11A/14, 16). The LM II sherds represent the upper part also continued eastward (as Road 33). Although the of the dump merging with use in LM III. The presence exposure in excavation of north–south Road 32 and its of Greek sherds suggests that the post-Minoan settlers 95 southern continuation, Road 34, was limited, the slab- used what was once a Minoan surface. Iron Age activ- paved south part of Road 34 was revealed to lead direct- ities are of the type witnessed elsewhere in the Southern ly to a probable entrance of Building T located in the Area of the Kommos site. Cooking and eating are attest- north part of the east wall. The entrance from the road, ed by the evidence for burning and pieces of charcoal, which came to a stop just there, led into the northeastern along with quantities of bones and shells.96 42 MARIA C. SHAW and largely utilitarian part of Building T. This arrange- S 2348 Half of a large quern ment attests to the close relationship between these com- Bones and shells Ch. 4 plexes that the builders had in mind at the time when Plaster bits Ch. 2 House X was being built and Building T likely was still The presence of parts of three cooking vessels (C in use. Alternatively, such a connection may have exist- 11846, C 11848, C 11849), as well as some animal bones ed with a predecessor of House X, now lying under it, as and shells, may attest to cooking, with a related activity revealed in a sounding in Space X4. represented by the presence of a quern.101 There was also As usual with spaces in House X, architectural mod- a sizable accumulation of pumice (particularly in Pail ifications were made to X16. The addition of a new face 77), uncommon in House X, raising the question of the built like a retaining wall against its north wall was space’s function at this time. Pumice has been found in noted under the survey of X11/X12 (Fig. 1.5; Pl. 1.15A, several places in the town of Kommos, the largest quan- bottom center). X16 was also affected by the insertion tity being associated with a piece of iron oxide found of the gamma-shaped structure in X11/X12. Extending under a pot-bellows in Space N6 of the North House. In that structure’s north wall all the way to the east wall in that case, the pumice was likely used as an abrasive for X11/X12 (Fig. 1.5), as was likely done, would have cre- finishing and polishing metal tools; metallurgical activi- ated a new space, located directly north of the entrance ty probably took place in that location (Blitzer 1995, 508, and accessible only from X16. If this event took place, 530; M.C. Shaw 1996b, 44). Whether this was also the it must mark a time when the rest of X11/X12 and X10 case in X16 is unknown.102 to the north were no longer in use. Pottery Group X16:2. Fill atop rough floor at +5.04 Finally, a north–south wall was built on the west side m (south) to +5.13 m (north) and up to +5.38 m (south) of X16 on a surface (at +5.00–5.13 m) laid over fill that to +5.53 m (north). Trench 81C/34, 35, 37. LM IIIA:2. had accumulated on the space’s original slab floor. This poorly built wall was preserved for about three courses S 2185 Quern of beach rock (rising up to +5.36 m) and set like a retaining wall against The next phase in X16 sees the blocking of the pas- stone debris already accumulated in X9 (Figs. 1.8, 1.26, sage to X9, with a rough north–south wall built against 1.31). This wall would have completely isolated X16 stone debris in X9. Pottery Group X16:2 is associated from the rest of the house, although the space on the east with the rough surface below the blocking wall. The must still have opened onto the outdoors and whatever surface continued north, beyond X16, and, at least in small spaces existed north and south of X16. Perhaps in the area over X16, the pottery dates its use to LM the end it was used by squatters who had access from the IIIA2. This surface likely relates to walls (like those road to X16 but not to the rest of the house. atop the north wall of X11/X12) that postdate House X.

STRATIGRAPHY, FINDS, AND USE SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Space X16 was excavated in a single trench (81C, It is reasonable to assume that until LM II, X16 func- 1992). A thin layer of soil directly above the slab floor tioned as a passageway or waiting room. Communication (and up to +4.61/4.65 m: Fig. 1.26) dates to LM II and with X9 continued through LM IIIA:1, but access to that represents the original floor’s latest use (Trench 81C/81). space was finally blocked by the construction of the so- Any earlier remains were cleared out by the residents in called retaining wall. The conversion of spaces of some order to keep the floor at its original level, as X16 was a grace (like X16 during the phase of Pottery Group passageway. Pottery was scanty, and this was also the case X16:1) is attested in houses on the Hilltop and Hillside with the next fill, a thin layer (Trench 81C/80, up to parts of the Kommos town, where hearths and little ovens +4.70/4.72m), which, oddly, was characterized by small were set within once well-appointed rooms, perhaps at a Protopalatial sherds. This earlier material may suggest the somewhat later date. This phenomenon occurred even earlier within Palatial Building T, when the status of the occurrence of a collapse that was followed by a repair 100 North Stoa was reduced; it was divided into small spaces, involving the clearing away of floor debris. Al terna - some used for cooking and other household activities tively, the debris may have come from the repair of a represented by grinding implements and hearths set there rebuilt wall, perhaps the northeast wall of X16. Such an and just south of the stoa.103 event might explain the presence of pieces of plaster directly above this stratum (in Trench 81C/79). The sherds from the following stratum, dated to LM IIIA1, Staircase X15 are the first to be treated as a pottery group (X16:1). Pottery Group X16: 1. Further fill over the original ARCHITECTURE slab floor, from +4.70/4.72 m to 5.10/5.16 m. Trench Staircase X15, which was larger than the western 81C/74, 77, 78, 79. LM IIIA:1. staircase X13, was set in the southeast corner of the ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 43 house next to the main entrance from Road 32 (Fig. 1.2). Massive stone debris was found in X15s all the way to It was comprised of two flights (X15e and X15w) and a the trench’s south edge (Figs. 1.8, 1.31 top left). Some of large space to their south (X15s), representing the lower it consisted of cut blocks that were clearly parts of col- landing, with a sottoscala, which extended north under lapsed steps of the higher part of the first flight (Fig. the higher flight, X15w. The L-shaped sottoscala was 1.35). Other stones had become dislodged from the inte- originally entered from X16 through X15w, where there rior faces of the surrounding walls (Pls. 1.14A, 1.15D), was greater head clearance under the higher flight. though most of the wall blocks must have fallen outdoors, Because of later remains, not all of the staircase could east and southeast of the house. No floor was reached in be exposed. Unseen are the lowest steps, which were part- X15w. If there had been one, it may have been farther ly hidden by the southwest corner of overlying Greek down, hidden under fallen stone debris and earth. A floor, Building F, and the east and south walls, although a small on the other hand, was reached south of X15w in the west part of the stairway’s east wall was revealed (Figs. 1.2, part of X15s. It was made of packed earth and marked by 1.7, 1.8; Pl. 1.14B). Of the visible or partially visible a few paving slabs that helped determine its level, stone steps of the staircase (Pls. 1.12B, 1.14A), only the +4.16/4.10 m (Fig. 1.7; Pl. 1.2A). lowest (Step 4 in Fig. 1.32) appears to have been in situ. The removal of this debris led to the discovery of the The higher ones subsided somewhat, requiring us to threshold of the new doorway to X9, partly covered by the reconstruct their original levels. As suggested in the re - fallen blocks (Pls. 1.12A, 1.15D). What use was made of stored plan and the elevation (Figs. 1.30, 1.33, 1.34), Step the north part—that is, of X15w, the space under the 1 would have started at ca. +4.40 m, the level estimated higher flight—is difficult to infer, given that the doorway for the sloping floor of X16 beyond its last visible slab at leading to X16 was now blocked by a wall that had no +4.55 m (Fig. 1.7). The original levels of the remaining face on the south (Fig. 1.36), which was now full of stone steps have been calculated on the basis of the height of debris (Fig. 1.31, top left). There is no clear evidence of a the riser between Steps 4 and 5, the former being the low- floor here, directly south of the entrance into the earlier est visible step (its top surface at +5.22–5.18 m west–east, sottoscala from the north, but one must have existed some ca. 0.20 m lower than the top of Step 5), and the (lower down?). To judge by the cross wall between the observation that risers tend to be consistent in height in west and east walls of the western flight, a person enter- other well-built Minoan staircases. The breadth of the ing from the north stepped down onto a floor at a lower treads was also fairly uniform. The steps were generally level in the west part of X15s. This floor was made main- some 0.28 m high, each consisting of two rectangular ly of compacted soil, but it contained a few paving slabs blocks, their total width ca. 1.30 m. that helped us determine its level, which was ca. +4.15 m. As was common elsewhere, the stone steps rested on The dividing wall thus acted also as a retaining wall (Pl. a sloping mound of compact soil, shaped in section like 1.16A). a ramp. This kept the first six steps more or less in situ, One other feature that is difficult to interpret is the but Step 7 was less so. Beyond this point, and continuing north–south wall dividing the two flights. The southern- a short distance south were further slabs. The one most step of the east flight (Step 7 in Fig. 1.32) was set marked “b” in Figure 1.32 was probably part of the land- somewhat farther south than the south end of the dividing ing. Under it and continuing south was a stack of stones wall, raising the question of whether the dividing wall that may have acted as a prop for this part of the landing, once continued further south. Judging from other Minoan which, unlike the rest of the landing, may have been built staircases, it is possible that there was originally a stone of stone rather than having a floor of boards. The wood- block set against the south end of the partition wall, pro- en floor, also acting as the ceiling of the sottoscala, vided with cuttings that helped stabilize upright beams would have rested on beams, as suggested in the restored linked with the ceiling beams to keep the partition wall elevation (Fig. 1.33). Stones in the supporting structure, from collapsing. This solution is suggested in a recon- along with the slabs collapsed around it to the south and struction indicating the adjacent lowest step of the west west, were drawn by our excavation architect, as the flight on the other side of the assumed block, which is excavators believed at the time that they may have been shown set on the lower floor directly to the south in X15s steps of an earlier staircase (Fig. 1.32). (Fig.1.30).105 The assumed levels of the steps of Staircase X15 The blocking of the north entrance into the sottoscala allow for a rough estimate of the level of the ceiling at ca. and its replacement with a new one set in the southeast +6.77 m and of the floor above it (the upper landing) at corner of X15 has been referred to previously, with the +7.12 m (assuming the ceiling’s thickness was ca. 0.35 related remodeling of the west wall’s east face discussed m). From these calculations it may be inferred that the in detail under Space X9 (Fig. 1.25). It is the east side distance between the ceiling and the level of the floor in of this wall that remains to be considered (Pl. 1.12B), X16 where the sottoscala was entered was ca. 2.30 m.104 which consists of uniformly sized, slim rectangular 44 MARIA C. SHAW blocks resulting in neat horizontal courses. Visible on Periphery of House X this face (but not on the opposite one seen from X9) is a vertical break north of the north anta of the new door- As noted in the introduction to this chapter, House X way. This represents construction following the opening was bordered by roads on the south and east and proba- of the previously solid west wall to create the new door- bly by a lane on the west (Fig. 1.2). The south and east way and the rebuilding of the north anta using the same roads were discussed in detail in a previous publication stones (Pls. 1.12B, 1.15D). (Shaw and Shaw, eds., 2006) concerned with the monu- There are two last comments regarding the restoration mental buildings in the Southern Area, partially shown of the staircase, which may have been slightly remodeled in the same illustration. The belief expressed there was according to the excavation’s architectural draftsperson that at least Road 17 was laid out in the Protopalatial and architect Giuliana Bianco. In the last and best known period, before monumental Building T was built.106 One stage, it looked as restored in Figure 1.33. Figure 1.34 might assume this to have been the case also with Road shows it built somewhat lower. Evident is its rather large 32/34, which crossed Road 17 just east of House X. This middle land ing (X15s; Fig. 1.33), but there is a question road was in use until the end of Minoan occupation of of wheth er X15s might have had a door on its west side, the site and was still visible when Temple A was built in leading west to Space X9. The well-preserved staircases the Early Protogeometric period over the ruins of the at Akrotiri show that large landings were provided with a west end of the north wing of Building T. The west end door (Palyvou 2005, fig. 190). In House X, however, the of the road’s slab surface had by then been covered by a estimated height of the ceiling of Space X9, directly west layer of windblown sand. Farther east, there was soil and of X15, had to be higher than the landing, given the level rubble on its surface, some found directly south of of its floor (at ca. +4.40/4.50 m), which makes it doubt- House X, but the stones were too few and relatively too ful that there was a door. small to represent wall debris, which may have been cleared off the road previously. Early in the Iron Age, STRATIGRAPHY, FINDS, AND USE Road 17 became the favorite dumping ground for cultic There were few finds within the sottoscala. The pot- offerings discarded from the Greek temples. This prac- tery on the slab-paved floor included material from LM tice reshaped the topography of the area (M. Shaw, II, but the latest and better-preserved sherds were LM 2000, 149, 156–157), including raising the level of the IIIA:1 (Trench 97G/79), and this was also the date of Minoan road, which was originally constructed in a cut- the thick layer of wall debris (Trench 97G/77 and 78) in ting in the side of the hill on which the town was built. the northern part of that space. The ceramic evidence In the area northeast of the house the upper Minoan from the northern area belongs to Pottery Group X15:1, levels were characterized by massive LM II dumps, while that of the higher level belongs to Pottery Group which were mostly concentrated on the east but contin- X15:2, believed by Rutter to be part of a dump that ued intermittently to the west as far as the area north of originated north of the house and in Space X10, rede- X1. The higher levels were a mixture of LM II and LM posited here through erosion. III, ending with mixed strata representing the Minoan Pottery Group X15: 1. Fill in X15w from ca. period (with some LM IIIB sherds related to superfi- +4.36/4.42 m to ca. +5.10/5.14 m. Trench 81C/48, 51, cial, fragmentary walls) and the Archaic reoccupation. 54A. LM IIIA:1, Phase 1. The earliest strata encountered, dating to the MM peri- Me 27 Fishhooks Ch. 3.2 od, were found in soundings excavated north of X2 and S 2196 Cobble X3 (Trenches 74A, 74B, 87A, 93E; Figs. 1.3, 1.4). Bones and shells Ch. 4 The upper ancient walls, Minoan and Greek, partially determined where excavation could continue in depth. A Pottery Group X15: 2. Fill (a dump?) above +5.10/5.14 number of these had a north–south orientation and, al - m and up to +5.65 m. Trench 81C/32D, 36, 36A, 38. LM though their function could not always be understood, IIIA:1, Phase 2 (redeposited in LM IIIA:2 Early). their irregular shape and poor construction—often Bones and shells Ch. 4 heaped rubble—suggest that they functioned as retaining Ruscillo notes the presence of some 74 Glycymeris walls (Pl. 1.16B). The more fragmentary of these were shells and meat-bearing bones, and she suggests that the re moved (Fig. 1.8). Three walls extended north of X2 con tents of the fill may have been washed down from up - and X3; the one that lay north of X2 had a northeasterly hill because of the wear in the associated sherd material. orientation, and a LM II dump was heaped against it. ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 45

Excavation north of X2 continued in depth in Y2 in Our hopes of finding the rest of the MM house to Trench 74A (Fig. 1.6). A room with a slab floor (at ca. which Y2 belonged were not met in the excavation of +4.86/4.90 m) was found there, packed with masses of area Y3/Y4, north of X3. It is possible that Y2 extend- MM III pottery (Shaw and Shaw 1993, 136–137, pl. ed west, south, and north; the early walls below X1 and 20a). Parts of three walls (west, north, and east) were X4 may belong to it. There were other early walls, but revealed, the eastern one with a gap at its south end sug- these likely belonged to even earlier periods, given the gesting an opening for a doorway. Because of the pres- level at which they started and the predominantly MM ence of the two superposed latest north walls of X2 and II strata associated with them. fill that could not be excavated underneath them, we do An east–west wall ran under the north wall X3. It had not know if the southeast doorway of Y2 was a central a different orientation (Fig. 1.6) and started as low down one. In the survey of Space X2 above, the present writer as +4.25/4.27 m, that is, nearly 0.70 m below the slab speculates that its east and west walls once may have floor in Y2. Two walls meeting at right angles that were continued south, abutting against or ending at the east- partially exposed in the northernmost part of the trench to-west Cross Wall (possibly MM in date) running were likely contemporary with it. Their base was found at east–west midway through X2 (Pl. 1.8A).107 Excavation a higher level (at ca. +4.54 m), but this may be explained revealed that the original north wall of X2 was built less by the natural slope of the hill on which these two walls than 0.10 m above the MM slab floor of Y2, a situation were built.108 Of these, the wall with a north–south orien- paralleled in X1 and X4, where MM walls were found tation stopped about 1.00 m north of the east–west wall just under the floors of House X. that underlay the facade of X3.109 The space was probably Within the deep MM III deposit that rose up ca. 1.20 a passage between houses that was eventually walled in, m in Y2 was a handful of LM IA sherds, some found just probably in MM II.110 above the slab surface in the north part of Y2 (Trench The early east–west wall underlying the facade wall of 74A/56, +4.88 m to +5.09 m, Fig. 1.6), the rest higher X3 (Fig. 1.6; Pl. 1.16C) is of greater concern with regard up, at the level of the preserved top of the northern of the to the history of House X. It consisted of some six uneven three MM walls at +5.70 m to 5.93 m (Trench 74A/50 courses, ca. 0.80 m high, its rather flat top (at +5.02/5.09 and 49; Fig. 1.21). From the base of the lower of the two m) clearly having been leveled before the north wall of latest north walls of Room X2 (at ca. +6.04 m) and high- X3 was built on top of it. Like the MM walls farther er up, MM III sherds ceased to be predominant and were north, it was built mostly of small uncut stones. replaced by a stratum with substantial quantities of LM The stratigraphy in the area north of X3 and between II pottery, from 74A/41 to 35 (Pottery Group X2N:1). the early walls in Y4 (Figs. 1.6, 1.37)111 is important not This pottery continued north and was associated with the only for providing information about the date of the con- use of the retaining wall with a northeasterly direction struction of House X, but for throwing light on strategies north of Y2. used to prepare the ground on which House X was built. Rutter has concluded that the MM III deposit in Y2 As was the case north of X2, excavation north of X3 was a dump rather than pottery abandoned in situ, lead- revealed a few sherds of early LM IA date112 within the ing to the conclusion that the few LM sherds found with deep MM level. The area north of X3, however, was it represent the time when the dump was made. By characterized by MM II sherds (not found north of X2) extension, this was also the time of construction of the in the lower levels (Trench 93E/80–83, 85). It is tempt- original north wall of X2, the one built just above the ing to suggest that the MM II sherds date not only the use slab floor of Y2. The LM II dump at the higher level was but even the construction of the wall underlying the eventually covered over by still later (LM IIIA:1) mate- north wall of X3 (Pl. 1.16D), as well as the two walls in rial (Trench 74A/27, 27A, 27B, 28, 30, 30A, 30B, 32, the north part of the trench. Immediately higher strata 32A, 34, Pottery Group X2N:2). This in turn was over- (rising to the top of the more solidly built lower courses laid by a stratum of mixed Minoan and Iron Age sherds, of the north facade of X3) display a mixture of MM IIB which led Rutter to conclude that the pure Minoan layer and MM III sherds, the latter being predominant (Trench represents fill that was not contaminated by later occu- 93E/77–79). pation, brought from further north. This event could The north facade of X3 (Pl. 1.16C) shows changes in have been associated with a leveling operation, perhaps construction that would normally imply rebuilding, but it related to the construction of the new north wall of X2 is possible that the facade may not have been visible in its and the retaining wall farther north. entirety at the beginning. The facade (Fig. 1.38) begins at 46 MARIA C. SHAW a level of ca. +5.56 m with two courses that consist of If House X extended beyond the underlying MM III similarly sized rectangular blocks and then continues up house, as seems to have been the case, however, the proc - to ca. +5.91 m with two more courses of smaller blocks ess would have been repeated in preparation for the con- and some small fieldstones on the west. Above this there struction of House X. One of the leveling operations are three courses of rectangular blocks that are narrower would have been the demolition of the MM III walls than those at the very bottom, rising to +6.23 m. Still down to their lowest courses, as in the case of Y2. The high er, there is rough masonry of large fieldstones for process thus seems to explain how the LM I sherds ended two more courses. The topmost two courses were once up at such low levels and why there seem to be stratified again blocks, but these were definitely part of new con- MM II and MM III finds north of the north wall of House struction, as their line deviates somewhat from all the X. In this scenario, the MM III pottery found in Y2 was lower courses. dumped after the segment of the north wall of House X Fill outside and against this facade remained a mixture was built a short distance above Y2’s floor. We can spec- of MM II and MM III up to ca. +5.56 m or a little high- ulate that this pottery had been there before, that it was er, at the level immediately above the lowest two to three removed to allow room for the builders, and then was courses. Above that point there was a tendency for the dumped again after the north wall was built just above the pottery to contain post-MM sherds near the wall and MM MM slab floor. sherds farther north. It is possible that the north wall’s The solid construction and width of the north wall of lower exterior courses were buried when the preexisting House X east of X1 also call our attention to the fact that, MM fill removed during the leveling operation was be cause of the thick layers of soil to its north, it had to thrown back in, immediately preceding construction. The do double service as a retaining wall. This explains why first definite surface outdoors was located at +5.91 m, it is so solid and thick (0.75–0.80 m). It is true that its and any courses above this would have been visible from thickness is matched by that of the west wall of X10, but the beginning, as in Trenches 93E/73, 70 characterized this, to an extent, played the role of a facade or exterior by a mixture of MM to LM (and even some LM IIIA:1 wall. In the north part of X10, pillars held up the ceiling sherds) and 93E/69, 63 purely MM II–III. without the help of an east wall; X10 was a portico, open It appears that the area outdoors, north of the central on north and east, the arrangement allowing a view to the part of the house, was not used much. This may even be east of Minoan Road 32/34. true in the case of the relatively pure MM strata (with One last note to be added to this account of the level- MM III stratified over MM II). The handful of LM IA ing process is that, rather than being horizontal through- sherds, which were, strangely, found as low as the MM out, the leveling followed to a degree the natural incline II strata, give the real date of the construction of House of the hill, with the result that the floors within House X X. As to how the LM IA sherds were found so deep, the became progressively lower to the south. Thresholds suggestion that they got there during the preparation of helped with transitions to lower floors. There does not the building ground makes the best sense. seem to be much difference in the levels from room to A detailed study by Fotou (1990) of such preparations room as one goes east to west. The somewhat higher than in Minoan architecture is particularly illuminating. Fotou expected level of floors in the north part of X10 may have makes the point that the Minoans set their walls on rather resulted from the degree to which the leveling process than within the ground, excluding the option of a founda- took down earlier walls. A diagonal line of a wall uncon- tion trench (a solution adopted in Greek times) for the nected with the overall orientation of the house, for north wall of House X. When building on slopes—which instance, lies directly under the northeast corner of the was and continues to be a typical situation on Crete— projecting part of the west wall of X10, and no effort was con struction, according to Fotou, required a flat area. made to remove it entirely. The reason, perhaps, was that This would have been created either by digging into the this area at the north end of X10 was esentially outdoors, side of the hill, her expression for this being “nivellement beyond the edge of the house. Overall, however, the pre - par creusement” (Fotou 1990, 47), or by leveling, that is, par atory work done prior to building House X appears to by dumping fill brought in to create a platform, her “niv- have been extensive. In her study, Fotou gauges status by ellement par remblayage” (Fotou 1990, 62). Sometimes a the degree of effort involved in the preparation of build- com bination of the two techniques was used (Fotou 1990, ing grounds, and the most impressive cases are primarily 65). In the case of House X, the first method seems to the palatial buildings and villas constructed at Knossos. have been used the most, complemented where necessary The preparation of the building ground supports our by the use of fill. interpretation of House X as the most impressive of all Such a major undertaking would probably have oc - Neopalatial houses exposed so far at Kommos. Another curred earlier than the construction of House X, given the important status indicator was its decoration with pictori- low level at which the north wall of the house was built. al murals, to be discussed in the following chapter. ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 47

Chapter 1 Endnotes 8. Trench 66A (1985), as excavated within Space X1, was limited to the east part of X1 and stopped at LM III levels (at 1. The Kommos harbor has been described in J.W. Shaw +5.70 m); 73A (1991) dealt with the remaining west part of X1, 1996b, 8–10; 2006e; Gifford 1995, 76–80. For the former’s except for a small area at the extreme west that was subsequent- comments on the Mesara area, see Pope 2004, 43. Regarding ly excavated with Trench 81A (1992), and it then continued east the general area’s coastal outline, see the work of Fytrolakis, to include the strata under Trench 66A. Excavation in Trenches Peterek, and Schröder (2005), who propose that the use of the 73A and 81A stopped a short distance above the original floor Kommos shoreline for harborage came about toward the end of of X1 (at ca. +5.10/5.15 m). Levels under the two preceding the Early Minoan (EM) period due to the blockage of an trenches were excavated with Trench 86B (1993). embayment that once allowed ships to access both Hagia 9. Trench 86B/13, 15. The two pails used correspond to Triada and Phaistos along the north side of the Phaistos ridge. west and east, respectively. Kommos geologist John Gifford (pers. comm.) comments, “the 10. Of Pails 114 and 115 used at that level, the former was data . . . show a remarkable amount of alluvial infilling in the initially assigned to the entire space, but after a thin pass, a layer Mires Basin during the Holocene: there is every possibility that of rubble appeared on the west part of the space, and Pail 114 Phaistos . . . was in fact overlooking a marine embayment. . . . was terminated. The sherd material was thus found primarily in The rapid infilling of the Mires Basin would also have land- Pail 114 and the more complete pottery in Pail 115. locked any port installation on the Phaistos Ridge.” Gerhard 11. An alternative possibility is that the stones had fallen Plath (forth coming) enlarges upon the theme of Fytrolakis, from the north and south walls, rather than having been inten- Peterek, and Schröder (2005) with further illustration. See also tionally set there, as they were too rough to serve as benches. Blackman et al., forthcoming. This scenario would imply that X1 was roofless by then, but 2. With respect to the conventional chronological scheme it could still have been used in some casual way by people liv- used in North-Central Crete, the equivalents for Kommos are ing north of House X. MM III A = Kommos MM III and MM III B = Kommos LM 12. The assemblage (discussed in Shaw and Shaw 1993, IA Early. For the Kommos MM II–LM I A sequence, see Van 148) was found at ca. +6.70m in Trench 74A/20. It was imme- de Moortel 2001, 2006, and 2007; also Rutter and Van de diately associated with LM III sherds, but fills directly north Moortel 2006; Girella 2007 (esp. 239, fig. 4). See also (Trench 74A/37, 39, 40) were mixed Minoan to Archaic. Betancourt, forthcoming. Correspondence from Jeremy Rutter 13. Of these bases, the one at the entrance to X5 was the (pers. comm. 18 May 2008) and Philip Betancourt (pers. best preserved, its longer limb measuring 0.50 m long and comm. 24 February 2008) has also clarified rough equivalents. 0.15 m wide. The other was narrower and quite short. Of the 3. Each daybook was given the same number as the trench base at the south entrance, the two limbs measured, respective- it recorded. Capital letters refer to the successive trenches. The ly, 0.41 m and 16.50 m. For doorjambs and pivots, see J.W. following list gives the names of the trenchmasters involved in Shaw 2009, 102–103, 165, 179. the excavation of House X and the trench or trenches they were 14. The suspected part of a jamb base is the small rectangu- responsible for: Lucia Nixon (Trench 11A, 1977), Robert lar block seen in the photograph resting on the floor next to the Henrickson (Trenches 59A and 59A1, 1984), Steven Shubert wall that originally served as the door’s east side. That wooden (Trenches 66A, 1985; 72C, 1990), and Josée Sabourin beams of the door’s framework were still standing when the (Trenches 74A, 74B, 1991; 81A, 81C, 1992; 87A, 1993). The blocking occurred is suggested by the fact that the lower cours- present author dealt with the remaining trenches and soundings es of the blocking do not extend all the way to the original (73A, 73B, 1991; 80A, 1992; 86B, 86C, 1993; 93E, 93G, 1994; wall’s anta. 97G, 1995). The daybooks have been scanned, and the contents 15. There is no reason to assume that the window was lim- are now digitally available at the University of Toronto’s T- ited to the north block only. The surface of the southern ashlar Space Research Repository (https://tspace.library. utoronto.ca - block was badly destroyed, and evidence for the window was /handle/1807/3004). Needless to say, opinions expressed there likely eradicated. have often been superseded by those based either on further 16. There may have been a matching bench in the now discoveries or further analysis. unseen northeast area, as perhaps indicated by some blocks in 4. This approach was already adopted by this author in a a north–south line found in the southeast part of the MM slab preliminary excavation report on House X (Shaw and Shaw floor. A doorway leading west was located directly south of the 1993, 131–161). While much of what was said there still per- west bench, and there could have been another, central doorway tains, further excavation and more detailed study of the remains between X4 and X1; the walls under the latter were clearly con- have resulted in new interpretations. temporary with the MM space under X4. 5. The term “auxiliary” is used by Palyvou in her discussion 17. Next to the hearth and clearly still in situ, we found a of the architecture of the Late Cycladic (LC) IA town of small clay lamp, one likely used to help start a fire. Akrotiri at Thera, e.g., in the West House (2005, 49, and space 18. Besides the hand tools (S 2146, S 2147) listed below, 7 in the plan of the first floor; 47, fig. 46). mention should be made of a fragmentary saddle quern (0.26 m 6. The sockets are more clearly visible in photographs x 0.26 m and 0.08 m thick), which was found in the west area, published in Shaw and Shaw, eds., 2006, pl. 169. upside down along this area’s south edge. Whether it was part 7. The MM II levels were excavated in Trench 86B/18, 19, of the use debris or of the slab pavement remains unclear. 29–31, while fills of mixed MM III and earlier sherds were excavated in Trench 86B/13–16, 1, 17, 19. 48 MARIA C. SHAW

19. Most of this pottery was retrieved with Trench 73A/60, at +4.40–4.50 m), and 91 (at the same location but higher up, of which the basal level was at ca. +5.07/5.10 m. 73A/63 (this from +4.50–4.58 m). too preserving only LM IIIA:2 use) reached down to the ini- 34. Most of the burning was located in the area excavated tial floor. with 80A/91 in the northwest area of the room. 20. The height of the risers sometimes includes small stones 35. For a preliminary report on this discovery, see Shaw and set under the steps. The risers, other than those of Steps 1 and Shaw 1993, 156 and pl. 25:a. The present author was the exca- 2, are: Step 3: 0.22 m; Step 4: 0.16 m; Step 5: 0.13 m; Step 6: vator. The restoration was carried out at the time of the excava- 0.15 m; Step 7: 0.19 m. One more block, whether a step or part tion by Niki Holmes, then Chief Cataloger, who also searched of the upper landing, was found lying on a slant at the very top. for identification of the types of shells used. For a final discus- 21. Palyvou (2005, 128, table 1) provides information about sion of these shells, see Ch. 4. ceiling heights as actually preserved at Akrotiri on Thera, and 36. This stratum was excavated in Trench 80A/ 26, 35, and these vary from 1.90 m to 3.00 m. 27 (in part). 22. The soil within this little closet was never excavated, as 37. This area was probably created by excavating down this would have caused the collapse of the soil above from the through the floor (at +4.86/4.92 m) underlying MM Building level of the landing, once made of wooden planks. Y to +4.20 m in order to create a new usable space. 23. The height of the opening was traced for ca. 1.00 m, but 38. In the photograph shown as Pl. 1.8D, the round stone ex cavation stopped too high (at ca. +5.08 m) to reach the en - to the left of the photography scale marks fill atop a later trance’s base and any related floor. The floor must have been north wall was built. The rough construction further right is some 0.50 m farther down if it was the same as that of the two superficial and unconnected with House X. rooms to the south, X14b and X14a, as known from a sounding 39. The west pithos (C 9406) is 0.687 m high; the middle in the latter. one (C 9404) is 0.739 m; the east one (C 9405) is 0.578 m. 24. The pivot block was found more or less at the bottom of 40. The reader must be warned that the photo in Pl. 1.9A the debris. It consisted of a small rectangular stone block, 0.06 shows the space after much of the stratum of pebbles was re - m thick, with three straight sides and the fourth broken. The moved in excavation. That stratum rose up nearly to the level of longer sides preserved were respectively 0.25 m and 0.22 m, the stone slab that covers the middle pithos. while the short straight side was 18.5 m wide. The pivot cavity 41. Found mainly in Trench 80A/70. was round, with a diameter of 0.043 m. It was created in the 42. It may have been brought in to compensate for the loss angle formed between one of the long straight sides and a short of the middle pithos, which by now may have been broken and side of the slab. buried under the floor, rather than raised, as already suggested. 25. The rubble started at a level of about +6.16 m and was The notion that there was a new pithos resting on the platform excavated with Trench 73A/48 and Trench 73A/52. Fill above is based on the presence of two joining fragments, marked with the rubble consisted mainly of soil (Trench 73A/42). relief decoration, from the base of a pithos. One of the frag- 26. Minoan and Greek sherds were found in the soil level ments was found between the two rectangular slabs of the plat- (73A/43 and 56), while stone debris started mainly at +5.48/ form (Trench 80A/44), the other in fill adjacent to the 5.62 m (Trench 80A/16) and continued down (Trench 80A/22) platform, over the pebble floor (Trench 80A/41). nearly to ca. +5.07 m. 43. The workman who handed it over to us reported that he 27. The low level at which the blocking of Doorway B starts had noticed it the previous day between the platform and the (at +4.77 m) might give the impression that the blocking took west wall while removing excavation tools after our team had place earlier, but one has to remember that the floor would typ- left. ically have stepped down in a southerly direction. 44. The discovery of a jeweler’s stone mold (J 19), which, 28. The Iron Age sherds started to appear in 73B/51, but though found in mixed Minoan and Archaic strata above Space they became more prominent higher up. X6 (in 73B/93), most likely belonged to House X, serves as a 29. For a preliminary report on these spaces by the present further reminder that artisan activity may have been carried out author, see Shaw and Shaw 1993, 156–158. in this house. 30. This statement represents J.W. Shaw’s opinion. 45. One odd detail is that some stones project slightly south- 31. Plaster used on floors was often also used as a sealant ward from the bottom course near the room’s northwest corner. on the lower portions of the adjacent walls, as seen in Building The stones do not end with a finished face and thus give the T at Kommos (M.C. Shaw 2006, 208–211), but preservation impression that they may have been part of a north–south wall was not good enough to ascertain whether this was also the that once extended farther south, this part of it having been dis- case here. mantled. If an earlier wall existed, it likely preceded the con- 32. This figurine (inventoried as B 337 and found in Trench struction of House X’s northern part and may still lie hidden 80A/27a) may derive from Temple B. The bull (cataloged as between and under the walls separating Spaces X1 and X2. It AB80.1) is discussed and illustrated in M.C. Shaw 2000, 188, could perhaps have been the south return of the Cross Wall pls. 3.14, 3.24. Two more bull figurines, also votives but made described in the survey of Space X2. of clay, were found in this general area in a fourth-century- 46. The cleaning involved removing some slabs of the B.C. context (C 9539, C 9540), in 80A/3. upper pavement that had not been removed before. 33. The pieces from the lowest level were found in Trench 47. Owing to the scanty quantity of LM sherds, this lot 80A in the following pails: 93 (in the central part of the room was not treated as a pottery group. ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 49

48. The sherds in the sump derive mostly from cups. These elevation of the house above the road surface, intruders could could represent vessels that were washed over the slab in X6. still gain access into the house by climbing over a parapet. Fragments from larger vessels might not have gone through Nevertheless, a parapet could have existed above X8 and X9, the wall drain as easily. as was suggested in a restoration of a Minoan house at Chania 49. Although pithos C 7990 might perhaps have fallen (Hallager 1990, 290–291, figs. 5, 6). This matter receives fur- from the wooden floor of an upstairs balcony surrounding the ther consideration in Chapter 5. light-well (Section G–G'; Fig. 1.21), given its relatively good 58. I owe this insight to J.W. Shaw. preservation, I assume it was positioned on the ground floor 59. The ceramic evidence consists of rims and tripod legs: in the northwest corner of X5. C 7723, C 7724, and C 7728 from the lower part of the fill in 50. Mention should be made here of still another bronze Trench 59A1/82 and 83, C 7617 (Pail 67), and C 7709 and C knife (Me 14), of which the exact stratigraphic context could 7710 (Pail 77), but the lack of joins between them does not not be ascertained, but which may have been connected with allow us to determine what was actually used in the room and the stratum under consideration or that above it. The knife was what derived from other debris. noted by Robert Henrickson, within the west scarp of Trench 60. The disks (previously cataloged as GS 600 and GS 59A1 that he excavated at the end of the excavation season. It 601) have been interpreted as lids by Harriet Blitzer (1995, seems to have been higher than the level of the pots he had 475). come upon in the light-well area of X5, but he retrieved it nev- 61. The blocking wall may never have risen higher than it ertheless, numbering its context as Trench 59A1/89, its level is preserved, so that some form of passage may have existed at ca. +5.90 m. earlier between X5 and X8. 51. In X5 this ceramic phase is not represented by any single 62. For further discussion, see Blitzer 1995, 148, 156, 158, stratum, but LM IB sherds were found mixed with LM IIIA:2 172, 176. ones in fill of use over the floor of the portico area (Pottery 63. Cf. a comparable arrangement suggested by Hallager Group X5:4). (1990, fig. 5) for a Minoan house at Chania. 52. During the two investigations carried out in Trench 66A, 64. Cf. J.W. Shaw 2004. One of the drain fragments was the fill over the lower wall in question was excavated in Pail 41 found in a LM II context (Cl 2 in 59A1/81). The other two (Cl (dated by Rutter to LM IIIA:1), that under it, excavated with 4, Cl 3) were much higher, in mixed Minoan and Iron Age Pail 42, to LM IB. Two comments are necessary here concern- levels, supporting the proposition that these fragments were ing the contexts of the two pails. The trenchmaster of 66A notes part of House X’s roof. Further drains would have carried the that Pail 41 was started with the intention of exploring the date water from the terrace or roof above X8/X9 out to the road. of the uppermost wall, but no sherds were found in it, and there- 65. Trench 81C/58, 59. fore the sherds collected under the label of Pail 41 come from 66. Trench 81C/60, 60A. under that wall and thus above the lower one. Pail 42, used for 67. The failure of these shallow soundings to produce exclu- the removal of the lower level, for some reason continued to be sively earlier sherds must indicate the eradication of earlier use. used on the south side and down to the floor in Space X8, where In addition, in the case of the sounding against the east wall of higher levels were removed in earlier years in Trench 59A. X9, there would have been contamination from the rebuilding 53. The road surface was revealed in Trench 59A1/60, 61. of the west face of that wall. An additional problem with the The pottery found was no earlier than LM III, the date of the dating of walls in most Minoan houses, especially partition road’s latest use during the Minoan period. walls, is that they were not built within foundation trenches. 54. The retaining wall was intended to support fill to the Indeed, those in House X generally started near the level of the north when a cutting was made in the hillside to create Road associated initial floor. 17. At this particular spot the retaining wall seems to have 68. This tool was found in fill between +4.45/4.55 m and been rebuilt or repaired by adding a layer of stones against the +4.37/4.42 m, i.e., the levels between Pails 57A (visible in the old face, covering the road drain (for the latter, see J.W. Shaw section in Fig. 1.26) and 60, both part of Trench 81C. 2006a, 19–20). 69. The level of the top flat surface of the quern is at ca. 55. The crack is likely to be the result merely of the building +4.65 m, its base at ca. 4.52 m. process. Two teams of masons may have started work at differ- 70. The blade was located and retrieved during the excava- ent locations and, upon reaching the same spot, were unable to tion of Trench 97G/80, which included the area of the entrance. lay the stones properly to avoid joins between stones aligning in 71. A scraping action may be inferred from one of its longer consecutive courses, resulting in faulty bonding. This process sides, which is rather straight, not curved like the other one. may explain cracks in other walls in House X, e.g., the one in This observation, along with the suggestion that the tool was the north wall of X2 (Pl. 1.8A), already discussed. designed for a right-handed individual dragging the straight 56. Part of this earlier floor may have been preserved in side on a surface, is further pursued in Ch. 3.2. the southeast corner of X8, where the trenchmaster of Trench 72. The dashes in the state plan (Fig. 1.6) point to such a 59 pointed to a slab lying under the south portion of X8’s east possibility, though there are no signs of a vertical break on the wall. This was associated with an underlying surface of gray exterior face of the north wall, which might mean that that clay (lepis), perhaps part of a floor preceding House X. face was not affected. 57. Here, I reject a possibility we entertained in the past 73. Of these, the west one was narrower, measuring 0.55 m (Shaw and Shaw 1993, 134, 158) that the south sides of X8 and in width and preserved to a height of 1.80 m. The north wall X9 may have consisted of a low wall or parapet. Despite the was 0.75 m wide and 1.70 m high (Fig. 1.6). 50 MARIA C. SHAW

74. Trench 59A/10, 13. sliding, see J.W. Shaw 2009, 20, 48, 114–120. Best preserved 75. This fill was excavated with Trench 74B/76A and Trench is a pillar from Tylissos, which consisted of four blocks, the top 93/111 and 112. one with four tenon holes (one at each corner) used for insert- 76. Located in Trench 93E/98. ing dowels to retain a wooden framework. This, in turn, was 77. The threshold of the southern doorway of X6 measures tied to the timber structure of the ceiling. The total height of the 1.24 m x 0.65 m and is ca. 0.13 m thick. pillars (minus the wooden frame) was 1.66 m (J.W. Shaw 2009, 78. The blocking of the southern doorway, as shown in the 116, fig. 200), and it appears that the total height of the pillar photographs, stands to a surprisingly greater height. is what mattered, rather than the height of the individual blocks, 79. Parallels for walls built over the leveled original walls which could be unequal. A round depression found near one of also occur in the house’s eastern sector, for instance, those built the upper corners of the bottom block of the southern pillar is over the wall separating X11/X12 from X10 (Fig. 1.8). too irregular and shallow to qualify as a dowel hole. 80. The relevant fill at the southern end was excavated with Unfortunately, the top of the other pillar was found covered by Trench 59A/23 (from +5.70 m to 5.48 m). It contained a mix- a larger block representing some reuse, and thus we did not ture of Minoan and Iron Age sherds. The presence of limpets, have a chance to see its surface. bones, and pieces of iron, typical in Iron Age fills, further sup- 89. In the case of Tylissos, the platform underlying and pro- ports the suggested date of the robbing. jecting beyond the sides of the base blocks was approximately 81. These included one the excavator identified as a jaw- 0.10 m high, bringing the estimated height of the ceiling of the bone. space to ca. 1.85 m (J.W. Shaw 2009, 116). 82. For alternative uses of pillars (along with piers and 90. One of these slabs looks like a pivot block, but it is in columns) both as interior supports and as supports for spaces reuse here. Its presence does not necessarily indicate the loca- with open sides, i.e., porticoes, see Graham 1969, 156–161. tion of a door in Minoan times. 83. An example of a portico facing a road is found in the 91. For the distribution of loomweights at Kommos, see Minoan villa at Sklavokampos. This has a small lateral door- Dabney 1996a, 249–262, table 4.1, and further treatment in way in its longer wall leading inside the house (Marinatos Chapters 3 and 5 of the present volume. 1939–1941, fig. 4; Graham 1987, fig. 32). For other arrange- 92. Iron Age sherds began to occur in the area to the north ments, see Graham 1987, fig. 19 (Tylissos House A), and at ca. +6.00 m (Trench 87A/37) and farther south at +5.94 m Bosanquet 1901–1902, pl. 20 (Palaikastro X1–17). A portico (Trench 11A/11). facing an open area is also known in the Myrtos Pyrgos villa 93. For Building F, see Callaghan and Johnston 2000, (Cadogan 1978), with a second portico on the second story. For 249–250; J.W. Shaw 2000, 36–37. a restored view, see the illustration in Evely, ed., 1999, 173. 94. It appears that the Greek builders used nearly an entire 84. The use of steps to lead from Road 17 to the hillside is Minoan pillar block at the corners and trimmed those in be - attested directly north of monumental Building N at the west- tween, where some limestone blocks also occurred here and ernmost part of the Southern Area at Kommos, as preserved there. As measured, the fossiliferous block used in the northeast today (Shaw and Shaw, eds., 2006, pl. 1.12). That passage, corner measures 0.65 m x 0.75 m x 0.47 m. however, was a very narrow one, and we cannot be certain this 95. Its level is at +5.74 m to +5.88 m (Trench 11A/14). was the method used at the other end of the site, directly east This may be a continuation of the LM III floor located in X10 of House X and north of Road 17. at +5.70 m. 85. For locations of possible gardens, see Graham 1987, 96. Greek activity penetrated even farther down in the 87, 89, 93, 95, 123, 241; Shaw 1993. west and south area of the room, where the Greek sherds 86. Parts of this stone were revealed during excavation in appeared in the top layer of the LM II dump (Trench 73B/98 this area, but a further probe was undertaken by the author in and 100, +5.53 m to 5.32 m). a study season in 2005, revealing more details. The visible 97. Another example at Kommos is provided by the North sides of the stone are 0.77/0.85 m long, the east side being the House, with the door leading to the larger of two staircases in most irregular. that house (Shaw and Shaw, eds., 1996, pl. 1.4). For examples 87. The two beams may once have been secured to each at Akrotiri on Thera, see the plans of the West House and Xeste other by means of wooden pegs. For more sophisticated and 3 (Doumas 1992, 44, pl. 13). systematic uses of timber reinforcement at walls ends and 98. Though we have not exposed the road surface in that perhaps antae, see those encountered in the Building T’s location, we know its level 7.00 m farther south, where it was North Stoa (J.W. Shaw 2006a, 91–96). These date to the orig- revealed east of Building T’s northeast corner. The level there inal construction of Building T, that is, MM III. Comparable is at ca. 3.26/3.30 m, and, unless Road 32/34 suddenly rose uses of wood from elsewhere have been discussed in J. Shaw steeply to the north, steps would have been necessary. 2009, ch. 2, and more recently in the doctoral dissertation of 99. The House with the Snake Tube at Kommos offers a par- Eleftheria Tsakanika-Theocharis (2006). Later and more allel for a doorway with steps set on the road. The road along- erratic examples, again at wall ends, occur in the buttressing side is named the Rampa dal Mare (McEnroe 1996, 206–207). walls of the “Bastione Ouest” at the Palace at Phaistos (Levi 100. If the material had come from a collapsed ceiling, 1976–1981, I, 342, fig. 236). there might have been extensive debris, as the floor upstairs 88. For the construction of pillars, including the idea that the was likely made of beaten soil over a packing of brush, rest- tops of the blocks were covered with clay that kept them from ing on wooden beams that formed the lower space’s ceiling. ARCHITECTURE, STRATIGRAPHY, AND DIACHRONIC USE OF HOUSE X 51

One beam may have rested on the north end of the west wall continued to be used along with Building T, built in MM III. A and the north wall of X16. Other beams would have spanned summary of the chronology of construction and use of the the area east to west. South ern Area at Kommos is provided in Shaw and Shaw, eds., 101. This deposit may have derived from material that had 2006, table 5.1. fallen from upstairs, as suggested by Rutter in his preliminary 107. Whether the two walls run farther south is unknown. study of the pottery, but the area above was part of the land- 108. Along these walls was a row of slabs in a single course ing of the staircase, which would have been used as a passage that may have served as a low bench or platform. It was estab- to additional rooms rather than for cooking. lished that the slabs were not part of a projecting earlier wall 102. The fact that X16 and N6 are similar in plan, both nar- when those along the north–south wall were removed, reveal- row spaces enclosed by two parallel walls and associated with ing the face of the wall continuing behind them and then stop- a staircase, is intriguing. The occurrence of pumice in two such ping at the same level as the stones in a row. similar spaces could be a coincidence, unless it was linked to 109. This, the better preserved of the two walls, is 1.20 m an activity involving the use of fire (cooking, metalworking, or long, and extends to where it meets the east–west one. It is both) that required a location protected from the wind. preserved for some 10 courses (ca. 1.18 m high) and built of 103. For an overview of the typology and use of such a variety of stones, except for its south side, which was built hearths and ovens at Kommos and elsewhere on Crete, see of squared blocks, since this end acted as an anta. Shaw 1990. For a possible close example from the North 110. The blocking, using rough uncut stones and large House, where cooking may have taken place under what used cobbles, was preserved for two courses 0.55 m high, with its to be a staircase landing (in N6/N8), see discussion in the pre- base at +4.44 m and its top at +4.99 m. ceding note. The difference between these possible parallels 111. This shows lower pertinent strata excavated in Trench may be one of date, those in the North House being later. 87A in 1993 and only the lower of those excavated with Trench 104. This estimate falls within the range given by Palyvou 74B excavated in 1991, omitting higher fills with mixed in her discussion of Theran staircases, which are among the Minoan/Archaic sherds. More of the latter, as well as more best preserved in the Aegean (Palyvou 2005, 128, table 1). purely Greek levels were excavated in Trench 66A in 1985. 105. For the use of such blocks, see the discussion of beams 112. This date is provided by Rutter for the handful of LM in Palyvou 1999, 243–269. In the more elaborate buildings, sherds found in the two locations. The LM I sherds north of X3 such as Building T (Room 5a/b) at Kommos, the timber con- were found in 93E/85. Possible, but not certain, LM sherds struction rises above a squared stone block, with mortises cut in were noted for that location in 83A/83, 85, 90 in the prelimi- its corners presumably to secure an upright (see Shaw 1999). nary ceramic report by Aleydis Van de Moortel, written imme- 106. Road 17 is believed to have been laid out in connection diately following excavation in 1994. with Building AA, which was constructed in MM IIB. The road 2

The Frescoes

Maria C. Shaw and Anne P. Chapin

2.1. Introduction 230–231). In this type of fresco the plaster used is lime, and the pigments are applied while the plaster is still Maria C. Shaw damp. Upon drying, the pigments became a permanent Painted plasters have been found in nearly every room part of the surface. The analysis showed that tempera, or of House X (Fig. 2.1). Examples with floral or other dec- the a secco tech nique, was also used. orative patterns were found in Spaces X1–X4, X6, X8, As established in the review of stratigraphic contexts X9, X11/X12, X14, and X16. This evidence for an exten- and related evidence below, it appears that the paintings sive painting program is one of several factors that marks were probably made in the earlier part of LM IA, the time House X as an elite dwelling, at least in local terms, for to which we date the initial construction of the house the plasters found in other houses at Kommos were either (J.W. Shaw 2006d, 867, table 5.1). Such a date would be unpainted or simply painted in solid colors—mostly Ve ne - roughly contemporaneous with or somewhat later than tian red (M.C. Shaw 1996f). In the palatial Building T, the MM IIIB at Knossos (see Ch. 1 n. 2). No plasters were only other building where paintings were found, the elite found in situ except for some strips preserved at the bases architecture was enhanced by representations of fancy of the walls of X4. Elsewhere, loose fragments were variegated stones bordered by friezes of multicolored found most ly in fills dating to LM IB and LM II. bands in painted dados and floors (M.C. Shaw 2006, Fragments found in LM III contexts were few and quite 207–260). In House X, as in elite houses and villas at worn, suggesting secondary deposition, and the same other Minoan sites on Crete, floral landscapes predomi- interpretation applies to those found higher up in mixed nated instead. Minoan and Greek levels, with sherds of the latter date A scientific analysis of selected plasters from Kom - deriving from the reoccupation of the area above House mos, including examples from the Civic Center and hous- X during the Archaic period. es in the Minoan town, as well as from House X, shows All plasters of House X are presently stored in a newly that they were painted in the buon fresco technique constructed building that serves as the headquarters of (Dandrau and Dubernet 2006, 248; M.C. Shaw 2006, the Kommos Excavations in the village of Pitsidia. The 54 MARIA C. SHAW AND ANNE P. CHAPIN best-preserved pieces have been set into panels of poly- impasto against a yellow background. The yellow sur- ethylene foam in an arrangement (like the one seen in face appears to have been polished. Col. Pl. 2A) and kept in large wooden boxes with labels. Space X1 was excavated in two trenches. Trench 73A Each such panel (one per box) is propped by supports at (1991) started some 0.30 m to 0.40 m away from the west the four corners, and the space underneath it serves for wall of X1 and continued all the way to the east wall. The additional storage of smaller or less well preserved frag- remaining area to the west was cleared in 1992 with ments. We first adopted this system for plasters found in Trench 81A (Figs. 1.3, 1.4).1 The larger pieces were Building T (M.C. Shaw 2006, 230–231). Digital images found in the area of Trench 73A (at the level of Pails 82 of nearly all plasters from House X, including those not and 117; Fig. 1.9) in the west area of X1, and no farther published in this volume, can be seen in “Storage and east than the doorway’s east jamb. The ceramic context Or gan izations of the Painted Plasters from House X at (Pottery Group X1:4) is LM IB Late with some LM I. No Kommos” on the University of Toronto’s T-Space related pieces were found in X4. The pieces found at the Research Repository Web site (M.C. Shaw 2009). very west end of X1, excavated with Trench 81A/16, I begin the discussion of the plasters from House X were smaller, and while they started at a level equivalent with a description of their themes, spatial and stratigraph- to that in Trench 73A, they continued somewhat farther ic contexts, and technical characteristics. The fragments down. Possibly they had been dumped there before the are presented space by space in the order used in Chapter west of the two blocking walls (Pl. 1.1D) was built. A pile 1, starting with the west sector of the house and proceed- of stored utensils already occupied the east part of X1. ing east. This survey is followed by a fuller consideration Pictorial elements and technical characteristics of the of selected pieces and their reconstructions, with contri- plasters from X1 differ enough to suggest that they derive butions by Anne P. Chapin as well as the present author. from two separate compositions. We dubbed one the The archaeological contexts and brief descriptions of all “Lily Fresco.” This consists of two main segments, as of the House X fresco fragments that have been assigned seen in our Frontispiece. That at the top depicting rockery catalog numbers are summarized in Table 2.1. and lilies was cataloged as Fr 1a and Fr 1b (initially in - ventoried as P 181A), referring to its two non-joining parts. Fr 2 (P 181B) refers to the second segment, placed below them. We have labeled the other fresco composition the “Stems Fresco.” Its fragments, cataloged collec- 2.2. Survey of the Plasters: Themes, tively as Fr 3 (P 181C), can be seen in Color Plate 2A. Spatial and Stratigraphic Contexts, There are, in addition, loose and generally smaller frag- and Technique ments that could not be incorporated in the mounted parts of the two compositions. These are stored under the above Maria C. Shaw panels, as explained earlier. There is not enough of a difference in apparent subject matter among the latter fragments to suggest a composition other than the two just Space X1 mentioned. The Lily Fresco depicts the upper and flowering part Description and Context of the Plasters of the lily plant. The area occupied by the relevant fragments as mounted on the panel is 0.345 m x 0.285 m. The largest and iconographically richest fragments of Almost all of the fragments displayed are from Trench fresco decoration from House X were found in Space 73A/82 and 73A/117, including the smaller pieces X1. Yet, as argued in Chapter 1, X1 merely functioned depicting rockery that appear at the top right part of the as a closet for the large, adjacent Space X4, making it image. Seen in the upper part of the composition are rather unlikely X1 itself was decorated with elaborate also some five small fragments painted solid yellow, frescoes. It is most likely that the plasters were brought retrieved from several pails in Trench 81A in the west- from elsewhere and dumped or piled up there. This action took place at the same time as or just prior to the ern most part of X1. These clearly belong to the back- blocking of the only entrance leading from X4 to X1. It ground in the upper part of the Lily Fresco. may not be an accident that bits of plaster similar to Because of their size and attendant storage require- those found within X1 were also found under and with- ments, the plasters of the lower part of the Lily Fresco in the two blocking walls, which were built in quick suc- (Fr 2) had to be mounted on a separate panel. This seg- cession. A few of these pieces were painted yellow, ment, mostly painted a deep red color, represents a rocky while others showed traces of white impasto. This com- terrain that we dubbed the “Red Rock.” It occupies an bination is found in the fragments representing the Lily area of 0.305 m x 0.280 m, a size not dissimilar to that Fresco, which had petals that were painted in white of Fr 1. At the upper part of Fr 2 broad leaves painted a THE FRESCOES 55 blue-green color are visible over the red background. fragments we positioned at the left edge of the panel, Their shape and scale seem to justify our interpreting were painted directly on a surface characterized by diag- them as the basal leaves of the lily plant preserved or oth- onal grooves (Pl. 2.1A) that resulted from a rough ers like it (if the composition was more expansive than smoothing of the plaster. Normally the latter would next what is represented by the preserved fragments). have been covered by a fine slip of plaster that served as Fragments from the Red Rock area were found in the surface for the final painting. Discussions of the Trench 73A, pails 82 and 117. More pieces painted in the process and the need for a slip have been offered by same hue of red and with a similarly treated surface were Cameron (1977) and, more recently, by Evely, who illus- also found in Trench 81A, again in the westernmost area trates the layered application of plaster on a wall prior to of X1. Visible against the red background of the Red painting (1999, ed., 139–163, 256). At Kommos such Rock fragment (Frontispiece) is a series of slanted whit - evidence is preserved in strips of plaster still adhering to ish dashes arranged in such a way as to describe roughly the base of some of the walls in X4. It is particularly concentric curves. Presumably these were in tended to add clear in one on the west wall (Pl. 2.1B), but it is missing texture to the depiction of the rocky ground, unless some from at least the left area of the Stems Fresco. A very kind of vegetation was implied, as discussed below in thin slip appears farther to the right of the rough area, more detail by Chapin. There is also a series of undulat- reassuring us that the painters were aware of its standard ing multicolored bands. Most of the fragments depicting use; they simply did not use it enough or consistently in the latter were located in Trench 73A/117, at a level some this painting. The slipped surface serving as the back- 0.100–0.150 m higher than the the lily fragments, again ground was painted yellow, which was given a warmer as if they had been dumped. hue by adding thin streaks of diluted red color over it. Fragments associated with the Stems Fresco (Fr 3) The irregular and thin application of the sepia-like color may belong to a separate composition. The area occupied for the motifs themselves has been commented on by the fragments attached to one panel (Col. Pl. 2A) is ca. already. Additional colors were lacking. The Stems 0.570 m x 0.420 m. Appearing at what must be the low- Fresco thus contrasts dramatically with the Lily Fresco, est part of the composition are fragments that are thicker both in terms of the latter’s polychromy and in the way than the rest, some of which curve slightly outward, in the various pigments still adhere on the plaster surface, the way wall plaster often does at the point where it including the white impasto used to render buds and reaches the floor. Pieces of similar shape were found in flowers. situ at the bottom of the walls of Space X4. While the Lily Fresco’s surface was well polished, that The most recognizable iconography in Fr 3 consists of the Stems Fresco was left rather rough. There are fur- of what look like stalks or stems painted a brownish ther indications that this tableau was not taken seriously; color. Some preserve pointed lower ends, as displayed on the plaster surface is marked at several places by scratch- the fragments in our panel (Col. Pl. 2A, bottom left). es, and there are intentionally made incised lines—some Oddly, there is hardly any foliage associated with these horizontal, some slanted. In one case a group of them out- reed-like forms, and while one might object that it could lined a roughly rectangular area, raising the question of have occurred farther up in part of the tableau that is now whether this may have been a graffito-like sign (Fig. 2.2). lost, the preserved stems nevertheless seem tall enough The yellow pigment on the Stems Fresco was very to have been shown with foliage attached. Another mys- thinly applied, almost like a wash. Its pinkish hue terious detail is a form painted a solid purplish-brown or approximately matches Pantone color 8 C/OLZB-C/9.5 sepia color, restored by conservator Elise Alloin as part C/OMWO-C in the color guide of that name.2 The back- of the lower central part of the tableau. The form is like- ground of the Lily Fresco was painted more consistently ly part of a plant, but it is unidentifiable, in part because in a purer yellow color (7.5 C/OENO.C). The sepia color it is incompletely preserved and perhaps also because it used in the rendering of the stems and other designs was badly rendered. varies from 56.5 C/OHIG-C to the lighter 56.5 C/OJKI- The overall size of the tableau of stems is difficult to C. The sepia/brown color of the enigmatic form dis- reconstruct, as the fragments found in X1 probably rep- cussed above varies in intensity from 55 C/USZO-C in resent only a fraction of the total painting. As in the case the darker parts to 47 C/OEFN-C. of the Lily Fresco, most of the pieces must have been The stems of the lilies of the Lily Fresco are a soft dumped elsewhere, possibly outside the house. sepia or taupe color (91 C/730 C), and the anthers are orange red, the lighter ones 12 C/OMRO-C, the rest ORZJ-C. The rocky terrain is rendered a deeper red (12 Technical Comments C/ORJ-C), as attested in the better preserved spots, and Technical aspects of Fr 3 point to shoddy workman- its color is thus somewhat different from that of both the ship. For instance, several of the stems, particularly on 56 MARIA C. SHAW AND ANNE P. CHAPIN anthers and the rocks that appear above and to the right the wall had been painted, although Cameron argues that of the lily plant. The color of this rockery matches better the painting and the sign could be contemporary and colors 12 C/ORZJ-C–13 C/OSUL-C. The greenish basal dates them both to MM III–LM IB, expressing a prefer- leaves of the lily plant are too faded for the color to be ence for MM III (Cameron 1968a). There are apparently defined more specifically. The multicolored bands that no known parallels for this sign, but Cameron suggests define the lower part of the Red Rock of the Lily Fresco that it could have been a mark inscribed by the craftsman are separated from each other by narrower black bands as some kind of a signature (Cameron 1968a, 97 n. 3). painted over the already colored broader bands. Of these bands, the one at the top was further subdivided by rough vertical black lines, the resulting segments painted in yellow ocher, red, blue, and white. The last one is marked Space X4 by short black lines. The next band is solid yellow and is succeeded by one in solid white. Two more bands are Description and Context of the Plasters preserved, one a grayish blue, with short black designs The plasters from X4 were mainly preserved in nar- floating in it, like those in the white segment of the top row strips found in situ along the bases of nearly all the band. The final band, scarcely preserved, is red, its color walls of this space. There were also loose fragments on almost the same as that of the rock. The hue of the yel- the ground and alongside the walls. low band is more vivid and somewhat different in hue The first plaster found in situ in X4 was discovered (7.5 C/OHUO-C) than the yellow of the background of along the south wall in the room’s southwest corner, the lily plant. The gray blue in the bands is not encoun- with some loose fragments retrieved from fill nearby. tered anywhere else in the two panels; it comes close to This was a strip of two adjoining pieces, 0.060 m x 80 C/EAOO-C. 0.050 m. It was located in Trench 73A/62 and is now In the Stems Fresco, only two colors were used in cataloged as Fr 4 (inventoried as P 191). The 0.001 m addition to the yellow of the background. The stems were thick slip covering the surface was painted blue, marked painted in sepia that varies in intensity from place to by pale or faded ruddy spots scattered here and there. It place (from the lighter 56.5 C/OHIG-C to 56.5 C/4705 was not dissimilar to Fr 5. The surface of the plaster at C). The enigmatic design at the central location of the this level was somewhat concave and the fabric of the lower part of the panel uses the same diluted color seen plaster, where exposed, looked gritty. in the stems, but it is more of a grayish-brown tone, the Fr 5 was found, again in situ, at the base of the north color varying in intensity from 55 C/USZO-C (in the end of the west wall (Trench 86B/11, P 188; Col. Pl. 2B). darker parts) to 47 C/OEFN-C. The strip preserved was ca. 1.00 m long and 0.070–0.10 With regard to the possible graffito in the Stems m high. The plaster, too fragile and poorly preserved for Fresco, mentioned above, it may be noted that its lines us to retrieve, was left on the wall. The patterns on it were engraved before the ocher background color was were again abstract. The north end of this strip stopped painted on the plaster surface. It could well be a doodle, exactly at the entrance leading from X4 into closet X1 but graffiti appear on at least two other examples of plas- (Pl. 2.1C). This makes it clear that the walls of X1 were tered and sometimes painted Minoan walls.3 The first and not themselves painted, and the painted decoration was more chronologically secure instance occurs at Hagia limited to large Space X4. Triada, where a graffito was engraved on the walls of Similarly enigmatic motifs occurred in X4 on strips Portico 54. The signs have been identified as belonging to preserved at the bases of the north and northeast walls. the Minoan Linear A Script (Cameron 1965; Militello Visible at the west end of the short north wall are traces 1992; 1998, 75–77). The portico is part of the famous of blue, a color that also occurs on the west wall of X4. Villa Reale, and it was destroyed in LM IB (Militello In the case of the north wall, the color of the back- 1998, 88), which is also the approximate date of discard ground changes to red starting on the right (or east) part of the related plaster fragment from House X. As with the of it, but shown against it, again, are small abstract engraved designs of the Stems Fresco, the signs from the forms and spots, in one case multicolored (blue, black, portico were executed before the wall was painted. The yellow, and, in another portion, white). The area with background color in the portico has been described by the red background (Fr 6, P 189) is illustrated here in a Cameron as “rust,” but whether this was similar to the watercolor (Col. Pl. 2C). The red background contin- ruddy/yellow ocher color of the Stems Fresco is ued around the corner of the east wall (P 190), where it unknown.4 The second example of a Minoan graffito con- is barely visible on the few courses underlying the win- sists of a single sign engraved underneath a painting dow set above them and looking into Space X5, which depicting myrtles, found in plaster fragments in the Royal was equipped with a light-well. The latter would have Road Excavations at Knossos. This sign was made after helped illuminate any paintings on the walls of X4. THE FRESCOES 57

The painted motifs on the strips just discussed are not I am tempted to assign the Lily composition (Fr 1 and Fr easy to interpret since only their lower ends are pre- 2; Frontispiece; Col. Pl. 1B) to the room’s long west wall served. Some seem to belong to short vertical forms and to the west part of the south wall. That grand compo- point ing down. Others are more like spots that could rep- sition, consisting perhaps of several types of plants along resent a terrain or variegated stone like conglomerate. with lilies, would have been immediately visible upon One thinks of a possible dado or decorated strip of plas- entering the room, especially from the east, the direction ter running above the base of the wall. An example of a from which visitors from outside the house would have landscape fresco rising above a dado is the famous floral arrived. People could also have glimpsed the painted dec- fresco at the Villa of Amnisos, though the dado there was oration from Space X5, looking west through the window simply painted a solid gray (Evely, ed., 1999, 183). The and the door at the southeast corner of X4. A model for a motifs at the base of the walls in X4 were intended to sim- fresco with multiple kinds of plants may be found in the ulate a pebbly or rocky ground with part of a floral fres- painted decoration of a long room in the Minoan Villa at co rising above it. There is a parallel on Thera, where Amnisos, as seen in a fine restoration by Cameron (con- papyrus plants rise from a rocky terrain also starting at a veniently reproduced in Evely, ed., 1999, 183). wall’s base (Doumas 1992, 36–37, figs. 1–5). There appears to have been a systematic alternation of Technical Comments two background colors against which the scattered ab - stract motifs occurred. Blue seems to have occurred on Though several plaster pieces were found in situ in the south and west walls, while red was found on the east X4, the best technical information was provided by the part of the north wall and on the east wall below the win- plaster at the base of the space’s west wall (Fr 5). The dow. Traces of yellow that appeared partly on the area of thickness of the main part of the plaster is ca. 0.015 m, the north wall between the areas painted blue and red and this was covered by a slip of ca. 0.002 m. The plas- could have represented a piece of wood, imitating a ter was applied on another, thicker layer, apparently a wooden divider of dado panels. This detail is not decisive, mixture of mud and lime that was applied on the rough however, as the fugitive yellow might have been trans- surface of the rubble walls. This treatment is clearly vis- ferred to the north wall by a building block set next to it. ible in the view of the base of the room’s west wall (Pl. An example of a vertical yellow band separating veined 2.1B). The color of the blue painted surfaces of this plas- stone can be seen in the painted dado of the frieze of ikria ter is very light (its hue approximately 66.5 C/COOE-C), (or cabins) in the Late Cycladic IA West House at but one notices tiny specks in darker blue color that Akrotiri on Thera (Doumas 1992, 86–87, pls. 50–51). could be the remains of the original color; the wall sur- Painted imitations of variegated stones abound in Minoan face may have been exposed for a very long time, as this frescoes, and examples depicting conglomerate are also room’s floor did not rise as rapidly as those in other represented in Building T at Kommos (M.C. Shaw 2006, rooms for reasons suggested in Chapter 1. pl. 31:a, b). Of course, the spots observed in House X are hardly realistic renditions. Perhaps they belong more to a class of decorative patterns rendered in a very casual way. One case that comes to mind is a painting at Hagia Eirene Spaces X13 and X7 on Keos, in which the decorative pattern seems to have been made merely by splashing paint of various colors on Description and Context of the Plasters the wall (Davis 2007, 145–147), Plasters found at the bottom of the north flight of The subject that rose above the blue and red areas in Staircase X13 in the northwest part of X7 are few and X4 also remains a matter of speculation. The best candi- very poorly preserved, as are some found farther south, in date is the landscape or landscapes represented by some the west and east parts of X7. The only reason to include of the plaster fragments found in the nearby closet, X1. them in this survey is that their stratigraphic contexts add The Stems Fresco would have to be excluded since the to our understanding of when plaster debris accumulated fragments come from the bottom of the composition , and and where the plasters may have belonged originally. the stems continued all the way down with no dado under One interesting accumulation was found in an inves- them. If the owners of the house were ambitious, the tigation of the landing, a raised part at the eastern end painting could have extended on all three walls of X4, of the lower flight of Staircase X13. This area was north, west, and south, perhaps showing other plants remodeled when the southwest wall of Space X14 was besides lilies, including the one with the long leafless shortened to create a doorway, west of the old one, stems (Fr 3; Col. Pl. 2A), which I like to believe could leading south to X7 and X13 (Fig. 1.12:C; Pl. 1.3D). have been relegated to a less important wall, given it was The excavation (Trench 86B/32) involved lifting (and not rendered by the best artist. This may be arbitrary, but subsequently replacing) some slabs that were added in 58 MARIA C. SHAW AND ANNE P. CHAPIN the process of remodeling. A mass of ca. 100 pieces of Spaces X14a and X14b plaster (P 297) painted a faded blue color, not unlike the blue of the plasters found on the west and south Description and Context of the Plasters walls of X4, was found in soil fill between stones and Spaces X14a and X14b seem to have been used as a under the slabs. The few associated sherds were not single large room during the greater part of their history, datable, but the deposition of the plaster may well be after the wall that divided them was leveled. The main ascribed to a time just prior to the architectural remod- plaster discovery was made in X14a, the eastern of the eling in LM II, when X7, once a corridor, was convert- original two rooms. Plasters in higher, mixed Greek and ed into a room to be used as a shrine. In that remodeling Minoan strata were few and very fragmentary. The the original entrance from X4 to X13 and X7 was pieces, small and varying in thickness from 0.003 m to moved farther west, necessitating the rebuilding of the 0.005 m, started to appear at +6.00 m (Trench 80A/10, southwest wall of X4, and it is possible that the frag- 11). Of approximately five pieces, the largest one had a ments came from the partial demolition of that wall. flat but not a polished surface. Another piece, painted red Another group (inventoried as P 299) consisting of (12 C/ORZJ-C), was polished. Other insignificant pieces some eight pieces must be similarly early in date. The were found in Trench 73A/10, 14, 17, 21, 30, 34, and 36. largest piece measured 0.020 m x 0.015 m and had a The last pail represented material on a floor of soil with maximum thickness of 0.006–0.007 m. The surfaces of some pebbles. these fragments were red with occasional traces of A sizable fragment assigned the catalog number Fr 7 white impasto added on top, perhaps indicating that (P 182) measured 0.120 m x 0.125 m and depicted a spi- pictorial elements were added over the red background. ral frieze (Col. Pl. 3A). It was found atop a post-primary The deposition of the pieces is difficult to date ceram- surface of use dating to LM IB (80A/36), abandoned in ically, except for the presence in the fill of some LM I LM II (Trench 80A/34). Near it was found a collection of sherds (Trench 73A/65). holed Glycymeris and other types of shells lying next to Contrasting with the above two groups are plasters one another on the ground. From their positions these (inventoried as P 298) found in the northeast part of X7 appeared to belong to a necklace that was still strung at higher levels and in a context (Trench 73A/84) dated when it was deposited. Whether the plaster came down ceramically to LM IIIA:1. They consist of some 30 small from the walls of X14 or was dumped there along with to tiny pieces, their surfaces generally badly worn and the necklace when the entrances into this space were crumbly, some bearing traces of peach or pink color. It is blocked remains uncertain, though its occurrence as a possible that they had fallen from an upstairs room. single piece was more probably the result of dumping. It is possible, in view of their contextual associations, The iconography of the spiral and its possible reconstruc- that groups P 297 and P 299 derived from the earlier peri- tion will be discussed in Part 3 of this chapter, where od of the building’s use. This date is also suggested by the comparanda will also be considered. application of white impasto over a red surface, a technique witnessed also in the Red Rock part of the Lily Fres co. Playing with possibilities, admittedly remote, we Technical Comments might suggest that plasters from the composition once lo - The preserved thickness of Fr 7, without any back- cated above the possible dado in X4 may have found their ing, is only ca. 0.0050–0.006 m. Its surface is too worn way into dumps in X7 and, in greater numbers, in X1. for us to know whether it was ever polished, but the colors are suf ficiently preserved for us to follow the lines of the design. Where the painted slip had worn off, one Technical Comments sees the main layer of plaster, which is white with a The poor condition of the pieces inventoried as P 298 slightly blue tinge. limits the observations that can be made about them. What is technically most interesting is the evidence for Their peach/pink color approximates 10.5 C/OEIO-C. the use of a compass to help draw the spiral frieze. Two On the plasters of the two groups inventoried as P 297 impressed antithetical curves can be seen in the close-up and P 299, the surfaces were flat but generally worn, so photograph of the piece (Col. Pl. 3A), and they are also it is not certain how well they had been polished. The hue indicated in green in our reconstruction of the spiral (Col. of the blue in P 297 may be likened to 66.5 C/COOE-C Pl. 3B). In other spirals from Crete, the central disk was (where lighter) and 66.5 C/NCOK-C (where darker). also occasionally incised using a compass (Evely, ed., Some pieces are flat at the back. The red in P 299 is a 1999, 156), but not here. In the Kommos example the deep Venetian red, with traces of white impasto. outlines of the central disk as well as of the coils were THE FRESCOES 59 hand drawn in black lines, evidently using a fine brush. treatment of the surface, and the fact that it is somewhat Here and there the black appears diluted, turning to gray. concave like the pieces found in situ at the bases of the The coils themselves remained white, which is typical in walls in X4. The surfaces of the fragments in this group Aegean painting. The central disk was painted ocher yel- were generally well polished, including those of a num- low (7.5 C/OKZJ-C), while the bands on either of the ber of small pieces with traces of white impasto added long side of the frieze were painted orange red (11 over the red surface, reminiscent of the white dashes in C/OQZO-C). The latter color was also used for the filling the lower part of the Lily Fresco in X1. In some exam- ornaments, i.e., the small triangles with incurved sides set ples there are occasional black strokes on a red ground. between successive spirals. One of these triangles is fully One fragment preserves three consecutive bands, of preserved (Col. Pl. 3A, top right). which two were light blue, while the one between them was a bluish-black color, the black added after the surface of the piece was painted light blue. The bands clearly acted as a border, suggesting a painted frieze. In Space X2 other such friezes in Minoan painting, multicolor borders mark the top of the composition only. Description and Contexts of the Plasters The circumstances in which this material ended up Space X2 was excavated in three trenches, reaching in Space X2 are unknown. It could have fallen from its down to the space’s pebble surface, continuing with a walls, although this seems unlikely in view of the sounding under the floor and down to bedrock (see Ch. space’s apparent utilitarian functions. A possible alter- 1, Pottery Groups X2:1 and X2:2). Found in the sound- native is that the plasters were brought and dumped ing, in fill dating essentially to LM IA (Advanced), here at some point, perhaps as part of a leveling opera- were a few crumbly plaster pieces, some of which pre- tion or to raise the floor. It may not be an accident that served a pink color, but the more substantial remains most fragments were found at or close to the space’s were higher up, mostly in fill associated with the earli- single door. A third possible scenario—that the plasters est use of the pebble floor. Some pieces found mostly fell from a collapsed upper story—seems unlikely since in the west part of the space were painted blue (Trench most of them were at the level of the pebble floor rather 66A/28); others were too worn for their colors to be than atop fallen debris. The LM IB date of the associ- discernible (Trench 80A/41). More revealing were ated pottery may mark the time when a serious event plasters (inventoried as P 295a–P 295d) found in LM befell the house. IB Late contexts over the first floor of pebbles in the east part and especially the southeast corner of the Technical Comments space (Trench 74A/77A and 78, Pottery Groups X2:4 Because of the poor preservation of the pieces with the and X2:5). Though their surfaces were much destroyed, plant motifs, which were very thin and had to be backed elements of a landscape are nonetheless recognizable. immediately to preserve them, it is not now possible to P 295c (ca. 0.130 m x 0.090 m) was painted solid red, say much about the make up of the plaster. The technique while two of the other pieces, P 295b (0.185 m x 0.115 of the painting, with the blue color representing the stems m) and P 295a (0.085 m x 0.055 m), featured parts of and leaves having been added over white impasto, itself plants (stems and/or broad leaves) rendered in blue applied directly over the red background, is interesting, against a red background. The hue in P 295c is similar however. Such careful work perhaps attests to an early to the red color of the background of the other pieces date, similar to that of the paintings found in X1. and must come from the same composition. On P 295d The thin layer of plaster was flat at the back and and P 295 (Trench 80A/41) the red paint has flaked off would have been applied on a layer that adhered direct- in places, revealing the color of the underlying plaster ly to the walls, but no traces of the base layer remain on surface, which is white with a bluish tinge. The latter the walls of X2. Its absence does not mean that X2 was detail is worth mentioning as it is encountered in other never plastered, as there are only a few cases where painted plasters in House X, including the spiral paint- plaster has been found in situ in Minoan buildings, ing from X14b. even when painting fragments have been found lying Another set of sturdier but smaller fragments may or on the floor and near the walls. The evidence from not belong to the same composition as the one described Space X4, where plaster was found still adhering at the above. These fragments represent a greater range of col- bases of its walls, is more definite, however. ors, including tones of an ocher yellow that we have The salmon color of the sturdy fragments described called “salmon” because of its pinkish tinge. A large above corresponds to 10.5 C/OEIO-C to 10.5 C/OIMO- and much damaged fragment clearly comes from the C. The same color but with more of an ocher yellow base of a composition, given its thickness, the crude 60 MARIA C. SHAW AND ANNE P. CHAPIN tinge resembles 10.5 C/OIMO-C to 10 C/OEKO-C. preserved. Given the presence of other landscape paint- Ocher yellow is close to 7.5 C/OHUO-C, red to 12 ings in House X, the red could be part of a rocky area, C/ORZJ-C, and blue to 27.8 C/IBOO-C. the yellow a background. Remains of what look like bands are preserved on some of the smaller fragments. The next group of fragments—Fr 8 (Col. Pl. 3C) and inventoried pieces P183b and P 183c—provide new in - Space X5 for mation about special painting techniques such as pre- In view of the practical use of X5 as a room with a liminary sketches (Figs. 2.3, 2.4) used by the Minoan drain and a light-well, it is not surprising that hardly any artists, which will be discussed in some detail in Part 2 of painted plasters were found in it. It is of interest, how- this chapter. ever, that bits of uncolored plaster were found at two levels, both related to earlier use of the room, as if some Technical Comments plastering was done in this space, even if the plaster was The slip of Fr 8 is not quite white, but rather has a not painted. In one instance, unpainted plaster was dis- light blue tinge, as seen in other examples of plaster covered in a shallow sounding made under a slab that from House X. Clearly it was applied when the preced- presumably hid the sump for the drain in X5. The latest ing plaster layer was rather dry, which would explain sherd found here dated to LM II (Ch. 1, Pottery Group why, in one case, it flaked off almost entirely (Col. Pl. X5:4). The other context was fill over the original slab 3C). The slip was no thicker than 0.001–0.002 m as pre- floor, which was exposed to later use. The ceramic finds served on the bits atop the underlying surface, which associated with the plaster were thus mixed, ranging had a drawing. The grooves on the surface of the main from LM IB to LM IIIA:2 Early (Ch. 1, Pottery Group layer (Col. Pl. 3C) are comparable to those visible in the X5:4). Further discoveries came from even higher stra- upper left corner of the Stems Fresco (Pl. 2.1A), on ta dating into LM IIIA:2 (Ch. 1, Pottery Groups X5:6). which hardly any slip was used, as discussed earlier. The design revealed under the slip was monochromatic, drawn in a vivid orange-red color. The colors found on other, related pieces from the Space X8 same context preserved the slip. In the case of P 296 the surface was colored red (12 C/ORZ-C) and yellow (9.5 Description and Contexts of the Plasters C/OJTO-C). An undulating border separated the two In X8 some bits of plaster were found in the higher colors, which may have represented a scenic element. levels, but the most substantial fragments came from the These pieces were very fine (0.003–0.006 m thick) and lowest stratum of use, mostly along the west wall and flat at the back. They were clearly detached from a plas- atop a north–south line of slabs that paved the otherwise ter backing. earthen floor (excavated with Trench 80A/29a). Thus, a reasonable conclusion is that the plasters had fallen from that wall. There is little LM IA pottery preserved in this space partly because, as argued in Chapter 1, in rooms Space X9 with floor features such as a slab pavement, the floors Only scattered bits of plaster, a few preserving some were reused (and kept clean) for as long as possible. color, were found in X9. Their subject matter is not pre- Between LM IA and LM II, the fill rose some 0.30 m served, and their interest lies merely in their stratigraph- over the slab floor, i.e., to ca. +4.90 m, most of the ic contexts. The fragments were found in a shallow buildup occurring in LM II. It is in this fill that the note- sounding (Pottery Group X9:1) in fill of LM IB Final to worthy plasters were found, their context dated by the LM II date, part of the initial floor, at ca. +4.45/4.50 m. associated Pottery Group X8:1. The pieces have been The level above dates to LM III (Pottery Group X9:3) inventoried as P 183a–c , the first one cataloged as Fr 8, and may represent a time when, as suggested in Chapter and others found slightly farther east (in Trench 80A/29) 1, sherds perhaps washed down from the north. were inventoried as P 296. The surfaces of P 296 and associated small fragments were nicely polished and bear traces of ocher yellow and red colors. Since these colors merge, they are clearly not Space X3 part of multicolored bands. They could be areas of a The few plaster finds from X3 (Pottery Group X3:2) background on which no other diagnostic details were were plain white and rather disintegrated. A small mass THE FRESCOES 61 was found in the space’s southwest corner (at level ca. Technical Comments +5.10 m), where it may have fallen. It was later covered The line impressed with a string is a well-attested by gradual accumulation through the ongoing use of the device in Minoan painting. It is mainly used to divide floor. The fill associated with the plaster dates to LM IB successive multicolor bands that acted as a composi- Late. tion’s upper border or frame. It is unclear as to why the color remains a bluish-white on either side of the impressed line in this case. On the other fragments discussed above (P 293a–c), Space X6 the gray-blue plants were painted sometimes over the yellow color that served as part of the background and Description and Contexts of the Plasters sometimes over the white background. The yellow is In X6 pieces from the same painted plaster molding Pantone 7.5 C/OHUO-C to 7.5 C/OJTO-C with ruddy were found in two different locations. One of these (P areas. The gray-blue color of the plants resembles 50 176) consists of two joining pieces found in the north- C/COOQ-C. A small piece preserves traces of Venetian west part of the space (Trench 66A/34, at +5.10–5.20 red. The surfaces of these pieces were quite polished. m). A third and smaller piece (P 294) was found later in the room’s southeast area in higher strata (Trench 73B/99, at ca. +5.40 m.). All three pieces joined, forming a piece that measures 0.085 m x 0.037 m, now cat- Space X10 aloged as Fr 9 (Col. Pl. 3D). No plasters were found in X10. This semihypaethral A few more plaster pieces were found in the northwest area may not have received any painted decoration, corner upon removing a fragmentary wall built against although comparable spaces in Minoan architecture, the original west wall of the space. Fill under it (Trench such as porches, seem to have been painted at times. 81C/40, at +5.03–5.26 m) contained plaster fragments One example, restored by Evans, is the relief of a bull inventoried as P 293a–c. The context yielded mixed pot- in a landscape in the west portico above the north tery including LM IIIA Early sherds (Pottery Group entrance to the Palace at Knossos (Evans 1930, 162, X6:5). Rutter has suggested that this fill was a dump that fig. 107). may have originated in LM II. After restorative work on the plasters, there emerged two larger pieces with the bigger one likely depicting stems. These were painted gray blue or black on a background that shifts from yellow to Spaces X11/X12 white with a bluish tinge. Some of the stems were painted against the yellow area. Description and Contexts of the Plasters Another piece of plaster was found lying flat and face Like Space X10, X11/X12 was used as a dumping up on the ground in the central part of the room. It was so place already by LM II. Two noteworthy pieces of plas- cracked and thin that we were not able to retrieve it, but it ter were found in fill dating to LM II. Fr 10 (P 291), was photographed and a tracing of the design was made. which measured ca. 0.080 m x 0.040 m, was found in It measured 0.110 m x 0.070 m and was apparently dec- Trench 81C/32. As can be seen in a color photograph orated with a floral composition, with plant-like forms (Col. Pl. 4A), its decoration consists of blue and white seen against a very light blue background. The vegetal bands separated by somewhat thick blue-gray lines. The motifs were slim, curved forms, some painted black, oth- broadest (blue) band is 0.018 m wide, the gray ones ca. ers red. One of them occurs next to a straight line 0.006–0.007 m. The other piece (P 292), found in impressed with a string against the bluish-white back- Trench 81C/33, measured 0.062 m x 0.040 m and was ground. This piece may have come from near the edge of too poorly preserved to be illustrated here. It has irreg- the painting, perhaps near the top, since we do not know ular areas in orange red and gray black, some times of string-impressed lines having marked the vertical overlapping, and more expansive areas in white. It edges of Minoan wall paintings. The level at which this could well have been part of a landscape, possibly relat- fragment was found was ca. +4.91 m (Trench 66A/37), in ed to Fr 10. It might depict rockwork, which some- a context dated ceramically to LM IB. The fragments may times provides the setting for a floral composition. have fallen from a wall in this space at an early date rather than having been been dumped there. 62 MARIA C. SHAW AND ANNE P. CHAPIN

Technical Comments In the second part of this chapter, the authors examine The pieces were supported with a backing upon dis- the individual frescoes as decoration and visual portray- covery. Where visible, the thickness of the plaster is als of cultural message, and they also consider painting 0.004–0.005 m. The surface of Fr 10 was rather pol- manners and techniques. A.P. Chapin deals with the Lily ished. Some of the blue bands had darker blue or black Fresco from Space X1, while M.C. Shaw discusses the dots that were visible in the surface, somewhat like the composition from X8 and paintings from the remaining blue specks in the painting in situ on the west wall of X4. spaces of the house. General conclusions, some of which These may represent the mixing of pigments of some- will be revisited in Chapter 5, are provided by M.C. what different tones. The Pantone equivalent for the blue Shaw. gray is 34 C/EOBO-C. The dark dots are close to 66 C/ZLOL-C or 66 C/ZMOR-C. The red color of P 292 corresponds to 13 C/OSUL-C, with areas in lighter red resembling 13 C/OTVC-C. Lily Fresco from Space X1 Anne P. Chapin

The Lily Fresco (Frontispiece; Col. Pl. 1B) is com- Space X16 and Staircase X15 posed of three groups of joining fragments and three Hardly any plasters were found in X15 and X16. A smaller, non-joining fragments. The first and second few bits were found over the original slab floor of X16, fragment groups (Fr 1a, Fr 1b) depict white Madonna but given its continued use and the likely cleaning of lily flowers on a yellow ocher ground with traces of red the slabs to keep them from being covered by use fill, rockwork; the third group of fragments preserves lily the date of their deposition cannot be determined. leaves and undulating bands on a red ground (Fr 2).

Lily Flower Fragments (Fr 1a, Fr 1b) 1. Joining fragments preserve portions of three 2.3. Interpretation white Madonna lily flowers and the red stamens of a fourth flower, all set against a yellow Maria C. Shaw and Anne P. Chapin ocher ground with knobby red rockery above. The lilies consist of one bud, one partially open General Observations flower, and one blossom in full bloom. Only a small portion of a flower stem, a soft sepia in M.C. Shaw color, is preserved.

The occurrence of painted plasters is widespread 2. Another small fragment preserves a knob of red through out House X, and they appear to derive mainly rockery against yellow ocher ground and should from spaces on the ground floor. A number of general be placed near the fragments described above. observations emerge from the preceding survey of the 3. Joining fragments depict two lily stems painted plasters, their contexts, and their technical attributes. a soft sepia color, parts of five white Madonna 1. The favorite theme in the House X frescoes lily blossoms, two flower buds, and possibly part was the landscape. of a sixth flower. The bright red stamens of a lily placed on the left side of the fragment group 2. Given the absence of pictorial or decorative likely belong to a flower growing from a third paintings in other houses found at Kommos so stem. far, the frescoes of House X attest to the elite status of this building. 4. A small fragment shows a white lily flower with red stamens. 3. Most of the plasters collapsed or were taken down from the walls and dumped in the period spanning LM IB Late–LM II. Red Rock Fragments (Fr 2) 4. Since frescoes are an integral part of the archi- 5. Joining fragments preserve three basal leaves of tecture, their destruction may signal an event a Madonna lily, a portion of a flower stem, that also affected the building itself in the same striped undulating bands, and white spots paint- time period. ed over a dark red ground. THE FRESCOES 63

6. A group of joining fragments are painted with 85, 86; Chapin 1995, 157–178). On a smaller scale, red undulating bands that match those of fragment 5, bifid stalks similar to those in the Lily Fresco depict a but pieces of fragment 6 have additional black solution cavity (a natural hollow created from erosion in and white bands. A small section of red could cliffs and steep hillsides) above a blue stream in the belong either to a red band or to the fragment’s Departure Town segment of the Flotilla Fresco from the dark red ground. West House at Akrotiri, Thera (Doumas 1992, pl. 36; Chapin 1995, 178). Similar knobby rockwork can be found partially preserved in the frescoes of monkeys and Discussion swallows from Xeste 3 (Doumas 1992, pls. 96–98) and on Crete in the nature fresco from the Royal Villa at LILIES Hagia Triada, where it is richly veined and covered with The fresco fragments from House X preserve classic cascading ivies (Militello 1998, pl. G). The undulating Minoan Madonna lilies, creamy white in color painted contour of the rocky landscape on the Sanctuary Rhyton over the rich yellow ground. The placement of the flow- from Kato Zakros, Crete, offers a further illustration of ers and bud suggest that fragment 1 described above pre- the bifid form in Aegean landscape art (Platon 1971, 167, serves the top of a flower stalk. While Minoan artists 168). With these parallels in mind, it becomes clear that usually paint a cluster of three to four lily buds at the top the red bifid stalks of the Lily Fresco represent rocky ter- of a stem (e.g., Hagia Triada lilies, Amnisos lilies), stems rain rather than water. Their placement in the Lily Fresco, ending in an open or partially open flower can occasion- angled down above the lilies, suggests that this portion of ally be found. In the Spring Fresco from Akrotiri, a few the fresco may depict a solution cavity similar to that lily stems end in a partially open red lily flower (Doumas painted behind the Departure Town in the Flotilla Fresco 1992, pl. 69). From the West House at Akrotiri, the fres- of Akrotiri’s West House. coes depicting red lilies in flower jars preserve at least one lily stem ending in an open flower (Doumas 1992, LILY LEAVES pl. 63). Stylistically, the Kommos lilies closely resemble red The basal leaves are characteristically Minoan lily lilies found in House 1 at Ialysos (modern Trianda) on leaves, arching upward and outward from the left side of Rhodes, also dated to the early LM IA period (Col. Pl. the lily’s base. Parallels can be found in many Aegean 4B, right). Both groups of lilies present deeply bifurcat- representations of Madonna lilies, though the small scale ed flowers defined by two painted petals that meet near of the leaves relative to the larger flowers can best be par- the flower’s base. Additionally, fragments from Kommos alleled by the Amnisos lilies (Marinatos and Hirmer and Ialysos preserve a few T-shaped stamens made from 1960, pl. XXII) and by the Knossos Lily Jar (Marinatos two strokes of the brush. That these details are not imme- and Hirmer 1960, pl. XXV). The leaves of the House X diately visible in other Neopalatial lily frescoes high- lilies were painted over the dark red ground, and their lights the idiosyncratic nature of this stylistic formula color is poorly preserved. While one might expect them and suggests the possibility that the same artist, or per- to have been painted blue (analogous to the pancratium haps the same workshop, is responsible for the frescoes lily leaves and other lily-like leaves from the Monkeys at both Kommos and Ialysos. If this were the case, then and Birds Fresco from the House of the Frescoes at the Kommos Lily Fresco offers new evidence for travel- Knossos; Evans 1928, 2, figs. 268, 275:h), the Kommos ing workshops of artists. lily leaves may preserve an ochreous color that is now damaged and faded, similar to worn sections of the yellow ocher leaves and stems of the Spring Fresco from KNOBBY ROCKERY Building Delta, Akrotiri, Thera (Doumas 1992, pl. 70). The dark red knobby rockery, partially preserved on fragments 1 and 2, preserves a well-known Neopalatial UNDULATING BANDS artistic motif—the bifid stalk, often used by Neopalatial artists to depict the rocky borders of streams and seas, the The striped bands of fragments 5 and 6 offer impor- knobby growth of seaweed, and even the sprouts of tant new insights into Minoan conventions for landscape young palms (Morgan 1988, 13–14, 35–38). Frequently painting. From left to right, the bands are painted white, identified as a “water sign,” the bifid stalk might be more black, blue, black, white, black, yellow ocher, black, mul- correctly understood as comprising a rocky margin. Bifid ticolored, and black. The blue band appears to preserve a stalks colored red, yellow ocher, and blue, for example, few small black marks painted within its contour. A bit of are used in the LC I Monkey Fresco from Akrotiri, Thera, dark red preserved on 6 could belong either to a red band to depict a craggy, interlocking rock formation upon or to a resumption of the dark red ground found on 5. The which the monkeys climb and hang (Doumas 1992, pls. black bands are narrow and frame the wider bands of 64 MARIA C. SHAW AND ANNE P. CHAPIN white, blue, and yellow. The last black band, though poor- of a riverine environment. The com position’s lower mar- ly preserved, appears to have been irregular in contour gins are filled with additional (though plain) undulating (see below). The multicolored band is exceptional. bands covered with plants, animals, and pebbles. To - Undulating bands are not uncommon in Neopalatial gether, these pictorial elements create a rich and lively art, yet their function in Aegean painting often confounds landscape painting. the modern observer, especially in artworks surviving in The Lily Fresco, in comparison, features an undulating fragmentary condition. Detailed study reveals, however, blue band framed by thin black bands and articulated by that Aegean artists used undulating bands in a flexible a few dark marks faintly preserved within its interior. manner and that the motif acquired meaning and signifi- Fragment 5 preserves a cluster of three small dots, and cance through its relationship with other compositional fragment 6 has two dashes and a dot. Small projections elements. In the LM IA Crocus Panel from the House of from the undulating black border band on fragment 6 the Frescoes at Knossos, for example, undulating bands could represent tiny bifid stalks, though admittedly not function as abstract elements of landscape through their enough survives to be sure that the marks were painted association with crocus flowers and an olive tree (Chapin intentionally. They raise the possibility, however, that the and Shaw 2006). In the LC I frescoes from the House of blue band was intended to represent a stream. Indeed, the Ladies at Akrotiri, Thera, however, undulating bands blue bands of any sort are often identified (or misidenti- appear with a geometric lattice of four-pointed stars and fied) as streams in Aegean art. In the case of the Lily thus become the border of a wall hanging (Doumas 1992, Fresco, however, the combination of pictorial elements pls. 6, 7). The meaning and function of undulating bands does not support a riverine identification. First, the interi- in Aegean art therefore depends on their placement in a or dark marks are poorly preserved and show little resem- composition and on the accompanying iconographic mo - blance to bifid stalks in other artistic media. Second, one tifs. In the frescoes from House X, the undulating bands might expect yellow bands to frame a blue stream, but the appear in association with lily leaves, identifying them as Lily Fresco preserves bands of white. Third, the Lily pictorial elements of a landscape. Fresco’s single yellow band is out of place if it is to mark A useful illustration of the relation between undulat- the sandy boundary of a stream. Lastly, the yellow band ing bands and landscape art can be found in the represen- lacks the painted rocky details that transform the Nilotic tation of a hillside rising behind the Departure Town in Fresco’s yellow undulating bands into sandy shores. the Flotilla Fresco from Room 5 of the West House at Instead, the undulating bands of the Lily Fresco more Akro tiri, Thera (Doumas 1992, pl. 36). Undulating closely recall the sequences of plain undulating bands bands in the Theran fresco are painted black, blue, red, found in the lower margins of the Nilotic Fresco, where and yellow, and they are embellished with added details the addition of plant, animal, and pebble motifs identifi- in black and red to suggest the rocks and boulders of a ies them as elements of landscape. The undulating bands stony hillside. The bands are painted with thin, overlap- of the Lily Fresco therefore more likely represent ab - ping washes of color, so that the individual lines of color stractly rendered elements of terrain rather than a stream. are not as clearly separated from one another as in the The small dark details painted within the Lily Fresco’s Lily Fresco, where each is outlined in black. The Theran blue band recall similar marks found in another impor- fresco in cludes the depiction of a stream or rivulet, iden- tant LM IA landscape, the Partridge and Hoopoe Fresco tifiable as an undulating blue band framed in black and from the Caravanserai at Knossos, however (Evans 1928, articulated by the Aegean “water motif ” of black bifid 1, frontispiece; Shaw 2005). This fresco preserves undu- stalks (Mor gan 1988, 35–38). In this instance, the blue lating bands of dark and light blue, white, and yellow color signifies water, and the bifid stalks probably repre- that partially encircle a pair of partridges. Farther to the sent the rocky stream banks. Without the bifid stalks, the right, the bands acquire “fronds” of finely hatched lines stream would be difficult to differentiate from an ordi- and clusters of dots that were perhaps inspired by nary blue undulating band, but with them, the intended embroidery and could represent highly abstracted flow- meaning becomes clear. ers (Evans 1928, 1, 111; Shaw 2005, 104). The three The Nilotic Fresco, painted on an adjacent wall in dots found on fragment 5 of the Lily Fresco could pre- Room 5 of the West House, depicts a similar blue stream serve a similar “flower” motif, though when viewed in framed by undulating yellow bands that probably signify relation to the dark marks of fragment 6, there is little the stream’s sandy embankments (Col. Pl. 4C; Doumas consistency in these features. The ambiguity of these 1992, pls. 30–34). Facilitating this identification are a features suggests that they are not well enough pre- var iety of red marks painted on the yellow bands, includ- served to interpret their meaning and function within ing bifid stalks, squiggles, and round, pebble-like shapes. the Lily Fresco. The undulating yellow bands support a variety of plants, The multicolored undulating band is perhaps the Lily animals, and banded pebbles that enhance the suggestion Fresco’s most striking addition to Aegean landscape THE FRESCOES 65 iconography. This exceptional iconographic motif is cre- Similar diversity is evidenced by landscapes from ated from a series of roughly rounded forms colored Crete, most prominently in the Partridge and Hoopoe (from left to right on fragment 5) yellow ocher, red, blue, Fresco from the Caravanserai at Knossos (Evans 1921, 1, yellow ocher, white, red, white, and (on fragment 6) yel- pl. VIII, frontispiece) and in the Monkeys and Birds low ocher. Each is at least partially and irregularly out- Fresco from the House of the Frescoes at Knossos lined in black in a manner suggestive of colorful rock (Cameron 1968c). In the latter composition, two frag- veining. At least two rounded forms (red and white) pre- ments from the Nilotic scene (and two others published serve additional black lines embellishing their interiors, by Cameron) preserve undulating bands (green, yellow, further enhancing this impression. One infers that the blue, and white) characterized as rocky by details of vein- undulating band represents a series of multicolored, ing (Evans 1928, 2, fig. 264; Cameron 1967, 47, fig. 2:a; veined pebbles or rocks painted in a line, rather like beads 1968c, 5, fig. 1:c; Morgan, ed., 2005, pl. 5:2). These strung on a necklace. There appears to be an im portant undulating bands, moreover, are painted with striped iconographic connection between undulating bands and “Easter egg” pebbles within their contours. The effect the depiction of rocky terrain. Even so, the simple, repet- created—an undulating band painted with pebbles— itive sequence of rounded forms bears little resemblance recalls the bolder, more abstract variation of this theme to the colorful, irregular stony formations that enliven evidenced by the Lily Fresco. many Neopalatial landscapes (e.g., the Monkeys and These comparisons with landscapes from Thera and Birds Fresco from the House of the Frescoes at Knossos; Knossos demonstrate that the Kommos artist worked Evans 1928, 2, 444–467; Cameron 1968c). Rather, the within an established Neopalatial artistic idiom that ab stract, pebble-like shapes look forward to the monoto- embraced a significant degree of artistic experimenta- nous depictions of rockwork that characterize later My - tion. This impression is reinforced by another innovative cenaean frescoes (e.g., the Late Helladic [LH] IIIB motif characterized as irregularly shaped black marks— Bluebird Frieze from Pylos; Lang 1969, pl. R). They also bifid stalks perhaps—painted at the point of transition recall the lines of rockwork that frame the margins of between the undulating bands and the adjacent red some signet rings and seals of the Neopalatial era (e.g., ground. Although much of the black paint has either the Stag Hunt Ring from Mycenae; Sakellariou 1964, 26, worn away or flaked off, the uneven contours and knob- 27 [CMS I, no. 15]), thereby raising the possibility of by shapes of these motifs are just discernible, as is the cross-craft interaction in the creation and adoption of this manner in which they were created. A parallel can be motif at Kommos. drawn with irregular black marks, many of them resem- Even though the multicolored rocky band finds no bling bifid stalks, painted across red rocky forms on a exact parallel in contemporary Aegean painting, a num- fresco fragment from the House of the Frescoes (Evans ber of Neopalatial frescoes preserve landscape motifs 1928, 2, fig. 305, bottom). A second fragment from the that offer multiple points of similarity. The miniature same deposit preserves sketchy black marks used in the frescoes from the West House at Akrotiri, Thera, for transition between yellow rockwork and a blue ground; example, preserve a line of rounded rocky shapes out- the similarity of this motif to that used in the Lily Fresco, lined in black that define the hillcrest above the Arrival if not to its color scheme, is striking (Evans 1928, 2, fig. Town of the Flotilla Fresco (Doumas 1992, pl. 35). 305, top left). Fresco fragments from a lustral basin at Behind the Departure Town, details of rocks and boul- Chania suggest the marbled effect of gypsum with paral- ders are painted over a succession of thinly applied col- lel rocky bands of veining accentuated by loose forms ored bands (Doumas 1992, pl. 36). The hillcrest in the that also recall the dark marks on the Lily Fresco (Evely, Coastal Raid segment of the north frieze depicts bright- ed., 1999, 133–134; my thanks to Maria Shaw for mak- ly colored rocks arranged in a line, each partially out- ing this observation). In the Lily Fresco, as in no other lined and veined in black; the left end of this formation composition known to the author, however, the artist cre- gives way to a solid blue band outlined in black (Doumas ates a dynamic opposition between the hard-edged, 1992, pls. 26, 28). Lastly, the Nilotic frieze features crisply outlined undulating bands of solid color and the “Easter egg” pebbles resting atop undulating bands (Col. loosely painted forms of the dark marks. Pl. 4C; Doumas 1992, pl. 30). These landscape vignettes each preserve pictorial motifs that can be compared to RED ROCK the multicolored band of the Lily Fresco, but none is a The dashes and teardrops of white painted in slightly precise replica. Indeed, the Theran miniature fresco pre- arching rows against the dark red ground of the Lily serves such variety as to suggest that its painter(s) fol- Fresco (Frontispiece) provide yet another interesting lowed no set formula for describing features of rocky and innovative pictorial element. Indeed, this design is landscape. Rather, the fres coes seem to offer evidence for so unusual that it calls to mind the old guessing-game artistic experimentation. 66 MARIA C. SHAW AND ANNE P. CHAPIN question: animal, vegetable, or mineral? It seems unlike- Never theless, each pictorial element in the artistic ly that the white marks could belong to an animal—even impression is based on evidence gleaned from the surviv- one with spots—given that no animal parts can be detect- ing fresco fragments and is supported by parallels from ed. Likewise, evidence is lacking for the stems or leaves contemporary paintings. that would characterize a plant. Rock motifs are therefore The knobby rockwork at the top is modeled after sim- the most probable identification. ilar examples of rocky landscape preserved in Theran The white teardrops convey an impressionistic quality pain tings. Its arrangement across the upper border of that recalls the light-on-dark imitations of stone pre- the com position is hypothetical, and it is also possible served on the MM III(?) Sponge Fresco from Knossos that it encircled the lily plant. The lily’s three stems are (Evans 1930, 361–364, fig. 238). They can also be like - reconstructed following the model of contemporary rep- ned to the newly published Splash Pattern Fresco from resentations of Madonna lilies, with the basal leaves Hagia Eirene, Keos, dating to LC I, in which paint was arranged sy mmetrically about the flower stems. splashed and dribbled onto the plaster to create innovative Because fragment 3 with the basal leaves preserves a artistic effects (Davis 2007, 145–147, pl. 17.1:A–D). Yet, dark red ground, it seems likely that the background on inspection, the white marks on the Lily Fresco seem to changes from yellow ocher to red somewhere in the have been painted purposefully with individual brush- composition, probably along an undulating line, as is strokes rather than dabbed or dripped. Only a few tiny typical of Aegean painting (e.g., the Adorant Fresco flecks of white paint fell (accidentally) from the paint- from Hagia Triada; Militello 1998, pl. 2). The undulat- brush onto the still damp plaster, showing only that the ing bands, with their unique multi colored rocky band, artist was working rapidly. Another comparison can be are more interpretive, but the re stored drawing suggests made to depictions of rocks in the Monkeys and Birds the undulating movement of wavy bands evidenced by Fresco from the House of the Frescoes at Knossos. In that similar contemporary Aegean landscapes. A red zone is famous composition, details of rock veining include the restored beneath and to the side of the wavy bands in the occasional spot of white, along with many other painter- interests of compositional balance. ly forms (e.g., Evans 1928, 2, pl. XI; Cameron 1968c, fig. 8:d). Finally, the blue “waterfalls” also found in this com- Conclusions position employ small teardrop-shaped spots of blue and white to indicate the spray of water (Evans 1928, 2, Like a variety of landscape frescoes recovered from 460–461, fig. 272; Cameron 1968c, fig. 4:c). Though the houses in the area of Knossos, the Lily Fresco of Kom - formal similarities with the “red rock” are striking, it is mos seems to be pushing artistic boundaries with new highly unlikely that the meaning is shared. It would seem, pictorial designs created from innovative combinations then, that the artist of the Lily Fresco was familiar with a of established artistic motifs. The red rockwork painted variety of brushwork techniques and used them to create with bifid stalks above the lily flowers marks a rare unusual renderings of rocks. appearance of this motif in a landscape fresco from Crete. The multicolored undulating band painted with rocky rounded forms remains singular, the only known Reconstruction and Artistic Impression illustration of this motif in Aegean art. Its outer contour, The reconstruction shown in the Frontispiece restores made up of irregularly shaped black marks, surprises the six fragments and fragment groups as one Madonna the viewer with its loose and almost im pressionistic lily plant with three stems of white flowers. While it can- approach to brushwork. This is succeeded by the “red not be confirmed through joins that each fragment rock,” identified as such by a dynamic array of white belongs to the same plant, and even though the placement spots. Together, this evidence suggests the work of a of the individual fragments remains somewhat conjectur- highly accomplished artist of considerable creativity— al, the consistency of the representation of Madonna lilies a master of landscape who painted lilies and undulating within the Aegean idiom makes it probable that the orig- bands with smooth confidence but who experimented inal composition resembled this proposed reconstruction. with decorative forms of rocks in daring ways. The Cameron (1976) argued for more imaginative recon- presence of such an artist in Kommos, the leading port structions—what he sometimes called artistic impres- of the Mesara Plain but quite some distance from sions—for their value as visual tools that assist the viewer Knossos, is significant. When viewed in relation to the in understanding highly fragmentary compositions. As a remarkable paintings of the Royal Villa at nearby Hagia response, a more expansive reconstruction of the Lily Triada (Militello 1998), it would seem that the explo- Fresco is offered in Color Plate 1B, with the admission sion of artistic creativity evidenced by Knossian land- that the more involved and detailed the reconstruction scape painting—the “Neo palatial Renaissance” of LM offered, the less likely it is to reflect prehistoric reality. IA (Chapin 1997, 22–23)—was a more widespread THE FRESCOES 67 phenomenon than previously recognized, reflecting an The depiction of spirals with white coils outlined in ex pan sion of both supply and demand for landscape black lines was a rather common practice on Crete. One pain ting across central and southern Crete in the LM example, from Knossos, was illustrated by Evely (ed., IA period. 1999, 156), who did not specify its date. The other, according to its excavator, Andreadaki-Vlasaki (1993, 66, col. pl. B') was painted on the walls of a Lustral Basin at Chania in MM IIIB (Evely, ed.,1999, 134). In Spiral Fresco from Space X14a: Parallels and both of these, as in the sample from House X, the spirals Reconstruction are marked by a central core painted a solid color. The frieze at Chania is rendered without any apparent use of Maria C. Shaw a compass; those at Knossos and Kommos make partial While the technical aspects in the rendering of the use of a compass, but in different ways. While the coils Spiral Fresco have already been considered in Part 1 of in the Knossian spiral are rendered freehand, the circular this chapter, the considerations that led us to restore it as core of the spiral is outlined twice, using a compass in we did, given its fragmentary preservation (Col. Pl. 3A), both cases. The painted outlines of the coils themselves, remain to be considered here. By definition, a spiral visible in both the Knossian and the Chania spirals, are runs in a frieze, but friezes can be arranged in one or crisper than the corresponding ones in the Kommos spi- more rows, as known from better-preserved paintings ral, perhaps as a result of the tool used. While at (cf. Fyfe 1902, figs. 43, 44; Doumas 1992, 132–133, Kommos a brush seems to have been employed, better- pls. 93, 94). In this case we opted for the simpler solu- defined spirals, many familiar from examples at tion, a one-row frieze (Col. Pl. 3B). Knossos, may have been drawn using some kind of a sty- In our restoration, we opted to indicate the engraved, lus, perhaps a reed with a sharpened end or simply a compass-drawn curves in green to distinguish them from stiffer and narrower brush. In the Kommos spiral, the the painted part of the frieze. The curves were made to central disk, painted a solid yellow, was not outlined in achieve the correct placement of adjacent spirals. The black at all, at least in the fragment preserved. rest of the colors in the restoration are those actually The height of the spiral on the wall in House X can present on the preserved plaster fragment. Black was only be conjectured. At Knossos Fyfe restored the used to outline the coils of the spirals, with the spirals heights of two friezes. One was in the Hall of the Double remaining white (Col. Pl. 3A). Orange red was used for Axes, where it was set at the level of the door lintel, as the center of each spiral as well as for the small filling most such friezes must have been. The other was in the ornaments in the form of small triangles with incurved so-called Bathroom in the Queen’s Megaron, where Fyfe sides, which occurred between adjacent spirals. There states it was 1.98 m from the ground, set just above a hor- appears to have been a red wavy band, outlined in black, izontal wooden beam in the masonry. This spiral consist- running horizontally above the row of spirals, and we ed of a single row but was supplemented by multicolored restored another such band below it. We also restored two bands above and below it. The width of the spiral proper similarly colored red bands on the outer sides of the wavy was ca. 0.30 m (Fyfe 1902, 111, fig. 7). If only a single bands to complete the design conventionally. A number row, the Kommos spiral frieze would have been much of spiral friezes are marked by a top and a bottom band. narrower, unless it was bordered by further straight An example occurs in a painting from Thera, although, in bands above and below like a number of examples from that example, the bands at top and bottom were painted a the Palace of Knossos that were illustrated and some- different color, and the frieze consisted of two rows of times restored by Fyfe (1902, 111). spirals (Doumas 1992, 132–133, pls. 93, 94). The simpler, single-row spiral frieze assumed here has many parallels in Minoan painting, for instance in a painted frieze from the Palace at Knossos, restored by Evidence for Drafting and Other Artists’ Fyfe (1902, 119, 120, fig. 44). The Knossos example dif- Devices in the Painted Plasters from fers in its width, which is about twice that of the one X8 and X1 from Kommos, and also in the use of an elaborate rosette Maria C. Shaw instead of a solid disk to fill each spiral’s core. Similar in the two cases are the solid triangles filling the triangular Plasters Found in Space X8 spaces created between successive spirals and the outer bands defining the top and bottom sides of the frieze. Historically, the word “cartoon” did not connote par- The larger Knossian spiral frieze adorned the ample Hall ody; during the Renaissance, it referred to full-scale of the Double Axes (Evans 1930, 345, fig. 229). drawings made to be transferred to a large surface: a 68 MARIA C. SHAW AND ANNE P. CHAPIN wall, a floor, or a ceiling surface.5 The term “prelimi- were still preserved on Evans’s fragments. Cameron then nary sketch lines,” first used by Cameron with reference pursued this knowledge, locating further examples of to Minoan wall paintings from the House of the sinopia lines in the Monkeys and Birds Fresco (1968b, Frescoes at Knossos, stands for a similar notion. It fig. 13), where, as noted earlier, small areas of the top slip refers to orange-red lines that he detected after parts of had come off. a top slip of plaster, which normally carries the final To my knowledge, House X offers the first extensive painted representation, flaked off from small areas of new evidence since Cameron’s breakthrough for these the Monkeys and Birds Fresco from Knossos, exposing and other painting processes occurring outside Knossos. the coarser primary lay er on the rough surface of which The evidence for sinopia lines occurs on much worn frag - these lines had been drawn. Examples can be seen in a ments found on the floor in Space X8, where they may number of photographs and drawings that Cameron have collapsed from the nearby west wall. The wear on published (1968b, figs. 3–6, pls. III–VIII; 1968c, in the fragments, the result of erosion from fills that accu- nearly all drawings of fragments illu strated there).6 One mulated in X8 when the latter was no longer roofed, was example with undulating bands, repro duced here in variable. In one case, the damage caused the top slip to Figure 2.3, shows the preliminary orange lines exposed disappear almost entirely, an accident that allowed us to where the top plaster slip has flaked off . see the underlying surface and the drawings in sinopia As noted above, it is generally believed that Minoan painted on it. Of these fragments, three proved to us the wall painting was executed in the “true fresco” tech- most instructive. nique, or buon fresco, which was quite similar to that The surface of P 183c is so badly destroyed that it is used in fresco painting during the Italian Renaissance. not worth illustrating here. It consists of two adjoining There are variations, however, as discussed by Cameron fragments (0.170 m x 0.130 m and 0.080 m x 0.070 m), (1977, 167–169) and Militello (1998, 227–236, with fur- of which the left one is the more informative. Visible on ther references).7 The term arriciato refers to what much of the surface are traces of red that was applied Cameron calls the surface of the primary layer of plaster, overall and is thus the color of a background. Barely rec- which was marked with “sketch lines,” while intonaco ognizable forms that were visible where the pigment names the slip that ultimately covered sketch lines in or- came off, leaving a slight depression in the plaster sur- ange red (the sinopia) drawn on the arriciato. In Ren - face, suggest that the composition may have involved aissance mur als, the intonaco was so thin as to be nearly floral motifs. The plaster had evidently not dried entire- transparent, allow ing the artist to see the sketch it cov- ly when the color of the motifs was added. From the ered and be guided by it. Whether the Minoan intonaco depressed area under the now lost paint and from traces was sufficiently transparent is now difficult to tell, since of intensified red color preserved along a plant’s outline, it was normally covered by the painting itself. Judging one can just make out shapes that look like stems and from what we know of the top slip at Kommos, however, leaves. Indeed, one form that looks like a long, slim leaf and taking into consideration the overall color added as a still preserves some of its color. The leaf curved along an background before the motifs were drawn, it is difficult area painted a deep red that could represent rocky ter- to believe the artist could make out the preliminary rain. It may have resembled that in the lower part of the sketch under the slip. The slip itself, as used in the House Lily Fresco, where higher up the flowers rise against a of the Frescoes, was reportedly 0.0005–0.001 m thick yellow background, while the basal leaves are seen (Cam eron 1968c, 3), and thus it was quite similar to that against a red background (Frontispiece). In P 183c, the used at Kommos. top slip had flaked off, revealing the telltale orange-red Cameron investigated the mystery of the sinopia lines sinopia lines, though because of their limited exposure because Evans had earlier singled out two groups of frag- and the worn upper surface, the relationship between the ments from the House of the Frescoes that he treated sep- sketches and the final design could not be determined. arately from his iconographic discussion of the famous The surface of P 183b (0.120 m x 0.100 m) was also Monkeys and Birds Fresco itself. Evans labeled the lines very worn like the previous piece, but it preserved more or designs Group A signs and Group B signs. As he was of the deep red background color, although with no unable to see any identifiable motifs, he suggested that appar ent additional designs. Sinopia lines appeared they were either part of an ancient linear script or that along the edges of the fragment where the intonaco had they were cultic forms, possibly talismanic in purpose, flaked off, prompting the question of what their use may although he conceded that some elements in Group A have been if no design appeared directly next to them on could be pictorial (Evans 1928, 440–443). Cameron’s the visible surface. Cameron may have been confronted later investigation of the two sets showed that the Group by a similar issue, as reflected in his use of different B signs (Evans 1928, 441, fig. 258, fragments 1–4) were expressions when referring to the functions of the sinopia sinopia lines, hidden under the top slip, bits of which lines. He described these variously as “guiding lines” or THE FRESCOES 69

“pictorial marks,” which, to paraphrase him, were reached. It does not appear to be the sketch of a scene, meant to in dicate the approximate locations of the pic- but it is not a mere doodle either. torial subject matter or to help set the appropriate pro- The explanation I would propose here is that the net- portions (Cam eron 1968b, 56). work of lines may instead represent an exercise in which The top plaster slip in both P 183b and P 183c has a the artist practiced the rendering of graceful curves like bluish-white tint, one encountered sometimes at the top those seen in Minoan paintings of plant forms, which of the backing plaster of other pieces found in House X. may have been the subject of the composition to which The slip in the above examples is rather uniform, ca. the three pieces belonged. Perhaps it was the work of an 0.0010–0.0015 m, thus it is just slightly thicker than the apprentice being trained, but the virtuosity and fluency one reported for the slip of the plasters from the House of of the lines would seem to point to an already accom- the Frescoes. Again, slips of such thickness are not thin plished artist. If so, the lines could represent trials or a enough to be transparent and to allow one to see the warm-up exercise undertaken just prior to the execution sinopia sketches beneath them. Cameron proposed that of the floral scene itself. the method used was similar to that of the Renaissance The idea of practicing fluent and expressive lines as fresco painters, who applied intonaco incrementally an ongoing self-training process finds parallels in other (Cameron 1968b, 56). In Renaissance times this process traditional arts, especially in Chinese brush painting, in was called giornata, or the incremental execution of the which lines were not used simply to render a verisimili- painting on a daily basis.8 One aspect of the giornata sys- tude of an object. Rather, through the manipulation of tem that would have suited Minoan painting was that a the artist’s tool, it was possible to express variances in day’s work could have been defined in terms of the con- mood or matters of the spirit brought about by the tour lines of the subject matter. These lines would have artist’s immersion in the philosophy of the culture. In disguised the joins between each day’s work and would both Chinese and Minoan painting, the tool is the paint- thus not have interfered with the sweeping background brush.9 The practice of brushstrokes as seen in the frag- lines so loved by the Minoans. One can only speculate as ment from X8 (Col. Pl. 3C) need not have resulted in to how the Minoans dealt with the problem that their stilted effects, for tradition and innovation often go hand intonaco was not always thin enough to be transparent. If in hand in world arts (Shaw and Shaw 1993, 141). they, too, worked incrementally, they would have had to Chapin’s analysis (1997, esp. 21–22) of the Floral memorize the sketches they covered, a solution that might Fresco from the Unexplored Mansion at Knossos exem- explain why there are rarely exact correspondences be - plifies how old visual schemata could have been trans- tween sketch lines and the final painting. formed into new motifs, resulting in stunningly fresh, P 183a (Col. Pl. 3C) is the only fragment of the group original art. In this Knossian painting, this process from X8 preserved sufficiently to merit a catalog num- involved not only the invention of new and hybrid forms ber, Fr 8. It is the largest fragment (0.195 m x 0.150 m), of flowers, but also a new and imaginative manipulation and it reveals striking new information on technique. It is of the elements of the background. the largest known sample of “preliminary sketch lines” so far found on Crete, if the quoted words are indeed the correct phrase to use here. The design was revealed by an accident of preservation, as mentioned earlier; the top Stems Fresco from Space X1 slip that once covered the sinopia lines had almost disap- Maria C. Shaw peared by the time we found it. When the piece was first discovered, the surface still preserved small patches of The previous insights regarding invention, prelimi- slip, but those had already become detached from the nary sketches, and artists’ exercises may help with the underlying surface and were nearly floating above it. As interpretation of another peculiar design among the in the related pieces (P 183b, P 183c), the slip was thin paintings in House X: the Stems Fresco from Space X1 and bluish white in color. (Col. Pl. 2A). Unlike the preliminary orange lines The sinopia lines in this unique fragment are an in - encountered in the frescoes of X8, however, the designs triguing set. The intended theme resists definition ex cept on the Stems Fresco were meant to be visible, despite for the possibility that plants may have been part of the the shoddy draftsmanship. The argument that it was not subject matter. This interpretation, however, may read too meant to be a doodle but may instead be the repetition much into the dense network of curving lines and the few of an experiment tried elsewhere receives support from solid forms, none of which makes sense as part of a rep- the close correspondences in technique and colors seen resentational painting either individually or as a group. in another set of fresco fragments, again from the House No matter how many attempts were made to de termine of the Frescoes at Knossos. the correct orientation of the piece, no decision could be 70 MARIA C. SHAW AND ANNE P. CHAPIN

The subject matter, as the nickname of the fresco on. Some type of sepia ink was also used by the Chinese implies, seems to be a floral representation, yet oddly it already by the second millennium B.C., but only in displays no indication of any terrain features. It is reason- minor decorative art and not on murals, where it appears 10 able to expect that such features should have appeared much later, in the fourth century B.C. already at the bottom of the composition, to which most We have no knowledge of the origin of the sepia color of the fragments found seem to belong. The long vertical used in the Stems Fresco, since no analysis could be bands we call stems have pointed ends, as if they were made, but it is quite unlikely it was true sepia, as that poised over the ground rather than growing out of it. If would have been recognized in the many analyses that papyri were intended, it is odd that the stems grow singly Cameron conducted of frescoes from Knossos. Still, it is here and not in clusters, as is normally the case. Stems of noteworthy that the color has been used mainly for mak- papyri are leafless, but leaves were often shown as part of ing drawings, and it may not be an accident that it approx- a fan-shaped umbel at the top of the plant in Aegean fres- imates the rendering of floral motifs in the dark-on-light coes (Morgan 1988, 21–24). Basal leaves are some times decoration on Minoan vases. In the case of the composi- omitted, but they are more often indicated, as in the tion with the stems, the rendition can be seen as a hybrid Monkeys and Birds Fresco from the House of the form of art—a combination of painting and of drawing. Frescoes (Cameron 1968b). Here I refer to the emphasis on linear definition rather The seemingly “amateur draftsmanship” of the Stems than on mass or in variations in color to render a form, composition is also evinced in the apparently fumbled apart from the additional yellow color used for the back- rendering of a peculiar motif whose identity remains ground. As in Chinese pictorial art, which typically par- enigmatic. This is the bulbous purplish-brown form visi- takes of the two approaches,11 this medium on Crete ble on a plaster fragment that we placed in the lower cen- could have been well served by the use of a brush. Indeed, tral part of the painting in our display of the preserved one can reconstruct the particular brushstroke involved in fragments (Col. Pl. 2A). I have been unable to find a sat- the rendering of each stem in X1. The artist would have isfactory explanation of the design, beyond the likeli- started by poising the tip of the brush on the lower part of hood that it depicts a part of the plants. One might the composition, holding the brush perpendicularly to the venture to say that it shows two overlapping papyrus wall, then dragging it upward uninterruptedly, allowing umbels, but if so, the fragment should belong to an upper for the brush to touch the wall and transfer the sepia color part of the composition, contrary to present restoration. to render the stems. The emphasis on a sweeping motion There are signs of repeated brushstrokes in diluted sepia was more important than stopping and adding icono- color that look like the artist’s failed attempts to render graphic details, if any were intended at all. Indeed, the the motif and, if so, this may be the work of a novice. We lack of pictorial details makes one wonder if the whole do not know at what locations within the house such point was to practice the rendering of unbroken, sweep- exercises may have taken place. The fact that fragments ing lines, an exercise not uncommon in Chinese painting. of the Lily Fresco were found with fragments of the To help us with the comparison of our sepia designs Stems Fresco does not mean that the two compositions with Evans’s Group A signs (1928, 440–443), we repro- once adorned the same space. If they did, and if the Lily duce a fragment with two signs redrawn by Cameron Fresco adorned Space X4, I would suggest that the Stems (Fig. 2.4). Their points of similarity include the exclusive fresco was relegated to the part of the south wall next to use of a sepia color for rendering the motifs and of a the entrance leading into X5. The paintings on the long plain yellow background with a “rosy” hue (as described west wall of X4 would have caught the more immediate by Evans in the Knossos examples) for the background. attention of the visitor upon entering the room. While I was unable to study directly the particular pieces A distinct and potentially more revealing character- from Knossos, at least at Kommos it is evident that the istic of the unusual tableau of stems or papyri is the stems were painted on a surface that looks as if it was exclusive use of a single color, sepia, to render the sub- covered, but not throughout, by a rather thin layer of slip. ject mat ter aside from the yellow background. The lat- This slip is so thin in certain areas that one can see the ter’s pink ish tone makes it a different yellow than that grooves left by the scraping tool on the underlying sur- of the back ground of the Lily Fresco. This difference face (Pl. 2.1A). No slip covered the so-called signs of indicates that we are not dealing with parts of the same Group A at Knossos, precluding the explanation that we composition. might be dealing with artists’ preliminary sketches and The use of sepia color to render the stems is of par- not the intended final subject matter. ticular interest. Used in historic times as an ink, true In the two sepia compositions at Knossos and at Kom - sepia was the natural secretion obtained from cuttlefish, mos, brush-drawn bands or strips are among the main its hue brown with a purple tinge. It was used in the art elements in the iconography. In the House of the Frescoes of the Mediterranean world at least from Roman times at Knossos, they delineate a greater variety of abstract THE FRESCOES 71 designs (Evans 1928, 440).12 These are iconographically adhered to remains a question, pending the final publi- meaningless, which is one reason why Cameron paid cation of those paintings by Ellen Davis and Lyvia less attention to them than to the preliminary lines or Morgan.15 sketches relating to representational painting. He noted, nevertheless, that the surface was rougher than that on which the Monkeys and Birds Fresco was painted. He also commented that the back side of the plaster fragments with the sepia designs had indentations, while the 2.4. General Remarks backs of those of the Monkeys and Birds Fresco did not. Maria C. Shaw Cameron rightly concluded that the two sets came from different walls (Cameron 1968b, 50). One must also raise To conclude the matter of artistic interconnections, we the question, however, of whether they came from differ- need to ask the question of whether Knossian painters ent rooms as well, even if they were discarded in the same may have played a role at Kommos. Theories now abound 13 place. It may be relevant that in Kommos House X pos- about the initiative undertaken by Knossos in post- sible preliminary sketch lines (sinopia) and the sepia Protopalatial times to extend its power throughout Crete, “stems” (the latter comparable to what Evans referred to including the area of South-Central Crete and especially as sepia “signs”) were found in different spaces, the for- Galatas and Hagia Triada. In the case of the latter, La mer in X8, the latter in X1. Rosa sees the villa as having been built under Knossian Overall, the general patterns of these two types of direction. This marked a shift in political power, with paintings at Kommos and Knossos are similar, and only Phaistos henceforth playing a secondary role in the Me - future discoveries may help to determine whether or not sara, since its first palace was only partially replaced (La this is a coincidence. The resemblances may be attribut- Rosa 1995, 889–890). Militello points to Knossian con- able to their comparable dates, or perhaps an artist work- nections mainly with regard to the famous final fresco ing first at Knossos visited Kommos and contributed to from Room 14 depicting the Goddess and her Attendant. the making of the frescoes in House X, whether directly He also considers the earlier fresco depicting a red lily on or by instructing local individuals. Chapin has also noted a white ground (of which only one fragment was found similarities between the Lily Fresco at Kommos and under the floor of Room 14) to be the work of Knossian details in the landscape murals in the House of the artists at work during the construction of the Villa in MM Frescoes at Knossos. IIIB/LM IA, or LM IA Early in “Kommian” terms. The Another item of comparanda from Knossos is a frag- red lily, Militello points out, has a parallel in the land- ment from the Toreador Fresco on which Cameron spot - scape of the later, LM IA Final fresco in Room 14 ted preliminary (sinopia) lines as well (Cameron 1968b, (Militello 1998, 275–276, 339–341; also pers. comm.). 58, fig. 6, pl. VIII). This example differs, however, in Elsewhere on Crete, at Galatas, Warren (2002, 204) that the sketch lines appear mostly on the same surface regards the change of a simple building into a complex as the painting and were therefore visible. This could be one—a Minoan palace—as part of an external initiative. a chron o logical development, as this fresco has been Rethemiotakis has recently claimed a connection variously dated to LM IB–II or even somewhat later between Galatas and Knossos on the basis of a fresco (Immerwahr 1989, 175). fragment with a floral representation was found in a Preliminary sketches in red that were also covered by secure MM IIIA context at Galatas. Among the other a top slip from the LC I settlement at Akrotiri, Thera add fresco pieces from the site, but in somewhat later con- to the evidence from the House of the Frescoes that this texts (MM III/LM IA), one has a floral motif, the other a 14 technique was in use by LC IA/LM IA times. If the decorative net of red lines against a white background dating of the construction of the House of the Frescoes (Rethemiotakis 2002, 57). Such discoveries, especially to MM IIIB/LM IA is correct, then it probably originat- the earlier fresco, make the dating of floral motifs and ed on Crete. The house was finally abandoned in LM landscapes rendered in a naturalistic style more secure. IA, a date recently confirmed by Eleni Hatzaki, who Blakolmer (1997) sees this period as a transition from examined the pottery (pers. comm.). Preliminary the repertoire of decorative and abstract designs of the sketches also occur on the final, visible surface of the Old Palace period to the genesis of the full-fledged nat- plaster at Middle Cycladic III Hagia Eirene on Keos (E. uralistic wall painting we know from MM IIIB/LM IA. Davis, pers. comm. 2008). The same technique contin- He comments that this development may have been ues in LC IA figural paintings from the same site prompted by the need for representational iconography, (Coleman 1973, 288). Whether the difference between used in wall painting as a vivid expression of political sketches under and over the painted top slip indicates and social ideology employing a newly formulated pic- the degree to which the technique of buon fresco was torial language. 72 MARIA C. SHAW AND ANNE P. CHAPIN

The art of the landscape reached a high point on Crete plasters were dumped in X1 rather than having fallen from the in LM IA, but it was established already by MM IIIB/LM surrounding walls. IA. This is when the nature scenes in the House of the 2. The same Pantone Guide was used to specify the hues of Frescoes were made, the plasters having been removed colors used in frescoes from palatial Building T (M.C. Shaw subsequently from the walls before the building’s final 2006, 121–122). The references are to colors in the Solid to Process PANTONE Process Color Imaging Guide (1992) that demise in LM IA (Evans 1928, 435–438; Cameron seem to match best the ancient colors. The matches were made 1968c, 1). In view of our present knowledge of synchro- with reference to the color samples shown in the “4/C Process” nisms based on pottery, the frescoes in House X may well column of the guide reproduced below (abbreviations for the have been made roughly at the same time or not long pigments are: C: Cyan; M: Magenta; Y: Yellow; K: Black). after those of the Knossian house. 4/C Process Modern Pigments Used The House X frescoes celebrate nature, as the Min - Color to Produce Color oans typically did. The theme of nature may have had other meanings as well, however. The Kommos elite may 7.5 C/OENO-C C:0.0; M:18.5; Y:56.0; K:0.0 have commissioned the paintings, made either by 7.5 C/OHUO-C C:0.0; M:30.5; Y:79.0; K:0.0 Knossian painters or local painters working under their 7.5 C/OJTO-C C:0.0; M:38.0; Y:76.0; K:0.0 instruction, as sociopolitical statements that recognized 7.5 C/OKZJ-C C:0.0; M:43.0; Y:100.0; K:38.0 the supremacy of Knossos. The paintings were, in addi- 8 C/OLZB-C C:0.0; M:47.0; Y:100.0; K:8.5 tion, used by the local elite to “reinforce their dominant 9.5 C/OMZJ-C C:0.0; M:51.0; Y:100.0; K:38.0 social standing” as elsewhere on Crete (Chapin 2004, 9.5 C/OJTO-C C:0.0; M: 38.0; Y:76.0; K:0.0 54). It is significant that at Kommos the only house in 10 C/OEKO-C C:0.0; M:18.5; Y:43.0; K:0.0 which that symbolism was manifested was House X, for 10.5 C/OEIO-C C:0.0; M:18.5; Y:34.0; K:0.0 representational paintings were not found anywhere else 10.5 C/OIMO-C C:0.0; M:34.0; Y:51.0; K:0.0 in the town. It is unclear if any other house ever received 11 C/OQZO-C C:0.0; M:65.0; Y:100.0; K:0.0 even the simplest form of mural decoration beyond the 12 C/OMRO-C C:0.0; M:51.0; Y:69.0; K:0.0 use of solid colors or, perhaps, the occasional band (M.C. 12 C/ORZJ-C C:0.0; M:69.0; Y:100.0; K:38.0 Shaw 1996f). The painted decoration of Building T, or 13 C/OSUL-C C:0.0; M:72.0; Y:79.0; K:47.0 “Palace,” may not be relevant to the discussion, as this 13 C/OTVC-C C:0.0; M:76.0; Y:83.0; K:11.5 edifice was constructed earlier than House X, and the 27.8 C/IBOO-C C:34.0; M:8.5; Y:0.0; K:0.0 designers emphasized its status through simulations of 34 C/EOBO-C C:18.5; M:0.0; Y:8.5; K0.0 fanciful variegated stone in the floors and dados (M.C. 47 C/OEFN-C C:0.0; M:18.5; Y:23.5; K:56.0 Shaw 2006). Their aim was not to bring nature from the 50 C/COOQ-C C:11.5; M:0.0; Y:0.0; K:65.0 ouside to the indoors, as in House X. This contrast exists 55 C/USZO-C C:79.0; M:72.0; Y:100.0; K:0.0 between the paintings of houses and palaces at other 56.5 C/OHIG-C C:0.0; M:30.5; Y:34.0; K:27.5 sites, and the difference may in part represent trends 56.5 C/OPSL-C C:0.0; M:60.0; Y:72.0; K:47.0 characteristic of different periods. In Building T and the 66 C/ZLOL-C C:100.0; M:47.0; Y:0.0; K:47.0 earlier Building AA at Kommos, the building materials 66 C/ZMOR-C C:100.0; M:51.0; Y:0.0; K:69.0 used in the construction of the ruler’s abode conveyed the 66.5 C/COOE-C C:11.5; M:0.0; Y:0.0; K:18.5 importance of the structure, a tradition that goes back to 66.5 C/NCOK-C C:56.0; M:11.5; Y:0.0; K:43.0 the Protopalatial period. The tradition of decorating 80 C/EAOO-C C:18.5; M:6.0; Y:0.0; K:0.0 houses with floral compositions preceded the construc- 91 C/OITH-C C:0.0; M:34.0; Y:76.0; K:30.5 tion of House X. By following the trends set at Knossos, the occupants of House X could be seen as partaking of 3. Discussion of a third case is omitted because the incised design was made after the painting was finished (Cameron the glories of the great metropolis. 1979). Chapin calls my attention to the detail of an incised fish in the painting of the fishermen from Thera (Doumas 1992, fig. 21), which might be some kind of signature. 4. The plaster fragments with the graffiti are not accessible today. Neither the author nor Pietro Militello (pers. comm. Chapter 2 Endnotes 2007) has been able to see them. 5. For this and connected terms, see The New Encyclopaedia 1. Fragments found in Trench 81A were much fewer. They Britannica, 15th ed., Macropaedia 3, s.v. “Caricature, Cartoon, were recorded by their excavator, Josée Sabourin, in a sketch and Comic Strip,” 909. plan in the excavation daybook (Sabourin 1992, available on 6. Painting is not the only art form in which the Minoans the Kommos T-Space Web site). A drawing of the findspots for appear to have used preliminary sketches. For their use on seals, Trench 73A was made by Giuliana Bianco at the time of the see Younger 1974, 1981. excavation (6 August 1991). These drawings suggest that the THE FRESCOES 73

7. Briefer and perhaps more easily accessible accounts of discussion. He noted that there was a band painted a slate blue buon fresco, encompassing areas beyond the Aegean, can be next to the sepia bands. found in The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th ed., Micro - 13. This thought led me to propose that the plaster stack in paedia 4, s.v. “Fresco Painting,” 316–317; Macropaedia 5, s.v. Space E in the House of the Frescoes likely included pieces “Tech nique of Sinopia,” 1001–1003. See also Cameron 1977, collected from more than one composition and from more 167–169. than one room, contrary to Cameron’s surmise that they had 8. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th ed., Micro - all fallen from a collapsed upper story and a single room paedia 4, s.v. “Fresco Painting,” 317. (Chapin and Shaw 2006, 62). 9. As a short-time student in a course of Chinese painting, 14. I am grateful to Andreas Vlachopoulos and Elisabet I was astonished by the inordinate amount of time had to be Chryssikopoulou (who is preparing a doctoral dissertation on devoted to practicing even the simplest of brushstrokes to the technique of the paintings at Akrotiri) for this information. render a leaf, a stalk, or the petal of a flower. The character of 15. Tempera is the traditional painting technique used in the line is highly instrumental in conveying variance in mood, Egypt, where the plaster was made of gypsum and the pig- for instance, in rendering a passive bird as opposed to a nerv- ments were mixed with adhesive agents to allow them to bond ous and aggressive one. Though the literature on Chinese with the surface (Lucas 1989, 351–352). It is interesting, for brush painting is immense, I limit my references to one pub- this reason, that the paintings with Minoan and other Aegean lication that I found revealing: Da-Wei 1981. themes from Tell el Dabca in northeastern Egypt utilize the 10. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th ed., Macro - buon fresco technique. Indeed, in this case, the artists also used paedia 5, s.v. “Drawing” [Chinese], 1009–1010. what the writer calls “underpaintings” in sinopia, but it is dif- 11. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th ed., Macro - ficult to tell if these were sketches from the description of paedia 5, s.v. “Drawing” [Chinese], 1009–1010. sinopie, which mentions that “red and yellow paint became vis- 12. Additional information that Evans offered about the ible” under the top painted surface but does not specify if any sepia signs at Knossos may be of some interest in the present lines or motifs were involved (Brysbaert 2007, 160). 3

Miscellaneous Finds

Joseph W. Shaw, Maria C. Shaw, and John G. Younger

3.1. Introduction description of the objects are given in centimeters (cm). In Joseph W. Shaw addition to the comparanda cited for many of the catalog entries, the reader is urged to look at the relevant citations The catalog of finds presented in this chapter is struc- in other Kommos volumes, which often include similar 2 tured by the categories of non-pottery artifacts from the finds. monumental buildings and the houses of the Minoan town described in previous Kommos publications (Shaw and Shaw, eds., 1996, 2006). The well-preserved occupa- tional strata of House X, however, yielded a wider variety of objects related to food preparation and artisanal activ- 3.2. Selected Objects of Metal: ities relative to those of the large civic buildings that had Copper, Bronze, and Lead major storage functions. Joseph W. Shaw Since House X lay at the lower edge of a hillside affected by erosion and slope wash, the archaeological deposits Among the variety of copper, bronze, and lead objects were particularly dense. The longevity of the house (LM recovered from House X, there were several instruments IA through LM IIIA:2 and possible partial use in LM with blades (knives Me 14–Me 16), a sickle (Me 17), a IIIB), with its many floor and fill levels, also contributed possible small anvil (Me 20), a possible “pendant” (Me to the number of objects represented. A summary of the 18), a possible trowel (Me 19), two needles (Me 21, Me artifact types, quantities, and find spots is presented in 22), two Minoan-type “tweezers” (Me 23, Me 24), 10 Table 3.1. The following catalog offers a selection of the fishhooks (Me 25–Me 28), two lead balance weights types of objects found. Each entry identifies the object by (Me 29, Me 30), and numerous copper or bronze rod and catalog number (in boldface), Kommos excavation num- wire fragments (Me 1–Me 13). The metal finds were ber, trench provenience, and, in a few cases, by Herakleion isolated rather than gathered in hoards, giving the Museum number.1 All measurements pertaining to the impression that they were the remnants of continued use 76 JOSEPH W. SHAW, MARIA C. SHAW, AND JOHN G. YOUNGER and were not abandoned, for instance, as a result of a Strips/Wires destruction. No digging instruments such as picks or major carpentry tools such as chisels and saws were Me 6 (B 173; 11A/17, X10; Pl. 3.1). Four (of nine) strip recovered, suggesting that if such items had once been fragments and a nail illustrated. Max. pres. L. 4.3 (largest part of the household equipment, they were removed fragment), max. pres. w. (of same) 0.55, max. pres. th. 0.2. when the inhabitants moved on. Most of the metal Wt. 8 g. Part of nail corroded and broken off. Nail round in instruments (blades, tweezers, and balance weights) section with a flat disk head. Pottery Group X10:2. LM were probably employed in the house, although some, IIIA:2 floor. Blitzer 1995, M 135, pls. 8.83, 8.86. such as the sickle and the fishhooks, were obviously Me 7 (B 303; 66A/31, X6; Pl. 3.1). Wire fragment (hook?). used in the surrounding fields and the sea. The rods and Max. pres. L. 8.3, max. pres. d. 2.0. Wt. 4 g. Traces of white metal strips, common to numerous contexts on the metal adhering to surface. Round cross-section, curved wire in Kommos site and elsewhere (see Blitzer 1995), were the shape of a hook. Pottery Group X6:5. LM IIIA:1 context. Blitzer 1995, M 170, pls. 8.83, 8.85. most likely associated with secondary metalworking activity. Me 8 (B 304; 66A/25, X2). Strip, two joining and one non- With regard to the contexts of the finds, the unlit joining fragments. Max. pres. L. 4.2, max. pres. w. 0.6, max. pres. th. 0.1. Wt. 2 g. Pottery Group X2:6. LM IB context. Spaces X1 (with items Me 16, Me 17, and Me 30) and X2 (with Me 18 and Me 20) could have functioned for Me 9 (B 305; 66A/27, X6; Pl. 3.1). Strip, bent bronze, storage, while the implements themselves may actually both ends broken. Max. pres. L. 2.3, max. pres. w. 0.5, max. pres. th. 0.1. Wt. 4 g. Pottery Group X6:5. LM IIIA:2 context. have been used in open, lit areas where other metal objects were found (e.g., Me 14, Me 15, and Me 21, Me 10 (B 330; 73A/63, X4; Pl. 3.1). Strip bent into a ring. and metal strips from light-well X5; Me 19, Me 24, and Outer end filed at corners; inner end cut straight across. Max. pres. d. 3.0, max. pres. w. 0.4, max. pres. th. 0.1. Wt. 2 g. Me 28 from X9). From a chronological perspective, the Pottery Group X4:1E. LM IIIA:1 context. blades seem confined to LM I/II, while the metal rods and strips and the fishhooks seem to be fairly evenly Me 11 (B 369; 87A/38, X10). Wire. Unevenly round in section. Max. pres. L. 0.4, max. pres. d. 0.2. Wt. 2 g. LM II con- divided between LM I/II and LM III contexts. Both text. needles (Me 21, Me 22) are from Postpalatial contexts (after LM II). Me 12 (B 377; 87A/58, X10). Strip. Tapered strip twisted tightly into “corkscrew.” Max. pres. L. 4.8, max. pres. d. 0.4. Wt. 3 g. LM II fill. Me 13 (B395; 93E/103, X6; Pl. 3.1). Strips. Three joining fragments. Max. pres. L. 8.0 (longer piece), max. pres. w. (of Rods same) 0.4. Wt. 3 g. Pottery Group X6:2. LM IB context.

Me 1 (B 44; 11A/18, X11/X12; Pl. 3.1). Rod. Max. pres. L. 4.7, max. pres. d. 0.25. Wt. 1 g. Square cross-section. Pottery Group X11:2. LM II fill. Blitzer 1995, M 84, pls. 8.85, 8.107. Larger Implements Me 2 (B 45; 11A/24, X10; Pl. 3.1). Rod. Max. pres. L. 6.8, max. pres. d. 0.55, min. pres. d. 0.4. Wt. 13 g. Wire, thick, four Me 14 (B 288; 59A/89, X5 light-well; Pl. 3.2). Knife fragments reconstructed from nine original fragments; decayed. blade. Incomplete, decayed. Max. pres. L. 9.2, max. pres. w. Square to rounded cross-section, tapering in diameter from one 3.1, max. pres. th. 0.6. Wt. 30 g. Minoan through Archaic, but end to the other. Pottery Group X10:1. LM II fill above LM IB Minoan is likely. Blitzer 1995, M 166, pl. 8.83. floor. Blitzer 1995, M 85, pls. 8.83, 8.86, 8.107. Me 15 (B 300; 66A/20, X5 light-well). Blade fragment. Me 3 (B 299; 66A/17, X5; Pl. 3.1). Rod or bar, two frag- Triangular-shaped piece with broken margin. Made from ments. Larger fragment max. pres. L. 5.7, max. pres. d. 0.4. sheet(?). Max. pres. L. 5.3, max. pres. w. 3.6, max. pres. th. Wt. 6 g. Rounded and squared cross-section; tapered at ends 0.2. Wt. 8 g. Pottery Group X5:6. LM IIIA:2 dump. Blitzer 1995, M 168, pl. 8.83. but no clear signs of a hammered edge. LM II floor context. Blitzer 1995, M 167, pl. 8.86. Me 16 (B 332; 73A/82, toward eastern end of X1; Fig. 3.1; Pl. 3.2). Knife blade. Long, thin single-bladed knife, slightly Me 4 (B 394; 93A/65, outside House X; Pl. 3.1). Rod, curved (probably not originally). Two rivets through haft, on mended from four fragments. Max. pres. L. 6.2, max. pres. d. either side of which handle pieces were attached. Verdigris 0.4. Wt. 3 g. Minoan? preserves the grain of handle material (wood or ivory?) on Me 5 (B 370; 87A/37, X10; Pl. 3.1). Rods, five non-join- both sides. Max. pres. L. 20.5, max. pres. w. of blade 2.8. Wt. ing fragments. Largest piece max. pres. L. 5.5, max. pres. d. 44 g. Found not far from sickle blade Me 17 and in same pail 0.3. Wt. 4 g. LM II fill. MISCELLANEOUS FINDS 77 as fragments of frescoes with lilies. Pottery Group X1:7. Smaller Implements LM II. Me 17 (B 301; 66A/22, X1; Pl. 3.2). Sickle blade. Double Me 21 (B 307; 66A/37, X6; Fig. 3.1; Pl. 3.2). Needle. haft perforations at wood-covered squared haft end, opposite Complete. Manufactured from wire with a round cross-sec- end missing, curved non-denticulated cutting edge on interior tion. Max. pres. L. 10.3, max. pres. d. 0.4. Wt. 5 g. Pottery of blade curve. Max. pres. L. 20.0, max. pres. w. 2.7, max. Group X5:5. LM II context. See Blitzer 1995, M 171, pl. 8.83. pres. th. 0.04. Wt. 79 g. found not far from knife Me 16. Me 22 (B 329; 73A/59, X4; Fig. 3.1; Pl. 3.2). Needle. Pottery Group X1:10. LM IIIA:1 floor fill. Blitzer 1995, M Nearly intact. Max. pres. L. 12.7. Wt. 3 g. Pottery Group X4:2. 169, pls. 8.83, 8.108. LM IIIA:2 context. Me 18 (B 348; 80A/44, X2; Fig. 3.1; Pl. 3.2). Pendant(?). Me 23 (B 42; 11A/27, X11/X12; Pl. 3.2). Tweezers. Max. Well preserved. Max. pres. L. 6.8. Wt. 13 g. Slim but sturdy pres. L. (reconstructed) 6.8, max. pres. w. 1.8, th. (average) long, rectangular blade on one end, projecting into small cres- 0.35. Wt. 7 g. Pottery Group X11:2. LM II fill. Blitzer 1995, M cent points beyond the perpendicular sides. Other end has 82, pls. 8.84, 8.108. round shoulders narrowing into a fairly wide tang rolled up to Me 24 (B 341; 81C/32B, X9; Pl. 3.2). Tweezers fragment. form a loop. By analogy with examples from the Dictaean Max. pres. L. 3.0, max. pres. th. 0.175. Wt. 1 g. LM IIIA con- Cave, the blade may have been used as a pendant (amulet?), text above walls. but it is based on the shape of a tool or toilet implement popular in the Mesara in EM tombs. For shape, see Boardman Me 25 (B 331; 73A/79, above House X walls). Fishhook. 1961, 23, no. 81, also 45–46, pl. 15 for rolled tang. See also Entire hook except for tip. No eye. Max. pres. L. 2.8. Wt. 1 g. Xanthoudides 1924, pl. LVI, no. 1948, which shows a pre- Mixed Minoan/Archaic context. served handle (fastened with rivets, however). Xanthoudides Me 26 (B 334; 74B/69A, X3). Fishhook? Probably broken and Seager call it a toilet implement (for cutting?). Similar at both ends. Max. pres. L. 2.9. Wt. 2 g. Pottery Group X3:6. examples are reported from the Unexplored Mansion at LM IIIA:2/IIIB, below Archaic floor. Knossos (Popham, ed., 1984, 217, pl. 205:27, 28). Pottery Me 27 (B 340; 81C/36, X15; Fig. 3.1; Pl. 3.2). Fishhooks. Group X2:4. Found near LM IB pebble floor. Shaw and Shaw Six hooks broken off about 1 cm from bend, adhering by cor- 1993, 147, pl. 22:c. rosion. Two (barbed?) tips missing, one hook missing a small Me 19 (B 405; X9; Fig. 3.1; Pl. 3.2). Trowel(?). Max. pres. segment. Max. pres. L. 1.9, max. pres. th. of each shaft 0.2. L. 6.8 (blade), 8.5 (with tang). Wt. 40 g. Sturdy leaf-shaped Wt. 2 g. Pottery Group X15:2. LM IIIA:1 context. blade with rounded point. No sharp edges; thickened central Me 28 (B 344; 81C/55, X9; Pl. 3.2). Two fishhooks. No rib. A short tang extends from broad end and is rolled forward barbs visible. Max. pres. L. 2.2, max. pres. d. 0.2, 0.3. Wt. 2 to form a hanging loop, hemispherical in section, used as a g. Pottery Group X9:2. LM II context. handle. Somewhat asymmetrical shape. The side of the blade that is up when it is held by the loop is curved and well preserved, while the opposite side is rather straight, with its sharp edge damaged by more use. This suggests that the motion of scraping damaged the straight left edge when the Lead tool was held by a right-handed person. By contrast, any scraping or cutting done with Me 18 utilized the edge oppo- Me 29 (L 19; 66A/4, above walls X1/2; Pl. 3.2). Circular site the loop handle, which was sturdier than that of Me 19, weight. Complete except for possible bronze attachment. suggesting that the two tools may have been used for differ- Max. pres. d. 4.1, max. pres. th. 0.7. Wt. 103 g (weighed ent purposes. It is not a knife; blades similar to Me 19 have August 2000). Archaic/Minoan context but object probably been interpreted as possibly having been used to apply plas- Minoan. Dabney 1996b, 270, pl. 4.16. A similar weight with ter to walls, to smooth it after application, or for pointing traces of bronze in the center of one side was found at Hagia masonry joints (J.W. Shaw 1973, fig. 239; 2009, 146; Evely Eirene, on Keos, in a Late Helladic IIIA context (Petruso 1993, 475, fig. 188, along with similar blades from Gournia, 1978, 186, no. 128). Malia, and Palaikastro). It was found by the excavation archi- Me 30 (L 25; 73A/122, X1; Fig. 3.1; Pl. 3.2). Circular tect when she was cleaning the floor of Space X9 near the weight with flat surfaces. Two-thirds complete. Max. pres. d. doorway into X15. Pottery Group X9:2. LM II floor context. 5.0, max. pres. th., 1.8. Wt. 133 g (incomplete). Pottery Group Me 20 (B 333; 74B/76, X2; Pl. 3.2). Blade or small anvil for X1:2. LM IA context. metal working(?). Max. pres. L. 8.9, max. pres. w. 6.7, max. Me 31 (L 26; 11A, surface find; Fig. 3.1). Bronze-sheathed pres. th. 0.6. Wt. 58 g. Edges nicked and bent in antiquity. lead object. Max. pres. L. 5.5, max. pres. d. 0.7. Wt. 24 g. Slim Rough ly isosceles triangular “blade” with curved sides and drumstick-shaped piece of very heavy black metal with bronze round ed angles. Both long edges are sharp; short back edge is adhering to surface at larger ends and in small pimples blunt and flattened as if ham mered. Apex forms a small round- throughout. Minoan? ed blade. Section len toid. One perforation (for hafting or hanging?). Stur dy; undecorated. Pottery Group X2:6. LM IB context. 78 JOSEPH W. SHAW, MARIA C. SHAW, AND JOHN G. YOUNGER

3.3. Loomweights and Spindle Lw 7 (C 9223; 73A/121, X1, floor). Discoid loomweight, Whorls 100% pres. H. 9.3, w. 6.5, th. 7.5. Wt. 148 g. 100% pres. One hole, d. 1.0. Grooved top. Ext. 10 YR 6/4 (light yellowish Joseph W. Shaw brown). 5% inclusions. LM IB. Lw 8 (C 9224; 73A/122, X1, floor). Discoid loomweight, Loomweights are well represented in House X (Table 100% pres. H. 8.3, w. 7.9, th. 2.6. Wt. 153 g. One hole, d. 1.0. 3.1). There are 60 loomweights from this medium-sized Grooved top. Ext. 7.5 YR 7/6 (reddish yellow). 5% inclu- house, considerably more than from any other Kommos sions. LM IA. 3 house. This total is also almost equivalent to the num- Lw 9 (C 9706; 80A/68, X2 north, floor). Discoid ber of loomweights recovered from the interiors of the loomweight, 98% pres. H. 8.2, w. 8.2, th. 3.2. Wt. 204 g. Two civic buildings to the south, where 64 are reported (in holes, d. 0.6. Flattened top. Ext. 7.5 YR 7/6 (reddish yellow). J.W. Shaw 2006b, table 4.2). House X also has a greater 1% inclusions. LM IB. variety of loomweight types than any other area of the Lw 10 (C 9707; 80A/68, X2 north, floor). Discoid Kommos site. Groups of loomweights were found in X1 loomweight, 30%(?) pres. H. 6.9, w. 4.7, th. 1.5. Wt. 57 g. (LM I floor, Lw 1–Lw 8), X6 (LM III dump, Lw One(?) hole, d. 1.1. Int. 5 YR 7/4 (pink). 10% inclusions. 17–Lw 21), and X10 (above the room in the LM II LM IB. dump, Lw 30–Lw 35, Lw 50, Lw 51, Lw 59, Lw 60). Lw 11 (C 9708; 80A/68, X2 north, floor). Discoid The catalog of selected loomweights and spindle loomweight, 95% pres. H. 6.4, w. 6.6, th. 1.7. Wt. 70 g. One whorls from contexts in House X is presented below. hole, d. 0.8. Flattened top. Ext. 7.5 YR 7/4 (pink). 10% inclu- Statistics for those already published by Dabney (1996a) sions. LM IB. are often adapted from that publication. The inclusion Lw 12 (C 9530; 80A/46, X2 south, floor). Discoid percentages are based on visual percentage estimation loomweight, 100% pres. H. 7.6, w. 7.0, th. 2.8. Wt. 140 g. following Terry and Chilingar (1955). The dates given One hole, d. 0.8. Top grooved, flattened, and tabular. Ext. 7.5 are the latest relative date. The items have been entered YR 7/4 (pink). 3% inclusions. LM IB. in the numerical order of the rooms in House X. Those Lw 13 (C 9633; 80A/46, X2 south, floor). Discoid found outside the house or above the preserved house loomweight, 10%(?) pres. H. 3.0, w. 3.0, th. 2.6. Wt. 20 g. walls are listed at the end of each respective type. One hole(?), d. 1. Ext. 7.5 YR 7/4 (pink), int. 5 YR 6/6 (reddish yellow). 5% inclusions. LM IB. Lw 14 (C 9534; 80A/50, X2, floor). Discoid loomweight, 100% pres. H. 7.3, w. 7.2, th. 2.3. Wt. 126 g. One hole, d. 0.6. Loomweights Grooved top. Ext. 5 YR 6/6 (reddish yellow). 3% inclusions. LM IB. Lw 1 (C 9453; 86B/8, X1 west, floor). Discoid loomweight, Lw 15 (C 9067; 74B/72A, X3, surface, +5.65 m). Discoid 100% pres. H. 8.6, w. 7.8, th. 2.2. Wt. 189 g. One hole, d. 1.1. loomweight, 95% pres. H. 8.4, w. 6.3, th. 0.58. Wt. 80 g. One Flattened top. Ext. 7.5 YR 8/3 (pink). 3% inclusions. LM IA. hole, d. 0.7. Flattened top. Ext. 5 YR 5/8 (yellowish red), int. 5 YR 5/8 (yellowish red). 3% inclusions. LM IB. Lw 2 (C 9454; 86B/8, X1 west, floor). Discoid loomweight, 98% pres. H. 9.7, w. 8.1, th. 2.1 . Wt. 224 g. One hole, d. 1.0. Lw 16 (C 9069; 74B/74A, X 3, floor, +5.25 m). Discoid Flattened top. Ext. 7.5 YR 8/3 (pink), int. 7.5 YR 7/5. 3% inclu- loomweight, 98% pres. H. 10.0, w. 8.3, th. 2.4. Wt. 182 g. sions. LM IA. One hole, d.1.6. Grooved top. Ext. 10 YR 8/4 (very pale brown). 3% inclusions. LM IB. Lw 3 (C 9455; 86B/8, X1 west, floor). Discoid loomweight, 30% pres. H. 4.3, w. 8.2, th. 2.4. Wt. 73 g. Ext. 8.4 YR 7/8, int. Lw 17 (C 8100; 66A/33, X5, LM III dump in light-well). 7.5 YR 6/2. 3% inclusions. LM IA. Discoid loomweight, 80% pres. H. 6.0, w. 6.1, th. 3.1. Wt. 94 g. One hole, d. 1.4. Ext. 7.5 YR 5/2 (brown), int. 7.5 YR 5/2 Lw 4 (C 9456; 86B/9, X1 west, floor). Discoid (brown). 30% inclusions. LM IB–IIIA:2. Dabney 1996a, loomweight, 90% pres. H. 9.4, w. 8.5, th. 2.2. Wt. 190 g. One 249–262, no. 94. hole, d. 1.8. Grooved top. Ext. 5 YR 6/6 (reddish yellow), int. 5 YR 6/1 (gray). 10% inclusions. LM IA. Lw 18 (C 9222; 73B/116, X6, floor, +4.85 m). Discoid loomweight (disk?), 20% pres. H. 3.4, w. 5.7, th. 1.2. Wt. 29 Lw 5 (C 9523; 80A/20, X1 west, blocking). Discoid g. Ext. 5 YR 7/6 (reddish yellow). LM IB. loomweight, 90% pres. H. 9.0, w. 8.2, th. 2.2. Wt. 66 g. One hole, d. 1.1. Grooved top. Ext. 2.5 YR 7/5, int. 5 YR 6/6. 30% Lw 19 (C 9217; 73B/102, X6, LM III dump). Discoid inclusions. LM IB. loomweight, 100% pres. H. 9.4, w. 8.2, th. 2.5. Wt. 189 g. One hole, d. 1.2. Grooved and tabular top. Ext. 7.5 YR 8/6 Lw 6 (C 9221; 73B/120, X1, floor). Discoid loomweight, (reddish yellow). 5% inclusions. LM IIIA:2. 100% pres. H. 8.7, w. 8.6, th. 2.9. Wt. 201 g. One hole, d. 1.1. Grooved top. Ext. 10 YR 6/4 (light yellowish brown). 3% Lw 20 (C 9219; 73B/111, X6, LM II dump). Discoid inclusions. LM IA. loomweight, 95% pres. H. 9.0, w. 7.0, th. 2.6. Wt. 157 g. One MISCELLANEOUS FINDS 79 hole, d. 0.5. Grooved and tabular top. Ext. 7.5 YR 7/4 (pink). Lw 34 (C 9797; 87A/57, X10, LM II dump). Discoid 3% inclusions. LM II. loomweight, 85% pres. H. 7.5, w. 7.0, th. 1. Wt. 81 g. One Lw 21 (C 7044; 59A1/25, X8, LM III dump). Discoid hole, d. 0.7. Flattened top. Ext. 2.5 YR 5/3 (reddish brown). loomweight, 100% pres. H. 10.2, w. 8.2, th. 2.5. Wt. 195 g. 1% inclusions. LM II. One hole, d. 1.4. Grooved and tabular top. Ext. 7.5 YR 6/6. Lw 35 (C 9815; 87A/72, X10, LM II dump). Discoid 10% inclusions. LM IIIA:2. Dabney 1996a, 249–262, no. 98, loomweight, 85% pres. H. 8.5, w. 8.5, th. 1.7. Wt. 138 g. One pl. 4.5. hole, d. 1.3. Flattened top. Ext. 7.5 YR 7/6 (reddish yellow). Lw 22 (C 8021; 66A/27, X6, LM II floor?). Discoid 30% inclusions. LM II. loomweight, 30% pres. H. 4.8, w. 6.2, th. 2.0. Wt. 52 g. One Lw 36 (C 9524; 80A/2, X14, mixed fill). Discoid hole, d. 0.8. Grooved and tabular top. Ext. 2.5 YR 5/8 (red). loomweight, 100% pres. H. 8.0, w. 8.2, th. 2.3. Wt. 157 g. 5% inclusions. LM IIIA:2. Dabney 1996a, 249–262, no. 85. One hole, d. 2.3. Grooved top. Ext. 5 YR 7/4 (pink). 3% Lw 23 (C 8098; 66A/34, X6, LM II floor; Pl. 3.3). Discoid inclusions. 7th century b.c. loomweight, 100% pres. H. 10.5, w. 8.2, th. 2.6. Wt. 205 g. One Lw 37 (C 9493; 87A/20, north of House X). Discoid hole, d. 1.2. Grooved and tabular top. Ext. 5 YR 7/6. 5% inclu- loomweight, 100% pres. H. 7.8, w. 8.3, th. 2.5. Wt. 203 g. sions. LM IIIA:2. Dabney 1996a, 249–262, no. 87, pl. 4.4. One hole, d. 1.0. Flattened top. Ext. 7.5YR 7/4 (pink). 3% Lw 24 (C 8099; 66A/34, X6, LM II dump). Discoid inclusions. LM I. loomweight, 100% pres. H. 12.7, w. 7.1, th. 1.7. Wt. 161 g. Lw 38 (C 9502; 87A/22, north of House X, mixed fill). One hole, d. 1.4. Tabular top. Ext. 7.5 YR 7/4 (pink). 5% inclu- Discoid loomweight, 95% pres. H. 5.9, w. 5.8, th. 1.2. Wt. 66 g. sions. LM IIIA:2. Dabney 1996a, 249–262, no. 88, pl. 4.4. One hole, d. 1.0. Flattened top. Ext. 5 YR 6/6 (reddish yellow). Lw 25 (C 7314; 59A1/44, X8, LM III dump). Discoid 1% inclusions. 7th century b.c. Dabney 1996a, table 5.3. loomweight, 65% pres. H. 7.3, w. 9.2, th. 2.5. Wt. 175 g. One Lw 39 (C 9028; 74A/44, northwest of House X). Discoid hole, d. 1.5. Ext. 5 YR 6/4, int. 5 YR 6/4. 30% inclusions. LM loomweight, 95% pres. H. 10.2, w. 7.6, th. 2.5. Wt. 168 g. IIIA:2. Dabney 1996a, 249–262, no. 86. One hole, d. 2.8. Flattened top. Ext. 5 YR 6/8 (reddish yel- Lw 26 (C 7581; 59A1/72, X8, floor?). Discoid loomweight, low). 30% inclusions. LM II? 100% pres. H. 9.3, w. 7.3, th. 2.4. Wt. 165 g. One hole, d. 0.6. Lw 40 (C 7438; 59A1/57, south of House X, above road). Grooved and tabular top. Ext. 5 YR 6/8 (reddish yellow). 1% Discoid loomweight (disk?), 20% pres. H. 4.1, w. 5.9, th. 2.3. inclusions. LM IIIA:1. Dabney 1996a, 249–262, no. 95, pl. 4.4. Wt. 82 g. 5 YR 5/4 (reddish brown). 3% inclusions. LM IIIA. Lw 27 (C7060; 59A1/37, X8, LM III dump). Discoid Lw 41 (C 9210; 73A/75, above X9, mixed fill). Discoid loomweight, 40% pres. H. 4.4, w. 7.0, th. 2.7. Wt. 70 g. One loomweight, 80% pres. H. 8.6, w. 8.3, th. 2.1. Wt. 120 g. One hole, d. 1.0. Grooved top. Ext. 5 YR 7/4. 3% inclusions. LM hole. Ext. 7.5 YR 8/3 (pink). 5% inclusions. LM IIIA. IIIA:2. Dabney 1996a, 249–262, no. 99. Lw 42 (C 9216; 73B/98, above House X; Pl. 3.3). Discoid Lw 28 (C 7135; 59A1/37, X8, LM III dump). Discoid loomweight (huge loomweight?), 100% pres. H. 12.5, w. 11, loomweight, 95% pres. H. 7.5, w. 7.4, th. 4.0. Wt. 230 g. One th. 3. Wt. 570 g. One hole, d. 1.4. Grooved top. Ext. 7.5 YR hole, d. 0.9. 5 YR 7/4 (pink). 30% inclusions. LM IIIA:2. 6/6 (reddish yellow). 10% inclusions. Minoan? Lw 29 (C 9536; 81C/60, X9, LM II). Discoid loomweight, Lw 43 (C 10088; 93E/64, north of House X, LM II dump). 98% pres. H. 9.4, w. 8.6, th. 1.7. Wt. 160 g. One hole, d. 1.6. Discoid loomweight, 100% pres. H. 9.5, w. 7.7, th. 2.0. Wt. Grooved top. Ext. 5YR 6/4 (light reddish brown). 3% inclu- 154 g. One hole, d. 0.6. Flattened and tabular top. Ext. 10 YR sions. LM IB. 8/3 (very pale brown). 3% inclusions. LM II. Lw 30 (C 309; 11A/19, X10, LM II dump). Discoid Lw 44 (C 10109; 93E/78, north of House X, LM II dump). loomweight, 50% pres. H. 6.0, w. 7.0, th. 2.7. Wt. 100 g. One Discoid loomweight, 100% pres. H. 6.6, w. 7.0, th. 1.5. Wt. hole, d. 1.2. Flattened top. Ext. 5 YR 6/6 (reddish yellow). 99 g. Two holes, d. 0.6. Grooved top. Ext. 7.5 YR 6/4 (light 30% inclusions. LM II. Dabney 1996a, 249–262, no. 96. brown). 3% inclusions. LM II. Lw 31 (C 328; 11A/24, X10, LM II dump). Discoid Lw 45 (C 10129; 93E/83, north of House X, LM II dump; loomweight, 75% pres. H. 7.0, w. 7.0, th. 2.5. Wt. 100 g. One Pl. 3.3). Discoid loomweight, 100% pres. H. 8.0, w. 8.4, th. 2.5. hole? Ext. 10YR 7/4 (very pale brown). LM II. Dabney Wt. 200 g. Two holes, d. 0.8. Grooved top. Painted. Ext. 7.5 YR 1996a, 249–262, no. 89. 8/4 (pink). 5% inclusions. LM II. Lw 32 (C 338; 11A/26, X10, LM II dump). Discoid Lw 46 (C 10203; 93E/83, north of House X, dump). loomweight, 80% pres. H. 6.2, w. 6.1, th. 2.1. Wt. 67 g. One Discoid loomweight, 10%(?) pres. H. 2.7, w. 2.7, th. 1.4. Wt. hole, d.1.7 cm. Ext. 2.5 YR 4/5. 30% inclusions. LM II. 14 g. One(?) hole, d. 0.8. Flattened top. Ext. 7.5 YR 8/4 Dabney 1996a, 249–262, no. 102. (pink), int. 5 YR 6/6 (reddish yellow). 3% inclusions. LM II. Lw 33 (C 9784; 87A/44, X10, LM II dump). Discoid Lw 47 (C 6954; 59A/5, above X6, LM III dump). Discoid loomweight, 90% pres. H. 10.0, w. 8.1, th. 2.1. Wt. 219 g. loomweight, 100% pres. H. 9.0, w. 7.5, th. 1.8. Wt. 250 g. One One hole, d. 0.8. Grooved and tabular top. Ext. 2.5 YR 5/5. hole, d. 0.8. Ext. 5 YR 6/6 (reddish yellow). 5% inclusions. LM 3% inclusions. LM II. IIIA:2. Dabney 1996a, 249–262, no. 124, pl. 4.5. 80 JOSEPH W. SHAW, MARIA C. SHAW, AND JOHN G. YOUNGER

Lw 48 (C 6955; 59A/5, above X6, LM III dump; Pl. 3.3). Spindle Whorls Discoid loomweight, 100% pres. H. 7.8, w. 7.8, th. 2.3. Wt. 260 g. One hole, d. 0.8. Grooved top. Ext. 10 YR 7/3 (very Sp 1 (S 2179; 80A/23, X13, fill in sottoscala; Pl. 3.3). pale brown). 10% inclusions. LM IIIA:2. Dabney 1996a, Spindle whorl (alabaster?), 95% pres. H. 1.4, d. 2.9. Wt. 4 g. 249–262, no. 125, pl. 4.5. Hole d. 0.3. Conical convex shape. LM I–II. Lw 49 (C 9027; 74A/36A, north of House X). Discoid Sp 2 (S 2163; 73B/98, above X6, upper fill; Pl. 3.3). loomweight, 100% pres. H. 8.5, w. 8.5, th. 2.0. Wt. 103 g. Spindle whorl, 100% pres. H. 1.0, d. 2.4. Wt. 5 g. Hole d. 0.3. One hole, d. 0.7. Grooved top. Ext. 10 YR 8/3 (very pale Convex flat shape. Geometric. brown). 5% inclusions. LM I. Dabney 1996a, 249–262, Sp 3 (C 9401; 80A/11, above House X, upper fill; Pl. 3.3) pl. 4.5. Spindle whorl, 100% pres. H. 2.0, d. 4.5. Wt. 12 g. Hole d. 0.4. Lw 50 (C 202; 11A/19, X10, LM II dump; Pl. 3.3). Half Convex shape. Ext. 10YR 8/1 (white). 1% inclusions. Archaic. discoid loomweights, 100% pres. H. 5.3, w. 9.7, th. 2.5. Wt. Sp 4 (S 1604; 66A/37, X6, floor). Spindle whorl, 100% 109 g. Two holes, d. 0.6. Grooved top. Ext. 7.5 YR 7/2 (pink- pres. H. 0.6, d. 3.5. Wt. 15 g. Hole d. 0.5. Re worked jar top. ish gray). 3% inclusions. LM II. Dabney 1996a, 249–262, no. LM II. 148, pl. 4.5. Sp 5 (C 6243; 54A/3, southwest of Building V, upper fill). Lw 51 (C 10075; 92E/56, north of House X, LM II dump). Spindle whorl, 100% pres. H. 2.4, d. 4.1. Wt. 105 g. Hole d. Half discoid loomweight, 95% pres. H. 6.9, w. 8.5, th. 2.2. 0.5. Lentoid. Incised. 4th century B.C. Greek? Dabney 2000, Wt. 133 g. Two holes, d. 0.8. Grooved top. Ext. 7.5 YR 7/4 no. 32, pl. 5.14. (pink). 20% inclusions. LM II. Lw 52 (C 10249; 93E/100, X3, LM II dump). Cylindrical loomweight, 15% pres. H. 3.0, w. 3.0. Wt. 45 g. One hole, d. 1.1? Ext. 7.5 YR 8/4 (pink), int. 7.5 YR 8/4 (pink). 1% inclusions. LM IB. Discussion Lw 53 (C 8789, 66A/31, X6, LM IIIA:2 dump; Pl. 3.3). Cylindrical loomweight, 100% pres. H. 7.1, w. 5.9. Wt. 250 As in Dabney’s original study of Kommos loom - g. One hole, d. 1.1. Ext. 5 YR 5/6 (yellowish red). 30% inclu- weights (1996a), of which some 17 are republished here, sions. LM IIIA:2. Dabney 1996a, 249–262, no. 160. the most common type is the discoid (Lw 1–Lw 49; Pl. 3.3, top row). Over 80% of the loomweights from the Lw 54 (C 9066; 74B/72A, X3 north, floor, +5.65 m; Pl. 3.3). Trapezoidal loomweight, 100% pres. H. 6.6, w. 5.5, th. house are of this form, which is also the most common 2.0. Wt. 89 g. One hole, d. 0.6. Flattened top. Ext. 5 YR 5/8 type found on Crete. Among these, although from an (yellowish red). 3% inclusions. LM IB. upper, mixed context, is the largest preserved loomweight Lw 55 (C 9068; 74B/73A, X3 north, floor, +5.65 m). from the site (Pl. 3.3:Lw 42), so heavy (570 g, twice the Trapezoidal loomweight, 100% pres. H. 6.1, w. 5.7, th. 2.0. weight of the other large ones) that it may have performed Wt. 79 g. One hole, d. 0.6. Grooved top. Ext. 5 YR 5/8 (yel- some special function in weaving (or another activity), 4 lowish red). 3% inclusions. LM II. such as maintaining tension at the selvages. Ten weights Lw 56 (C 10157; 93E/95, X3, LM II dump). Trapezoidal of the discoid type (e.g., Pl. 3.3:Lw 23) have a raised, tab- loomweight, 100% pres. H. 6.5, w. 5.6, th. 2.0. Wt. 92 g. One ular projection around a single suspension hole. There are hole, d. 0.6. Flattened top. Ext. 5 YR 6/8 (reddish yellow). 3% also two half-discoid weights (Lw 50, Lw 51) with a half- inclusions. LM IIIA:1. moon shape and a suspension hole at each end (Pl. Lw 57 (C 9227; 73A/60, X4, +5.34 m in deposit). 3.3:Lw 50). This type may be restricted on Crete to the Trapezoidal(?) loomweight, 90% pres. H. 9.5, w. 7.0, th. 1.6. Mesara (Carrington Smith 1975, 138; Dabney 1996a, Wt. 127 g. One and one-half holes, d. 0.6. Flattened top. Ext. 244). Also, there are two cylindrical loomweights (Lw 5 YR 8/6. 3% inclusions. LM IIIA:2. 52, Lw 53) that are pierced horizontally, and seven trape- Lw 58 (C 9207; 73A/63A, X4, floor, +5.07 m). zoidal ones (Lw 54–Lw 60) that are pierced by a single Trapezoidal loomweight, 85% pres. H. 6.6, w. 5.9, th. 1.6. Wt. hole at the apex, rather like miniature Classical Greek sea 92 g. One hole, d. 0.3. Grooved top. Ext. 5 YR 6/8 (reddish anchors (see Pl. 3.3:Lw 54). yellow). 1% inclusions. LMIIIA:2. As discussed elsewhere in this volume, House X was Lw 59 (C 308; 11A/19, X10, LM II dump). Trapezoidal constructed in LM IA and abandoned in LM IIIA:2. The loomweight, 95% pres. H. 6.4, w. 5.6 th. 2.3. Wt. 73 g. One groups of weights listed in the catalog represent the main hole, d. 0.6. Flattened top. Ext. 5YR 7/7. 1% inclusions. LM phases of the house, with 16 from LM I, 23 from LM II, II. Dabney 1996a, 249–262, no.154, pl. 4.5. and 17 from LM III contexts. Of those from the first Lw 60 (C 337; 11A/26, X10, LM II dump). Trapezoidal period, 14 are from Spaces X1 and X2, both of which loomweight, 95% pres. H. 7.0, w. 6.2, th. 1.7. Wt. 79 g. One were used partially for storage. Six examples from LM I hole, d. 0.6. Flattened top. Ext. 5YR 5/6 (yellowish red). 3% to III levels derive from X6, where weaving may have inclusions. LM II. Dabney 1996a, 249–262, no. 155. taken place, possibly on an upper story. Those from LM MISCELLANEOUS FINDS 81

II levels may reveal intensive weaving activity dating light er type being four times as numerous as the heavier. either to LM I (thrown out in a LM II cleanup?) or LM Three average weights (in J.W. Shaw 2006b, 738) were II itself. No weights were found in Space X7 (the Shrine) proposed for the Southern Area at Kommos: 49–76 g or near floor levels in Spaces X11, X12, or X13 (the last (light), 110–150 g (medium), and 226 g (the heaviest, but not being a surprise since the rooms formed part of the represented by only one example). There are 47 complete formal entranceway into the house).5 Only two weights, or almost complete weights from House X.7 The small both trapezoidal, were found in Space X4, which was ones, up to 110 g, include six complete examples of full of mendable pottery. trapezoidal type, one half-discoid, and eight discoid. Some of the House X loomweights are so similar in These make up 32% of the total. Medium-sized weights, shape and fabric that they are most likely from larger rang ing from 111 g to 149 g, are less common (13 %), groups fired in the same kilns. With the intention of ex - with one half-discoid example and five discoid weights. am ining whether this hypothesis was correct, all of the Large weights ranging from 150 g to 225 g are surpris- House X loomweights were first spread out on a table so ingly common (43%), with 20 examples, all discoid that comparisons could be undertaken without regard for weights. Even larger ones range from 226 g to 260 g, find spot. Fragmentary weights were removed, followed including the single well-preserved cylindrical weight by those that were simply unlike any others. Similar ex - and four discoid weights, together some 11% of the total. amples were then put next to each other, and the process Surprisingly, House X has fewer smaller and more of elimination continued until there were five groups. larger weights by percentage than any of the other build- One group, the first of the five, is of particular interest, ings on the site. Weights below 110 g represent 32% of for these two twin discoid weights (Lw 6, Lw 8) are from those found in House X, whereas in the Southern Area the first (LM I) floor in Space X1, where a number of the same category represents 70% of the finds. For the restorable pots were also recovered. That such a weight entire site (excluding House X), smaller weights make group could be separated into a stylistic family simply by up 61% of the finds (Dabney 1996a, table 4.1). Heavier appearance would seem to confirm that, like pottery, weights, ranging from 150 g to 260 g, represent 54% of loomweights can serve as chronological indicators. the total found in House X, whereas in the Southern Area The next two fabric groups are both discoidal (first they represent about 14%. For the entire site, they group: Lw 4, Lw 16, Lw 39; second group Lw 5, Lw account for less than 15% of the total. This disparity sug- 13, Lw 14, Lw 36, Lw 37, Lw 48, Lw 49). Of the first gests that the fabrics being woven in House X were par- group, three weights are from LM I contexts; one is ticularly heavy: rugs, hangings, or even sailcloth are from X1, another is from X3, and the third is from possibilities. The 60 loomweights found in the house north of House X. In the second group of seven, two are suggest that at least one loom (equipped with about that from north of House X, one from X1, two from X2, one many weights) was used during the house’s occupation.8 from X14, and one from high levels in X6. Five of these were from LM I contexts, one from a LM III (or later) context, and one from a seventh century B.C. context. These two “families” suggest that some loomweights remained within or near their original place of use 3.4. Implements and Other (House X) and that some continued in use over long Objects of Stone timespans, as might be expected.6 In the next two fabric group “families,” two weights Joseph W. Shaw with tabular tops (Lw 19, Lw 23) are from LM III levels in Space X6, along with three others of the same type but different fabric (Lw 20, Lw 22, Lw 24). The Stone Tools type is known in earlier House X contexts (Lw 12), and a few examples date to LM II or earlier (Lw 33, Lw As shown in Table 3.1, House X produced numerous 43). Finally, three trapezoidal weights (Lw 54–Lw 56), examples of stone tools, all belonging to types previous- almost mirror images of each other, are from LM I–III ly defined at Kommos (Blitzer 1995; J.W. Shaw 2006c). contexts in X3. The presence of two of them on a LM I Most of these were found among accumulated debris floor shows that the type, thought to have been restrict- from walls and floors; only a few (as in the “toolkit” from ed to LM IIIA at Kommos (Dabney 1996a, 245), is X2, St 1–St 4, St 24; Pls. 3.4, 3.6) were found on floors probably earlier. where they may have been used. As might be expected, Dabney (1996a, 248) observes that the average many were found outside the house, and many come weights for the site were 90 g (the smaller average from mixed Minoan/Archaic Greek levels above it.9 The weight) and 170 g (the larger average weight), with the catalog presents only a few representative examples. 82 JOSEPH W. SHAW, MARIA C. SHAW, AND JOHN G. YOUNGER

The order of the discussion of the ground stone tools 3.0, max. pres. th. 0.7. Wt. 41 g. Bifacially abraded along one follows that of the categories defined in Blitzer’s (1995) edge. Metamorphic. Pottery Group X4:1E. LM II context. study. The objects St 1–St 5 conform to her categories St 9 (S 2142; 73A/55, X4 floor deposit; Pl. 3.5). Abrader. 1–4 (cobbles with varieties of wear patterns), St 6–St 9 Max. pres. L. 5.5, max. pres. w. 3.5, max. pres. th. 3. Wt. 95 g. to category 5 (whetstones and abrading stones), St 10–St Oval pebble, surface at one end worn and polished from abra- 12 to category 7 (handstones), St 13–St 15 to category sion. Fine-grained, veined whitish limestone. Pottery Group 12A (naturally pierced stones), St 16–St 18 to category X4:2. LM IIIA:2 context. 13 (intentionally pierced stones), St 19 and St 20 to cat- St 10 (S 2170; 73B/108, X6; Pl. 3.5). Pestle. Max. pres. L. egory 14 (stones with opposite single and multiple 9.9, max. pres. w. 6.1, max. pres. th. 4.0. Wt. 843 g. Conoid depressions), St 21 and St 22 to category 15 (disks), St cobble, heavily ground at both ends. Fine-grained, blue-black 23 to category 16A (differentially weathered stones), St igneous stone. Pottery Group X6:5. LM IIIA:2 context. 24 to category 17 (querns), St 25–St 32 to categories 18 St 11 (S 2192; 81C/60, X9, below LM II floor; Pl. 3.5). (mortars) and 19 (basins), and St 33 and St 34 to catego- Handstone. Max. pres. L. 10.7, max. pres. w. 5.5, max. pres. th. ry 20B (slab/anvils/molds with multiple depressions).10 4.2. Wt. 729 g. Medium-sized oblong cobble, rectangular in cross-section, heavily battered at both ends along margins. Both faces very smooth, highly polished from use. Striation marks. Quartzite. Pottery Group X9:1. Ground Stone St 12 (S 333; 11A/23, X11/X12). Cobble. Max. pres. L. 6.3, max. pres. w. 3.4. Wt. 93 g. Hard, light limestone. Pottery Group X11:2. LM II context. Blitzer 1995, no. GS 25, pl. 8.3. St 1 (S 2195; 80A/41, X2; Pl. 3.4). Cobble, slightly broken at edges. Max. pres. L. 8.2, max. pres. w. 6.8, max. pres. St 13 (S 2219; 81C/79, X16; Pl. 3.5). Pebble pendant(?). th 2.5. Wt. 493 g. Roughly square. Polished surfaces. See Chapter 3.6, J 9. Metamorphosed chert. Pottery Group X2:4. LM IB floor con- St 14 (S 2133; 74A/31A, north of House X; Pl. 3.5). text. Found along with St 2–St 4 and St 24. Weight. Max. pres. L. 18.2, max. pres. w. 11.5 at base, ca. 3.0 St 2 (S 2194; 80A/41, X2; Pl. 3.4). Cobble, heavily pecked at top, max. pres. th. 6. Wt. 1,656 g. Roughly rectangular with around circumference. Max. pres. L. 8.2, max. pres. w. 7.1, rounded ends. Natural perforation near narrower end. Light to max. pres. th 3.2. Wt. 459 g. Bifacially abraded at both ends. dark gray breccia. Both faces smooth and slightly polished from use. Peck St 15 (S 2167; 73B/106, X6; Pl. 3.5). Weight. Max. pres. marks in center of both faces. Hard, fine-grained bluish L. 8.0, max. pres. w. 7.0, max. pres. th. 5.0. Wt. 401 g. gray limestone. Pottery Group X2:4. LM IB floor context. Roughly triangular-shaped cobble with rounded edges, thick- See St 1. er at one end, naturally perforated near one edge, pecked St 3 (S 2197; 80A/41, X2; Pl. 3.4). Cobble, roughly square. through to opposite surface. Hard, light gray limestone. Max. pres. L. 7.5, max. pres. w. 5.3, max. pres. th. 2.1. Wt. 228 Pottery Group X6:5. LM IIIA:1 fill context. g.Chipped at ends, one surface smooth from use. Gray chert. St 16 (S 2208; 80A/65, X2; Pl. 3.5). Drill wedge. Max. pres. Pottery Group X2:4. LM IB floor context. See St 1. L. 7.1, max. pres. w. 6.6, max. pres. th. 6.1. Wt. 536 g. St 4 (S 2198; 80A/41, X2; Pl. 3.4). Medium-sized oval Serpentine. Pottery Group X2:2. LM IA floor and fill. cobble. Max. pres. L. 7.8, max. pres. w. 6, max. pres. th. 4. St 17 (S 2173; 74B/74A, X3; Pl. 3.6). Drill wedge. Max. Wt. 569 g. Heavily battered at both ends, only slightly along pres. L. 7.0, max. pres. w. 6.5, max. pres. th. 4.0. Wt. 352 g. margins. Hard, fine-grained blue-gray limestone. Pottery Round, thick cobble. Green serpentine. Small segment drilled Group X2:4. LM IB floor context. See St 1. out on one side. Pottery Group X3:4. LM II context. St 5 (S 2282; 93E/99, X3; Pl. 3.4). Cobble used for grind- St 18 (S 1714; 59A1/83, X8; Pl. 3.6). Weight, broken at ing. Max. pres. d. 7.6, max. pres. th. 3.6. Wt. 249 g. Round one end. Max. pres. L. 14.0, max. pres. w. 7.0, max. pres. th. smooth cobble pecked into flat circle, one side flattened by 6.0. Wt. 1,020 g. Cylindrical piece with two pecked waists heavier pecking; top and bottom worn flat and smooth. and grooves running around circumference, one toward each Pottery Group X3:4. LM II. Found along with St 27. end. Probably once pierced at one end and possibly hung. St 6 (S 1962; 66A/40, X6; Pl. 3.4). Whetstone. Max. pres. Soft white limestone. Pottery Group X8:1. LM II floor and L. 5.3, max. pres. w. 1.9, max. pres. th. 0.9. Wt. 12 g. Hard, fill. Blitzer 1995, no. GS 569, pl. 8.71:c. greenish serpentine. Pottery Group X6:2. LM IB context. St 19 (S 1972; 66A/43, X5; Pl. 3.6). Cylindrical cobble with St 7 (S 1451; 66A/37, X6; Pl. 3.4). Whetstone. Max. pres. depressions worn on each side. Max. pres. L. 4.5, max. pres. w. L. 7.0, max. pres. w. 2.3, max. pres. th. 0.7. Wt. 19 g. Gray, 3.7, max. pres. th. 1.5. Wt. 30 g. Hard, bluish limestone. Found sandy metamorphic limestone. Pottery Group X6:4. LM II in X5 near drain into postulated bothros. Pottery Group X5:3. floor context. LM II context. Cf. Blitzer 1995, 473, no. GS 571, pl. 8.45. St 8 (S 2152; 73A/63A, X4 floor deposit; Pl. 3.4). St 20 (S 2134; 73A/50, X4). Slab with central depressions Whetstone, broken at one end. Max. pres. L. 5.3, max. pres. w. on each side. L. 22.2, max. pres. w. 16.0, max. pres. th. 5.0. MISCELLANEOUS FINDS 83

Wt. 1,464 g. Soft, white, sandy limestone. Pottery Group entrance to the reused North Stoa of Building T, see J.W. Shaw X4:3. Collapsed upper floor deposit(?), possibly contaminat- 1986, n. 45, and Shaw and Shaw, eds., 2006, 748, no. 76. LM ed with Archaic material. II context. St 21 (S 1712; 59A1/74, X8). Disk. Max. pres. L. 14.0, St 31 (S 2242; 87A/60, X10; Pl. 3.7). Mortar. Max. pres. max. pres. w. 14.0, max. pres. th. 4.0. Wt. 990 g. Soft lime- w. 38.0, max. pres. L. 59.0, max. pres. th. 24.0. Angular boul- stone. Pottery Group X8:2. LM II–IIIA:1 context. Found with der with shallow bowl, roundish in shape. Part of fallen rub- St 22. Blitzer 1995, no. GS 600, pl. 8.48:b. ble or possible blocking in X10. Light gray limestone. Pottery St 22 (S 1713; 59A1/74, X8). Disk. Max. pres. L. 11.0, Group X10:1. LM II dump. max. pres. w. 10.6, max. pres. th 4.5. Wt. 590 g. Soft lime- St 32 (S 2243; 87A/60, X10; Pl. 3.7). Mortar in two pieces, stone. Pottery Group X8:2. LM II–IIIA:1 context. Found with more or less complete. Max. pres. w. 53.0–57.0, max. pres. L. St 21. Blitzer 1995, no. GS 601, pl. 8.48:b. 56.0, max. pres. w. of opening 29.0. Part of fallen rubble or St 23 (S 1385; 11A/10, above House X on the east; Pl. possible blocking in X10. Gray and white conglomerate. 3.6). Differentially weathered stone. Max. pres. L. 4.7, max. Pottery Group X10:1. LM II dump. pres. w. 2.2. Wt. 66 g. Chert-like in color. Minoan or Iron Age St 33 (S 2206; 81C/47, X9; Pl. 3.7). Stamnostatis. Broken; context. originally with two depressions; part of the second one is pre- St 24 (S 2200; 80A/41, X2; Pl. 3.6). Saddle quern. Max. served. Max. pres. L. 41.0, max. pres. w. 38.5, max. pres. th. pres. L. 26.0, max. pres. w. 25.5, max. pres. th. 5.0. Wt. 4.2 kg. 11.0. D. of depression 16.5, depth of depression 5.5. White, Exterior carefully finished. Undersurface flattened. Upper sur- sandy limestone. Pottery Group X9:3. In LM IIIA:2 collapse. face smooth, slightly polished through use. Pecked repeatedly. Left on site. For the type and possible use, see Blitzer 1995, Gray to reddish micaceous sandstone. Pottery Group X2:4. LM 485, type 20B, al though the soft stone of which the slab is made IB context. Found with St 1–St 4. weakens her argument that these were anvils for metalworking. St 25 (S 2140; 73A/55, X4; Pl. 3.6). Basin or unfinished St 34 (S 2207; 81C/55, X9; Pl. 3.7). Stamnostatis. Max. mortar. Max. pres. L. 16.0, max. pres. w. 12.5, max. pres. th. pres. L. 29.5, max. pres. w. 20.5, max. pres. th. 5.0. D. of 6.8. Wt. 1,940 g. Thick, irregularly shaped slab. Shallow cen- depression 12.0, depth of depression 0.5 (very shallow). tral depression (d. 8.5) Pick marks visible. Sandy limestone. White, sandy limestone. Pottery Group X9:2. Connected with Pottery Group X4:2. LM IIIA:2 ground floor deposit. LM II floor and fill. Left on site. See also St 33. St 26 (S 2141; 73A/59, X4). Shallow mortar. Max. pres. L. St 35 (S 1697E; 59A/3, above House X walls in Mi - noan/Archaic rubble; Fig. 3.2; Pl. 3.8). Trapezoidal stone 34.0, max. pres. w. 22.0, max. pres. th. 10.0. Wt. 9.4 kg. 12 Boulder shaped with shallow, hollowed oval depression. Rim w. axe. Max. pres. L. 8.0, max. pres. w. 5.5, max. pres. th. 3.3. ca. 2.0. Carved so as to form a projecting spout. Exterior and Wt. 220 g. Metamorphic volcanic rock? Dark greenish gray interior worked and smoothed, undersurface slightly flattened. (Munsell gray 1 4/1 5GY). The axe has polished bevels and Sandy limestone. Pottery Group X4:2. Part of LM IIIA:2 floor well-pecked faces, margins, and butt. There are traces of haft- deposit, as is abrader St 9. ing ghosts, indicating that the axe was functional. There is at least one peg scar on the tool. Of interest is the medium. The St 27 (S 2283; 93E/99, X3; Pl. 3.4). Trapezoidal slab with tool is extensively worked, making petrographic identification smoothed, hollowed, mortar-like space (d. 10.0) showing difficult, but it ap pears to be a metamorphosed volcanic rock marks of circular wear. Max. pres. L. 27.0, max. pres. th. 3.4. that outcrops south of Siteia and may only occur east of the Wt. 5.375 kg. Blue-gray limestone. Pottery Group X3:4. LM Ierapetra Pen insula. This type of axe is common in eastern II context. Found with St 5. Crete (e.g., Palaikastro and Magasa) but less so elsewhere. As St 28 (S 2130; 73A/ 53, X4; Pl. 3.6). Coarse basin or mor- a working hy pothesis Stras ser is attributing these axes to an tar. Max. pres. w. 12.0, max. pres. h. 3.3, max. pres. th. 2.4. “East Crete Type.” Further geological pro spection is necessary Wt. 426 g. Broken, with one (of two) rough handles missing. to verify the limited occurrence of this rock on Crete. Should Sandstone, coarse-grained. Pottery Group X4:3. From possi- this hy pothesis be maintained, the Kommos axe was produced ble collapsed LM IIIA:2 upper floor deposit. in East Crete, south of Siteia near the Etia region. The best St 29 (S 2349; House X, uncertain provenance; Pl. 3.7). para llel for the celt’s shape is Dawkins, Hawes, and Bo san quet Mortar of soft limestone, holed through use. Max. pres. w. 1904–1905, pl. VIII:2. 28.0, max. pres. L. 49.0, max. pres. th. ca. 20.0. St 30 (S 2350; 591A/86, X9; Pl. 3.7). Rough mortar of soft limestone. Max. pres. w. 34.0, max. pres. L. 43.0, max. pres. th. ca. 40.0. The northeastern corner was broken off and missing, Chipped Stone but the gap, according to the trenchmaster, appears to have been patched with a small slab.11 Found in the northwestern corner St 36 (S 2286; 93E/107, X6; Pl. 3.8). Obsidian wedge. of Space X9, where it was set in diagonally. May have been Max. pres. L. 4.2, max. pres. th. 1.8. Wt. 15 g. One face is reused as a basin for water, possibly for a domestic animal. natural crust. Sharp edge broken into rough saw tooth. Area probably open to the sky. Pottery Group X9:2. See Shaw Pottery Group X6:1. LM IA context. and Shaw 1993, 140; also see J.W. Shaw 1986, 238. For a sim- St 37 (S 2225; 86B/16, X1; Pl. 3.8). Obsidian blade. Max. ilar arrangement with basin set in an open area just outside the pres. L. 2.1, max. pres. w. 1.3, max. pres. th. 0.2. Wt. 1 g. Part 84 JOSEPH W. SHAW, MARIA C. SHAW, AND JOHN G. YOUNGER of long, slim blade pressure-flaked and delicately retouched Underside flat. Hard, gray-green stone with fine black and at edges. Could be from same core as St 38. MM II–III fill. white micaceous flecks. Pottery Group X1:11. LM IIIA:2/ St 38 (S 2223; 86B/10, X1; Pl. 3.8). Grayish-black obsid- Archaic. Warren 1969, 80, type 33 (pyxis lid). ian core. Max. pres. L. 4.0, max. pres. w. 3.5. Wt. 28 g. St 47 (S 2224; 86B/13, X1; Fig. 3.2). Ribbed chalice or Pottery Group X1:1. Floor deposit. LM IA context. pyxis. Max. pres. d. 2.7. Fine, thin-walled fragment, straight- St 39 (S 2238; 87A/29, outside House X; Pl. 3.8). walled vessel horizontally corrugated on exterior. Interior well Obsidian blades. Max. pres. L. 2.6, max. pres. w. 1.9. Wt. 2 smoothed, exterior highly polished. Serpentine? Below LM I g.Two slender semitransparent flattish flakes of triangular pebble floor, with MM pottery. Warren 1969, 36, type 15. section. Points broken off. St 48 (S 2137; 73A/60, X4). Vase lid. Intact except for minor chips from edge and knob. Max. pres. d. 5.4. Greenish- black disk lid with beveled edge and central knob. Underside flat. Several long scratches on both surfaces. Serpentine. Stone Vessels Pottery Group X4:2. LM IIIA:2 floor. Found along with beads J 5 and J 12. Warren 1969, 80, type 33 (pyxis lid). St 40 (S 1603; 66A/30, X2; Fig. 3.2; Pl. 3.8). Stone squat alabastron. Max. pres. d. 8.2 (rim: 5.0), max. pres. h. 4.7. Largely intact, but rim and parts of belly chipped. Light and dark gray banded marble or limestone. Pottery Group X2:6. LM IB. See Schwab 1996, no. 1, pls. 4.17, 4.31 for compara- 3.5. Miscellaneous Objects of Clay tive study and other references; also Warren 1969, 4, type 1; Joseph W. Shaw J.W. Shaw 1986, 229, fig. 5, pl. 58:d. St 41 (S 2304; 80A/37, X14 area). Kernos bowl fragments; Cl 1 (C 9788; 87A/4, north of House X; Fig. 3.3; Pl. 3.9). part of rim. Max. pres. L. 5.0, max. pres. th. 1.0–1.4. Wt. 31 Potter’s wheel fragment. Max. pres. d. est 37.0, max. pres. th. g. The shallow, incomplete drill hole may be a preliminary 3.5. The side profile is like that of a bat (a portable tray on drilling. Possibly broken during manufacture. Greenish phyl- which a pot is formed) illustrated in Evely 1988 (fig. 3, type lite. Pottery Group X14B:1. LM I–II context. Cf. Warren 2, no. 29); it could also be from a wheelhead (type 3), but the 1969, 11, type 4. identification remains uncertain since the central part of the St 42 (S 2158; 73A/74, above House X walls; Fig. 3.2; Pl. wheel (with the socket is on the underside) is missing. The 3.8). Fragmentary lamp, about half preserved. Max. pres. h. upper surface has three grooves, and the under surface has at 11.8, max. pres. rim d. 24.0, base d. 13.0. Large, cup-shaped least one, all made when the wheel was being formed on a schist lamp with circular base forming a high foot; flares out wheel. Coarse pithos clay with numerous inclusions. From to circular bowl with shallow standing rim, flat bottom. north of House X in a mixed Archaic/Minoan context. Hollow indentation through the rim at one point for wick (w. Cl 2 (C 7704; 59A1/81, X9; Fig. 3.3). Terracotta drain frag- ca. 5.0). Signs of burning, especially in wick area. Minoan, ment. Max. pres. h. 10.7, max. pres. w. 9.8, max. pres. th. 2.2. although in mixed fill. Warren 1969, 55, type 24. Base fragment with beginning of side. Coarse red fabric. Pottery Group X9:2. Floor fill. LM II context. For the type, St 43 (S 2175; 11A/surface, above House X). Stone bowl see J.W. Shaw 2009, 137–139. For possible positioning on the fragment, about half preserved. Max. pres. d. 7.6, max. pres. th edge of House X’s roof, see J.W. Shaw 2004. 2.1. Shallow, globular profile. Part of everted, ledge-like rim or lug handle preserved; button-like base. Micaceous black stone. Cl 3 (C 7506; 59A1/76, X9; Fig. 3.3). Terracotta drain frag- Mixed Minoan/Archaic context. ment. Max. pres. L. 10.9, max. pres. h. 6.8. Coarse red fabric. For references, see Cl 2. St 44 (S 2182; 80A/29, X8; Fig. 3.2; Pl. 3.8). Stone lid. Three fragments with one preserving most of lid except for Cl 4 (C 7491; 59A1/69, X9; Fig. 3.3). Terracotta drain frag- chip from edge. Max. pres. d. 8.0, max. pres. th. 0.7. Slate? ment. Max. pres. h. 9.3, max. pres. L. 21.6, max. pres. w. 5.8. Pottery Group X8:1. LM II surface. Warren 1969, 80, type 33 For references, see Cl 2. (pyxis lid). Cl 5 (C 319; 11A/22, 23, above Space X11). Terracotta St 45 (S 2202; 80A/66, X2; Pl. 3.8). Serpentine vase lid, drain fragment. Max. pres. L. 19.6, max. pres. h. 9.0, max. intact aside from a few chips. Max. pres. d. 2.9, max. pres. th. pres. w. at base 13.7. U-shaped. Finger ridges on interior. 0.4. Flattish, round top on truncated conical stalk. Upper face Pithos fabric. Pottery Group X11:2. LM II context. Shaw and engraved with five-pointed star within a circle, the interstices Shaw, eds., 1996, pl. 5.12. filled with roughly concentric rays. Pottery Group X2:2. LM Cl 6 (C 9387; 74B/68A, 69A, X3; Pl. 3.9). Terracotta slab, IA floor and fill. Warren 1969, 80, type 33 (pyxis lid). in fragments. L. of longest sherd 20.0.Pottery Group X3:6. St 46 (S 2128; 73A/32, X1; Fig. 3.2). Vase lid. Virtually LM IIIA:2/IIIB context below Archaic floor. Possibly used as a floor tile, for which see J.W. Shaw 2009, 139–140. complete except for one-quarter of rim and two small chips from knob. Max. pres. d. 5.8, max. pres. th. 2.0. Wt. 26 g. MISCELLANEOUS FINDS 85

3.6. Jewelry, Seals, and a separated (by natural abrasion?) from the rest of shell. The snail beads of B are worn into a flat, ring-like shape; those of A have Stone Mold lost their tips and were probably perforated by hand. Made of Joseph W. Shaw13 and John G. Younger 91 marine gastropod Arcularia gibbosula shells, one Glycymeris violacescens, one cockle Cerastoderma edule, three augers Bittium reticulatum, and one Ocenebra erinaceus. All seaworn. Shaw and Shaw 1993, 156, pl. 25:a. Pottery Group Beads X14A:2. LM II context.

J 1 (S 58; 11A/32, above X10). Stone bead. One-half preserving complete profile. Max. pres. L. 1.35, d. of base 1.45, d. of top 1.05, d. of perforation 0.15. Wt. 2 g. Circular standard truncated straight cone (Beck I.C.2.d) with single plain perfo- Pendants ration (Beck IV) (Beck 1928, 3–5). Green soapstone. LM IIIA:1 fill. Dabney 1996c, no. 24, pl. 4.8. J 8 (Sh 17; 73B/107, X11; Pl. 3.10). Shell pendant. Max. pres. L. 4.81, max. pres. w. 4.49; hole 0.031. Wt. 6.9 g. Rose J 2 (S 60; 11A/23, X11). Unfinished stone bead. Max. pres. red Spondylus gaederopus shell, the spines naturally worn d. 3.1. Wt. 3 g. Fragment with six abraded facets forming a smooth, with a neat perforation near the edge. Probably used as cone. Green soapstone. Dabney 1996c, no. 36, pl. 4.13. Pottery a pendant. Pottery Group X11:1. LM IB context. Group X11:2. LM II fill. J 9 (S 2219; 81C/79, X16; Pl. 3.5). Pebble pendant(?). J 3 (Mi 6; 11A/24, X10). Glass bead. Complete profile pre- Max. pres. L. 5.8, max. pres. w. 3.2. Wt. 39 g. Waterworn, served in two joining fragments. Max. pres. L. 1.5; d. restored kidney-shaped black pebble with natural perforation in mid- 1.8, d. of perforation 0.7. Wt. <1 g. Circular short oblate bead point of inner long side. Possibly used as a pendant. (Beck I.B.1.a) with single, plain, medium large perforation Metamorphosed chert. LM IIIA:1 fill. (Beck IV.a) (Beck 1928, 3–5). Iridescent white surface on yellow core of glass. Pottery Group X10:1. LM II fill. Dabney J 10 (S 2148; 73A/63, X4; Fig. 3.4; Pl. 3.10). Steatite shell 1996c, no. 12, pl. 4.8. Similar yellow glass, globular beads of pendant. Max. pres. w. 2.8, max. pres. th. 2.5. Wt. 2 g. Intact relatively large size (d. ca. 2.0) were found in the MM IIB–LM black serpentine bead in shape of a cockle shell; perforated IIIB Tomb VIIA at Mavro Spelio near Knossos (Forsdyke laterally. Reverse flat; obverse incised with radiating lines. 1926–1927, 262, no. VII A 11, pl. XVIII:28). Shaw and Shaw 1993, 156, pl. 27b. Pottery Group X4:1 E. J 4 (Sh 13; 86B/9, X1; Pl. 3.10). Shell bead. D. 1.6, hole d. LM IIIA:2 latest. 0.5, h. 0.6. Wt. 1 g. Truncated conical shape, polished smooth J 11 (S 2168; 73B/108, X6; Pl. 3.10). Stone pendant(?). on exterior. Likely the species Monodonta turbinata. Interior Max. pres. d. 3.2. Wt. 4 g. Intact, naturally pierced pebble. shows spiral “thread.” Pale tan spirally banded with light Cherty limestone, primarily 10YR 6/3 in color, some dark brown. Appears to be artificially bored. Pottery Group X1:1. gray mottling. Smooth surface and edges. Pottery Group X6:5. LM IA floor deposit. LM IIIA:1 context. J 5 (S 2138; 73A/60, X4; Pl. 3.10). Stone bead. Max. pres. J 12 (S 2139; 73A/60, X4; Pl. 3.10). Stone bead. Max. pres. w. 2.0 x 1.9. Wt. <1 g. Squarish in profile. Vertical striations L. 3.8, max. pres. d. of hole, slightly off center, 0.5. Wt. 4 g. cut into the four edges. Hard, jade-like greenish stone. Found Hard brownish-white quartzitic natural pebble. Pottery Group with stone lid St 48 and pendant J 12 in X4. Pottery Group X4:2. LM IIIA:2. Found with stone lid St 48 and bead J 5. X4:2. LM IIIA:2. J 13 (S 2183; 80A/29A, X8; Pl. 3.10). Pebble pendant(?). J 6 (S 2161; 74B/76, X2). Cornelian bead. Max. pres. d. 0.7, Max. pres. L. 4.3, max. pres. w. 2.7, max. pres. th. 0.8. Wt. 16 max. pres. th. 0.6. Wt. <1 g. Round, with small spherical head, g. Warm gray stone with reddish flecks. Pottery Group X8:1. slightly flattened, smoothly polished. Perforated centrally LM II. through the shorter diameter. Pottery Group X2:5. LM IB. J 13A (S 2145; 73A/60, X4). Stone bead. Max. pres. d. 2.0, max. pres. th. 0.6. Slightly tapering bead of hard, pale green jade-like stone. Edge of narrower end is round ed; larger end is cut straight across. Pottery Group X4:2. LM IIIA:2 floor, below Necklaces C 9011 and C 9012.

J 7 (Sh 12; 80A/34, X14; Pl. 3.10). Two shell necklaces (A and B). L. of central pendant of A 3.7; L. of central pendant of B 2.8. Combined wt. 61 g. Two one-strand necklaces or one Seals long double-strand necklace of seaworn gastropod shells, most of them naturally perforated, with a large shell as central pen- John G. Younger dant of each strand. A: Glycymeris violacescens flanked by two auger shells Bittium reticulatum (one eroded to less than half its J 14 (S 2144; 74A/52B, X2; Fig. 3.4; Pl. 3.11). Conical length). B: the fluted edge of an Ocenebra erinaceus mouth stamp of dark steatite, whole but broken in two. H. 2.3, L. 1.9, 86 JOSEPH W. SHAW, MARIA C. SHAW, AND JOHN G. YOUNGER face w. 1.25, d. string hole 0.3. Hatching on the face. Stylistic I rely on some basic assumptions outlined previously date: EM II–MM I. From the MM room north of an below (Younger 2000). These assumptions relate to how seals House X, Room 2. Shaw and Shaw 1993, 136, pl. 20:b. Yule func tioned to identify their owners and/or users socially 1979, 70–71, 147, shape 24b, 24c, motif 25; stylistic date and administratively. Seal traits that could be appreciated MM I. from afar (the material and shape of the seal) help to J 15 (S 2222; 86B/9, X1; Fig. 3.4; Pl. 3.11). “Talismanic” iden tify a person’s social rank and general place in or out amygdaloid of reddish-brown cornelian. L. 1.6, w. 1.2, th. 0.6, of the central administration. Seal traits that could be d. string hole 0.2. Two fish tête-bêche, belly to belly, swim appreci ated only upon close inspection (e.g., the iconog- (Pose Type 35; see Younger 1988) counterclockwise (in the raphy, special aspects of shapes or mounting, string hole seal’s impression) and perpendicular to the string hole; they or ientation) would have imparted more information, flank a star and are flanked by two ground lines perpendicular to the string hole. The rim is sharp; no faceting on the reverse. especially about the person’s exact place in the central Pottery Group XI:1. LM IA floor deposit. Onassoglou 1985, ad ministration. Imported hard stones (especially the sili- 82–92, 102–104, FP 7–12; stylistic date MM III. Younger cates, hardness ca. 6–7 on the Mohs scale) would have 1993, 168–170, “Marine Schools, Ring Eyes:” stylistic date ca. been controlled by the palaces and therefore given out to 1600 B.C.; also see Kenna 1960, 68–69 and Betts 1974 for dis- mem bers of the administration. Local soft stones (espe- cussions of Talismanic sealstones. cially the steatites and serpentines, hardness ca. 2–3 on J 16 (S 2143; 73A/61, X7 Shrine; Pl. 3.11). Lentoid of gray the Mohs scale) would have belonged primarily (but per- ser pentine. D. 1.7, th. 0.6, d. string hole 0.25. “Bird-woman,” haps not exclusively) to members outside the palatial head left (in the seal’s impression) and up; string hole horizon- centers and perhaps even to individuals outside the ad - tal. Pottery Group X7:4. LM IIIA:2 context. M.C. Shaw 1991, min istration. Some motifs could have referred to special 4; 2004, 144, pl. 10.7; Shaw and Shaw 1993, 152, pl. 25:b, 25:c. administrative duties or social ranks (for example, reli- Younger 1983, 29, fig. 39; 1988, 211–212, with references to gious motifs). ca. 30 examples; stylistic date LM I, Cretan Popular Group. With these assumptions in mind, it becomes clear that Also see Sakellariou (1958, 62–63) for a short discussion of the the only hard stone seal, the cornelian amygdaloid (J 15), motif. would imply an owner or user within the central adminis- J 17 (S 2186; 80/42, X2; Fig. 3.4; Pl. 3.11). Disk of gray ser- tration. The motif, tête-bêche Cut-style dolphins,16 is pentine, worn. D. 1.6, th. 0.5–0.6, d. string hole 0.25. In the cen- common; these usually flank stars17 or hatching.18 When ter, two concentric circles with dotted center; around the rim, 10 rendered naturalistically, it is an impressive motif.19 Since centered circles. Pottery Group X2:4. On LM IB pebble floor. Cut-style (and “Talismanic”) seals did impress sealings,20 Shaw and Shaw 1993, 147, pl. 22:d. Younger 1983; 1988, 119; 21 stylistic date LM I, Cretan Popular Group. even with the same motif as the Kommos piece, we can imagine the Kommos seal belonging to a person with J 18 (S 2187; 80A/42, X2; Fig. 3.4; Pl. 3.11). Cushion seal of black steatite. L. 1.3, w. 1.1, th. 0.3, d. string hole 1.5. Ob - sphragistic (i.e., sealing) duties in the central administra- verse: “Talismanic” sepia(?) with dots or dotted circles in the tion. That the Kommos seal was found in House X as part field (perhaps originally two pairs flanking and one above); re - of a LM IA floor deposit obviously means that this seal verse: hatching. Pottery Group X2:4. LM IB pebble floor. Shaw was not in use for long. and Shaw 1993, 147, pl. 22:e. Younger 1983 (stylistic date MM The owner/user of J 16, the serpentine lentoid carry- III–LM I, Talismanic or Cretan Popular Group); Onassoglou ing the Bird-woman, should also have had some connec- 1985, 82–92, 102–104, pl. XIV, SP 6, SP 14, SP 16, FP 7–FP12. tion to the central administration. Its characteristics, how ever, imply a different kind of connection than that as sociated with J 18. The soft stone, local serpentine, im - Discussion plies that this material may have been distributed and Seal J 14 should date earlier than Yule’s suggested date carved outside the administration. The motif, a bird wear- of MM I. The comparative material (the soft steatite, the ing a woman’s flounced skirt, is common,22 and so is the conical shape of the seal, and the simple hatching on the style of engraving.23 There are several seals closely 14 face) suggests EM II. The find spot, a MM room near resembling the Kommos piece.24 The motif has both and below House X, suggests it may have been in use (as schem atic25 and naturalistic counterparts,26 as well as a personal ornament?) for some time. There is still some close ties to Cut-style birds27 and “alerions.”28 question whether EM Crete had a sealing administration Even more interesting are the many variants of this (as did southern Greece in Early Helladic [EH] II); there motif on seals and sealings, especially at Kato Zakros: are a few EM II sealings,15 not yet enough to suggest a 1. A fan tail (not a dress) on seals (Betts et al. 1988, widespread sealing administration. 253 [CMS XI, no. 240]; Kenna, ed., 1972, 347 The rest of the sealstones from Kommos date to the [CMS XII, no. 254]); later stages of the Neopalatial period. In discussing them, MISCELLANEOUS FINDS 87

2. Breasts and long-beaked head on sealings Jeweler’s Stone Mold (Müller and Pini, eds., 1998, 158, 159 [CMS II, Joseph W. Shaw 7, nos. 137, 138]); 3. Helmet for a head on sealings (Müller and Pini, J 19 (S 2162; 73B/93, X6; Fig. 3.4; Pl. 3.11). Jeweler’s mold eds., 1998, 143, 145, 149, 153 [CMS II, 7, nos. for “tapered hoop” or “mulberry” earrings with a cast granulat- 127, 129A, 130, 134]); ed pendant. Long edge badly chipped. L. 5.3, max. pres. w. 2.4, max. pres. th. 0.6. Thin rectangular plaque of greenish-black 4. Human arms (not wings) on sealings (Müller and steatite or soapstone broken lengthwise through the approxi- Pini, eds., 1998, 151, 152 [CMS II, 7, nos. 132, mate center. Central hole originally a bi- or perhaps tri-lobed 133]); perforation. Edges of plaque roughly sawn. Mixed seventh century B.C. and Minoan. 5. Tail(?) for a head on sealings (Müller and Pini, On side A two grooves in the shape of earrings are eds., 1998, 154–155, 156, 157 [CMS II, 7, nos. engraved, each upside down in relationship to the other. 135A, B, 136?]); and The larger, outer crescent (d. 3.4) almost disappears as it 6. Women’s breasts and bird wings on sealings thins out toward the point where it would be suspended (Müller and Pini, eds., 1998, 160–161, 162, 163, from the ear. The smaller, inner crescent (d. 2.4) is simi- 164, 165, 166, 167–168, 169 [CMS II, 7, nos. lar but has been carved with ribbing at intervals, proba- 139A, B, human legs wearing culottes, head not bly once along much of its length. It, too, is very thin preserved; 140, goat head, human legs wearing where it would have been suspended from the ear, sug- culottes; 141, goat head, flounced skirt; 142, gesting that a wire laid into the mold may have been used 143, goat head, flounced skirt, hunkering; 144, for actual suspension. Although the slab is broken at the sheep head, lion/bull tail, hunkering; 145A, B, center, it is clear, especially from a cast made, that round- 146, bull head, frontal]). ed globules of the “mulberry” type would have appeared Obviously, the bird-woman is a type of monster, and at at the bottom of each earring, at least 10 from the larger Kato Zakros she is but one of a number of winged one (six are visible) and as many as 12 from the smaller Mischwesen, some of which, like the goat- and bull- one (seven are visible). headed, human-legged monsters, are eventually conven- Side B was similarly engraved with an earring form tionalized by the Mycenaeans in LM IIIA:1 into the (d. 3.0), but it is so poorly preserved at its thickest point Agrimi-man, Lion-man, and Minotaur.29 Since not all that one cannot ascertain if there was a pendant mulber- “monsters” are religious in a specific sense (i.e., they ry like those on side A. The way in which the earring was may be generalized “daimons” or occupy certain roles in positioned on the slab suggests that there would have myth), it is interesting to note that one of the depictions been ample room for one. of the Bird-woman shows her sitting on a temporary plat- On each side there is a shallow drilled hole near the form like those on which goddesses sit.30 This might then central, completely pierced hole. On side A, the former elevate the Bird-woman to cultic status. The fact that the may be the point from which the original large circle seal was found in the “Shrine” of House X and near a was inscribed, but there is no obvious explanation for small stone table reinforces that identification. the similar shallow hole on side B. The last two seals, J 17, a serpentine disk with neat- It would seem that the mold was designed to produce ly arranged centered circles, and J 18, a steatite cushion three sizes of earrings (3.4 and 2.4 on side A, 3.0 on side with rather random lines on one side and an abstract B). They may well have been made of gold, probably the “Talismanic” sepia on the other, both belong to the preferred material (cf. Laffineur 1980, 283), although a fringes of the Cretan Popular Group and were probably small but similar earring of lead was also found on the made in LM I. Neatly arranged centered circles around Kommos site (Dabney 1996c, 265, no. 1). There is no a central centered circle or concentric circle are com- clear evidence for a channel for a solid metal casting, so mon in the Neopalatial period.31 For “Talismanic” the mold may have been used as a single slab (rather than sepias that the cushion J 16 is abstracting, there are one of a pair) for pressing metal foil into the grooves. numerous examples.32 Cushions engraved on both sides, After that had been done, perhaps twice successively, the however, are rather rare.33 Neither seal was necessarily resulting two pieces, along with a wire (suggested above) anything more than a piece of personal jewelry. could have been joined together. The central lobed hole 88 JOSEPH W. SHAW, MARIA C. SHAW, AND JOHN G. YOUNGER in the slab may have fit over a wooden peg set into a head missing, perhaps made separately and added to the body. board or some other flat surface, steadying the stone slab Arms are treated as stumps and the underside of thighs and legs when it was being worked on. is unfinished, as if for placement on a seat or a swing. No The mold is from a mixed Minoan/seventh-century breasts or other indications of sex, but clearly a woman’s phy - sique, with well-rounded lower body. Fine buff clay, 7.5 YR 6/6. B.C. context. Since the earring type is hardly common on Traces of white slip preserved on the surface. LM IB context. Crete during the early Greek period, our Kommos mold is most likely Minoan (see Laffineur 1980, pl. 89). For F 3 (C 9220; 73B/111, X6). Bull’s horn. Max. pres. L. 4.9. the earring type, see also Higgins 1980, 62, 86, 106; Small solid horn, slightly curved, painted black. The little that Effinger 1996, 20–21. is preserved and the use of black to cover the sur face may be indications that this is a holdover from the MM period, before the house was built. The piece may have been carried over in building materials derived from elsewhere, as with soil to raise a floor. 5 YR 7/6, with dark inclusions. LM III context. M.C. Shaw 1996d, 291. 3.7. Terracotta Sculpture F 4 (C 9211; 74B/62c, stratum over X3; Fig. 3.5). Standing Maria C. Shaw female figurine. H. (complete) 7.8. Small, crudely made female figurine in T shape, arms broken off at shoulders, solid body Quite a few Minoan terracotta figurines, animal and with tubular shape. Small neckless head, pinched out nose that human, have been found in the Minoan town at Kommos, also helps indicate the eyes, two oval depressions. Hemi spher - and of these some 46 pieces have been published previ- ical breasts, one now missing, were added to the torso at armpit ously (M.C. Shaw 1996d). Those ranged in date from the level. Low-fired terracotta. Fine buff clay, 7.5 YR 7/6, self- slipped. LM II–IIIA:2 context. MM to the LM III periods. This also appears to be the span of the figurines from House X discussed below. One F 5 (C 9136; 73A/27, X13/X4; Fig. 3.5). Torso of male fig- of these, a small bucranium, was included in an earlier urine. pres. H. ca. 8.0. Broken off at bottom of belt; head, neck, and arms missing. Chip broken from belly. Male torso with publication, where it was suggested that it served as a tapered waist, molded belt, rounded belly, and ends of locks base for a display (M.C. Shaw 1996d, 302, no. 45 [C plastically rendered, preserved running down back. Outer sur- 256], pl. 4.40). A small bronze double axe might have face smoothed. Traces of reddish-brown paint on the right been held by a stick inserted into the cylindrical hole that shoulder and upper right side of back. Inner coarse core ex - ran vertically through the bucranium. The piece was posed at breaks, neck, and waist. Outer layer worn off in the found in a mixed upper level, a LM III to Iron Age con- upper part of the chest, exposing sand inclusions in the clay text above areas X11/X12 and X10, but its Minoan date core. Medium-coarse terracotta 2.5 YR 5/4, with finer, very is not to be doubted. It is interesting but probably a com- pale brown (10 YR 8/3) overlay. Slipped in places with a core plete accident that during the Iron Age this area became a of grittier clay, angular gray and brown inclusions. LM IIIB to dumping ground for votive figurines discarded from the seventh century B.C. context. Sanctuary, many of them bulls.34 While the number of figurines discussed below is small, House X has nevertheless yielded more sculpture than any other house at Kommos so far excavated. In ad - Discussion di tion to the bucranium, the list includes a tiny seated fe - male figurine (F 1), a larger seated woman (F 2), a bull’s Not counting the horn (F 3), which, as suggested a - horn (F 3), a standing female figurine (F 4), and a large bove, may have belonged to an era earlier than that of male figure (F 5). The catalog presents the objects in a House X, there are three female figures and one male rough chronological order, although some of the pieces (Fig. 3.5). Interestingly, the male was the largest of all, with later context dates could be earlier. possibly just shy of 20 cm tall, which would qualify it F 1 (C 9457; 86B/8, X1; Fig. 3.5; Pl. 3.11). Tiny fe male as a small statuette. The female figures are interesting, figurine, likely part of a larger model, preserving all but the as they are not passive but are engaged in some activi- right arm and legs below the knees. Pres h. 3.7. The figure is ty or paus ing in the performance of an activity. The first seated but turns to the right at the waist in a lively manner, as (F 1) is in miniature scale. Her position—turning her if conversing. A scar underneath the figure indicates some head away from the direction that her seated body is loose attachment to a seat or other surface. Left arm across facing, with one of her arms stretched out—suggests the chest, right arm seemingly raised. Face pinched, beak- that she is communicating. It is possible that she was like, with massive hair ending at the back in two thick strands. once part of the assemblage belonging to a clay model Fine buff clay, 5 YR 7/4. LM IA Late or LM IB Early context. of a building that contained figurines, known from a F 2 (C 9529; 80A/45, X2, under a pebble floor; Fig. 3.5). number of examples (Gesell 1985, 199, fig. 116). The Seated female figurine. Max. pres. L. 5.3, shoulder to knees; mature woman (F 2) is also either seated or possibly MISCELLANEOUS FINDS 89 kneeling. Not much can be said about her but for the Seated female figurine F 2 from House X compares bet- fact that she is asexual (breasts are not indicated), even ter, both in size and posture, with a figurine from Hagia though she seems to belong to a stylistic phase where Triada found in the area of the “Sacello Sud-ovest.” The corporeality—the mass of the human body—was latter was discussed by Gesell, who regarded her as a acknowledged when rendering these simple effigies. votive, like other figurines found there (Gesell 1985, The third woman (F 4), standing, is crudely rendered in 186, fig. 65a). a more generalized or abstract way; her head is reduced Parallels for our single large male figure F 5 are easi- to a slight conical protrusion and her eyes shown by er to find, it seems, because of its distinctive characteris- two rough hollows that were created by pinching the tics. Unlike female figurines for which the long skirt clay to form the nose. Her breasts were added separate- served as a base, male figurines stood on their feet, which ly. A good parallel for this figurine was found in one of sometimes were attached to a base. The exposed male the houses of the Minoan town at Kommos (M.C. legs explain why so often the feet break off. The good size Shaw, 1996d, 298, no. 18, pl. 4.38). of our male figurine is not atypical of other standing male The figurines F 1 and F 2 can be securely dated by figurines. Such male figurines start to appear already in their contexts to no later than LM IB, and one or both MM times, at Chamaizi (Rethemiotakis 2001, 2, fig. 2), could have been even earlier. The standing woman (F 4) for example, and as dedication in peak sanctuaries such is dated by the associated pottery to LM II–LM IIIA2, a as Kophinas (Rethemiotakis 2001, 8, fig. 14a, the torso of period when the coroplast seems to have relaxed, allow- this example being the most similar to Kommos F 5) and ing greater simplification and abstraction, which thus Piskokephalo (Rethemiotakis 2001, fig. 13). They are became a style. Several female figurines from LM I to rarely later in date. The parallels have the same cylindri- LM III contexts in the Town are similar (M.C. Shaw cal belt wrapped tightly around the waist and treated in 1996d, nos. 8, 9, 14, 18, 296–298, pls. 4.36–4.38). relief. The coroplast’s interest in rendering the body’s Though in some of the cases where only the head is pre- musculature is analogous to that observed on the male served the figurine could be male (M.C. Shaw 1996d, figure from House X. Rethemiotakis notes that anatomi- 395, nos. 5, 6, pl. 4.36, for instance), the figurines from cal details are emphasized in the Neopalatial period, and the town are overwhelmingly female. There is no male of the male physique is enhanced. He states that recent exca- the size of the one in House X, but a pair of muscular vations at Kophinas have shown the associated cult to legs, preserved from knee to ankle and clearly from a continue into the MM III period, to which the sculptures male statuette, was found elsewhere in the town area belong (Rethemiotakis 2001, 124). The finds are also (M.C. Shaw 1996d, 302, no. 44, pl. 4.40). Both these contemporary with models from Kamilari and elsewhere. examples come from chronologically mixed contexts, but The fact that none of the figurines from House X were the one from House X is the most worn, which suggests found in a location that suggests any specific use for it was moved around, perhaps as part of fills. In the little them prevents us from forming a definite opinion as to that is left of this figure, one detects a fine finish and their function within the house. Indeed, this is a typical attention to detail; his belt is in relief, as are the long problem with figurines found in houses in Kommos and strands of his hair, and the musculature is stressed. other Minoan towns. I would agree with Gesell (1985, Further insights can be gained from a book by George 61) that these figurines may have served mainly as Rethemiotakis (2001), with illustrations of architectural votives. With no space or room specially designed in the models with people inside of them. One example from original House X as a shrine, figurines of an earlier date the Tholos Tomb at Kamilari (Rethemiotakis 2001, 109, might have been carried around as required, without fig. 123) and others from Hagia Triada have female fig- being displayed or deposited in a specific place. Some of urines whose lively gestures resemble the posture of F 1 them, like our kouros-like male figure, could have been (Re themiotakis 2001, 118–119, figs. 130, 131; those intended, at some point, for dedication in a sanctuary. from the latter site published earlier in D’Agata 1999, In the Postpalatial phase of House X, there was a place 17–29). The figurines from Kamilari, all found outside designated as a house shrine, Space X7, and it is curious the tholos room itself in adjunct chambers, have recent- that no single figurine was found in it, even though the ly been dated by Lefèvre-Novaro (Novaro 1999) to LM shrine was abandoned at the end. The lack of evidence for IB on the basis of sherds lying directly on the floor, a large female figurine, the so-called Snake Goddess who rather than by those accumulated through later use. In a appears in Minoan towns in Postpalatial times and is usu- further study (Lefèvre-Novaro 2001) she proposes that ally found in household shrines like X7, is also puzzling. all three models at Kamilari were contemporary. I would In the X7 shrine, the only relevant paraphernalia was a suggest that the Kommos miniature woman is most Snake Tube (and of this only a fragment, C 3) from an similar to the figures seen seated in front of tables in earlier phase of use of the space. A Snake Tube was found one of the models (Lefèvre-Novaro 2001, pl. XXVI:d). in the so-called House with the Snake Tube at Kommos, 90 JOSEPH W. SHAW, MARIA C. SHAW, AND JOHN G. YOUNGER this still in situ as left after its last use (McEnroe 1996, Chapter 3 Endnotes 226–229, fig. 3.113). Perhaps there was an effigy of the goddess in X7 that the people who abandoned House X 1. At the time of writing, most excavated objects are still opted to take with them when they left the house, possi- being stored in Pitsidia, although those of particular value were bly in a hurry. Alternatively, they may have buried it sent to the Herakleion Museum as soon as recording was com- somewhere, to be found in the future by others. To con- pleted. Objects from House X in the Herakleion Museum are Me 20 (B 333; blade/anvil), J 14 (S 2144; conical stamp), J 15 tinue with this line of speculation, the goddess may have (S 2222; “talismanic” amygdaloid of carnelian), J 16 (S 2143; been accompanied by female figurines of LM III date, serpentine lentoid), J 17 (S 2186; serpentine disk), and J 18 (S their dresses painted with patterns of a type discovered in 35 2187; steatite cushion seal). other houses at Kommos but not in House X. That the 2. In some cases items from House X published previously inhabitants of Kommos knew of the Goddess of the (Shaw and Shaw, eds., 1996) are duplicated here, as it was Snakes is attested by the fragment of a terracotta tiara or decided in 1985 that the first publication should include all crown, the headgear of this goddess, from one of the trenches through Trench 66. houses in the Hilltop area of the Minoan town (M.C. 3. Cf. the North House with eight and the House with the Shaw 1996d, 298, pls. 4.37, 4.43, no. 19). Snake Tube with five, in addition to nine from the dump to the south of it (Dabney 1996a). 4. Dabney (1996a, table 4.1) observed no complete loomweights that weigh as much as Lw 42 from House X, but she lists a number of fragmentary ones that once weighed as much or considerably more. There are at least 10 with estimat- 3.8. Other Finds ed weights ranging between 500 g and 1,200 g, averaging about Joseph W. Shaw36 850 g, from contexts ranging in date from MM IB to LM III (nos. 3, 24, 58, 77, 91, 101, 120, 122, 123, and 127, most from Ot 1 (Mi 190; 73A/68, X4; Fig. 3.4, Pl. 3.9). Closed glass the Central Hillside and only one from the Southern Area). vessel (footed jar?), disintegrated after exposure. Max. pres. 5. C 310 (Dabney 1996a, no. 143), from Trench 11A/18 L. 4.2. Worn and flaking, two non-joining fragments and soil above X11, is not listed here. It is an unperforated discoid impression of one showing its decoration. Mid body and weight, possibly never used. lower body/base of probable jar or bottle, convex profile turn- 6. This is regardless of whether they might have been reused ing out to short splaying base. Dark blue with marvered white even in a LM I context, for discoid loomweights were also pop- and yellow horizontal threads dragged into loops or festoons ular during the MM period. (“dragged trail decoration”). Probably Egyptian, mid to late 7. Weights have been estimated for those examples that 18th Dynasty (reigns of Thutmose III through Amenhotep were at least 80% preserved. III). Pottery Group X4:1. LM IIIA:1. Nolte 1968, pl. XIV:20; 8. Tzachili (1997, 181) estimates that for each loom meas- Grose 1989, 50, 55, figs. 23:i, 33; Shaw and Shaw 1993, 154, uring ca. 1 m in width, some 20 to 30 loomweights were used. 161, pl. 27:c; Cline 1994, 221, no. 784; Jacobsson 1994, pl. See also Barber 1991, 104–105. 85:149; Phillips 2008, I, 124 n. 40; II, 637 n. 3. 9. During the process of excavation all stones that might Judging from the position and quantity of the festooning, have served as implements were sent to the storage facility in one fragment and its soil impression must be from the lower Pit sidia for cleaning. Most received catalog numbers. At a much body, while the other fragment is from near the middle of the later stage J.W. Shaw sorted through hundreds of items and dis- body. They appear to be from a globular vessel and, although carded those that showed little evidence of use. no diameter measurements were recorded, it is clearly a larger 10. The author is much indebted to Helène Whittaker and rather than a smaller form. It is possible that the shape was Niki Holmes Kantzios, former catalogers at Kommos, for some lentoid, but no parallels can be cited. The base seems to be a of the descriptions. short splaying foot of wide diameter rather than a tall 11. Trench Notebook 59A, p. 168, for which, see pedestaled form, suggesting a footed globular jar, ampho- https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/3004. riskos, or bottle, usually with tall cylindrical neck and two han- 12. This catalog entry is by Thomas Strasser, to whom we are dles. The nearest parallel for the combination of shape and highly indebted. His terms are defined here. Face: area below decoration is found in Nolte (cited above), but the other refer- bevel. Margin: sides. Butt: bottom. Hafting ghost: the rough ences additionally provide an impression of the probable type. area below the bevel and cutting edge that reflects how far the LM IIIA glass vessels also come from the Kalyvia cemetery axe was pushed into the bone or horn haft; it was left rough for near Phaistos (Savignoni 1904, cols. 501–666; Lambrou- better adhesiveness to the haft. Peg scar: a recurring feature on Phillipson 1990). Cretan celts consisting of a roundish rough area usually at the MISCELLANEOUS FINDS 91 middle or lower part of the face, caused by a peg that perforat- 62, no. 373, pls. XIII, XXVIII, serpentine cushion said to be ed the haft’s side in order to secure the axe from being dislodged from Knossos. from repeated use; the best modern parallel is the screw-on 27. For example, a burned cornelian lentoid from Armenoi plane that secures a metal blade from being pushed deeply into Tomb 177 (LM IIIA–IIIB:1 context; Pini, ed., 1993, 275 [CMS the wood during use. V, Suppl. 1B, no. 283]); cornelian amygdaloids (Kenna, ed., 13. I am indebted to Niki Holmes Kantzios for some of the 1967, 328 [CMS VII, no. 259] and Betts et al. 1988, 145 [CMS listings below. XI, no. 127]); a serpentine lentoid (Kenna, ed., 1972, 368 14. The best comparanda include Platon, ed., 1969, 185, [CMS XII, no. 281]). 187, 224, 397, 421 (CMS II, 1, nos. 163, 165 from Koumasa 28. “Alerions” are conventionally rendered birds with one Tholos B, 199 from Lenda Tholos 2 [EM II context], 342 from foot depicted and a swirl on the neck; cf. Müller and Pini, eds., Platanos Tholos B, 364 from Porti Tholos); Sakellarakis and 1999, 124–129 (CMS II, 6, nos. 111–116), sealings from Kenna, eds., 1969, 69, 70 (CMS IV, nos. 57, 58) said to be Hagia Triada impressed by lentoids. from Kali Limenes (= Lenda; hatched zigzags on the face 29. Younger 2000. rather than pure hatching); and Pini, ed., 1975, 14, 15 (CMS V, 30. Müller and Pini, eds., 1999, 119 (CMS II, 6, no. 106), nos. 16, 17) from Myrtos (EM II context). Other interesting an impressed sealing from Hagia Triada; Rehak 1995, 104– pieces for comparison include a clay stamp from Tiryns (EH 105; Younger 1995, 161, 172, 174, 178, 179, 184, nos. 33, II? context; Pini, ed., 1993, 371 [CMS V, Suppl. 1B, no. 370]). 127, 134, 151, 157, 205, pls. LIIIh, LXIIg, LXIVa, LXVf, 15. Cf. Müller and Pini, eds., 1999, 322 (CMS II, 6, no. LXVId, LXIXg. 273 from Trypiti) and Pini, ed., 1975, 17 (CMS V, no. 20) 31. See Platon, Pini, and Salies, eds., 1977, 8 (CMS II, 2, from Mochlos, both EM II contexts. no. 5a), a serpentine disk (called steat ite) from the Kamilari 16. Earlier scholars have used the term “Talismanic,” but Tholos also with 10 centered circles surrounding two concen- there may be nothing talismanic or amuletic about the style— tric circles with dotted center; also Sakellariou, ed., 1964, 25 in fact, the style may simply be a phenomenon specfic to place (CMS I, no. 14), a smoky quartz lentoid from Mycenae Shaft (Knossos?) and time (MM III–LM IA). Grave III (LH I context) with 10 centered circles but sur- 17. Cf. Kenna, ed., 1966, 189 (CMS VIII, no. 138), an agate rounding a central centered circle. Other comparable exam- amygdaloid. ples include Sakellariou 1958, 25, 44, nos. 148, 298, pls. III, 18. Cf. Müller and Pini, eds., 1999, 145 (CMS II, 6, no. XXI, XXV; Kenna, ed., 1966, 153 (CMS VIII, no. 113); 133), a sealing from Hagia Triada impressed by a lentoid. Kenna, ed., 1972, 359 (CMS XII, no. 269); van Effenterre and 19. Cf. the burned silicate lentoid from the Vapheio Tholos, van Effenterre, eds., 1972, 209, 210 (CMS IX, nos. 186, 187); chamber (Sakellariou, ed., 1964, 292 [CMS I, no. 259]; and Platon, Pini, and Salies, eds., 1977, 76, 278 (CMS II, 2, nos. the gold-mounted cornelian lentoid from Aidonia Chamber 63, 202); Betts, ed., 1980, 101 (CMS X, nos. 58, 59); Platon Tomb 8 (Pini, ed., 1993, 120–121 [CMS V, Suppl. 1B, no. and Pini, eds., 1984, 81, 379 (CMS II, 3, nos. 70, 323); 1985, 116]). 171, 295 (CMS II, 4, nos. 134, 237); Pini, ed., 1988, 232, 357 20. For example, at Hagia Triada, Müller and Pini, eds., (CMS XI, nos. 216, 353); Müller and Pini, eds., 1999, 247 1999, 124–129 (CMS II, 6, nos. 111–116); Kato Zakro, Müller (CMS II, 6, no. 213). and Pini, eds., 1998, 236, 237 (CMS II, 7, nos. 215, 216); and 32. E.g., Kenna, ed., 1972, 237 (CMS XII, no. 152); Kenna Knossos, Gill, Müller, and Pini, eds., 2002, 283–288 (CMS II, and Thomas, eds., 1974, 47 (CMS XIII, no. 42); Betts, ed., 8.1, nos. 143–148). 1980, 113 (CMS X, no. 77); Platon and Pini, eds., 1984, 213 21. See endnote 18 above. (CMS II, 3, no. 178). 22. Cf. Müller and Pini, eds., 1999, 120–121 (CMS II, 6, 33. Cf. Pini, ed., 1993, 45 (CMS V, Suppl. 1B, no. 42) from nos. 107–109), impressed sealings from Hagia Triada, and Phyl akopi, My cenaean Sanctuary, East Shrine (LH IIIC devel- Müller and Pini, eds., 1998, 143 (CMS II, 7, no. 127), an oped context). impressed sealing from Kato Zakros. 34. The following are the figurines that we attribute to the 23. Younger 1983, the Cretan Popular Group dating to LM I. Iron Age, as published by the present author (M.C. Shaw 24. Compare especially Platon and Pini, eds., 1984, 5 2000): B 337, C 776, C 7290, C 7661, C 7684, C 7776, C (CMS II, 3, no. 4), said to be from Axos; Sakellarakis and 7808, C 9103, C 9190, C 9197, C 9462, C 9538, C 9539, C Kenna, eds., 1969, 322 (CMS IV, no. 290), said to be from 9540, C 9786. Embaros; Kenna, ed., 1967, 182 (CMS VII, no. 143), but with 35. See, e.g., figurines cataloged as nos. 10–13, 15 (M.C. human feet; and Kenna 1960, 141, no. 374, pl. 14. Shaw 1996d, pls. 4.36, 4.37). 25. For example, an impressed sealing from Hagia Triada 36. Entry based on Phillips 2008, II, 168, no. 334, with her (Müller and Pini, eds., 1999, 41 [CMS II, 6, no. 28]). help and permission. 26. For example, Kenna and Thomas, eds., 1974, 172 (CMS XIII, no. 16Da), serpentine lentoid; Sakellariou 1958, 4

The Faunal Remains

Deborah Ruscillo

4.1. Introduction level. Small finds including stone tools, ceramic vessels, jewelry, clay loomweights, and other miscellaneous The faunal assemblage from House X provides an objects have provided clues about room use during dif- excellent source of information for the study of the ferent periods. The aim of this chapter is to use the fau- Minoan diet and the exploitation of local marine re - nal information from each room to identify specific sources. With centuries of domestic occupation and functions of spaces in the house in further detail. changing phases of architecture, House X offers a unique The present author wishes to acknowledge informa- glimpse into the daily lives of its occupants from the LM tion and opinions offered by Maria C. Shaw and Joseph IA to the LM IIIB periods. The animal remains provide W. Shaw in the preceding chapters of this volume and insights into aspects of Minoan culture such as diet, per- by Jeremy B. Rutter, whose stratigraphic and ceramic sonal adornment, lifeways, and, in the case of material analyses will appear in Part 2 of this publication (Rutter, from the house’s shrine, ritual as well. forthcoming).1 Faunal remains from several Minoan houses uncovered in the Hilltop and Hillside excavations at Kommos were reported by Reese, Rose, and Payne (1995). Reese, Rose, and Ruscillo (2000) discussed the fauna from the Greek Sanctuary. More recently, the present author pub- 4.2. The Sample lished a study of the fauna from the monumental buildings in the Southern Area (Ruscillo 2006). All in all, the Trench 11A, a test trench dug in the Southern Area of faunal record of Kommos has revealed important infor- Kommos in 1977, was the first excavation unit in which mation about the domestic, public, and ritual life of both remains of House X were exposed. When the first walls the Minoan and the later Greek inhabitants of the site. came to light, the structure was named “Building X,” The 17 spaces identified within House X have sever- but this was changed when it became clear that finds of al levels of occupation overlain by an Archaic Greek a domestic nature were being recovered. Subsequently, 94 DEBORAH RUSCILLO

House X proved to be the only domestic building in the refuse, in contrast with the relatively scanty remains from Southern Area. the civic buildings of the Southern Area. It is clear from Faunal remains from 11A and other trenches excavat- strat igraphic analysis (see Ch. 1) and pottery study ed prior to 1985 (59A, 59A1, and 66A) have been report- (Rutter, forthcoming) that dumped material was used as ed by Reese, Rose, and Payne (1995) as “Southern Area” fill in different stages of the house construction. An fauna. These data have been included here for statistical assumption, therefore, has been made that all the faunal purposes and in order to review as thoroughly as possi- debris from within that dump was deposited by inhabi- ble the fauna from each room of House X. tants of House X. Refuse from five centuries of occupa- Soil removed from the excavation of House X was tion reveals great diversity in the faunal species identified sieved. From this sieved material, small beads and (Table 4.1). microfauna were retrieved from the floors and fills. The Forty-one species of marine mollusks were identified bone assemblage was highly fragmentary owing to the in the sample.2 More fish and bird remains were recov- age of the deposit, traffic in and around the rooms, and ered from House X than in the other Minoan samples construction. Many fine scraps of bone were collected from the Southern Area. This is likely due both to more but were only quantified by weight. Larger fragments careful excavation and sieving techniques from House X that could not be identified as to species were classified contexts and to the domestic nature of the assemblage. to a more general taxon (mammalian, aves, fish, etc.). Two species of crustaceans, both crabs, were identified Be cause of the fragmentary nature of the bone sample, as well as a single species of echinoderm, an urchin. The os teo metrics could not be implemented for species remains of at least eight species of fish were recovered, iden tification (distinguishing between Capra aegagrus including the dermal denticles of one species of elasmo- and Cap ra hircus, for example), nor could many bones branch, likely a skate or ray or possibly a shark.3 More of medium-sized bovids be identified beyond an species of fish were undoubtedly exploited for food, but Ovis/Capra (sheep/goat) identification. many of the remains were unidentifiable because of the A further complication of the material was the wide friable nature of fish bones (for other species identified range of pottery dates assigned to the contexts of many among the 3,414 fish bones from the Greek Sanctuary, deposits of bone. Most of the animal bones and shell see Rose 2000). Fish and other edibles from the sea material were recovered from dumps and fill in and would have been much exploited by this population, as around the house. These fills often had mixed dates the sheer number of shell remains attests. Shell, of (e.g., MM III–seventh century B.C.) because of the con- course, preserves much better in the archaeological stant reuse of space over the course of centuries; dumps record than bone. of material were sometimes secondarily used as fill, Nine species of terrestrial mollusks were identified also causing dating problems. Separating the faunal in the collection. Many of them are assumed to have material into absolute or “clean” dates was difficult, been intrusive because of the burrowing behavior of and determining which fauna corresponded to different snails and their attraction to carrion found in food phases of construction and use of the rooms was also dumps. Snails have long been and are still an important challenging. Thus, the material is primarily examined traditional food staple on Crete, however. All Helix as a sample from all periods of the house, and then, species are edible, as well as members of the Helicidae using the pottery groups defined by Rutter, the corre- family, including Eobania. More likely to be intrusive sponding animal bones and shells are examined by are Ceciloides, Clausilia, Oxychilus, and Rumina, room and date. which are not known for their nutritional or delectable Over 4,386 bones weighing approximately 30.4 kg qualities. These were not recovered in numbers that sug- have been collected from House X since 1977. More gest they were exploited for food. impressive is the total of 13,323 marine and terrestrial At least eight species of birds were represented in the shells recovered, weighing approximately 40.6 kg. This sample. Many of the bird remains were not identifiable quantity may be attributed to the location of the house in owing to their poor preservation. Bird bones are fragile close proximity to the shore. The total weight of the fau- and vulnerable to breakage and disintegration, and, like nal material from House X, bone and shell included, is 71 fish remains, they tend to be underrepresented in faunal kg. The sample is thus almost three times the weight of samples for this reason. the faunal remains recovered from the rest of the Minoan Eleven species of mammals were identified. Most occupation of the Southern Area (26.5 kg; Ruscillo species represented are domesticates, though there is 2006). This number is remarkable given that the area of some evidence of hunting (Capra aegagrus, Dama House X is less than one-tenth of the entire excavated dama, Lepus europaeus). The hunted species are mini- Southern Area. There is little doubt that the concentration mal, and it is probable that these animals were hunted of faunal material in this building represents domestic either opportunistically or on special occasions. The THE FAUNAL REMAINS 95 weasel and rat remains are likely intrusive rather than in this sample were collected dead along the beach, as being the result of human deposition. indicated by the waterworn state of most of the speci- The 3:1 shell-to-bone fragment ratio in the sample is mens. The quantity of Glycymeris is enigmatic, because partly due to selective preservation. There can be no the specimens were clearly of no nutritive value to the doubt, however, that the residents of a settlement along collectors, nor are they found in contexts where their use the coast might favor protein from the sea as opposed to as ornamentation was of obvious importance. I have dis- terrestrial animals. The multitude of marine species iden- cussed the nature of these Glycymeris finds elsewhere tified in the sample attests to the importance of fish and (Ruscillo 2006), and I will discuss the House X shellfish in the diet of the site occupants. Fishing hooks Glycymeris collection in further detail below. and lead weights were recovered from all areas of the Land snails comprise 7.5% of the mollusk sample. As site, including House X (see Ch. 3.2). In addition, cuttle- mentioned above, many of these could be intrusive. Giv - fish (Sepia sp.) and elasmobranchs, usually elusive in the en the importance of some species, particularly Helix, to archaeological record, have been identified and could modern populations of Crete, however, and the sheer have been important in the local diet. Inhabitants of the numbers recovered from the debris (1,003 shells), one site also herded animals for their secondary products but could make a reasonable case through ethnographic par- may have been reluctant to slaughter animals for meat allels for the dietary importance of land snails to the in - when there were other, less costly protein alternatives habitants of House X. from the sea nearby. Thus, the faunal sample reflects not The topshell, or Monodonta species, has been identi- only differential taphonomic preservation but also cultur- fied throughout the site in significant numbers. It ac - al and economic choices made by the occupants. counts for 6.3% of the sample from House X. Over 838 individuals were counted from this assemblage. Although topshells are somewhat attractive, they are rarely found in contexts where their use in ornamentation may be postu- Marine and Land Mollusks lated. In fact, they are often found in middens and fills associated with food refuse at sites around Greece (e.g., Having stressed the importance of food staples from Hagios Petros, Akrotiri, Eleusina, Franchthi, Kitsos, the sea at Kommos, it is interesting to examine the mar - Saliagos, and Vrysi). Interestingly, topshells seem to have ine and mollusk sample independently to identify other been of comparable dietary importance in the Minoan cultural factors and choices in the species represented in and Greek period. From the Hilltop and Hillside excava- this material. As in the faunal samples from the Minoan tions, Monodonta comprised 3.9% of the invertebrate monumental buildings, the houses of the Hilltop and collection; from the Greek Sanctuary, the species com- Hillside, and the Greek Sanctuary (Shaw and Shaw, eds., prised 40% of the sample, and from the Southern Area, 1996, 2000, 2006), limpets (Patella spp.) make up an 3.4% of the sample. The relative consistency is notable overwhelming majority (60.7%) of the mollusks found in (3.4%–6.3%) in comparison with differences in the fre- House X (Fig. 4.1). I believe that the majority of these quency of Patella (46%–92%), for example, in the limpets were collected in the Archaic rather than the Minoan and Greek periods. Minoan period for two reasons. First, the faunal database The other 36 species of marine mollusks account for records most of the large accumulations of limpets from only 5% of the sample. Their small numbers suggest that mixed contexts, with the latest diagnostic pottery dating they were of lesser importance in the local diet, although to the seventh century. Greek activity in and over House they may have been important in other ways. Table 4.1 X disturbed underlying levels and often jumbled materi- identifies the typical use of each species represented al from several periods together. Second, 86,692 limpets from the site. Some species may have had multiple uses, (92 % of the invertebrate sample) were recorded from the however. For example, any mollusk meat can be used as Greek Sanctuary as opposed to 3,460 (46% of the sam- bait. The use categories identify only the traditional uses ple) from the Minoan levels in the Southern Area, indi- of the species based on current knowledge from archae- cating a preference for limpets in the historic period. ological contexts and ethnographic parallels. From House X contexts 8,090 limpets were counted, and Ornamental shells in the sample are either very small most of these were from mixed Minoan and Greek levels. or very large. Small species such as Arcularia, Conus, or The second most frequently occurring species is Gly - Pisania, which are usually less than a centimeter in cymeris, or dog cockle, comprising 20.5% of the sample. length, would have offered no significant food value, but More than 2,762 Glycymeris shells recovered from may have served as beads or gaming pieces.4 In fact, of House X, compared with 4,449 from the rest of the site. the 146 Arcularia shells discovered from House X, 87% This species was not exploited for food by the site occu- are pierced and show evidence of being used in personal pants. Although Glycymeris scallops are edible, the shells ornamentation, whether as jewelry,5 decorations sewn 96 DEBORAH RUSCILLO onto clothing, or possibly as a string of beads compara- Bone Remains ble to modern day komboloí (worry beads). Large species like Tonna (giant tun shell) or Charonia (Triton shell) Approximately 4,386 bones were counted in the could have been eaten but are harder to find live owing House X faunal assemblage, including the remains of to their deep-sea habitat. These shells are often recovered fish, birds, and mammals. While the bone material, dead by offshore divers or dredged up from the sea floor which makes up less than one-quarter of the faunal with fishing nets. They are rare finds and serve mainly as sample, seems scanty compared to the shell remains, it ornamental or ritual pieces even today. displays almost as much variety as the shell in the Of the 50 species of sea and land mollusks identified species identified. from House X, 24 are typically collected for food and 20 Thirty species are represented in the bone assemblage. for decorative purposes. Six are commonly found in I have also included crustaceans and echinoderms in this industrial or construction debris in the archaeological category because they are not mollusks, and they were record, and five species are unclassified. Again, these likely collected for food. Figure 4.2 illustrates the overall categories are not meant to be definitive; some cultures composition of the sample. As is typical of Bronze Age trap and eat Murex species, for example, though the use and Iron Age faunal collections in Greece, sheep and of these mollusks in dye production is preeminent. goats (Ovis/Capra) make up the majority of the bone col- Glycymeris species can be exploited for food when collection, comprising 61.7% of the remains. Pig (Sus) is lected live; however, the Kommos specimens were main- also significantly represented, making up 22.3% of the ly dead, so their primary function at Kommos is not clear assemblage. Cattle (Bos) make up only 6.0% of the col- (they may have had practical architectural uses, as dis- lection. It is important to remember, however, that one cussed below). Unclassified species include Vermetus cow, bull, or ox provides approximately eight times the and Euthria. These species were likely collected inadver- meat of one sheep, so fewer bones can still represent tently; Vermetus was probably attached to another, larger more meat. These four taxonomic groups (perhaps five shell, and Euthria was likely collected with Murex, as species including possible Capra aegagrus) comprise they are often preyed upon by the latter.6 Most land snails 90% of the bone assemblage. Other taxonomic groups, are presumed to be intrusive, though some are edible. All such as birds, fish, and other mammals, each represent of them can burrow into archaeological strata and remain 3% or less of the bone remains. Birds and fish may be in deposits. Some Rumina snails found at Kommos were underrepresented for reasons mentioned above. used as necklace beads. There appears to have been a reliance on bovids and The fact that the majority of molluscan species col- suids for meat. Although the fragmentary state of the lected have aesthetic qualities may attest to the interests material made it difficult to distinguish between sheep of the inhabitants of the house. Minoan art is character- and goat bones, both were identified in the sample and ized by a love of color and an appreciation for beauty in were probably available locally. Only 104 bones could be nature. From wall paintings to personal dress, Minoans confidently identified to sheep or goat from the medium- seem to have had a fondness for beautiful objects. It is sized bovid sample of over 2,706 bones. Within this not remarkable that they should have invested time in small group, sheep or goat were represented somewhat collecting attractive shells with which to adorn them- equally (51 sheep, 53 goats). Approximately half of the selves. Greeks make many handicrafts from shells even bovid remains were studied by David Reese, who made today; one need only go to the market in nearby Matala no distinctions between the two species. One piece of a on Crete to find a multitude of decorative uses for shells. horncore might have been Capra aegagrus (agrími or Adults and children also make collections as a hobby or kri-kri). The agrími would not have been domesticated in for games. Although almost half of the species collected the Minoan period but more likely hunted from a feral in the House X assemblage had decorative uses, howev- population brought to Crete in the Neolithic (Porter er, we must not lose sight of the fact that these shells only 1996; Rackham and Moody 1996, 47). Osteometrics can account for approximately 5% of the total shell assem- sometimes be helpful in distinguishing the agrími from blage. The majority of the total shells collected (87.5%) the common domestic goat, but with limited complete comprises only three species, Patella, Glycymeris, and dimensions preserved in the existing bones, Capra aega- Monodonta, and these were primarily used for food or grus has been elusive in faunal samples from Crete. The construction by the site occupants. headgear of the agrími is very distinctive, however, with THE FAUNAL REMAINS 97 its long curved horns and incremental ridges, and the years of age. The proportion of sheep and goats aged 3.5 horncore identified from House X has characteristics years or older (adult) is higher, amounting to 17%. The consistent with agrími. Even though there was a popula- use of animals for breeding and secondary products tion of domesticated sheep and goat, it is plausible that such as milk and wool would require that some individ- agrími was hunted on special occasions, as in more uals to be kept for a number of years. After the milking recent times. Agrímia are protected now on reserves on and breeding potential of females has passed at the age Crete, but Pitsidian residents informed me that as recent- of about eight years, they too are culled for meat. This ly as 40 years ago agrímia were hunted to serve at wed- pattern is reflected in Figure 4.3. In short, the bovid dings, as was fallow deer. population at Kommos is consistent with herding for Fallow deer (Dama) comprise 1.5% of the House X meat as well as the use of secondary products. sample. Although the Minoans had access to meat, veni- Unfortunately, information on sex could not be deter- son was apparently sought from time to time. Eleven mined from most of the bone fragments. Only eight hare bones (Lepus) were recovered as well, showing that males and one female were identified among some 2,700 at least some wild animals were occasionally hunted or sheep and goat bones. There may have been some cas- trapped to contribute to the diet of the inhabitants. Three trates in the sample, too, as suggested by the frequency of bones of a weasel (Mustela) were found in Space X1, individuals culled within the first two years of life. probably deriving from the same individual, but there is Castration within the first month of life would have in - no evidence that the animal was eaten; it may have nest- creased the meat yield. ed in the fill, or it could have been dragged in by a dog. The pig bones show a different culling strategy. The There is no evidence that weasels were intentionally cull decreased by roughly half for each year of age. trapped for food at Kommos, though there is evidence at Figure 4.4 demonstrates that for every 100 pigs, 50% Kavousi that a badger, another member of the mustleid were culled during the first year of life. In the second family, was eaten (Snyder and Klippel 1996). Eight dog year of life, half of the remaining amount (27%) was bones were identified, probably from two different indi- culled, and during the third year of life, half of the viduals, according to date, age, and size. The bones remaining population was culled again (14%). Out of could plausibly have come from a single individual if 100 pigs, only eight lived to maturity (over the age of 3.5 fill was partially reused for later construction or main- years). There are fewer reasons for keeping pigs until tenance of the house. It appears as if the carcass of a adulthood as compared with goats and sheep. The main dead dog was discarded in a refuse midden, and then the purpose is for breeding, for which only a few individuals dump was used as fill. One rat (Rattus) mandible and a are required. One sow can farrow up to 12 piglets during longbone were identified in the fill of the house con- the spring and again in the autumn in favorable condi- struction; these bones were likely intrusive as well; rats tions. The proportion of males versus females could not were introduced to Crete sometime in the historic peri- be determined from the fragments available, unfortunate- od (K. Papayianni, pers. comm.) ly. From a sample of about 980 bones, five females and Given a significant quantity of sheep and goat bones, three males were identified. the organization of the bone data by age can help us Pig remains from the rest of the Southern Area at interpret the economic strategies of the herders. While a Kommos were relatively sparse, and it is not clear wheth - general quantitative analysis may be overly simplistic er these animals were actually herded locally or hunted for a sample that spans centuries and includes both from feral populations (see Ruscillo 2006). The age pat- sheep and goats (for which herding strategies may dif- tern from the House X sample of suid remains presented fer), nevertheless, some herding strategies may remain in Figure 4.4 suggests, however, that pigs were probably consistent for millennia and certain trends may be dis- herded by inhabitants of the site. The sample contains no cerned for the economics of the culture as a whole. clear evidence of wild boar, with the exception of a Figure 4.3 summarizes the age information from the worked piece of a large male tusk (see Bo 8 below). An - sheep and goat remains. As expected of a meat econo- oth er piece was found in the excavations of the Southern my, 73% of the bovid sample (excluding cattle) is from Area (Ruscillo 2006, 793–794). individuals two years old or younger. Almost 40% of Cattle remains are few in the sample, following a gen- these are under one year of age. In most areas of the eral trend from all areas of the site. With sheep, goats, and Mediterranean today lambs and kids, especially male, pigs having been herded in the vicinity, large populations are often culled for meat before their first year. A small of cattle would not be required for meat production. It has percentage (10%) of bones are from individuals 2–3 been suggested elsewhere that cattle at Kommos were 98 DEBORAH RUSCILLO kept mainly as draft animals and perhaps for secondary the most common age group because there is enough products as well (Ruscillo 2006, 798). Of the 263 cattle evidence from the bone/tooth specimen to show that the bones identified, most remains were from individuals individual represented is not juvenile, but not enough to older than three years of age, in keeping with their use as show that it is adult. These bones are listed first for mam- draft animals. Only one individual was less than 18 mals because they occur most frequently. Next, adult months of age. specimens are listed (Adult), then subadult (Subadult), immature specimens (Imm.), and finally juvenile specimens (Juv.). Immature specimens are identified mainly by the stage of bone or tooth development. If a bone has not yet fused at either its proximal or distal end, it is 4.3. Spatial Analysis of Faunal described as “immature.” If the fusion line between the Remains epiphysis and the diaphysis is just closing, the age is identified as “subadult,” and if the bone is fully fused, it In this section I present the spatial analysis of room is either considered “immature or older” for earlier fus- use with specific reference to cooking, dining, personal ing bones or “adult” for later fusing bones. ornamentation, and the practical and ritual uses of fauna. The elements for each age group, where identified, The order of the analysis follows the sequence of rooms have been listed in order of occurrence in the skeleton. dealt with in the stratigraphic analysis in Chapter 1 and Cranial and mandibular bones and teeth are thus listed Rutter’s pottery groupings. Information from both stud- first, then cervical vertebrae, then pectoral girdle ele- ies, as well as the discussion of the small finds in Chapter ments (dorsal to ventral and proximal to distal), then 3, has been incorporated here to provide a synthesis of trunk elements (vertebrae, sternae, and ribs), and, final- interpretations of the stratigraphy, ceramics, fauna, and ly, bones in the pelvic girdle. other inventoried items found in each grouping. For each species group, a NISP count (number of indi- For each pottery group, a set of representative pails vidual specimens present) is provided. This is a basic was drawn from a database of faunal remains, and a count of the bone elements from that species group in the table summarizing the faunal material was created sample. Then the MNI count (minimum number of indi- (Tables 4.2–4.79). Each table presents the species, ele- viduals) is provided. This count provides the number of ments, and ages of the remains. Often, just the genus of individuals represented in the group on the basis of the the animal is listed when there is no other species from elements and ages in the sample. Lastly, a “Comments” that genus in the entire sample. In some cases, there are column allows for more information to be provided for two species from a particular genus; these are differen- each bone. This information could include the burned or tiated by listing the genus name and the first initial of butchered state of the bone or any sexing information, the species (see Table 4.1 for complete species name). where such evidence is present in a specimen. If a shell is The bone elements have been simplified for ease of waterworn (ww) or pierced, it will be mentioned in this comprehension by the nonspecialist reader. It should be column. The number of Glycymeris with worn holes in understood that these elements are fragments of the the umbones is reported here as well. Catalog numbers bones listed. Often, specific terms like “mid,” “distal,” for applicable items are also given in this column. or “proximal” are listed, but a “mid femur,” for exam- The weight of the sample was taken at the time of fau- ple, may be only a sliver rather than the entire mid nal analysis. There are instances where the weight of the femoral shaft. Because the bones are extremely frag- sample is given with a plus sign (e.g., 47.8+); this means mentary, in many instances even the side of the animal that my sample was weighed and incorporated with data from which they came cannot be distinguished. from earlier faunal studies for which no weight was pro- Molars, premolars, and deciduous premolars have vided. Where the sample data was solely from another been abbreviated as M, PM, and DP, respectively. Ages source, i.e., the earlier work done on the fauna by David recorded in the original data have also been simplified S. Reese, the weight is shown as unknown (“?”). Often for the reader. When analyzing teeth in particular, there the identifications from earlier studies were not specific is often a great range of ages determined by the eruption to species and only a bone count was available. In these phases and attrition rates for each tooth. These can be cases, a “mammal” NISP is provided. specific to months of age and are different for each Below I present an interpretation, where possible, of species. This information may be confusing to readers the faunal material associated with each pottery group, trying to understand how many individuals are repre- along with a discussion of other interesting points relat- sented. Thus, five basic age groups have been used here ing to the various contexts. for the sake of clarity. “Immature or older” (Imm.+) is THE FAUNAL REMAINS 99

Space X1 walls churned up some earlier material, as suggested by M.C. Shaw (Ch. 1). Pottery Group X1:1, a floor deposit dated to LM IA The remains of at least two bovids have been identi- Final, produced only small scraps of bones and shells fied in the faunal sample (wt. 19.1 g) associated with having a total weight of 74.6 g (Table 4.2). The predomi- Pottery Group X1:5, the LM II deposit from the first nance of drinking and pouring vessels in this deposit stage of the western blocking of the doorway between X1 leads M.C. Shaw (Ch. 1) to suggest that X1 may have and X4 (Table 4.5). The remains of a juvenile sheep or served as a closet associated with X4 until the end of LM goat identified here may have had some connection with IB. Sheep and/or goat remains, partridge, and a fragment those found in the previous group. A crab pincher was of a fallow deer glenoid were found here and could rep- observed, but there are, notably, no shell remains from resent pieces of garbage lying on the dirt floor. The these pails. The crab specimen is unique to the space so remains of a few edible molluscan species were also far and could indicate a different source of dump materi- found, but not in the quantity one would expect from a al used as fill for this blockage. space directly associated with food preparation or dump- Only two bone fragments were found in the 1.5 g ing. The occurrence of ornamental shells such as Pisania, sample of faunal material associated with Pottery Group Arcularia, and perhaps Donax, along with the bone X1:6, the LM II deposit from the second stage of the scraps, suggests that these remains could have been intru- western blocking of the doorway between X1 and X4 sive from the fill above. Ornaments, including Sh 13 (Ch. (Table 4.6). As with the previous group, fill associated 3.6, J 4), a Monodonta bead that was clearly worked, are with wall construction could have come from anywhere found at the LM IA Final level from this space as well. and does not necessarily reflect the use of the room. These few ornamental shells could also have derived The faunal sample associated with Pottery Group from an object featuring these specimens, such as a neck- X1:7, from the LM II level that contained fragments of lace or clothing. The presence of seven loomweights the Lily Fresco, has a relatively greater sample weight of attests to a possible clothing or textile connection for 188.3 g (Table 4.7). The remains of sheep/goat and pig these ornamental pieces. Perhaps other objects besides have been identified here. The pig remains are only teeth ceramic vessels were originally stored here. and distal appendages, typical of primary butchery Pottery Group X1:2, the uppermost LM IA Final fill rather than dining. Of the 24 identifiable sheep/goat ele- above the floor deposit described above, yielded mostly ments, there are only two meat-bearing bones and five sheep/goat and pig bones (Table 4.3). The sample, which rib fragments; the rest of the bones are not meat bearing. weighed 84.0 g, contained phalanges, tarsals, and me - There are other indications that food may have been pre- tapodials, bones that are not meat bearing and are re - pared nearby in LM II. A knife blade (Me 16), possibly moved from the carcass during primary butchery be fore used in the butchering of meat, was associated with food preparation. It also contained pieces of scapula, Pottery Group X1:7. The remains of 38 limpets and eight acetabulum, and ribs, which carry some meat, however. topshells are likely the remains of meals or meal prepa- The finding of primary and secondary butchery remains ration. A fragment of Triton (Charonia) and the single in the same contexts suggests that these bones were from Glycymeris are reminiscent of later shrine material and a general garbage dump. The pierced Arcularia shell may could represent intrusions in this earlier fill. Five Pisania have been used as a bead; its presence is consistent with shells and five pierced Arcularia shells may be the the findings from Group X1:1 in which other ornamental remains of a necklace, like those from previous groups shells and a worked Monodonta bead were found. in this space (see Groups X1:1, X1:2, X1:4). No faunal remains were associated with Pottery Group The faunal remains (sample wt. 282.6 g) in the pails X1:3, but a small sample of faunal material weighing assigned to Pottery Group X1:8 (Table 4.8) are almost 42.8 g was recovered from the mixed LM IB Late and identical to the Pottery Group X1:7 fauna. This deposit LM II disturbed fill associated with Pottery Group X1:4 came from the initial LM II floor with slabs (potstands?) (Table 4.4). The material fits the same profile as the pre- along the north and south walls. The sheep/goat and pig vious Pottery Groups X1:1 and X1:2 (particularly the for- remains are cranial and distal appendages indicative of mer). Sheep/goat, pig, and even more partridge (an food preparation rather than meat consumption. There is otherwise rare find) occur in this sample. Again, most of one bird bone here as well. The shell profile is also iden- the bones, which included teeth and cranial pieces, are tical, which implies an association between the fill in the not meat bearing. Another pierced Arcularia shell was previous group and this one. Again, there are five Murex also found here, and it might be conjectured that it had fragments (probably earlier), seven Glycymeris (proba- some connection with other examples found in Groups bly later), 38 limpets, and 25 topshells. The “potstands” X1:1 and X1:2. Perhaps the construction of the blocking in this context could also support the suggestion that 100 DEBORAH RUSCILLO food was prepared in this area. The three Arcularia, two Space X4 Pisania, and single Anatalis shells could have been combined with those in Group X1:7 to make a necklace. By Both bones and shell (sample wt. 398.8 g) were this time, X1 would not have been entered from inside recovered in association with Pottery Group X4:1W, the house (Ch. 1). The activities represented here would found in the LM IIIA:2 Early fill below the LM IIIA:2 likely have been performed by people who gained access floor deposit in the west half of room (Table 4.11). In from outside the house to the north. the bone material, there is a predominance of teeth and The faunal material associated with Pottery Group distal extremities, indicative of primary butchery. There X1:9, found in the LM IIIA:1 fill above the LM II floor are no significant meat-bearing bones in this sample, with slabs at the east end of the room, weighed 1,676.1 g showing that dining did not occur in this space at this (Table 4.9). The remains are consistent with those asso- time. There are 17 Glycymeris shells and two fragments ciated with Groups X1:7 and X1:8, but their quantity is of Triton shell, species typically found in the LM IIIA:2 much greater. I believe that this is the main phase of the period in House X. The Triton shell may have had a rit- dump here and that portions of the dump intruded into ual use and could well be from dump in the adjacent earlier levels containing Groups X1:7 and X1:8. For Shrine X7. Three Arcularia and one Erosaria cowrie, example, there are two more Pisania, two Anatalis, and both mainly ornamental, were also found here. These seven Arcularia shells here, perhaps from the same neck- may have had an association with the shell-shaped bead lace referred to in the previous two groups. There are also also found in this deposit (Ch. 3.6, J 10). The 42 limpets three Columbella shells and a rare, lovely Natica shell could be intrusive from the later historical period. that could also have been part of a splendid piece of jew- The faunal remains associated with Pottery Group elry. The 105 Glycymeris and the piece of Triton are typ- X4:1E, found in the LM IIIA:2 fill below LM IIIA:2 ical in this period, as will be seen from the rest of the floor deposit in east half of room, weighed 500.5 g house analysis, but they are not associated with food (Table 4.12). The lack of sheep/goat bones on the east preparation. The 298 limpets and 54 topshells, however, side is one of the only differences between the east and are remains of either food preparation or consumption, as west parts of the room. Only eight pig bones and one in the previous groups. They could also be intrusive from bird bone were found. The other notable difference is the the Archaic levels in this room, as more than 1,000 number of Glycymeris; the east side yielded 127 limpets were found in this space in the historical period. Glycymeris valves, compared with only 17 from the west The four fragments of Murex are likely earlier intrusions. end of the room. As the entrance to light-well X5 is on While the previous groups had few land snails, here there the east side of the room, this accumulation may be relat- are 60 examples. The large number suggests that they, ed to the concentration of over 230 Glycymeris valves too, were remnants of meals, although they could also from this period in X5 (see Group X5:5 and discussion have been present because they were attracted to the con- below). The fauna associated with Pottery Group X4:1E tents of the original dump. There are two bird bones and also contained an ornamental cowrie (Cypraea), as well one bone from a sea bream (Sparidae). While there are as Arcularia, Bittium, Fascularia, and Pisania shells, no many more sheep/goat and pig bones, the majority are doubt related to the ornamental shells found with Pottery from primary butchery (e.g., many teeth and phalanges). Group X4:1W and perhaps to those recovered in X1, the There are, in addition, various cooking pots and storage closet for X4. Stone beads, a stone pendant, and a bronze vessels from this period, particularly in association with needle (used for stringing shells/beads?) were also found the subsequent Group X1:10. M.C. Shaw (Ch. 1) has also overlying the LM IIIA:2 floor (Ch. 3). M.C. Shaw sug- remarked that these shapes, along with finds of kylikes, gests that the east side of the room was illuminated by a drinking vessels, and a pi-shaped oven, could be indica- window to the light-well in X5; the light-well could have tive of food preparation and/or consumption activities. facilitated jewelry-making activities. Only 54 of the 127 Faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:10, Glycymeris valves had natural perforations at the umbo; from the LM IIIA:1 fill above the partially paved floor at the other 73 did not have holes and so do not have a clear the west end of room, would have been associated with association with jewelry manufacture, however. the same activities as described for the preceding group. Pottery Group X4:2, from the LM IIIA:2 ground floor This material was studied by Reese and is summarized in deposit and the fill above, was associated with a faunal Table 4.10. sample weighing 353.0 g (Table 4.13). The predominance THE FAUNAL REMAINS 101 of non-meat-bearing bones in this deposit is again typical 4.16 (listed in order of frequency) are mainly edible, so of a primary butchery dump. It differs from the preceding these are either remnants from meals that were dragged samples in that it contains examples of deer, dog, and bird through this corridor or they are intrusive from later lev- bones. There seems to be a greater variety of animals rep- els. Species such as Conus, Erosaria, and Tonna, which resented here, though the shell assemblage exhibits less are less common, are ornamental. M.C. Shaw and J.B. variety, with an absence of ornamental shells. The pur- Rutter, noting a few special pottery remains (an imported pose and use of the room seem to have changed by this Minoan beaked jug and a bridge-spouted jar), speculate time (see Ch. 1 for discussion). that the ritual use of Space X7 may have begun during In his preliminary note, Rutter identifies the deposit this period, so perhaps the ornamental shells were among associated with Pottery Group X4:3 as LM IIIA:2 upper the sacred objects of the space. story collapse. The faunal sample (Table 4.14) weighed By LM IIIA:1, the original north and south entrances 220.4 g. Faunal remains from the second floor of the to Space X7 were blocked off, creating a private room house would present an interesting but problematic dis- more befitting a shrine. The faunal remains (sample wt. covery (see also Space X16, second story). Food prepa- 87.3 g) associated with Pottery Group X7:3, from the ration and consumption are usually restricted to the main floor of soil and the fill above, contained no scraps of floor of a house for practical reasons; the floor on the bone, only a number of shells (Table 4.17). These may second story is made of wood, which would be a fire have had religious significance, most notably the Ar - hazard during cooking. M.C. Shaw (Ch. 1) suggests that cularia and Nassarius shells. As in the previous deposit, cooking may have occurred instead on the main floor of a few ornamental shells, each having one representative, X4 at this time, as indicated by the cooking and storage may have been part of a small ritual collection of shells. jars, as well as the burning on the ground just south of Otherwise, they could have been unintentionally brought the slab pavement. This interpretation seems to fit better here with beach material, since beach pebbles (from a with the faunal evidence. The Conus and Cypraea shells floor of plaster and pebbles) were associated with the col- could plausibly be from ornaments kept on the upper lapsed upper story, and a group of pebbles were found floor, or they could perhaps have been mixed in from together with a complete Triton shell in the next group. earlier levels (Groups X4:1W and X4:1E), in which The shells associated with Pottery Group X7:4, the other cowrie shells were identified. LM IIIA:2 beaten soil floor and fill above, are relatively few in number (sample wt. ca. 500.0 g), but many are significant because of the context in which they were recovered (Table 4.18). The 12 Glycymeris shells were Space X7 found in situ on the small stone table of the shrine, while the Triton shell (Charonia) was found nearby. These Only a small amount of faunal material (sample wt. occurred in association with juglets and lamps in a ritual 22.0 g) was associated with Pottery Group X7:1, the context (Ch. 1). Because waterworn Glycymeris were deposit from the LM IB Late floor of soil and stone found in a ritual assemblage, one wonders if the 2,700+ slabs (Table 4.15). The floor from this period is fairly Glycymeris from the house overall, dating mainly to this clean. At this stage in LM IB, the room is said to have period, also had some ritual significance. This problem is been used only as a passageway (Ch. 1), a function that discussed in more detail below. The presence of the would explain the paucity of finds. Some ungulate teeth Triton is not surprising, as Tritons have been found in and a phalanx were recovered, along with one ornamen- other religious contexts around the Aegean (Aström and tal Cassis shell. Reese 1990; Karali 1999, 22). The lack of even one bone In the LM II period, X7 appears still to have been a scrap in this group (and Group X7:3) is remarkable. With passageway of sorts. The faunal sample associated with scraps of bone found in most contexts throughout the Pottery Group X7:2, from the LM II floor and fill house, the only reason for bone scraps not to appear in above, weighed 105.8 g (Table 4.16). Again, the ungu- this space during LM IIIA must have been the meticulous late remains include mostly teeth and distal extremities, care taken to ensure that the floor was clean and free of with no real meat-bearing bones except for a piece of unwanted debris. The unsoiled, conceivably unpolluted, vertebra and a piece of rib. The evidence is too scanty to state of the floor attests to the sacredness of the space. suggest eating or food preparation. The variety of shells, Another ritual space may have existed on the second however, is noteworthy. The first six species in Table story above X7, judging from the special pottery (brazier, 102 DEBORAH RUSCILLO flask, sprinkler, snake tube) found in Pottery Group and their numbers are few, so the possibility that the X7:5, deriving from the remains of its collapse. As shells came in with the pebbles is plausible. The four shown in Table 4.19, the faunal sample (wt. 104.3 g) con- pierced Arcularia shells might have been used for jew- tained Glycymeris, but other ornamental shells are elry; two shell necklaces were found in the next level, absent, as were animal bones. and it is possible that there was a connection between these shells and those found in the LM II fill. Faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X14a:2, from the LM II dirt abandonment surface and its overly- Space X13/X14 ing fill, weighed 36.1 g (Table 4.23). Most of the remains from this deposit were part of two strings of necklaces (J The faunal remains associated with Pottery Group 7/Sh 12). The two necklaces were left here by the resi- X13:1 (Table 4.20), from a LM I–II fill of soil and dents, but there are no clues as to why they were left in stones, look much like the LM II faunal material from this particular room. There is evidence that shrine materi- connecting Space X7. The sample weighed 73.0 g. al from X7 was dumped here, so the necklaces may have Another fragment of Tonna and more Murex and Euthria been part of this ritual dump (see Ch. 1 for discussion). shells were found, as well as a a few small ornamental Besides the components of the necklaces, there are only shells such as Arcularia and Pisania. There are also bone three pieces of unidentifiable mammal bones, one top- remains of sheep/goat and pig, as in the X7 LM II sam- shell, and 13 land snails (Helix). The snails need not have ple, although the later samples in X7 were devoid of been deposited by humans. bone entirely. The other types of shells present are simi- The faunal remains associated with two miscella- lar to those commonly found in this part of the house: neous pottery groups of LM IIIA date (both designated Patella, Helix, Glycymeris, and Monodonta. This materi- Pottery Group X14a:Misc) are summarized in Tables al seems to derive from the same earthen fill that was 4.24 and 4.25. The first sample, recovered from a lower used in the makeup of the X7 floor in the LM II period. fill of brown soil and rubble, weighed 67.2 g and contained only a small amount of shell material that is not amenable to interpretation. The second, somewhat larger sample, recovered from the upper fill of soil and stones, Space X14a weighed 245.6 g and contained a few more shells of similar species and a few bones. The faunal sample associated with Pottery Group X14a:1, material dated to LM IB Late (with much Protopalatial) from the upper dirt surface and fill below pebble floor, had a total weight of 382.2 g (Table 4.21). Space X14b The mammal bones in this sample are few. The predominance of teeth and lower extremities is indicative Three faunal samples were distinguished among the of primary butchery. It is unclear whether these bones archaeological deposits in X14b. The sample associat- were recovered in the floor packing or were found in ed with Pottery Group X14b:1, from the LM I–II fill of situ. M.C. Shaw (Ch. 1) mentions a burned area in the soil and stones underlying the surface on which the northwest area of the room and the presence of some west wall of X14b was built, weighed only 9.9 g (Table cooking pots, suggesting that food preparation may 4.26). The presence of a piece of Tonna suggests that have occurred in the room during this period. The 110 this deposit is part of the same earthen fill dated to the limpets (Patella) are interesting because of the early same period in X7 and X13. The other two samples date of this fill. Limpets in this number are more typi- were not assigned to pottery groups. The first of these, cal of the later Bronze Age and early historical periods. derived from the LM IIIA(2?) fill of soil and stones These 110 specimens could represent the debris of underlying the surface on which the north wall of X14b meals or meal preparation. Faunal remains from X14a was built, weighed 19.3 g, and little can be said about recovered from the LM IB Late pebble floor and over- its content (Table 4.27). The other, derived from the lying fill up to the abandonment level were not LM IIIA(2?) fill of soil and stones deposited against assigned to a pottery group. The sample weighed 15.7 the north and west walls of X14b, weighed 84.0 g g and included only two scraps of bone (Table 4.22). As (Table 4.28). The faunal material is, once again, scanty the floor was made of beach pebbles, one wonders if and does not reflect any association of this space with the small shells found here were brought in with the food preparation or consumption. other beach material. All the marine species are small, THE FAUNAL REMAINS 103

Space X2 bones were found in Trench 80A/45, 49, 53, 64, and 66. Some ornamental shells (two Arcularia, one of which The faunal remains (sample wt. 83.9 g,) associated was pierced, two Pisania, two Donax, etc.) were also with Pottery Group X2:1, from LM IA Advanced fill on found here; they may have an association with other dec- top of irregularly sloping bedrock up to the floor, includ- orative pieces recovered in X2 (see Ch. 3.2, 3.6, bronze ed bones representing both primary and secondary pendant and two seals). Edible shell remains were few: butchery (Table 4.29). A burned rib fragment of a bovid 18 limpets, three topshells, and three oyster fragments. was found, charred from either cooking or incineration, There were also two land snails, likely intrusive. more likely the former, as no other bones in this group Only a few bones and shells (sample wt. 27.9 g) were exhibit burning. Although there are some lower extrem- associated with Pottery Group X2:5, from the LM IB ities that do not carry meat (metapodials, phalanges, Late Floor 2 and the fill above (Table 4.33). This mate- etc.), important meat-bearing elements (radius, ulna, rial could be mixed in from earlier fill; the sheep/goat humerus, scapula, femur) are represented for all the un - meat-bearing left glenoid, for example, is missing from gulates in the sample. While the presence of pottery the other contexts, and the pig remains are from a juve- drinking cups supports the interpretation of a dining or nile individual, as in the previous Group X2:4. Rutter kitchen area, the three contemporary loomweights (Ch. believes that these and subsequent floors are best inter- 3.3), as well as the three storage pithoi dug into the floor preted as gradual accumulations over the underlying (Ch. 1) suggest that other activities took place here. The floor rather than distinct floor levels as joins of ceramic shell remains were scanty. material are found in underlying and overlying levels. The faunal sample (wt. 411.2 g) associated with The faunal sample associated with Pottery Group Pottery Group X2:2, from a LM IA Advanced floor con- X2:6 (sample wt. 98.4+ g), from the LM IB Late Floor 3 text and the fill above, offers the most convincing evi- and fill above is slightly different from that of the previ- dence of food consumption (Table 4.30). The assemblage ous levels in that teeth and lower extremities rather than is composed primarily of bones, and most were meat meat-bearing bones are represented (Table 4.34). If, de - bearing, characteristic of debris discarded after eating as spite its partially underground position, this room was opposed to primary butchery refuse. Animals represented ever used for dining, the bone assemblage suggests that include sheep, goat, pig, hare, wood pigeon, and par- this activity was now discontinued. If, however, these tridge. Shells were minimal and largely inedible (Arcu - bones were dumped in the room, perhaps the original laria, Bittium, Charonia, Columbella, Euthria, Murex), loca tion of the dump from which the fill was taken though some edibles are sparingly represented (Mono - changed. Any possible religious activities conducted donta, Ostrea, Patella), with some land snails also pres- here, associated with ceramics noted by Rutter in his ent. The ceramic material here has been described by comments on the previous context (Pottery Group X2:5; Rutter as “ceremonial” (drinking and feasting), with nu - see Ch. 1), could not have continued now; the bones mer ous cups, bowls, and pouring vessels. The faunal found here are unlikely to have been present in a shrine. sample is consistent with this interpretation. M.C. Shaw (Ch. 1) has also remarked that the appearance Pottery Group X2:3 and the associated faunal remains of several stone tools and a miniature cooking pot signal (Table 4.31) derived from the material forming the LM a new function for X2. Deer and sea bream (Sparidae) IB Late pebble floor and thin layers of sherds and soil appeared in the faunal sample at this time. The bronze below. The faunal sample (wt. 158.1 g) includes similar fishhook Me 7 has an interesting association with the fish species to those found with Pottery Group X2:2. It also bones in the same context. Such finds together may sug- contained remains of wood pigeon and partridge proba- gest that the space was used for food preparation as bly from the same individuals as the previous group. The opposed to consumption during this phase. The shell sheep/goat and pig bones are also meat bearing, sugges- profile is similar to that in previous levels, with a few tive of dining. There were only a few shells: one Murex, ornamental shells (Conus, Mactra) and a few edibles three topshells, and two limpets. The ceramic material (Patella, Monodonta). from this level is also similar to that in the previous level, The faunal remains associated with Pottery Group and this deposit could therefore represent a continuation X2:7, from the LM IB Floor 4, corresponding to the up - of that associated with Pottery Group X2:2. per most step leading into Space X2 from X5 to the The faunal material associated with Pottery Group south, have a sample weight of only 9.1+ g (Table 4.35). X2:4 (sample wt. 82.2 g), from the LM IB Late Floor 1 The scarcity of faunal material may be further evidence and the fill above, is similar to the previous two groups for the change in the use of the room, but it could also (Table 4.32). It includes sheep/goat, pig, bird, and fish be explicable in terms of the collapse of the upper story, bones. Meat-bearing bovid bones are present, as in the in the deposits of which few or no faunal remains would previous groups from this space. Concentrations of presumably be found. 104 DEBORAH RUSCILLO

In the deep overlying fill of LM IIIA date, the finds drainage in certain areas of a building (as in Ronen 1980). of which were assigned to Pottery Group X2:8, there are Although no clean stratum of shells was found, the use of only a few representatives of sheep/goat and deer (Table Glycymeris for this purpose in the light-well makes sense 4.36). The sample weighed 59.5 g. All specimens are (see further discussion below). Several ornamental shells, anterior elements from the body. With such a small sam- possibly used in jewelry (perhaps associated with activi- ple, however, it is difficult to determine whether the rep- ties in X4?) were also found. These included two holed resentation of parts constitutes a trend. Acanthocardia and one pierced Arcularia shell, as well as The faunal material associated with Pottery Group a Natica shell and a Pisania shell, both ornamental but X2:9, from LM IIIB mixed fill, had a sample weight of with no holes reported. 344.8+ g (Table 4.37). Typical of this period is the in - The upper part of this floor deposit, assigned to creased number of waterworn Glycymeris. The pail from Pottery Group X5:6, also contained significant amounts which the Glycymeris valves were recovered is from the of Glycymeris shells (Table 4.45). The total number of uppermost threshold of the doorway between X2 and Glycymeris valves found here and in the previous deposit X5. As discussed above, over 120 Glycymeris valves is 234, not including those from pails excluded for lack of were recovered from the east side of X4 by the doorway diagnostic pottery. There does not seem to be any signif- to the light-well. Again, there may have been a connec- icance to the roughly equal proportions of specimens tion between the light-well and the waterworn Gly cym - with holes in the umbones and those without. The pres- eris valves found in this period. In the faunal material ence of 127 more Glycymeris valves in the adjacent space associated with the succeeding (see Pottery Group X4:1E) is no coincidence, given the Pottery Group X2:10, from the LM IIIB uppermost close proximity to the doorway between X4 and X5 and purely Minoan levels over Space X2, the number of Gly - the contemporary date of these deposits of waterworn cymeris tapered off, although this and the previous fill valves. Although perhaps not entirely in situ, the 361 may have had the same source (Table 4.38). well-dated shells from these contexts attest to some deliberate use. The number of valves from these areas doubles when all pails of mixed material including LM IIIA:2 finds are combined. From Trench 66A and 74A, the num- Space X5 ber of Glycymeris valves totals some 1,190 specimens (Space X2, area north of X2, and Space X5). A further The faunal remains associated with Pottery Groups 431 valves come from Trench 73A (Spaces X4, X7). X5:1–X5:4 and those from the lower blocking of the Both X2 and X4 communicate directly with the light-well doorway between X5 and X8 (not assigned to a pottery X5, so large concentrations of the valves seem to have group) are too scanty to permit constructive comment some connection with the floor of the light-well in the (Tables 4.39–4.43). The marine remains associated LM IIIA:1–2 period. Perhaps a floor or subfloor in X5 with Pottery Group X5:2, from the removal of the LM was made from Glycymeris valves at some point to allow IA Final upper slab floor and exposure of the floor of better drainage of the rainwater coming down into the pebbles, could have been brought in with the pebbles light-well and to avoid the flooding of adjacent rooms. from the beach, but the remains are too few to be cer- Thereafter, perhaps in the later LM IIIA:2, LM IIIB or tain (Table 4.40). Archaic period, activities in or over the house could have A greater quantity of faunal material was associated disturbed these floors (see discussion of Glycymeris in with Pottery Group X5:5, from the LM IIIA:2 floor de - Ch. 4.5). posit within the light-well (Table 4.44). M.C. Shaw (Ch. 1) remarks that this group marks the first signs that this space was used for activities other than circulation within the house. The presence of bones and shells suggests Space X8 that the space was used not only as a light-well in this later period, but also as either a place for dumping or for The faunal material associated with Pottery Group activities involving food. The pottery types identified by X8:1, from the mixed Neopalatial through LM II floor Rutter in the various levels of this floor support an asso- deposit and fill above is unremarkable and fairly scanty, ciation with food (cooking dishes and jars, amphorae, with a sample weight of 45.3+ g (Table 4.46). Orna - jugs, drinking vessels), and Shaw mentions burning in the mental shells were scarce, even though a pebble pendant northeast corner of the space. The presence of 132 water- (J 13) was found in the fill. The paucity of faunal worn Glycymeris on the floor is typical for this period. It remains can be explained by the slab paving; M.C. Shaw has been suggested elsewhere that Glycymeris valves (Ch. 1) remarks that there was a tendency to maintain the were used as flooring and/or subflooring to allow better original level of a slab floor for as long as possible by THE FAUNAL REMAINS 105 systematically removing debris. Any refuse fallen to the interpret the use of the area (Table 4.51). The faunal floor would therefore have been swept away. No faunal remains (sample wt. 431.7 g) from the next phase, remains were associated with Pottery Group X8:2, possi- associated with the LM IIIA:1 Pottery Group X9:4, the bly owing to erosion in this part of the room from slope deposit of soil over collapsed rubble in the eastern half wash farther to the north. of X9, were consistent with the contemporaneous A few fragments of ungulates were associated with deposit in the northern part of X8, particularly the 34 Pottery Group X8:3, from the LM IIIA:1 floor and fill Glycymeris valves recovered (Table 4.52). Rutter above, but there was no evidence to suggest that there observes that the LM IIIA:1–2 pottery deposits in these was any food-related activity taking place in X8 at this two spaces are also identical in character. time (Table 4.47). The marine remains are few as well. The faunal sample overall weighed 146.3+ g. Rutter interprets this extensive floor deposit in X8, which produced numerous cups, jars, and amphorae, along with Space X3 Minoan and imported jugs, as evidence of a kapheneion- type drinking space. The fauna do not support this inter- The faunal remains associated with Pottery Group pretation, unless the space was strictly used for drinking X3:1, the LM IA Final material from a sounding below or was swept frequently during use. Possible access to the lowest exposed floor in Space X3, weighed only 4.7 the street may have enabled stray cats or dogs to carry off g and were too scanty for comment (Table 4.53). Slightly food debris (as in modern kapheneia). more material was recovered from the LM IB Late sur- The bone remains associated with Pottery Group face and fill above, with finds assigned to Pottery Group X8:4, from LM IIIA:2 Early wash levels, are again few X3:2 (Table 4.54). A few bones of one bovid and two (Table 4.48), but the ceramic material from this space is pigs were found in the sample, which weighed 37.7 g. impressive. There is also a notable concentration of 118 Two mid ribs of a sheep/goat were worked into points Glycymeris from this space, which was adjacent to the and discarded or abandoned in this deposit. No signifi- light-well (other such concentrations were found in X2 cant shell remains were present. and X4). The doorway between X8 and X5 seems to Faunal material associated with Pottery Group X3:3, have been blocked or the threshold raised in this period. recovered from the makeup of the LM IB Late floor, The accumulations of waterworn valves on either side weighed 207.9 g (Table 4.55). The bones from several of the doorway may support the idea that the threshold ungulate individuals were present, as well as a bird was raised, as these deposits appear to be related. If the bone. The bones represent most parts of the body, both doorway was indeed blocked, that would mean that the the meat-bearing portions and those subject to primary blockage occurred after the Glycymeris were deposited butchery. Thus, at this time Space X3 may have been the in the LM IIIA:1 period. locus of food consumption or food preparation. M.C. Shaw (Ch. 1) discusses the burning on the floor in the northwest corner at this level and the remains of a possible hearth. The occurrence of drinking vessels noted by Space X9 Rutter and stone tools (Ch. 3.4) may indicate that this was a kitchen, as M.C. Shaw proposes in Chapter 1. The faunal remains from the LM IB Final fill from The LM IB Late Pottery Group X3:4 and the associat- construction of Space X9, associated with Pottery Group ed faunal sample, weighing 83.7 g (Table 4.56), came X9:1, are few and insignificant, weighing only 22.8 g from the stratum above the floor in X3. Although the de - (Table 4.49). Those deriving from the LM II use of X9, pos it contained burned material, the bones were not associated with Pottery Group X9:2, were more substan- burned and were therefore not directly associated with the tial, however (Table 4.50). The sample weighed 302.0+ g. burning episode that took place either in this room or pos- It contained a few hearty meat-bearing bones from sheep sibly in the collapsed second story. The faunal remains and/or goats. Because of the presence of a tripod cooking are more likely from the floor beneath and are similar to pot, a cooking dish, and large storage vessels, M.C. Shaw the those of the previous group, with juvenile pig re - (Ch. 1) proposes that the space had a utilitarian function. mains, birds, and a few shells. The kestrel and fulmar re - The presence of a fishhook, a blade, two mortars, and a mains are interesting, as these birds are not commonly stamnostatis (Ch. 3.2, 3.4) on the floor also supports the used for food; they are birds of prey and are rarely found interpretation of X9 as a food preparation area. in archaeological contexts. Perhaps the Falco leg and Ful - Faunal material associated with Pottery Group X9:3 marus wing were the remnants of some exotic collection. (LM II–IIIA:2/B?), from the first phase of the collapse The faunal remains associated with Pottery Group of the north and west walls of X9, cannot be used to X3:5, from the LM IIIA:2 surface and overlying fill, 106 DEBORAH RUSCILLO weighed 88.8 g (Table 4.57). Most sections of the body well as an ornamental specimen (pierced Arcularia). were represented among the bovid remains. The The ceramic types identified by Rutter include cups, remains of the ungulates and the shells resemble those jugs, and a bridge-spouted jar, finds that suggest activi- from the previous strata in X3. The presence of ties of eating and drinking. M.C. Shaw mentions the loomweights suggests that textile manufacture may presence of two stone saddle querns as well (see also have taken place in X3 or the better lit room above (Ch. Ch. 3.4). No faunal remains were recovered from the 1). This deposit probably belongs to the last use of this deposit assigned to Pottery Group X6:3. space before the entrance to the east was blocked. The LM II floor and overlying fill from which Pottery The LM IIIA:2–B Pottery Group X3:6 and the asso- Group X6:4 derived yielded a faunal sample that weighed ciated faunal remains (Table 4.58) came from the upper 223.7+ g (Table 4.62). There were more bones and shells fill sealed by deep rubble in X3. The faunal sample in this deposit. Meat-bearing and non-meat-bearing ele- weighed 257.0+ g. Again, the material from this horizon ments from goat, pig, and fish were present. The shells, matches that found in previous groups from this space, which included another pierced Arcularia, were similar to including bones of juvenile ungulates from most parts of those associated with Pottery Group X6:2. Loomweights the body. The remains of a hare (Lepus) and an ornamen- and other items associated with weaving (needle, spindle tal cowrie shell (Erosaria) represent species not previ- whorl, bone point; see Ch. 3.3) were found in this deposit, ously ob served. The presence of another loomweight and M.C. Shaw (Ch. 1) believes these fell from an upper sug gests an association with Pottery Group X3:5. The story, as in the case of X3. Perhaps the fauna were on the fishhook (Me 26) was probably part of the dump and not floor when the upper story collapsed, causing the mixture in situ in the room. of bone remains and weaving tools in the same context. The faunal remains associated with Pottery Group Rutter mentions that the ceramic dump in this space re - X3:7 came from a LM IIIA:2–B deposit dumped as sembles the one in LM II Space X10; perhaps the faunal foundation fill for an Archaic floor. The sample weighed material was part of the dump used as fill here. 597.3+ g (Table 4.59). It contained more pig than bovid The faunal material associated with Pottery Group bones, a disparity that may suggest a change in origin of X6:5, from LM IIIA:1 dumped fill, could have had the this fill or in the food choices made by different inhabi- same source as that found with the previous Pottery tants of the house. The presence of 52 Glycymeris valves Group X6:4. The sample weighed 597.4+ g (Table 4.63). is consistent with the other LM IIIA:2 Glycymeris accu- More fish, sheep, goat, pig, and hare bones from animals mulations in House X. The Glycymeris were clearly of various ages were found here. Although the MNI dumped here from elsewhere. Rutter links the remains of among the bones is low, there is no doubt that these a rhyton, stirrup jar, and spindle bottle in this deposit with remains represent many meals in the space from which shrine ceramics from X7 and possibly X2, so perhaps the the dump originated. While most of the bones are teeth fill and associated fauna comes from the cleaning of and lower extremities removed in primary butchery, there either of these spaces. are a few elements from meat-bearing parts of the body as well. A greater quantity of ornamental shells was recovered here, including Acanthocardia, Arcularia, Cassis, Columbella, and Erosaria. These shells may have Space X6 had an association with other ornamental finds (two stone pendants, a bronze hook, and some bronze strips; see Ch. There are only a few bones from the LM IA Final 3). Five more loomweights were found, suggesting a con- surface with fill to which Pottery Group X6:1 belongs tinuation of weaving activities in this space or the space (Table 4.60). One definite example of goat, two bones above (Ch. 1). The collection of 160 waterworn from a single pig individual, and no shell remains were Glycymeris is typical of this period and is similar to the represented in this meager sample, which weighed 57.8 accumulations seen in other rooms such as X2, X4, and g. A slightly larger sample of faunal material was asso- X8 adjacent to the light-well X5. It has been suggested ciated with Pottery Group X6:2, from the LM IB Late above that the Glycymeris may have been laid as a sub- surface and fill above (Table 4.61). The faunal remains floor to allow better drainage of rainwater in the light- weighed 84.9 g, and the bones found on this surface well. In the case of X6, the Glycymeris valves seem to could be from the same source as those in the previous have been part of this floor deposit as opposed to dump faunal sample. There is, however, more material, includ- inclusions. They do not occur in such numbers in either ing sheep, goat, pig, deer, and fish. The majority of the Pottery Groups X6:4 or X6:6. bones were meat-bearing, suggestive of food consump- Major activity in X6, including dumping, seems to tion. Shell remains, not found in conjunction with have ceased in the phase associated with Pottery Group Pottery Group X6:1, comprised both edible shells as X6:6. The faunal sample from the LM IIIA:2 floor and THE FAUNAL REMAINS 107 fill above was scanty, and the bones and shells in the only 22.8 g (Table 4.67). Three worked bone points and faunal sample, which weighed 81.7+ g, are probably other tools, including tweezers and a few cobbles (Ch. remnants from the same fill seen in previous levels 3.2, 3.4) were found in this deposit. Although the materi- (Table 4.64). al is thought to have been dumped, it seems unusual that such rare and fine tools should be found in a concentration here. Perhaps this fill originated from a dump that served some industrial area. Space X10

Along with the masses of ceramics in Pottery Group X10:1, there was a considerable accumulation of bones Space X16 and shells, weighing 856.3 g (Table 4.65). Rutter suggests that this LM II deposit was fill dumped over the Very few scraps of bone and no shell remains were LM IB (Late?) surface. If his interpretation is correct, we recovered from the LM II floor deposit above the slab cannot attribute the faunal findings directly to the use of pavement in Space X16, and no pottery group was de - the space. M.C. Shaw (Ch. 1) mentions, however, that a fined for this deposit. The faunal sample weighed only mortar and quern were found and may represent food- 5.2 g (Table 4.68). A slightly larger faunal sample processing activities. All parts of the skeleton are present weighing 109.6 g was recovered from the overlying in the bovid sample, and for the first time, some sexing deposit associated with the LM IIIA:1 Pottery Group information is available. There is evidence of both male X16:1 (Table 4.69). This material represents either the and female pigs and goats. Several bovid individuals are collapsed second story or further fill above the slab represented. Thus, it is likely that this sample of bones floor. Rutter has suggested that this deposit may have derived not from a single event but from a deposit that been material fallen in from the second floor, but as was formed by repeated dumping. The shell remains are M.C. Shaw points out in Chapter 1, three cooking ves- surprisingly few. From the later LM IIIA:2 period, a sels and a quern were found here; one would not expect piece of a large, worked boar’s tusk was found (Bo 8). to find kitchen facilities on a second floor made of The worked piece could have been used in a boar’s tusk wood and reeds. (See Pottery Group X3:3 for another helmet or as inlay for some ornamental item. possible cooking area from an earlier period of House X No specific information is available on faunal mate- habitation.) The faunal remains associated with Pottery rial associated with Pottery Groups X10:2 and X10:3, Group X16:2, from the LM IIIA:2 floor and fill above, from deposits excavated in 1977. were scanty (Table 4.70). The sample weighed 12.7 g. The minimal quantity of faunal remains supports M.C. Shaw’s interpretation (Ch. 1) of this space as a corridor. The subsequent LM IIIB fill, for which no pottery Space X11/X12 group was defined, contained no bone remains, only two land snails and two marine shells (Table 4.71). Few bone remains were found in association with Pottery Group X11/X12:1, from the LM IB Late floor in X11/X12 (Table 4.66). The faunal sample weighed only 77.9 g. Among the interesting finds are the pieces of Space X15 cuttlefish and the Spondylus pendant (J 8/Sh 17). This room has been interpreted as a corridor-like space but The bones and shell from the sottoscala fill of the could have functioned as a closet, with its cups, jars, and west staircase in X15, associated with Pottery Group jewelry pieces reminiscent of X1. In the overlying fill X15:1, could have come from from anywhere. The sam- (Pottery Group X11/X12:2), there is another piece of ple weighed 135.7 g (Table 4.72). It is interesting that jewelry, a bead (J 2), which may have had an association there is a greater mass of fauna here than in the adjacent with J 8. M.C. Shaw (Ch. 1) remarks that finds from X16. The source of the fill is different from that in X16. this level were part of a dump, and thus they cannot pro- M.C. Shaw (Ch. 1) suggests that because X16 had a slab vide clues to the purpose of the room. There is evidence floor and served as the entrance to the house, it was that it may have been used for temporary storage, but swept routinely to maintain the level of the floor. probably not for delicate items such as jewelry. The bone material associated with Pottery Group Pottery Group X11/X12:2 and the associated faunal X15:2, from the LM IIIA:1 surface and fill above, is remains derived from the LM II fill dumped over the LM extensive, weighing 852.9 g (Table 4.73). It contains the IB Late floor in Space X11. The faunal sample weighed remains of five mammalian species, showing primary 108 DEBORAH RUSCILLO and secondary butchery elements. The contents are more with the mid pig scapula. The bone remains are few in extensive than those associated with Pottery Group comparison with the shell remains. Almost 100 Gly - X16:1, which had actual evidence of food preparation. cymeris valves were found in this deposit, typical of the The LM IIIA:1 Shrine (X7) and the X8 dump do not LM IIIA:1 period. have comparable bone material. The faunal profile of Hardly any faunal material (sample wt. 2.1 g) was this sample is similar, however, to the extensive dump in found in association Pottery Group X3N:1, from the LM X10 (Pottery Group X10:1), in which elements from all IA Final surface and fill above the area west of the five mammalian species and similar shells are found. retaining wall that ran north–south from the midpoint of Thus, the material in X15 could have been brought down Space X3 (Table 4.76). According to Rutter, this group by wash from the slope to the north. In his notes, Rutter comes from a deep foundation trench for the north wall noticed a pattern of sherd size due to erosion: “The mate- of X3. Similarly, no faunal material was associated with rial may have been ‘redeposited’ in the form of wash Pottery Group X3N:2. A faunal sample weighing 295.3 from farther up the slope; the farther south one goes and g was associated with Pottery Group X3N:3, from the the higher up in the stratification, the smaller the sherd LM IB Final lower fill in this area (Table 4.77). material becomes.” Sheep/goat remains represent elements of primary and secondary butchery, with some good meat-bearing bones (mid radius, left femur, etc.). The elements from the pig and cattle, however, are mostly cranial. A meat-bearing Areas to the North of House X deer bone was identified, along with two dog ribs and a piece of a bird wing. There were almost no shell remains. The following groups are from dumps associated with A larger sample of faunal material (wt. 749.1 g) was House X. The faunal material from these groups is in recovered in conjunction with Pottery Group X3N:4, some cases extensive and may have been related to activ- from the LM II upper fill in the same area (Table 4.78). ities in the house, either cooking or dining. Unfortunately, A variety of animals are represented, including both we cannot distinguish primary from secondary deposits sheep and goat, along with cattle, pig, deer, two species with certainty. There are, however, contemporary fills in of crab, and a good-sized fish. Lower extremity ele- the house that match the dates and descriptions of the pot- ments were largely missing among the bovid bones, tery from this material, and we can thus assume that the indicating that this dump was produced mainly from faunal material is similarly associated. These dumps and food consumption debris. Most age groups were pres- their contents cannot tell us what the use of each room ent. Shell remains were mostly those of edible species was in relevant periods, but they can provide information (Patella, Monodonta), consistent with the interpreta- about the diet of the inhabitants. tion of the deposit as dining debris. The faunal sample associated with Pottery Group The faunal sample associated with Pottery Group X2N:1, the LM II fill above the surface north of Space X10N:1, from the LM II fill in the area east of the west X2, weighed 749.2 g (Table 4.74). The bones represent wall of Space X10, weighed 1,262.9 g (Table 4.79). It mainly the meat-bearing portions of at least three contained much of the same material as the previous sheep/goats. These included two immature or older indi- group. Again, lower extremities were missing from the viduals and one juvenile. The juvenile individual is like- bo vid sample (distal metapodials, phalanges, etc.), so ly a sheep, as there is a diagnostic left mandible of a there would have been much meat attached to the lamb of the same age in the sample. The cattle remains remains found here. There is also a considerable amount (Bos) are represented by only a few bones, all of which of cranial ma terial, suggesting that the brain, eyes, and are non-meat-bearing lower extremity elements. The pig tongue were eat en as well. Also present were hare, fish, vertebra would have had some meat attached. The shell limpets, and topshells. remains are few. Rutter mentions that the ceramic material is identical to that found in the very large LM II dumps in X10 and the area to the north of it. Thus, the faunal material could be related, though not identical, to that material. 4.4. Chronological Overview Faunal material associated with Pottery Group X2N:2, the LM IIIA:1 or LM IIIA:2 Early fill above the surface House X had many phases of construction and was north of Space X2, weighed 1,185.7 g (Table 4.75). used by generations of inhabitants, as discussed in detail Despite the weight of the sample, there would not have in Chapter 1. Some parts of the house were residential, been much meat on the bones recovered, except for the and other areas may have been open to the public. sheep/goat mid radius and perhaps the mid tibia, along Certain rooms were sealed off in later periods, raising the THE FAUNAL REMAINS 109 question of how the inhabitants managed with less space. X3 (X3:2), X5 (no pottery group number), X6 (X6:2), The analysis of the faunal remains from food prepara- X7 (X7:1), and X14a (X14a:1). tion, storage, and consumption can throw light on the Space X2 yielded the clearest evidence for LM IB inhabitants’ daily lives, particularly on the questions of occupation of the house, with four separate floors from where food was prepared and where it was consumed. LM IB Late. The material from Floors 1 and 2 appears As we have seen in the preceding spatial analysis, to have been the same as that found in the LM IA levels, much of the evidence for cooking and eating was inter- which contained evidence for dining. The similarity mingled with dump and fill from other sources, making between this fill and the material from earlier levels is the functional significance of the debris difficult to de - attested by the presence of the same species, including fine. In the chronological summary below, I attempt to partridge and wood pigeon. By Floor 3, there seems to distinguish debris left in situ from room use from debris have been a change in room use, as the bone remains in fill brought in from elsewhere. The stratigraphy and represent primary butchery of animals rather than the use of the various spaces have already been discussed in consumption of food on meat-bearing bones. There are Chapter 1. The following discussion offers additional also deer and fish remains (and a fishhook), suggestive insights into the lifeways of the residents of House X perhaps of food storage instead of consumption. Venison over time. may have been cured and stored as it was not a common staple in the Minoan diet, and the fish may have been salted. The three storage pithoi also attest to the use of the space as a pantry. In preliminary notes on the pottery, Late Minoan IA Rutter suggested that the ceramic material is similar to what one would expect from an earlier house shrine. The The earliest faunal remains date to the LM IA Ad - fauna, however, do not support this interpretation (there vanced and LM IA Final periods. They comes from were no bones recovered from the X7 Shrine floor spaces X1 (X1:1, X1:2), X2 (X2:1, X2:2), X3 (X3:1), deposit). By Floor 4, the surface level was raised, but this X5 (X5:1, X5:2), and X6 (X6:1). could have been brought about by the rebuilding of the Space X1, interpreted as a closet associated with X4, north wall of X2 or perhaps the falling in of ceiling contained remains of drinking and pouring vessels. There material. In either case, the faunal remains at this level is scanty evidence for food preparation, with bones most- are insignificant, in contrast with the earlier levels. X2 ly from primary butchery. The bones, weighing only no longer had any associations with food preparation, about 150 g, were likely part of the fill in the floor, or consumption, or storage. possibly they were intrusive from the dump found in later There are no significant bone or shell finds in Spaces levels. The small decorative shells may have had a con- X3 or X5 at this date. In X6, however, an interesting nection with the numerous shell beads found in X4. accumulation of bones related to food consumption was In Space X2, great masses of animal bones from this recovered, with the remains of many meat-bearing ele- early period were recovered, mainly from secondary ments and a variety of species represented. The ceramic butchery elements or meat-bearing bones. If food was finds, which included numerous drinking cups, jugs, consumed in House X at this time, X2 is a good candi- and jars, corroborate the hypothesis of dining activities. date for a dining room. Alternatively, the fill may have Space X7 had not yet been converted into a shrine in been part of a dump that was brought from elsewhere. LM IB, and it was likely used as a corridor at this time. The remains from Spaces X3 and X6 do not seem to This function may explain the scarcity of faunal remains. have been associated with food in this period, and this There is also a paucity of faunal material in Space X14a, is also the case with those from the light-well X5. though an accumulation of 110 limpets, which are un - characteristic of the period, was found there. Limpets in concentrations occur more commonly in the historic period. The LM IB material found in X14a may repre- Late Minoan IB sent a dump from the construction of the stairwell in X13 rather than a primary deposit. The material from X1 features a thorough mix of LM IA and LM IB material (1:3), or mixed LM IB and LM II (1:4). In either case, the bones and shells seem not to be directly associated with the LM IB period; the fill Late Minoan II from these two groups appears to match the faunal profile of those deposits from the LM IA period. Other Throughout the house, there are great masses of mate- spaces with LM IB material include X2 (X2:3–X2:7), rial dating to the LM II period. Around this time a major 110 DEBORAH RUSCILLO rebuilding took place in the southwestern part of the this time. The remains are few, but they display a range house, perhaps marking the conversion of House X from of bone elements from all parts of the body. a private dwelling to a public sanctuary. M.C. Shaw sees The LM II fill in X6 resembles that in X3. It might be this period as one in which the house began to decline, speculated that the bone material was contained in the no longer maintaining its “elite” status, given how many dump used as fill in these spaces. Finds from X6 include rooms went out of use. To the north of the house, there evidence for weaving (loomweights, a needle, a spindle were massive LM II dumps; the contents of the dump whorl, and a bone point), and M.C. Shaw has made a match the fill used for raising some floors, suggesting good case for weaving activities in the room above X6 that the dump was the source of the fill. Because the fill prior to LM II. Faunal remains were few, although there is found on several floors in the house, it is difficult to were some good meat-bearing bones along with cooking discern what represents debris from actual room use and pots, mortars, a blade, a fishhook, and a stamnostatis. what material was brought in from other areas. LM II lev- There could have been some kitchen facilities here. There els occur in X1 (X1:5–1:8), X3 (X3:3, 3:4), X5 (X5:3), is a corresponding LM II level in the adjacent Space X16, X6 (X6:4), X7 (X7:2), X8 (X8:1), X9 (X9:1, X9:2), X10 but the bone remains are even fewer in that area. (X10:1), X13 (X13:1), X14a (X14a:1), X14b (X14b:1), and X16 (no group number). With the exception of X2 and X4 and other minor spaces where such levels may have been eradicated, most rooms in the house exhibit Late Minoan IIIA:1 LM II activity. In X1, doorways to X4 were blocked. Though faunal In the LM IIIA:1 period, the quantity of shell remains remains from the blockages were minimal, the stratum in House X reached its peak. In contrast to the scarcity of in which the fresco fragments were found (X1:7) con- bone at this time, over 2,700 waterworn Glycymeris shells tained a significant amount of bones, as did earlier lev- were brought to the building, possibly for use as sub - els LM IA levels. M.C. Shaw believes that X1 was now flooring in and around the light-well X5. The House accessed from the outside, and the faunal remains asso- Shrine, X7, was clearly established to function as a pri- ciated with Pottery Group X1:8 thus continued to show vate and sacred room, while other rooms were used the same pattern of primary butchered material. The briefly, only to have their doorways blocked by the end of drinking vessels, a metal knife blade, a possible oven, this period. Evidence for LM IIIA:1 use comes from sev- and potstands observed in these deposits suggest this eral rooms, namely X1 (X1:9, X1:10), X3 (X3:5, X3:6), was a kitchen area. There are several ornamental shells X6 (X6:5), X7 (X7:3), X8 (X8:3), X14a (X14a:Misc), from X1 that show evidence of having been used in jew- X15 (X15:1, X15:2), and X16 (X16:1). Other rooms had elry or attached to clothing. These may have been from a great mix of material, possibly due to the raising of an earlier period when X1 acted as a closet for X4; floors or because of disturbance from reuse of space many similar shell beads were recovered from Space X4 during the Archaic Greek period. Activity in these rooms during the LM IA period. seems to have continued through LM IIIA:2–IIIB The Shrine in X7 seems to have taken form already in however. LM II. At this time there was very little bone material In X1, fill was deposited over the LM II floor, and a set present, but there were shells of both edible and orna- of slabs were laid over the east end of the room. The con- mental types. The more decorative species of shells could tents of the fill seem consistent with the finds associated have been among the shrine paraphernalia along with a with the LM II Groups X1:7 and X1:8; these deposits few special items of pottery. The LM II fill in X13/X14 derived, at least partially, from the same kitchen dump. seems to match in profile that in X7, with a small num- The faunal remains were predominantly from primary ber of bones and the same marine species represented in rather than secondary butchery, and the ceramics remains both places. For example, tun shell fragments are found included cooking vessels, storage jars, and drinking ves- in both X7 and X14b. The shell necklace found in situ in sels. The difference between the LM II and LM IIIA:1 X14a is also from this level. The southwestern corner of samples is the larger number of shells found in the later House X, therefore, appears to have been a special part material. Over 600 shells alone and almost 2 kg of faunal of the building in this period, with a few but interesting material overall were found in these levels. Almost half of shell remains and an absence of evidence for food-relat- the shells were limpets, which I believe were intrusive ed activities. from the later Archaic levels, and yielded over 1,000 There is little evidence for faunal remains in LM II limpets. A significant quantity of Glycymeris valves also either in the area of light-well X5 or in X8. The LM II appeared in the LM IIIA:1 fills. There are 145 at this level floor in X3 produced several bones from common in X1. It is difficult to know if they were related to the domesticates, which may attest to some dining in X3 at function of this room or if they were brought in with the THE FAUNAL REMAINS 111 rest of the LM II–IIIA:1 fill material. The number of Late Minoan IIIA:2–IIIB ornamental shells increased, as in previous groups, along with evidence of their use for personal adornment. The last Minoan habitation of House X dates to the The original north and south entrances of the X7 LM IIIA:2–IIIB period. There was considerable activity Shrine were blocked off during this period, making the in many rooms before the final abandonment of the space private and probably very dark. No bone material building. Evidence of use comes from most spaces, in - was found here, but there was, however, an interesting cluding X2 (X2:8–X2:10), X3 (X3:6), X4 (X4:1W, col lection of shells. The limpets are likely to have been X4:1E, X4:2), X5 (X5:4–X5:6), X6 (X6:6), X7 (X7:4, intrusive from a later period, but the ornamental shells X7:5), X8 (X8:4), X9 (X9:3, X9:4), X10 (X10:2, X10:3), may have been found in situ, as in X1. The smaller X14B (no pottery group number), and X16 (X16:2). shells may have had a ritual function, or they may have Space X1 seems to have been disused by the LM been col lected unintentionally with the beach pebbles IIIA:2 period. The doorways leading to X1 from the ad - that were brought in to make a plaster pebble surface jacent Space X4 were blocked by LM II, rendering X1 either for X7 or the upper story, which eventually col- inaccessible, and there does not appear to have been any lapsed (for discussions of this surface, see M.C. Shaw, outside use of the space for dumping in LM IIIA:2. In Ch. 1, and also Rutter, forthcoming). There were no sig- X4, however, there was an abundance of activity. Indeed, nificant LM IIIA:1 faunal remains from the adjacent the LM IIIA:2 floors were the only ones extant here. X14a or from X14b. Any traces of LM IIIA:1 use in X4 Space X4 is fairly sizable compared to some of the other were apparently removed during LM IIIA:2. rooms in House X. Division of the space into east and The floor and fill in Space X8 contained few LM west parts for excavation led to the discovery of interest- IIIA1 remains, although the number of Glycymeris in - ing faunal differences between the two halves. In the west creased. The Glycymeris numbers are more significant half of the room, more bone remains were recovered, in LM IIIA:2, indicating that earlier fill may have been while in the east half more shells were found. The Triton mixed with later ceramic material. shell remains from the west side of the room could repre- The fill at the LM IIIA:1 level in X3 contained little sent ritual material from the clearing of the X7 Shrine; the faunal material and nothing that might have been related doorway to the Shrine was located more toward the west to activities concerned with food. The number of loom - side of the room after the eastern entrance was blocked. weights is notable, especially in connection with those On the east side of the room, there were 127 Glycymeris found in the adjacent X6 in earlier and contemporary valves in the pails assigned to a pottery group by Rutter groups. Spaces X3 and X6 seem to have had an associa- and many more in pails not included (400+). These tion with textile manufacture, although M.C. Shaw ar - valves, as speculated above, may have had an association gues that the finds fell from a second story. A great dump with the other 230+ valves from the same period found in of material from outside this space was laid down in the the light-well X5. The presence of a doorway leading to LM II and/or LM IIIA:1 period. Bones deriving mainly the light-well at the east end of the room may explain the from primary butchery were found here, though some Glycymeris concentrations there. In fact, out of the meat-bearing bones were recovered as well. Ornamental 2,700+ waterworn Glycymeris valves found in and shells were also found, along with 160 Glycymeris. around House X, over 1,600 come from LM IIIA:1–2 These valves may have been laid purposefully with the concentrations in the center of the house (Spaces X4, X2, fill to aid with drainage on the floor. The door between X5, X8, X6), all of which have a doorway to X5, where X5 and X6 was blocked later in LM IIIA:1, presumably the greatest concentration seems to have been located. after the dumped material and the Glycymeris had been (See further discussion of Glycymeris below.) laid in place. Meanwhile, in X7, Glycymeris were found only in rit- The fill in X16/X15 contained limited bone material, ual contexts. Fourteen valves were found on the stone along with ceramic material associated with food prepa- table in the Shrine, along with juglets and conical cups. ration. These spaces have been interpreted as a corridor A complete Triton shell was recovered from the floor. or a stairwell affected by second story collapse. They The complete absence of animal bones from the earthen would not have been suited for kitchen facilities, so the floor is notable; the shrine appears to have been cleaned food remains recovered are assumed to come from out regularly, and the shells may have been used in the rit- dumped material brought in from elsewhere. The sec- ual acts performed in this room, perhaps as votives. The ond phase of the staircase in X15, however, is of a dif- occurrence of seashells in ritual contexts suggests a rev- ferent nature. The deposits match the earlier fill in X10 erence for the sea and its power. Living next to the shore, and could have washed down into this area from X10, as the inhabitants of House X would have felt vulnerable to is evident in the associated ceramic material. storms and rising waters. There is evidence that House X 112 DEBORAH RUSCILLO was flooded sometime in LM IIIA:1, so perhaps the ris- and an associated deposit dating to LM IIIA:2–IIIB. ing sea levels or storm/tsunami activity compelled the Unfortunately, no specific information is available for residents to appease nature in their rituals. It was around these faunal remains, which were studied in an earlier this time that many waterworn Glycymeris became avail- period of excavation. In X16, there was a small deposit able or were collected here at Kommos. It might be con- with only two bones and one shell on a LM IIIA:2 floor. jectured that rituals relating to the sea and the appearance There were no other LM IIIA:2 levels preserved on this of 2,762 Glycymeris in the house were somehow con- side of the house. nected. In any case, there is evidence that these valves were used for practical as well as ritual purposes. Space X2 had several layers of purely Minoan strata dating to the LM IIIA:2–IIIB period. While the evidence from earlier periods might point to dining in X2, this 4.5. Glycymeris at Kommos and activity was no longer attested in the LM IIIA:2–IIIB beyond during the Bronze Age levels. The LM IIIA:2 floor deposit in light-well X5 contained over 100 fragments of animal bones, some Some 7,211 waterworn Glycymeris valves were recov- ornamental and edible mollusk remains, and over 230 ered from all areas of Kommos. More than one-third of Glycymeris. The ceramics included numerous dishes, this quantity, or 2,762 valves of Glycymeris glycymeris jars, and drinking vessels. If, in fact, X2 was a cook- and Glycymeris violacescens, was recovered from House ing/dining area that went out of use in LM IIIA:2, per- X alone, particularly in LM IIIA:1–2 deposits. The worn haps these activities were moved to X5. Space X5 is condition of the shells made it difficult to distinguish believed to have been an open-air space, and cooking between the two species at times, and there may even might reasonably have been performed in a well-venti- have been examples of the species Glycymeris pilosa. lated area. I believe that the Glycymeris were laid here These species of Glycymeris have similar coloring, which in LM IIIA:1 before cooking activities began here, since may not be preserved after surf abrasion. There appears to these valves would have served as subflooring for drain- have been a predominance of Glycymeris glycymeris, ing the light-well during rainy periods. The LM IIIA:2 however, based on the thickness of the individuals; G. horizon in Space X8 may have been associated with the violacescens is thinner and smaller on average than G. one in X5, as the faunal material from the two spaces is glycymeris. G. pilosa is thicker and larger than the other similar, Glycymeris and all. Many drinking vessels were species by far; the majority of valves found on the site are recovered from X8 as well. unlikely to have belonged to this species. After spending The LM IIIA:2 material in Space X3 clearly came twelve seasons at Kommos, I observed that none of the from a dump. Rutter believes that it was brought into X3 species are prominent in the area now, although after as fill for the foundation for an Archaic floor. The faunal some rough weather, I collected two small specimens of contents of this fill match the contents of the dump locat- G. violacescens on the beach. ed in the area directly north of X2 (Group X2N:2). It is The Glycymeris from House X could not have been plausible that this dump was the source of the fill found collected for food because their waterworn state testi- also in X2, especially because this space was closest to fies that they were collected dead. These valves have the source. Because of the Glycymeris content in X2N:2 presented an enigma for interpretation. Unfortunately, (99 valves), I would be inclined to believe instead that most of the deposits in which many (sometimes hun- the LM IIIA:1 and LM IIIA:2 levels of the dump were dreds) of valves were found came from fill used in the created from the cleaning of rooms inside House X. house during various construction phases and from The floor and fill of Space X6 indicates that this room dumps made after cleaning out rooms during renova- went out of use in late LM IIIA:1/LM IIIA:2 Early. There tions. None of the shells seem to have been left in situ is no convincing material in X6 to show that activities for the purposes for which they were originally brought con cerned with food or textiles continued here or on the to the site, with the exception of the twelve Glycymeris second story. Similarly, there does not appear to have found on the stone table in the X7 Shrine. The thou- been much activity in X9 in LM IIIA:2; the rubble from sands of specimens discarded in dumps and fills may fal len walls intermingled with soil and the fill are similar have had an industrial purpose, however. Elsewhere, I to the fill found in adjacent X8. have discussed at length ideas of how and why these The east side of House X was damaged by the con- valves were brought to the site in LM IIIA:2 (Ruscillo struction of Archaic Building V and inundated by the 2006, 803–805). Here I will review only those ideas southward wash from the slope of the hill. The LM that could be relevant to the Glycymeris from House X. IIIA:2 deposits, especially on this side of the house, were The natural history of these species in the Med i ter - washed away or contaminated. In X10, there was a floor ranean needs to be considered first. Glycymeris THE FAUNAL REMAINS 113 violacescens (also known as G. insubrica or G. cor) is In view of the natural history of the Glycymeris almost extinct in the eastern Mediterranean. Recent re - species and their eventual decline, it is evident that the search by Savin et al. (2006) provides new radiometric LM IIIA:1–2 date for most of the worn shell finds is not ages for empty Glycymeris shells found by the thousands the date of death of these specimens, but rather the date on Israeli beaches south of Haifa. There, the presence of that they were brought to the site. The occurrence of this these waterworn valves is also enigmatic because few or species at the end of the LM period at Kommos must no live specimens of this species can be found in the reflect the availability of these shells at the time. Pre - region today. It is possible that the species never lived in viously I suggested that wave action could have dredged this area but that the empty shells were transported by up the valves (Ruscillo 2006, 805). Since there are no currents and waves. Researchers concede that their sam- examples readily found on Kommos beach today, it is pling techniques may have been inadequate to find live possible that there was a specific climatic or tectonic specimens where they currently dwell. They conclude, event in LM IIIA:1 causing waves that churned up these however, that climatic and ecological conditions prevail- shells and deposited them close to the site. The appearing 5,500 years ago would have allowed the species to ance of Glycymeris in Neolithic Phaistos, Early Bronze flourish initially. Increased rainfall in the region in the Age Myrtos, and MM III and/or LM IA Knossos sug- transitional period between the Early to Late Holocene gests, however, that they were also available on other affected the fluvial water and sediment discharge from beaches of Crete at different times. the Nile. This discharge altered the eastern Mediterranean As mentioned above, the 2,762 Glycymeris from ecosystem in terms of temperature, salinity, and the fora - House X are found mostly in fill and in dumps. It is miniferal assemblage, creating an ideal habitat for the highly unlikely that an effort would be made to collect opportunistic G. violacescens (Savin et al. 2006, 146). these shells only to discard them. The reason or reasons Further increases in temperature and salinity, however, for their collection remain to be determined. eventually created a hostile environment for this species, One plausible explanation may be elicited from their so that by ca. 1,500 years ago Glycymeris could no longer contextual associations at Levantine and Near Eastern thrive, while other species flourished and perhaps com- sites. At Early Bronze Age (EBA) I Lod, 710 worn peted successfully against Glycymeris. Glycymeris valves were found in a pile in one room, and Radiometric analysis of samples from natural beach there are similar finds from this period at sites in and archaeological contexts in Israel has produced dates Mesopotamia (Ellis 1968, 131–133). These occurrences as old as 5,900 B.P. Another study showed that some have been interpreted as ritual foundation deposits, which archaeological specimens were 1,000–3,000 years old sometimes included other finds such as beads and fig- when collected (Bar-Yosef Mayer 2005, 48). This would urines. Significantly, perhaps, the only Glycymeris found ex plain the differential wearing of the shells. Some valves in situ in House X were those found on a stone table in found in Israel as well as on Crete are so worn that only the LM IIIA:2 Shrine in Space X7. It is possible that the rounded “tokens” or “checkers” remain, while others Glycymeris were votives from the sea placed ritually in look almost fresh. In Israel, the dead Glycymeris may be foundation deposits below LM IIIA:1–2 floors in House sourced to the thousands of shells littering the modern X for protection of the house and its inhabitants. With sea coastline, some in deposits a meter deep. Local Bronze levels rising in the same period, the inhabitants of House Age sites such as Ashkelon, Tel Lachish, Tel Baruch, and X, living in close proximity to the sea, may have felt Megiddo utilized these deposits to harvest shells for obliged to venerate and placate its force. Worn floors or foundation deposits (Bar-Yosef Mayer 2005). Glycymeris valves were also found in the Temple Neither G. glycymeris nor G. violacescens is found Repositories at Knossos (Evans 1964, I, fig. 277; alive or dead along the south coast of Crete, however. In Panagiotaki 1999, 128–131). Evans writes: 12 years working on Crete, I have only found two The shells from the Repository, bushels of which were Glycymeris violacescens specimens on the beach. Never - taken out, were ordinary seashells of the neighbouring theless, there must have been a local source of the water- coast, many varieties being included, though cockles worn shells in the Minoan period because they have been were the most abundant. But they had been streaked and found at many archaeological sites, including Knossos, banded with brilliant artificial stripes—crimson, Phaistos, Myrtos, Tylissos, Malia, Pyrgos, and Symi (for Venetian-red, orange, brown, green and black—tasteful- complete comparanda, see Reese, Rose, and Payne 1995, ly applied in unison with the natural lines and hues. . . . 256). The worn Glycymeris valves from these sites, how- This custom of strewing the floors and altar ledges of their little shrines with seashells and pebbles clearly ever, are not contemporary with the occurrence of marks the religion of a people long accustomed to look Glycymeris at Kommos. In fact, no other site on Crete has towards the sea as a principal source of livelihood produced a Glycymeris assemblage that is even close in (Evans 1964, I, 517). size to the one from Kommos. 114 DEBORAH RUSCILLO

In a Neolithic deposit at Phaistos, a primitive clay female Glycymeris shells are found in LM IIIA:1 and LM IIIA:2 idol was found in association with miniature cups of clay contexts in House X, whereas elsewhere in the Southern and numerous Glycymeris shells. Thus, the practice of Area these shells commonly date to LM IIIA:2–IIIB. using seashells as ritual objects may have existed Thus, the first major use of the worn shells occurred in throughout Minoan Crete. House X; they were then used or dumped elsewhere in Even so, the presence of Glycymeris in other contexts the civic area of the site. Perhaps dumps from House X in House X may be explained in practical as well as ritu- were used as fill in later buildings, such as Building P. al terms. Apart from the votive Glycymeris from X7, The architectural and stratigraphical evidence for phases 2,750 valves were found in other rooms and dumps of the of construction and use in House X shows that if a sub- house. These may have been ritual foundation deposits floor of Glycymeris was laid, it would have been done in for the LM IIIA:1 floors of the LM occupation of the LM IIIA:1 in one episode, as the earliest occurrence of house, but, by analogy with a number of sites in Syria and Glycymeris deposits occurs in LM IIIA:1. Israel, they may alternatively have been used for Major concentrations of Glycymeris valves occur in drainage. Over 5,000 worn shells were hauled to the site and around X5, the light-well. The construction of a of Lachish from the shore 30 km away in the twelfth cen- subfloor here would have made good sense if the light- tury B.C. The carbon dates for these shells fall around well was open to rainfall. Although no clean stratum of 4,500 B.P., so the shells had been dead for over 1,200 Glycymeris that was clearly identifiable as a subfloor years before they were collected. Ronen (1980) believed was found, the valves may either have been thoroughly that these shells were laid purposely to form a floor foun- and deeply mixed with soil and fill on purpose or the dation that facilitated water drainage in some rooms. He floors under which these shells were laid might all have demonstrated this at other sites, many dating to the been disturbed during later construction and/or occupa- Bronze Age and one to the Byzantine period. Shell floors tion of the rooms. The former explanation seems more have also been found at Ashkelon, Megiddo, and Tell el- likely according to the available evidence. Ajjul in Israel and at Tell Kazel in northern Syria (Bar- The pottery groups associated with concentrations of Yosef Mayer 2005, 48). At Lachish, many shells were worn valves are X2:9, X4:1E, X5:5, X6:5, and X8:4. All found embedded in a plaster floor, and at Tel Batash these groups are more or less contemporary, dating to the (where almost 6,000 Glycymeris valves were found), a LM IIIA:1–2 period. The concentrations were located in few sea shells were found with lime plaster stuck to them rooms with doorways to X5 (X5:5), as shown in Figure (Bar-Yosef Mayer 2005, 48). Although no evidence of 4.5. Within the circle in the center of the plan, approxi- plastered, shell-lined floors was found in House X, a plas- mately 1,600 Glycymeris shells were excavated, 645 ter sample (P 147) from the southern cliffside of the from Trench 66A alone. A further 545 came from the Hilltop excavations at Kommos contained three water- LM IIIA:1 dump close to the circle to the north of X2, worn pieces of Glycymeris. Reese believed that these bringing the total to 2,145 valves. The remaining 617 of Glycymeris were brought to the site with other beach the 2,762 Glycymeris from House X overall were scat- materials to be mixed with lime to make an underpave- tered throughout different rooms and were predominant- ment (chalikasvestos) for some LM courtyard surfaces ly found in fills, mainly from LM IIIA:1–2 and pails (Reese, Rose, and Payne 1995, 254). Indeed, it appears with material of mixed date. that in the Southern Area, Murex refuse from dye extrac- This pattern of distribution for Glycymeris suggests tion was secondarily used for such a purpose in the cen- that a shallow subfloor, possibly a foundation deposit, tral court of Building T. Instead of being mixed in with was laid in X5. Thereafter, decades of traffic in and out beach material, the Murex debris was apparently melted of the light-well spread the valves into each of the adja- in a kiln to produce lime to embed in the pebble surface cent rooms. This would account for the discovery of the of some areas of the courtyard (Ruscillo 2006, 808). It is valves by the doorways and their presence mainly on the possible that Glycymeris valves, clearly abundant in the east side of X4. Alternatively, a subfloor could have been LM IIIA:1–2 period at Kommos, were used to make lime laid continuously through these rooms, perhaps because for flooring. they were also vulnerable to flooding and needed better Although no such floors or subfloors were found in drainage next to the light-well. House X, hundreds of Glycymeris valves were dug up Whether for ritual or practical purposes, worn from within the house. I propose that these valves were Glycymeris valves were brought to House X intention- originally laid as subfloors and were eventually disturbed ally. While the ritual of placing seashells within shrines during subsequent construction and occupation of the and sanctuaries is well known from other sites on house. Subtle evidence for this argument may be found Minoan Crete, the use of Glycymeris in construction as in the distributional pattern of Glycymeris concentrations well as in foundation deposits seems to be a well-docu- within and around the building. The majority of worn mented Near Eastern practice (Ronen 1980; Bar-Yosef THE FAUNAL REMAINS 115

Mayer 2005). At Kommos, trade connections with the rounded, lightweight implement with no clear indication of Near East are attested by ceramic imports, which were orig inal length. Manufactured from a piece of cortex of mam- especially numerous in the LM IIIA:1–2 period. Eastern malian longbone. MM–LM I. Blitzer 1995, 498, pls. 8.75, imports increased in frequency during the final phases 8.102. of occupation of House X (Rutter, forthcoming). It is Bo 8 (Bo 8; 11A/39, X10). Boar’s tusk (worked canine tooth possible that the idea of using Glycymeris as construc- of male wild pig), incomplete. L. 5.6, w. 1.9, th. 0.4. Worked tion materials also came about through contacts with section with signs of grinding on margins, some polish overall, regions to the east. More intriguing still is the possibili- especially on the dorsal exterior surface and one margin. LM ty that people from those regions came to Kommos and IIIA:2(?). Blitzer 1995, 498, pl. 8.75. settled there in the LM IIIA:1 period, bringing with Bo 54 (Bo 30; 66A/37, X10). Point. L. 3.2, w. 1.0, th. 0.6. them ideas and technologies from their homelands. Thick, triangular cross-section, fragment, tip preserved. Abra - Perhaps the LM IIIA:1 renovations of House X were sion marks on preserved surfaces. LM I–IIIA:1. Blitzer 1995, 500. performed by new tenants from the Levant. Bo 56 (Bo 56; 74A/52B, House X; Pl. 4.1A). Bone tool. L. 9.2, w. 2.7, th. 0.5. One piece of worked bone, decomposed and encrusted in places. Flat bar of mammalian longbone, marks of abrasion from manufacture visible on lateral side. Other surfaces except for concave area highly polished, perhaps by use. 4.6. Catalog of Bone and Golden to rust brown in color. Ventral side and least-used edge Shell Objects substantially eroded. Ends slightly tapered, one smooth, the other exposing the porous trebecular bone. Slight greenish stain Fifteen worked pieces of bone and shell were found midway down dorsal side, perhaps from contact with bronze. in House X. Some of these pieces were found in situ, MM III. while others were found in dumps. Worked pieces Bo 57 (Bo 57; 74B/76, X2; Pl. 4.1A). Bone point with frag- found in House X from the years 1976 through 1985 ments. L. 5.7. One point composed of five fragments (modern were published by Blitzer (1995, 497–500), but I repeat breaks), plus three fragments of another implement. Point from them here to integrate all the worked bone and shell a longer implement made of a fairly flat piece of bone, likely a material into one catalog for House X. Three shell sheep or goat rib. Top and sides highly polished; no marks of ornaments are published by J.W. Shaw in this volume coarser abrasion. Long triangular tip beveled into sharper angle. LM IB floor deposit. (Ch. 3.6), and I refer to his chapter where appropriate. Bo 59 (Bo 59; 87A/38, X10 north; Pl. 4.1A). Bone awl. L. 6.6. One piece of a whittled long triangular point of an awl or sharp pointed tool. Manufactured from a sliver of Sus mid tibia Bone Objects bone. MM III/LM I–II.

Bo 4 (Bo 4; 11A/27, X11/X12). Spatula-shaped utensil. L. 4.0, w. 0.75, th. 0.4. Flat, thin fragment; chipped at end, recent break opposite. Highly polished on both surfaces; spatulate end Shell Objects shows abrasion on both faces. Manufactured from a mamma - lian rib. LM IB–II. Blitzer 1995, 497–498, pls. 8.75, 8.103. Sh 10 (73A/51B, X7; Pl. 4.1B). Glycymeris shell assem- Bo 5 (Bo 5; 11A/27, X11/X12). Utensil end. L. 3.2, w. 1.3, blage (n=12). Largest shell w. 6.1. Twelve waterworn Gly - th. 0.4. Flat, thin fragment. Preserved worked end is squared off cymeris valves and one black pebble. All complete except for and abraded but not polished, wear visible (dull abrasion) on naturally abraded perforations on the umbones of four speci- several surfaces, possibly the non-use end of an implement(?). mens. Three irregularly worn at edge, one burned over slightly Manufactured from the distal end of a mammalian rib. LM less than half. Assemblage of shells and pebble found arranged IB–II. Blitzer 1995, 498, pls. 8.75, 8.103. on table in the Shrine, associated with ceramic vessels C 9001, C 9002, and C 9003. LM IIIA:2. Bo 6 (Bo 6; 11A/31, X10). Point, utensil tip. L. 2.1, w. 1.0, Sh 11 (Sh 11; 73A/61, X7; Pl. 4.1C). Triton shell. L. 17.5. th. 0.4. Flat, medium thickness, fragment. Manufactured by One waterworn Triton shell (Charonia tritonis sequenzae). means of abrasion. Fairly thick and sturdy with medium polish Intact. Apex has been broken off, not deliberately, not used as on both faces, point fairly sharp. Made from a piece of cortex a trumpet. Light mineral encrustation. Found with S 2149, C of a mammalian longbone. LM I or LM IIIA:2–IIIB. Blitzer 9306, C 9307, and C 9308 in Shrine. LM IIIA:2. 1995, 498, pls. 8.75, 8.102. Sh 12 (J 7, Sh 12; 80A/34, X14; Pl. 3.10). Two shell neck- Bo 7 (Bo 7; 11A/33, X11/X12). Pointed utensil tip. L. 2.6, laces made with various marine mollusks. LM II. Ch. 3.6. w. 1.2, th. 0.3. Flat, thin fragment, pitted. Very thin sliver of bone polished to medium luster on both surfaces, margins 116 DEBORAH RUSCILLO

Sh 13 (J 4, Sh 13, S 2207; 86B/9, X1; Pl. 3.10). Shell bead may have been strung and worn. There is a possible asso- made from Monodonta turbinata shell. LM IA floor deposit. ciation of loomweights and other sewing/weaving tools Ch. 3.6. with ornamental shells in the same deposit in X6, which Sh 17 (J 8, Sh 17; 73B/107, X11; Pl. 3.10). Shell pendant makes one wonder whether shells were affixed to cloth- made with worn Spondylus gaederopus valve. LM IB. Ch. ing for adornment. 3.6. Notable also are the overwhelming numbers of Sh 19 (Sh 19; 73A; Pl. 4.1D). Glycymeris valve with possi- Glycymeris shells found in House X, particularly in LM ble symbol. L. 4.0, w. 4.0. Waterworn Glycymeris violacescens IIIA:1–2 deposits. Their use may have had ritual or prag- (= insubrica) painted with what could be a partial symbol or matic uses or both. When examining the thousands of ideogram. Valve blackened from recent burning, but may have marine shells collected and brought to the house, one can- been painted in the past. LM IIIA? See Knossos Glycymeris not lose sight of the significance of the sea to the inhabi- shells (Evans 1964, I, pl. 4.49, fig. 377). The partial symbol tants of House X, whether it was revered as a power to be resembles that for “olives” shown by Ventris and Chadwick placated or as a source of life-giving food. Our interpre- (1973, 50, ideogram no. 122). It also bears a resemblance to tations will always remain speculative; the mysteries of Linear A ideogram from Hagia Triada (Ventris and Chadwick 1973, 34, no. 49) and a hieroglyphic tablet symbol from the house by the sea and its Shrine have been hidden well. Phaistos (Ventris and Chadwick 1973, 30, fig. 5). These, along with the Glycymeris marking, seem to be variations of the same symbol. Alternatively, however, the marking may be incidental, accidental, or even an ancient “doodle.” Chapter 4 Endnotes

1. Occasional references are made in this chapter to notes from Jeremy B. Rutter’s preliminary ceramic reports on the ex cavation campaigns (references to “Rutter”). Rutter may not 4.7. Conclusion include particular statements in his own volume (Rutter, forthcoming), however, and he may modify or change his opinions From the faunal remains we can reconstruct a partial in his final publication. picture of what life must have been like for inhabitants of 2. Many of the same shell species were identified in the fau- House X. Through its many phases of construction and nal sample from the buildings in the Southern Area (36 species occupation spanning some five centuries, there was not a of marine shells). The Greek Sanctuary at Kommos produced great change in choices of foods. The inhabitants relied 54 species of marine mollusks, though the sample recovered on locally available domesticates as well as birds and from its excavations produced approximately 94,430 speci- game for meat, and they took advantage of nearby marine mens (Reese, Rose, and Ruscillo 2000, 571), more than seven resources. Fish must have been an important source of times the material from House X. protein, although fish bones are rare in the sample owing 3. There is no comprehensive guide to identifying elasmobranchs from dermal denticles in the current literature. to poor preservation. Fishhooks are represented in all 4. See Reese 1983 on Conus used as gaming pieces and periods of occupation, showing a taste for or even ornaments. reliance on fish for food from the LM IA through the LM 5. See necklace Sh 12 in Ch. 3.6; 91 waterworn Arcularia IIIA:2–IIIB periods of the house. Remains of cuttlefish, were found in situ in two necklaces. shellfish, urchin, and crab testify to the variety of ani- 6. Experiments in trapping Murex conducted by the author mals procured from the sea. It is remarkable, however, (reported in Ruscillo 2006) showed that Euthria individuals that more edible mollusks were not found. may have been collected unknowingly with the Murex that Shells suitable for personal adornment occurred in were preying on them. The presence of Euthria with Murex every level of occupation. Pierced or worked shells were suggests that some Murex were collected by hand, as Euthria found in most rooms; even worn shells with natural holes did not enter the baited traps. 5

Summary and General Perspective

Maria C. Shaw

5.1. Setting 2006a, 1–14). House X seems to have been built in LM IA, but because of its longevity (its use continued In this chapter I review the topography of House X, its through LM IIIA:1–2 and persisted, in a more limited architectural plan and the changes it underwent over time, fashion, in LM IIIB), at various stages it was contempo- and the activities that may be inferred from the finds in rary with both of the monumental buildings that stood order to evaluate the role, status, and use of the building directly south of it, namely, palatial Building T and the both in local terms and with respect to its larger geo- subsequent monumental Building P. As an architectural graphical context. The chronological framework of the designation, the term “mansion,” used in this book’s sub- house has been delineated through the study of is stratig- title, is appropriate for House X because of its relatively raphy and the dating of the pottery, the latter having been large size. For the same reason, the collective term undertaken primarily by J.B. Rutter (see Rutter, forth- “household” for its residents may be more appropriate coming; also Betancourt 1990; Watrous 1992). Rutter’s than “family.” study, which forms Part 2 of this volume, will be con- House X was not the first structure to be built at the cerned primarily with the development of local ceramics southern edge of the town. It was preceded by another and with the trade and foreign connections in which buil ding that seems to have gone out of use by MM III, House X took part. judging from the pottery found in rooms exposed both We may begin by considering where this building fits under the floors and in soundings directly north of House in terms of local urban development and in what ways it X (Figs. 1.11, 1.37, 1.38; Pls. 1.5C, 1.16D). Other Neo - may or may not be exceptional. Final Neolithic to MM IA pa latial houses at Kommos were also partially built over pottery has been found at Kommos, indicating occupa- the ruins of earlier buildings (McEnroe 1996; Nixon tion in these periods, but the settlement became more 1996; M.C. Shaw 1996a; Wright 1996). The destruction consolidated in MM IB, as shown by the association of of those buildings is believed to have resulted from a sherds of that date with walls, detailed in the examination widespread catastrophe, perhaps an earthquake (J.W. of the general development of the town (J.W. Shaw Shaw 2006a, 17), that necessitated rebuilding rather than 118 MARIA C. SHAW mere ly repairing. Wright, in a recent article, correctly This situation contrasts with the relative “permeability” stresses that the new buildings, with wide spaces around of the earlier Minoan palaces, to use Ilse Schoep’s expres- them and more organized plans, represent a beginning, a sion (2004, 254). Such permeability may have continued new phase in “the formation of the state,” one during through MM IIIB elsewhere on Crete, taking into account which earlier roads were integrated into the rebuilt town Colin Macdonald’s perception that the Palace at Knossos (Wright 2007, 265–267). was much more accessible in that period than in LM IA The perimeters of House X were defined by two main (2002, 52). We do not know the plan of the Protopalatial roads that intersected at its southeast corner (Fig. 5.1). Building AA at Kommos, which was replaced by Buil - Road 17 led west to the sea, running alongside the north ding T and of which very little remains. At other palatial facade of Building T, and Road 32/34 ran north–south, sites restriction of access seems to have been adopted by likely skirting other houses located north of House X. LM IA. Indeed, the remark has been made that in “non- This north–south road would have separated any such typical” palatial sites like Kommos, special attention was houses from whatever existed to their east—whether paid to the distinction between palace and town (Day and more houses that were part of the same settlement or the Relaki 2002, 218, 221). beginning of the hinterland, i.e., the fields—in which case Despite the relative inaccessibility of Building T, a de - the Kommos settlement would have consisted essentially gree of controlled access would still have been necessary, of a strip of occupation along the sea. Of great interest is if only so that the building could receive commodities that Road 32/34 also continued farther south, its surface and services from the town. The western entrance (T 5) of paved with slabs where it crossed Road 17. It then came Building T may have had a more formal or administrative to a stop, still slab-paved, at one of the few entrances lead- function and probably would not have been used for such ing into Building T, the one located at its northeast corner purposes. In this respect, the location of House X would (Fig. 1.2). The lack of walls abutting House X, aside from have been strategic, since Road 32/34, running along its what look like rough retaining walls built at a higher level east facade, led directly to the doorway at the northeast against its north facade, suggests that the house was free- corner of Building T. The plan in Figure 5.1 shows the standing. It is a characteristic of the Neopalatial settle- main network of roads uncovered that served the town ment at Kommos that most other contemporary houses, area.1 The two major north–south roads known to us line both on the Hilltop and Hillside, were set with open up, more or less, with the main entrances to the preserved spaces around them, whether proper roads, alleys, or part of Building T’s north wing. The westernmost of the plateies—apparently unlike the situation in the preceding two, which we named the Rampa dal Mare, ran alongside MM settlement (M.C. Shaw 1996e, 360–365). the western edge of the site next to one of the most inter- House X was built at the lowest part of the hill, a good esting LM houses, the House with the Snake Tube. 1.20 m higher than the surface of the slab-paved Road 17. People coming from houses that may have existed at the The road was created by cutting into the lower part of the south edge of the town next to that road could have had hill slope, probably during the Protopalatial period, in access, upon crossing Road 17, to Buil ding T through the connection with the construction of Building AA (J.W. nearby monumental entrance in T 5. If so, it is possible Shaw 2006a, 18–20). The relatively small distance that the houses presumed to have been located north of between House X and Building T, whose north facade the central and eastern areas of Building T had a different faced the house directly, might imply some intimacy relationship with the palace than did House X. between the inhabitants of House X and those of the pala- Building T may also have had a west wing, now de - tial building, but this may be just a modern notion, as pri- stroyed by the sea, that was domestic in character. At least vate houses today are usually surrounded by grounds that part of the east wing was used for storage, as attested in isolate them from their neighbors. In fact, the opposite is rooms 24 and 25. We do not know what existed farther most likely to have been the case, for the seaward Road south, in the east wing and under the galleries of the LM 17 seems to have acted visually, and perhaps symbolical- III Building P. Stretches of parallel east–west walls, locat- ly, as the great divider between the town and the Civic ed under the floors of Galleries P1–P6, suggest the pres- Center stretching south of it. It is likely that no houses ence of magazines in LM III, though one gallery stood to the south of the Civic Center. is covered entirely by a plaster floor that may represent Contributing to a sense of the impenetrability of Buil - more than a simple storage function (Shaw and Shaw, ding T was the character of its north facade, built of huge eds., 2006, figs. 1.6, 1.7). blocks with no sign of windows at ground level. As Henri More is known about House X’s main point of com- van Effenterre remarked with reference to the west munication with Building T. The entrance opening into facades of a number of Neopalatial palaces, and especial- the northeastern area of Building T (Fig. 1.2, bottom ly that at Malia, the blank facades were a signal to people right) could have been used by regular suppliers of coming from the town to “stop” right there (1987, 85). commodities arriving from the town. For instance, oil SUMMARY AND GENERAL PERSPECTIVE 119 may have been carried to rooms such as 23, 24, and 25 and are common in houses on Thera (Palyvou 2005, in Building T and perhaps to similar spaces in the east 144–145, 168–170). We did not find the house from wing as yet unexplored or now destroyed. To oil we can which this block came, but it serves as a reminder that add wine and perhaps textiles, all products that could much can still be learned about the later Kommos settle- have been produced in the town (Dabney 1996a). At ment. The southern expansion of the town in the Neo - least two presses—most likely used for the production palatial period should also be considered in this context. of oil—were found in the town (M.C. Shaw 1996a, House X was built at the very southern border of the hill, 117–118, 126–127; 1996e, 358; see also McEnroe where it may not have stood alone if other houses bor- 1996, 223, pl. 3.111, top right, where the author sug- dered Road 17 to the west of it. If such houses existed, gests that oil may have been stored in the pithos embed- more Minoan remains may well lie hidden under the ded in Room 38). There is evidence suggesting that the north ern part of the ruins of the Greek Sanctuary. building we named the House with the Press, in which Whether the southernmost area of the town was re - one of these was found, acted also as a domicile, and served for the elite inhabitants in the Neopalatial period this could be true of the other building as well. remains unknown, but there is no question that House X Loomweights were found in small numbers dispersed was elite in local terms, given its relatively fine architec- in various spaces of Building T, with the most impres- ture. Practically every room was embellished by floral sive evidence coming from a small hoard of MM and decorative frescoes, while no representational fres- III–early LM date. This was found in small Space 29, an coes were found in any of the other Neopalatial houses area that would have been used for storage rather than excavated, including the House with the Snake Tube on weaving (J.W. Shaw 2006a, 45–46; 2006b). The scat- the Central Hillside and the North House on the Hilltop. tered nature of the finds makes it difficult to determine Simple painted bands may have been the most ambitious where weaving actually took place within the building. form of painted decoration in those buildings. In an interesting recent study, Militello (2006) suggests, on the basis of evidence from Phaistos, that while there may have been palatial involvement in weaving in earlier periods, in the Neopalatial era the palaces tended to concentrate on ceremonial activity and relegated the 5.2. Architecture and Plan manufacture of textiles to villas. In the case of Zakros, of the House Platon and Chryssoulaki (1987, 81–83) argue that while workshops for fancy items such as stone vessels and Our understanding of House X can be enhanced by bronze objects existed within the palace itself, moni- comparative analysis with other sites.2 Fotou and Mi chai - tored by some priestly group in charge of the areas per- lidou (2006) offer the following criteria for evaluating ceived as shrines, the palace depended on the town for architecture: size, the general form of the house, access to foodstuffs such as oil and wine. Similarly, at Kommos, spaces, patterns of circulation, lighting and ventilation, weaving may have taken place outside the palace. built-in structures, and wall decoration. Palyvou has With regard to the site of Kommos as a whole, Wright made masterful use of these and additional criteria in (2007, figs. 31.2, 31.4) offers two comparative plans to interpreting Bronze Age houses at Akrotiri on Thera. The demonstrate the development of the town, the first relat- approaches used by these scholars can may be applied ing to the MM III period, the other to LM IA. These sug- productively to the study of the well-preserved House X gest a greater population in MM III, and this is consistent at Kommos. with Wright’s comment that the Central Hillside was In the case of Xeste 3 at Akrotiri on Thera, Palyvou densely populated in MM II and MM III (2007, 264). (2005, 59–61) regards the east part with its pier-and-door After the destruction by earthquake, we can assume that partitions and figural frescoes as having had a public people moved to the Northern Area and started building function, in contrast to the many small rooms on the west more there, although one has to bear in mind that the that more likely acted as service spaces. In the case of the presence of LM I buildings in that location prevented us Royal Villa at Knossos, Fotou and Michailidou distin- from investigating the deeper levels sufficiently. The dis- guished two main functions on the ground floor level: the covery in the earlier years of excavation of a T-shaped poorly lit rooms on the south were probably used for stor- limestone block on the modern sand accumulation, mid- age, whereas rooms to their east were dedicated to trans- way between Hilltop and Hillside, which missed being actions with visitors. The north part of the building, with included in our earlier volumes on Kommos, may be rel- its elaborate Minoan Hall containing a niche, was the evant to the problem of LM I habitation. Such blocks most formal area, serving as an “Audience Hall,” with the were typically used in fancy Neopalatial houses as well niche being used by an important individual (Fotou and as in palaces (J.W. Shaw 2009, 103–104, figs. 186–189) Michailidou 2006, 93–94). 120 MARIA C. SHAW

In the case of Crete, McEnroe (1982) notes that res- of a number of other Minoan houses, thanks to a more idential and storage/industrial rooms were often found, recent list of sizes compiled by Todd Whitelaw (2001b; separated by a vestibule, on the ground floor in Minoan see also 2001a). House X appears to be smaller than the houses that he categorizes as Type 2 (1982, 7). Al - Villa of the Lilies at Amnisos, a number of the villas at though House X is not a perfect match with McEnroe’s Hagia Triada, and most of the buildings at Palaikastro. At Type 2 houses, it can be better accommodated within Malia there were both smaller and somewhat larger hous- this rather variable type than in Type 1, which is char- es; Maison E is much larger. House X is larger, however, acterized by specialized and fancier spaces, or in Type than all the houses at Gournia. It is comparable to houses 3, the examples of which lack many of the features seen at Knossos, especially the Southeast House, but much in House X. smaller than the Little Palace. Houses at Prasa (except for The identification of House X as an example of Type House A) and Pseira are smaller. House X is bigger than 2 can be determined by comparing specific features of all but a few of the houses at Zakros, one exception being the house with those listed in a chart presented by the so-called Strong Building, which measures 225 m2. McEnroe (1982, 18–19). Houses of this type typically House X was thus fairly substantial, deserving the contain the following spaces: a closet (here, Space X1), label of “mansion” used in the title of this book. Branigan a vestibule (which we variably call corridor or lobby cat egorizes the town of Kommos as one of his third or X16), a large room, an industrial area (here X6 and fourth rank Minoan settlements—a rather small town pos sibly Spaces X8, X9, X10), and a “doorless space” but one offering specialized services such as promotion (part of Space X2). McEnroe explains the doorless of “marketing and exchange” (Branigan 2001, 40–41, space as having been introduced sometimes for the fig. 3.1). Such a role, he adds, was also played by other sake of architectural engineering rather than for a spe- coas tal sites such as Mochlos, Pseira, Priniatikos Pyrgos, cific use.3 For McEnroe, an “industrial area” is best and Zakros. defined as a room with a permanent feature related to Having taken the Cretan evidence into consideration, production, and of those mentioned above, X9 would we can now turn briefly to comparisons with the well- fit best because of the mortar embedded in its floor. preserved houses at Akrotiri on Thera, many of which Either X9 or X8, or the two combined, could probably may have been roughly contemporary with Neopalatial also qualify as McEnroe’s “Hall 2,” which he describes House X. Palyvou divides the houses at Thera into “typ- (1982, 7) as the “largest room on the ground floor . . . ical” and “atypical.” As her model of the former she often located near the center of the house.” Other fea- chooses the West House (Palyvou 2005, 46–53), which tures associated with his Type 2 and found in House X has striking similarities with House X. We cannot, of are a light-well, cut-stone jamb bases, and the frescoes course, be certain that similar architecture was associat- present in several rooms. McEnroe emphasizes that ed with similar use, but that may have been the case to a many of the rooms in Type 2 houses were multifunction- degree, if distinct spaces had already been tried and al. This is true of House X, and it is probably the reason found suitable for certain purposes on Crete. Indeed, one why it is difficult to define the function of some rooms can find several such houses on Crete, as, for instance, at with any certainty. For instance, X3 may have acted as Gournia, where the houses were smaller than at Kommos the elusive Minoan kitchen at one point, but it could also but had more or less the same sets of rooms.4 have been used partly for storage, as was X2 to its west. Interesting comparisons can be made regarding the X4 could have done double service as a semipublic place interplay between construction and topography at Kom - for the entertainment of guests and, when closed off, as mos and Thera. Palyvou notes that the West House was a residential space. The Lily Fresco in X4 was contem- built on a hill, so that rooms on the ground floor were at porary with a floral fresco in the Villa Reale at Hagia different levels, necessitating the addition of an interme- Triada, found in a space thought to have served also as a diate landing in the staircase between the ground floor bedroom (Militello 1998, 73–75, fig. 8). and the first floor (Palyvou 2005, 46, 48, fig. 51). House In addition to the details of its plan and other features, X was also built on a hill, but although its floors rose the size of a house may be a good criterion of its status. from south to north, following the hill’s incline, they did The area of House X is ca. 212 m2 at ground level, and it not rise dramatically. This was probably the result of might be hypothesized that the size of the upstairs was ca. leveling undertaken before construction began, includ- 100 m2, for a total area of ca. 312 m2. Previously I have ing the leveling of some of the walls of the preceding suggested that it was the biggest house found at building located beneath it. An example is an older Kommos: larger than (in decreasing order of size) the east–west wall in the north part of X8—part of its low- North House, the House with the Snake Tube, the est course was found at the level of X9’s floor. Oblique House, and the House with the Press (M.C. Both houses had the same orientation, which was not a Shaw 1996e, 364). Its size can also be compared to those coincidence, but rather an effect of the available sunlight. SUMMARY AND GENERAL PERSPECTIVE 121

Both were surrounded by open spaces and were thus free- delivered elsewhere. Space X11/X12 may also have been standing, as were most houses at Akrotiri and Neo palatial used for temporary storage. This space had two doors, an houses at Kommos.5 Each was flanked by two main roads off-center door leading north to X10 and beyond and and an alley (Palyvou 2005, 35, fig. 34). The roads were another that was centered along the south side, leading slab-paved—entirely in the case of the West House, but directly to X16. only partially in the vicinity of House X, with Road 32/34 What Palyvou has termed an “auxiliary” staircase being paved where it crossed Road 17 and continued was located in another part of the West House. The obvi- south to the northeast entrance of Building T. ous equivalent in House X is X13, located in the west Of the two houses, House X was somewhat bigger, part of that building. As will be discussed later, the pat- with its ground floor measuring 212 m2, whereas the West terns of circulation involving this staircase were quite House measured 147 m2. The West House, however, had different from those associated with the main staircase. a fully built upper story with a single room (Room 6, In the case of House X, circulation may have been Palyvou 2005, 47, fig. 46) connected with the stairs and controlled from the lobby X16. Upon entering this providing access to the roof. The areas with dark shading space through the main entrance, people could proceed in Figure 5.2 indicate rooms that might have been roofed in one of three directions, whichever was appropriate for on the upper floor of Kommos House X. The areas with the specific individuals. One choice would have been to lighter shading would have been left open to the sky. advance to the large Space X9, where household activities probably took place, and which may also have acted as a point of contact between the house exterior and interior. Another choice would have been to proceed to Circulation within House X the sottoscala closet south of X15w; this might have been the route of an outsider coming regularly to deliv- A number of scholars have studied patterns of circu- er materials. A third choice would have been to turn lation and their relationship to the uses of a building, north to X11/X12, where a person could leave or receive including Palyvou (1987), who undertook a pioneering materials or objects or continue farther north to reach analysis of the Minoan palaces. The position of door- the portico X10 and the outdoors. X11/X12 and the por- ways, including the main entrance to the house, along tico would have been ideal for household activities that with the location of staircases, were crucial factors in required light, the former roofed but open on two sides, managing circulation. It appears that at Thera (and pos- the latter exposed to the sky. That serious work was per- sibly also at Kommos) interaction between residents and formed in X10 is suggested by some of the stone imple- outsiders took place in designated areas within the house ments found there, including a heavy mortar (St 32), itself. Doors were used either to permit or deny access to which, as suggested in Chapter 1, may have been left over outsiders and to maintain privacy when it mattered. from earlier use rather than dumped. Interestingly, its Both at Thera and in typical Neopalatial Minoan hous- largest piece was found at the very north edge of the por- es there were two stairways. The main entrance from out- tico, in the midst of fallen stones that may have collapsed side the building led to the main staircase, which, in turn, from the pillars and walls of X 10 before the space was gave access to the upper story or stories. The main en - turned into a dumping area (Pl. 1.14C). A piece of a sec- trance to House X was not excavated, but there is no ond mortar (St 31) was also found in this space. Else - doubt that it was located directly east of the lobby X16 where on the site another mortar was found at the edge of and next to the lower flight of Staircase X15e as restored a large room, possibly a court, in Space 2 in the House (Fig. 1.2). It was a short distance north of the southeast with the Press (M.C. Shaw 1996a, pl. 2.181). corner of the house, located at the intersection of the two This sunlit location would have been ideal for grind- main roads, 17 and 32/34. As was the case at Thera, the ing foodstuffs, whether for consumption within the space under the higher flight was a sottoscala. Originally, house or for distribution to the larger community. Indeed, the sottoscala was entered from the lobby X16. Later, if outsiders participated in such activities in X10, they this entrance was blocked, and a new one was opened in could have entered this semihypaethral area directly the southern part of the west wall of the staircase (Fig. from the north, from uphill. At the end of the day they 1.5; Pl. 1.14A), which was also the east wall of Space X9. could also have left the same way. Once again, their Such sottoscala closets occur in several of the houses at entry into the house could have been prohibited, if nec- Thera, including the West House (Palyvou 2005, 49). essary, by closing (or locking) the door leading from The proximity of a storage area to the main entrance X11/X12 to X16. Elsewhere I have suggested that com- would have been convenient. Objects and materials munal activities were also performed in other residential could have been stored temporarily, either to be moved buildings at Kom mos. In the House with the Press, for later to the appropriate place within the house or to be example, a stone press for wine and/or oil was installed 122 MARIA C. SHAW in the largest room, which could be entered directly from on the east facade may have been necessary. In her plan an alley running between the houses on the Hilltop. This of a similar level, Palyvou (2005, 47, fig. 46) restores a modest buil ding likely acted as a domicile as well (M.C. number of windows in the West House at Thera, on all Shaw 1996a).6 sides of the building except the east. We show the north People who were allowed access to X9 could have facade of House X as solid, for we exposed enough of proceeded north to the more utilitarian Spaces X6, X3, the walls there to know that there were no windows at X2, and X5 with its light-well. From X5, one could least up to where the walls were preserved. Little win- reach the fancy Space X4, which was most likely used dows, or “fengites,” may have existed higher up to allow for en tertaining, given the drinking cups and pouring some daylight to illuminate the rooms, as with Palyvou’s vessels found in its closet, X1. A door on the south side (2005, 140–146) Type A windows at Akrotiri. of X4 provided access to the upper story by means of If rooms along the north side of House X were used auxiliary Staircase X13. The staircase could also be mainly for storage, it might not have been desirable to reached from the house’s southernmost rooms X14a have too much light, particularly if perishable materials and X14b, but here, too, access could be controlled were being stored. X2, with its three pithoi and the con- either by closing the door at the south end of what was siderable amount of shells and bones found there, was then Corridor X7 or by closing the door connecting definitely a storeroom. It is not clear which other rooms X14a to X8 on its east. may have been used for storage, but we need to remem- Upstairs rooms would have been ideal for the accom- ber that Neopalatial houses at Kommos allowed less modation of children and their caregivers, mothers and space for storage than earlier houses (J.W. Shaw 1996a, other women. The upstairs, like the downstairs parts of 382). One can compare, for instance, the three pithoi in the house, could have included both private and public X2 with a Middle Minoan storeroom (Space 25) filled areas, as has been shown in the case of some Theran with pithoi on the Hillside area of Kommos (Wright houses, especially the West House. In the latter, there is e - 1996, 182–183, pl. 3.97). vidence that the casual visitor who walked upstairs would It is difficult to imagine Staircase X13 and large Space not have been able to proceed freely to the room with the X4 not having windows. Thus, we restored a small one in many windows—the polyparathyron—or to the bedroom the west wall of X13n, partly because of the need for (Palyvou 2005, 55, nos. 5 and 1, respectively). The latter light when using the steps and partly because of a possi- room was outfitted with a toilet. It has been suggested in ble pivot stone that we found there, albeit not in situ. the case of Xeste 3 at Thera that the living quarters were The upper floor of House X, which was not preserved above simple domestic quarters located to the west of the at all, is restored even more tentatively, based in part on public sector of the building, the rooms with the polythy- hypo thetical reconstructions of the second floors of other ron (multiple doors) and walls adorned with frescoes hav- Mi noan houses on Crete and in part on preserved ing cultic implications (Palyvou 2005, 55, fig. 62; Fotou remains of the “typical” house on Thera. Shaded areas in and Michailidou 2006, 95). the plan (Fig. 5.2) suggest where roofed spaces may have Ultimately, although there appears to have been some risen above ground floor rooms. Other ground floor differentiation in function between the “sectors” of House rooms may have had flat roofs that could be used as ter- X—the north–south series of rooms at the west, center, races. Ter races have been restored above the large ground and east, with those on the west being the more private— floor Spaces X8 and X9, as well as over X10. Driessen I suspect that here, as in other houses at Kommos, there (2005) has stressed that not all Minoan houses may have was less of a division in terms of specialized function had a complete upper story, especially at Palaikastro, than there was in Xeste 3 at Thera. where only ca. 12 of the 35 houses known had a real up - per floor, even though staircases led upstairs (see a similar restoration of a house at Petras by Tsipopoulou and Dierckx 2006, 300, 313, fig. 3). Hallager also suggests Appearance of the House that terraces should be restored on the upper floor of a LM I bui lding at Chania, where, in the absence of court- The north and west facades of Kommos House X are yards, terraces could have provided space for household fairly well preserved and the lines of the east and the activities. Moreover, in the case of this particular build- south facades are predictable, as they ran along two main ing, the fa cade wall by the road was too thin to sustain a roads (Fig. 1.2). We have tentatively restored windows full roofed space above it. Thus, he restored a large ter- along some of the facades at ground level (Fig. 5.3). race, show ing it closed on the road side by a trellis These would not have compromised the privacy of the (Hallager 1990). dwellers because the house was elevated above the roads, In the case of House X, the area north of X10 at especially the one on the south. A window in X11/X12 ground level could have served as a yard, but the SUMMARY AND GENERAL PERSPECTIVE 123 existence of a terrace directly above X10 is not out of the Akrotiri. There, the most private area was at the south- question, especially if a more protected and intimate open west part of the house, which was identified as a suite space was required for activities by members of the consisting of a bedroom and a lavatory. The suite had one household and/or because of its convenient proximity to entrance only (Palyvou 2005, fig. 46, central plan). The the spaces upstairs. The south facade wall of House X remaining area upstairs was accessible to others and was the narrowest, as can be seen in the state plan (Figs. included a large room with a central column. This room 1.6, 1.7). The south end of the dividing wall between X8 was used primarily for weaving (Palyvou 2005, 50). and X9 comes very close to the edge of the ground on Weaving requires much light, and in House X, as in the which the house was built. Even though one could roof West House, this is more likely to have been available on the two rooms on the ground floor, this south facade a higher floor. For practical reasons already explained, we would have been too thin to support other rooms over- have reconstructed a terrace above X8 and X9 rather than head. Thus, in our restoration (Fig. 5.2), the roofs of X8 a large room equivalent to that in the West House (Paly - and X9 are treated as a terrace. We hypothesize another vou 2005, fig. 46, middle). Space X8 might have been an terrace above X10, rather than a second portico above the alternative location for weaving on the ground floor, but one on the ground level, on the assumption that an upper there is no artifactual evidence to support this idea. portico might be too pretentious for a house characterized Figure 5.3 presents an isometric reconstruction of the by a minimum of refinements. Upper porticoes have been house from the level of the road to its roof. The recon- restored for other Minoan houses, however, e.g., by struction of a simple wooden framework to carry some Graham (1987, 190–197, fig. 32) and Evely (ed., 1999, light roofing material, possibly reeds, was inspired by 173; the Myrtos Pyrgos “villa”). Graham comments on Hallager’s (1990) restoration of the house at Chania. how porticoes in the houses “faced outward to command The terrace, with its large area exposed to the sun, could the finest view afforded by the particular site” (Graham have been used for spreading agricultural products to 1987, 191). This may also have been the case in House X, dry, as is still done today in villages on Crete. The small even if there were no pillars or columns supporting an room rising above the roof over the main staircase, as upstairs portico. well as the parapet surrounding the roof and the spouts With regard to roofed spaces on the upper floor (Fig. for drainage, are architectural elements discussed by 5.2), we have followed the principle that upstairs spaces J.W. Shaw (2004) in an article on the restoration of the are likely to have been larger than a number of small roofs of Minoan buildings. ground floor rooms. It is possible that the upper story As suggested in the restoration, there may have been consisted of partly independent suites, mainly residen- retaining walls along the south and east sides of House tial, but put to different uses. The hypothetical restora- X and a third one on the east side of Road 32. The draw- tion repeats the pattern of doors on the ground level. ing shows it continuing only a short distance north, for A large L-shaped room could have occupied the north- although a deep cutting was made to create the major west area over rooms X1/X4/X5, its eastern extension east–west Road 17, Road 32 may have needed only a above X5 overlooking the light-well, with a railing to smaller cutting on the east, as it rose rapidly and may prevent accidents. We have called this group Suite 1. The have merged after a short distance with the adjacent ter- southern door in X4 would have played a major role in rain on its east. Road 34, the southern continuation of terms of privacy, since it led to Staircase X13 and from Road 32, sloped down in that direction until it reached there to the presumably more secluded areas upstairs. level at ca. +3.30 m near the northeast corner of Building Suite 2 is to the south, occupying an area above Spaces T (Shaw and Shaw, eds., 2006, pl. 1.55A). From there X7, X14a, and X14b. It could be reached directly from on, and in the short distance to the proposed east Staircase X13, and its floor surface would have been lim- entrance of Building T, the slope reversed itself, rising ited by the presence of the stairs. It has been suggested abruptly, to +3.36 m near that entrance. This fact, noticed that spaces reached by smaller auxiliary staircases, which only recently, lends even more support to the hypothesis are usually some distance away from the main entrance that there was an entrance to Building T there. Raising to the house, were connected with the most private the ground level at the road’s southernmost part would spaces upstairs (e.g., Driessen 2005, 84). Suite 3 is have prevented rainwater from running south into restored above X2, X3, and X6. Their doors allowed for Building T (Figs.1.1, 5.1). A threshold at that entrance communication with the door in the northwest corner of would also have helped achieve this purpose. X6, which probably had a lock for privacy since it led to Staircase X13. That privacy was a concern is evident from the ar - rangement of the upstairs area in the West House at 124 MARIA C. SHAW

5.3. Change and Remodeling which this happened are dated between LM IB and LM over Time II. One can suggest a partial collapse of the house at that point, conceivably the result of a slight seismic distur- Wright refers to the “incremental restructuring of bance that was followed by mending or slight rebuilding, space” in the houses at Kommos as an indication of “con- as there are no clear signs of it elsewhere. Whatever it tinued occupation by succeeding generations of the same was that led to the removal of the frescoes, no new ones families” (Wright 2007, 264–265). Most of the houses were made to replace them. Their disposal marks the end were used well into LM III (and parts of them into LM of an era when such luxuries were much appreciated. IIIB). During this timespan of several hundred years, The widespread blocking of doorways in the house they underwent frequent remodeling and repair. In his (discussed in Ch. 1) is worth reviewing here. Figures 1.2 study, Wright cites comparable conclusions with regard and 1.5 illustrate the two main periods of the house. to Bronze Age Cyprus, where Webb explains the practice Additional information is also conveyed by the state as a way of guaranteeing “household continuity and the plans (Figs. 1.6–1.8), the last illustrating all removed intergenerational transmission of built property” (Webb structures and the blockings of doorways. One of the 2002, 90; cited in Wright 2007, 266). Driessen (2010) most important cases was the remodeling and elimina- discusses the terms family and household and offers the tion of doorways that converted the former corridor X7 additional term House, which he uses to signify a succes- into a room to be used henceforth as a shrine. The origi- sion of kindred people, “an intergenerational group” nal north door of X7 giving access to X4 was relocated organized in households, forming “the basis of societal by moving it farther west, while that on the south leading organization . . . at a supra-household level.” to X14a was permanently blocked. There were also There are ways to measure the passage of time, and changes accompanying the installation of the new north even at times to state when events happened, on the basis entrance; the old threshold was lifted and repositioned, its of clues that still lie half hidden in the remains. One set surface cut back somewhat to allow for a strip on the west of clues can be retrieved from the evidence left as floors to rise somewhat higher as the west jamb. Serving as the rose through use, since ancient housekeepers did not east jamb base was the old entrance’s west jamb base—a have our modern concern with neatness, and such evi- fact that is readily visible since its “gamma” shape faced dence was covered over rather than removed. An extreme the wrong direction (Figs. 1.6, 1.7). The earliest date we and rare case of a cleaning frenzy in House X is the one can assign to the creation of the shrine and the remodel- that took place in the large Space X4, where no clear stra- ing just described is LM II, associated with Pottery 7 tum has been found that is earlier than the one on the Group X7:2. floor, at nearly its initial level, dated to LM IIIA:2. The Spaces X14a and X14b clearly remained accessible handling of use debris in adjacent Space X1 (the closet of to each other until the end, since the door connecting X4) reflects a different attitude. There, evidence for use, them was never blocked. Use in LM IB and LM II is even if incomplete, extends from LM IA Advanced to attested in the eastern of the two rooms, the latter being 8 LM IB Final (a term used by Rutter with reference to the date of its abandonment (Pottery Group X14a:2) local pottery). Thereafter, the only entrance to X1 was and of the blocking of its eastern door leading to X8. blocked, and an opening appears to have been made in its Less understandable are the circumstances applying to north wall to allow access, but only to X1, from outdoors. Space X14b. There digging had to stop at a stratum of The blocking of X1 (Fig. 1.5) is particularly important rubble before the original floor was found. The excava- for the history of this building, since it is associated with tion ceased where that space’s west wall—also the the disposal of frescoes, which were stripped off walls or southernmost part of the west facade of the house—was had fallen and were dumped there sometime between found to have been built on a layer of stone debris dat- LM IB and LM II. The LM II date of the X1 doorway’s ing to LM I–II (Pottery Group X14b:1). Given the ear- blocking (Pottery Groups X1:5 and X1:6) is based on the lier date of construction of the house, this corner had sherds found in the blocking walls themselves. These undergone some remodeling, including the rebuilding walls were roughly built and lacked north faces, having of its southwest corner (Fig. 1.7). Rubble in fact contin- been built against fill from an ongoing dump within X1. ued above this level. As a result, there are few finds to Additional discarded pieces of plaster, found in other reveal how X14b was used at this later time. Earlier on spaces, occurred in LM III contexts but not directly on it was used in conjunction with the sottoscala of floors, and these may have been moved around with fills Staircase X13 (Fig. 1.7, X13s). The entrance to the lat- used for leveling and related activities. The fall or ter was blocked in LM IIIA (Pottery Group X13:2). removal of plasters raises the question of whether some An early remodeling of X8, in the central part of dramatic event affected the building, since plaster is an House X, raised the level of the threshold in the door- integral part of a room’s walls. Several of the contexts in way leading to X5 by adding slabs, bringing it up to a SUMMARY AND GENERAL PERSPECTIVE 125 level at ca. +4.91 m, which was that of the raised slab at the level over which an irregular north–south wall was floor in X5. Eventually, between LM II and LM IIIA:1, built, closing that passage into the house. the entrance between the two rooms was blocked The construction of later walls above some of the ear- (Pottery Groups X8:2 and X8:3). Some residual evi- lier ones and, in some cases, the foundation of new walls dence of earlier use was preserved in the west part of deep within the ruins of the original house in LM IIIB the space, where plasters were found nearly on the slab may indicate that the dwellers clung to the place where pavement, close to the west wall (Pottery Group X8:1). their predecessors or ancestors had lived. The reduction Sherds of LM IIIA:2 Early (Pottery Group X8:4) were of earlier living spaces and makeshift rebuilding prac- interpreted by Rutter as wash to which X8, along with tices contrast with the evidence for flourishing interna- X9, were subjected in their location on the lower part of tional trade with Egypt, Sardinia, Asia Minor and other the slope. areas observed in the nearby Civic Center. Life went on The doorway between X8 and X9 was never blocked, in LM IIIB in the Hilltop and the Hillside areas as well, unlike the north door of X9, which originally communi- but there, too, decline set in, as attested by the cessation cated with X6 (Fig. 1.5). Sherds of LM IA Final and LM of new building projects and continued reuse through IB Late dates were found in the latter (Pottery Groups makeshift remodeling. X6:1 and X6:2), some contained in the blocking wall Table 5.1 charts the ceramic phases represented in itself (X6:3). The blocking wall was not high, but it is House X. The earliest pottery preserved is LM IA Ad - not clear if it was kept intentionally low to facilitate dis- vanced (seen in X2), and subsequent subphases of LM I posal of garbage thrown into X6 or if its upper portions are attested in other spaces. The best preserved pottery, eventually collapsed. Dumping in X6 is attested from which was more or less the last used, dates to LM IIIA:2; LM II (Pottery Group X6:4)9 and went on later, reach- the prime example of this occurs in Space X4, where ing up to level +5.70 m (Pottery Group X6:5). The fill nothing earlier or later was preserved. This situation re - over a soil surface at this level contained sherds of LM minds us that absence of evidence for use as attested by IIIA:2 and historic dates (Pottery Group X6:6). pottery cannot be the single criterion for how long a space The only door in Space X3, on the south, was nar- or building was used. In the case of X4, the floor was rowed before being blocked (Fig. 1.5). The narrowing, maintained approximately at its original level, perhaps to which involved rebuilding the south wall, may well keep possible frescoes on the walls and elite architectur- have taken place at the same time that a new east wall al features at floor level visible for as long as possible. was built to replace the older one (Ch. 1). Both events Based solely on the presence of identifiable pottery, may have been related to a possible collapse of the ceil- therefore, a conservative approach would be to date the ing and any floor that existed above it in LM IB Late or building of House X to the end of LM IA. The ambigui- Final (Pottery Group X3:5). This occurred above a ty of the actual situation, however, can be introduced by floor with burned fill at +5.22/5.24 (Pottery Group our past suggestion of a date at the beginning of that X3:4). Built atop a fill of rubble of LM II–IIIA:1 date period (by the Shaws and Rutter, in J.W. Shaw 2006d, (Pottery Group X3:6) are two fragments of walls. The 866–871, table 5.1). Part of that estimate was based on southern one, with its base at +5.86 m, might be simi- the fact that in Room 4, as mentioned above, the primary lar in date to walls that appear at roughly similar levels floor preserved (last used in LM III) lay only 10 cm east and west of this space, e.g., over Space X2. These above the slab floor (Fig. 1.11) of a large earlier room of date to LM IIIB (Pottery Groups X2:9 and X2:10). the building upon which House X was set. The lack of The last surface used in X11/X12 to the east was also neat stratified accumulation in the room can only be LM IB Late, at least in the area north of the gamma- explained by removal through cleaning. shaped structure inserted there. This was the only area Also, one should place House X within the history of we were able to excavate to an appropriate depth be - its town during the Neopalatial Period (J.W. Shaw cause of the proximity to Greek Building F. Above this 2006d, table 5.1). Nearby Building T, for instance, was stratum was another of LM II date, likely part of the built toward the end of MM IIIA. Then, on the hilltop, dumping activity that took place in nearby X10 in the toward the end of MM III or the very beginning of LM same period. I, the earlier buildings were abandoned, and new ones X16 was used into LM IIIA:2 (Pottery Group X16:2), such as the North House and the House of the Press probably in conjunction with the entrance to the house, were set over their ruins. South of there, on the Central unless, by that time, a new doorway had been opened in Hillside, we find the same, with earlier buildings desert- the west, possibly through the west wall of X13n.10 There ed and the House with the Snake Tube being built there, are signs of altered use after LM II, namely, cooking all during the renewal effort presumably following an activity that took place not far from the main entrance. earthquake (J.W. Shaw 1996b, 3). In his recent study of The relevant deposit (rising to ca. +5.16 m) was roughly the Kommos town, J.C. Wright adopted this scenario 126 MARIA C. SHAW

(2007, figs. 31.2, 31.3), including House X, which also demonstrates a prominent use of loomweights in LM was built upon a large house that very well could have I–II (see details in Table 5.2). The loomweights of this been destroyed by the same seismic event that affected period are concentrated in two of the northernmost both the Hilltop and Central Hillside. rooms, X1 and X2, suggested above to have been used The pattern is quite suggestive. One also can imagine for storage. Six examples found in X1 are dated by their that local people would want to join the renewed activity, contexts to LM IA. The few other loomweights date especially at a time before mid LM I when Building T, somewhere between LM IB and LM II, with one slight- next door, was still being used for its original purpose. ly later. Given this high concentration in X1 during the Given the longevity of the use of a large Minoan house by earlier use of the house, I would propose that all these a family for generations, recently discussed by Driessen objects were kept in X1, which served as a closet. Two (2010), and the probability of land ownership carrying later loomweights found in Space X4 may once have over from one period to the next, irrespective of natural been stored in X1 and then accidentally relocated. disaster, one can also suspect that the former inhabitants I proposed above that the floor in X4 had been kept of the building below House X, with little but a destroyed clean, but that some small objects such as beads found house to return to, would hasten to rebuild and move in. directly on it and in the east area could have been left over The preceding review of the history of House X, and from earlier use. These finds might also attest to the use especially the more fugitive evidence of its waning days, of the space for making jewelry in the later period, how- can only be taken as an approximation of what really ever, given the needle found near the window in X4 and happened. The interpretations I have presented may be the fact that at least one bead was found within a pyxis. complemented or reversed by future excavation and in - Threaded with holed shells, such humble ornaments creasing knowledge of the history of Kommos and near- could be turned into earrings and necklaces like the one by Minoan sites. found on the abandonment surface in X14a. The large window near the northeast corner of X4, deriving light from the X5 light-well, would have made this the favored spot for such work. Seals and beads were also found in X1, and a mold used for making jewelry was found in X2. 5.4. Finds as Evidence for Function The beautiful pyxis (C 9012) decorated with a painted floral motif that was found in X4 may once have been The finds discovered in and around House X are cat- accompanied by another (C 8001) found directly east of aloged and discussed in detail in Chapter 3. In the fol- the window sill in adjacent Space X5 (Ch. 1; see also lowing discussion, we turn to the questions of what the Shaw and Shaw 1993, 153, fig. 27). The two vessels may finds can tell us about the main activities carried on in have contained shells as well as thread and needles. the house and where they took place, focusing on broad Possibly Space X2 was a place where a craftsman’s tools contrasts between long chronological periods, as the and related objects, including a jeweler’s mold (J 19), evidence does not always permit more specific inter- were stored and related activities took place. pretations.11 The long history of the house may be split Whether X3 had the same storage role as X2 is un - into two main periods: (1) LM IA to LM II and (2) LM known. Quite a few loomweights were found there, how- IIIA to LM IIIB. LM II serves as a good dividing line ever, two at an earlier level and the rest, possibly stored between the original use of the building and the time there previously, at a later level. Less uncertainty sur- when some doors were blocked and substantial changes rounds the loomweights found in X10, for it is unlikely to the original architectural plan were made. LM II was that a loom would have been set in a partly open portico. followed by an eventual decline rather than by rebuild- Of these loomweights, nine were found in fill interpreting and innovation. ed by Rutter as a dump of LM II date, thrown onto a The finds examined are represented by symbols shown in two separate plans (Fig. 5.4, top and bottom) floor last used in LM IB. The dump also seems to have that distinguish objects belonging to the LM I and LM II extended into X6, where some loomweights were found. periods from those of LM III or later date. The two plans Several loomweights also occurred at higher levels are rather synthetic, for although they represent the north of, and in some cases within, the northern rooms of entire lifespan of the house, they are based on the plan the house. It might be speculated that some were used in (Fig. 1.2) that represents the earlier phase of House X for a weaving area upstairs, in the two northern suites re - the sake of clarity, as this plan is not cluttered by later stored there. Light coming in directly from the windows walls and other features. More specific dates for the con- that we suppose existed in the north facade would have texts of the finds are provided in Tables 5.2–5.4.12 been ideal for such work. Two spindle whorls were found The top plan illustrates tools used in weaving and farther south. With the exception of one “early” loom - sew ing: loomweights, spindle whorls, and needles. It weight in X9, the rest, particularly those in X8, are no SUMMARY AND GENERAL PERSPECTIVE 127 earlier than LM IIIA:2. If the loomweights were not rede- other two rooms are the adjacent Spaces X4 and X5, posited in X8, and considering the early loomweight in which continued to be used until the final abandonment X9 as well, the suggestion that weaving took place in X8 of House X. The find contexts are LM IIIA:1 and LM gains some support, although the use of a well-lit room IIIA:2. We do not know how the floor of X4 looked in its upstairs on the north side of the house seems more likely. earlier days, except for the fact that it was paved with The evidence surveyed above suggests that weaving occasional flat slabs and scattered pebbles. At the end of was an activity more typical of or even exclusive to LM its use, however, the floor was cluttered with mundane I–II compared to other periods in House X. Fotou and objects relating to the basic needs of life, notably the Michailidou (2006, 89) have questioned whether the evi- preparation of food—this in a room that may have once dence for weaving in the large Room 3 in the West House been decorated with the beautiful Lily Fresco, proudly at Akrotiri on Thera attests to serious textile manufacture displayed for visitors. or simple domestic activity. Naturally, the preservation of The distribution of cooking vessels by space and pot- such evidence at Kommos is not comparable to that at tery group can be seen in Table 5.4. The presence of such Akrotiri, nor has anything been discovered at Kommos to pots along with mortars and querns used for food proces - suggest independent artisans’ quarters like those found at sing in the corridor or lobby X16 may attest to cooking Mochlos (Soles 2003).13 Evidence from a number of activities there in the very last days of its use, prob ab ly other houses at Kommos suggests that weaving activities after the entrance from Road 32/34 was blocked. The may have been directed only toward the needs of a par- installation of hearths and ovens occurs in once gracious ticular household (Dabney 1996a), which may also have rooms of other houses on the Hilltop and the Hillside at been the case in House X. Whether the palace made use Kommos during their last stages of use (Shaw 1990; of such household services remains in question. Shaw and Shaw, eds., 1996, pls. 2.8, 2.9, 2.78, The bottom plan in Figure 5.4 illustrates the distribu- 3.111–3.116, 5.5–5.10). Such acts seem to mark a shift tion of implements and tools, details of which can be from the cultivation of the niceties of life to an emphasis found in Table 5.3. Once again, the objects have the same on the activities essential for living, as is evident from the general dates as the weaving implements. The stone chronological comparison of objects and activities repre- items include cobbles, used as rubbing and percussion sented in Figure 5.4. In X3, as mentioned earlier, there tools, as well as mortars, querns, and stamnostates. Metal was no sign of cooking in the earlier period of occupa- tools and wires were present as well. tion, but this activity may have begun later here as well. Several patterns are evident in the distribution plans. I close this discussion by reviewing the evidence for The earliest tools, as dated by their contexts, are mainly what I perceive as a decline in the standard of living. The LM IB; only a few are LM IA, and these were found pri- res idents of House X had seen more elegant days up to marily in X2 (Fig. 5.4, bottom). They may have been the end of LM IB or until sometime in LM II. Relatively stored there earlier along with some loomweights, as lux urious conditions or fancy objects disappeared at a lat - seen in the preceding plan (Fig. 5.4, top). A few imple- er date, most notably the extensive frescoes, which were ments of earlier date, primarily mortars or querns, occur never replaced. There are few figurines in House X, and in smaller numbers, particularly in X6; these may have as discussed in Chapter 3, most can be dated to its earlier actually been used there for household activities. The period. The appreciation of simple beads and bead and presence of loomweights in both X3 and X6 is more dif- shell necklaces seems to have continued into LM III, but ficult to explain and may be due to secondary deposition. the important seal (J 15) was found in a LM IA final con - Stone implements might be expected in large and well lit text in X1, and two fine but simpler ones found in X2 (J X10. Although this was the location of a LM II dump, 17, J 18) are no later than LM IB Late. Weaving also enough was found of the large and heavy mortar St 32, seems to have come to an end, possibly in LM II, to judge mostly among stone debris in the space’s north edge, to from the date of the dumps that contained loomweights. hypothesize that it had once been used there and was not In general, activities were reduced to the essentials: carried and dumped from elsewhere. This may also have grind ing, food processing, and cooking. The last activity been the case with mortar St 31. Fewer hand tools were is significant, as the evidence for it became omnipresent found in X8 and X9, but there was a marked presence of in the days of decline, whereas typically in Minoan hous- stamnostates, a mortar, and querns there. es cooking might not even have taken place indoors. In The obvious concentration of tools and other stone House X, two cooking pots were stored in X1 (in LM IA implements in three rooms during LM IIIA is particular- Final–LM IB) and others in X3; the rest were found in ly informative. One of these rooms is X1. At this time it fragments, whether as the remnants of primary use or was being used by people who accessed it from north of fragments from final dumps. House X, after the doorway leading south was blocked. As can be seen from Table 5.4, most of the cooking The stone objects in this space all date to LM IIIA. The vessels were found in LM IIIA:1 and especially LM 128 MARIA C. SHAW

IIIA:2 contexts, including one piece from X4, where equipped place of worship. In X7 we can still peer into evidence of fire on the ground nearby suggests that this the people’s souls and catch glimpses of their faith and vessel may have been used there. Ultimately and sur - their hope that all would go well at the end. pris ingly, some cooking seems to have taken place right in X16. Whether this occurred before or after the en - trance to the house was blocked, it was certainly one of the last activities carried on in the house. This decline in the character of activities undertaken occurred in an era Chapter 5 Endnotes that followed the blocking of doorways, episodes with counterparts in other houses of the town at Kommos, 1. This plan was anticipated by one offered in an interesting including the North House (M.C. Shaw 1996b, 42, 45, recent study of the paths of circulation at Kommos (Wright 51; 1996e, 367) and the House with the Snake Tube 2007). It is expanded here to illustrate the points of contact be - tween town and palace. (McEnroe 1996, 206, 219, 220, 224, 230). Above all, the 2. Three studies of Minoan architecture by John McEnroe quality of the architecture of House X, with its intelli- have contributed greatly to my understanding of such matters: gent plan and refinements, expressed the initial aspira- one on the typology of Minoan Neopalatial houses (1982), tion of its residents to be perceived as elite, at least in another on aspects of vernacular architecture (1990), and a modest local terms, and these refinements declined third, A History of Minoan Architecture (2010). I thank the most conspicuously after LM II. author for sharing with me the chapter on Neopalatial houses It is surprising that these events took place at a time in the latest work. Studies of Theran architecture are also of when Kommos was involved in international trade, as interest because the archaeological remains are contemporary seen in the foreign pottery—Egyptian, Syro-Palestinian, with the earlier levels of House X. Studies that have proven Cypriot, western Anatolian, Mycenaean, Sardinian, and particularly helpful are those by Michailidou (1990, 2001), other types imported from all over the ancient Med - Fotou and Michailidou (2006), and Palyvou (2005). 3. McEnroe (1982, 3) interprets this either as a basement iterranean world. Significant quantities of these im ports room entered from above or as a shallow room needed for began to appear in the LM II period and in creased in structural reasons but not meant to be used for storage. The number later (Rutter and Van de Moortel 2006, 646–688). doorless Space X2 was clearly of the first kind, given the pres- One wonders who was in charge of this thriving trade and ence of the pithoi and the fact that its floor was much lower than whether it was outsiders who were neglecting the well- elsewhere (at ca. +4.11 m). In X8, for instance, an earlier wall, being of the town and the townsfolk. One might postulate hardly preserved for one course, was at a level of +4.58/4.62 m, a change in government, even the possibility that external the level of the Neopalatial floor in the northern part of X2. rulers, possibly Mycenaeans or their local representatives 4. See McEnroe 2010, esp. ch. 9, which deals with Neo - on Crete, were in charge of trade from which the local palatial houses and towns ca. 1750–1490 B.C. people were not allowed to benefit.14 These matters, how- 5. For instance, the North House at Kommos had a main ever, can best be considered in Part 2 of this publication, road running south of it, a smaller road running north to south on the east, and an apparently open area directly to the west where pottery and the evidence for foreign contacts can 15 (Fig. 5.1). be properly examined. 6. Communal industries and the implements used in the From the picture of the later days of life in House X Minoan town of Kommos are the subject of an extensive dis- outlined here (see also M.C. Shaw 1996d, 290), we may cussion by Blitzer (1995). have gained an insight into conditions that caused strain 7. This relates to Pottery Group X14a:2, which also dates and hardship. The human reaction to those conditions to LM II. may be manifested by the presence of a shrine in House 8. This surface was at +4.76/4.77 m, only ca. 0.08 m high- X, created sometime between LM II and LM III and er than the base of the blocking walls between X14a and X8, matched by another in the House with the Snake Tube on and communication between X14a and X8 stopped in LM II the Central Hillside (McEnroe 1996, 226–229). In House or soon after, as we know from the blocking of the doorway X, the doorway in passageway X7 leading north to X4 between them. Ultimately, by LM III, X14a and X14b were used for dumping (Trench 80A/26, 27a and b). was blocked and repositioned farther west, and the door- 9. The sherds are said by Rutter to resemble pieces in a way on the south was blocked off. This remodeling of the dump of that date in Space X10. passageway created a room, Shrine X7. X7 was devoid of 10. LM II sherds were found on the slab floor of X16 loomweights, stone tools, and other implements present (assigned to no pottery group) and nearby in X9 (Pottery in other rooms (cf. Fig. 5.4), yet it was full of religious Group X9:1). The entrance from X16 to the sottoscala under and ritual paraphernalia that were used until the very end X15w must have been blocked about the same time, with the (Col. Pl. 1A). Then abandonment and the unwillingness new entrance from X9 to the west created then (contemporary of the people who deserted the house to carry all the with X9:2) as another way of reaching what remained of the objects with them preserved for us a rare and richly earlier sottoscala closet. SUMMARY AND GENERAL PERSPECTIVE 129

11. Because finds were often relocated in antiquity (as in the Early Postpalatial period with the fact that Minoan Civic the case of dumps), our knowledge of the chronology is better Building T lay by then in ruins. For further contributions by for the later phases, especially where rooms were suddenly Rutter on trade at Kommos, see Rutter 1999. abandoned or where there was a collapse of an upper story that 15. On the basis of Rutter’s preliminary review of foreign covered their floors, as in X4 and X7 in LM IIIA:2. imports (presently in note form, like his comments on the rest 12. I am much indebted to Josée Dimson for her assistance of the pottery from House X), we can draw a rough outline of in producing these tables. when foreign pottery first appeared and where it was found in 13. Weaving, however, was not an activity carried out in House X. The earliest imports came from Egypt in LM IB Late, the Artisans’ Quarters at Mochlos. at the same time as the importation of a Vapheio cup. Egyptian 14. There has been a growing awareness of this among the imports continued into LM II and IIIA:2. West Anatolian also members of the excavation; it has also been raised by Rutter started in LM II and persisted into LM IIIA:2, while Levantine in his discussion of the imported pottery found in the Civic imports were limited to LM II. Knossian pottery was found in Center at Kommos (Rutter and Van de Moortel 2006, 688), LM IIIA:1 and IIIA:2. Foreign pottery was found in practically where he contrasts the thriving trade already taking place in every room in the house. Concordance of Excavation and Catalog Numbers

Excav. House X References Object Type No. Cat. No.

B 42 Me 23 House X, Ch. 3.2; Blitzer 1995, M 82 Tweezers B 44 Me 1 House X, Ch. 3.2; Blitzer 1995, M 84 Rod B 45 Me 2 House X, Ch. 3.2; Blitzer 1995, M 85 Rod B 173 Me 6 House X, Ch. 3.2; Blitzer 1995, M 135 Strip B 288 Me 14 House X, Ch. 3.2; Blitzer 1995, M 166 Knife blade B 299 Me 3 House X, Ch. 3.2; Blitzer 1995, M 167 Rod or bar B 300 Me 15 House X, Ch. 3.2; Blitzer 1995, M 168 Blade B 301 Me 17 House X, Ch. 3.2; Blitzer 1995, M 169 Sickle blade B 303 Me 7 House X, Ch. 3.2; Blitzer 1995, M 170 Wire B 304 Me 8 House X, Ch. 3.2 Strip B 305 Me 9 House X, Ch. 3.2 Strip B 307 Me 21 House X, Ch. 3.2; Blitzer 1995, M 171 Needle B 329 Me 22 House X, Ch. 3.2 Needle B 330 Me 10 House X, Ch. 3.2 Strip B 331 Me 25 House X, Ch. 3.2 Fishhook B 332 Me 16 House X, Ch. 3.2 Knife blade B 333 Me 20 House X, Ch. 3.2 Blade/anvil B 334 Me 26 House X, Ch. 3.2 Fishhook B 340 Me 27 House X, Ch. 3.2 Fishhooks 132 HOUSE X AT KOMMOS

Excav. House X References Object Type No. Cat. No.

B 341 Me 24 House X, Ch. 3.2 Tweezers B 344 Me 28 House X, Ch. 3.2 Fishhooks B 348 Me 18 House X, Ch. 3.2 “Pendant” B 369 Me 11 House X, Ch. 3.2 Wire B 370 Me 5 House X, Ch. 3.2 Rods B 377 Me 12 House X, Ch. 3.2 Strip B 394 Me 4 House X, Ch. 3.2 Rod B 395 Me 13 House X, Ch. 3.2 Strips B 405 Me 19 House X, Ch. 3.2 “Trowel” Bo 4 Bo 4 House X, Ch. 4.6; Blitzer 1995, Bo 4 Utensil Bo 5 Bo 5 House X, Ch. 4.6; Blitzer 1995, Bo 5 Utensil Bo 6 Bo 6 House X, Ch. 4.6; Blitzer 1995, Bo 6 Utensil Bo 7 Bo 7 House X, Ch. 4.6; Blitzer 1995, Bo 7 Utensil Bo 8 Bo 8 House X, Ch. 4.6; Blitzer 1995, Bo 8 Boar’s tusk Bo 54 Bo 54 House X, Ch. 4.6; Blitzer 1995, Bo 30 Point Bo 56 Bo 56 House X, Ch. 4.6 Tool Bo 57 Bo 57 House X, Ch. 4.6 Point C 202 Lw 50 House X, Ch. 3.3; Dabney 1996a, no. 148 Loomweight C 308 Lw 59 House X, Ch. 3.3; Dabney 1996a, no. 154 Loomweight C 309 Lw 30 House X, Ch. 3.3; Dabney 1996a, no. 96 Loomweight C 319 Cl 5 House X, Ch. 3.5 Drain fragment C 328 Lw 31 House X, Ch. 3.3; Dabney 1996a, no. 89 Loomweight C 337 Lw 60 House X, Ch. 3.3; Dabney 1996a, no. 155 Loomweight C 338 Lw 32 House X, Ch. 3.3; Dabney 1996a, no. 102 Loomweight C 1604 Sp 64 House X, Ch. 3.3 Spindle whorl C 2163 Sp 62 House X, Ch. 3.3 Spindle whorl C 2179 Sp 61 House X, Ch. 3.3 Spindle whorl C 5644 House X, Ch. 1.2 Clay disk C 6243 Sp 65 House X, Ch. 3.3 Spindle whorl C 6954 Lw 47 House X, Ch. 3.3; Dabney 1996a, no. 124 Loomweight C 6955 Lw 48 House X, Ch. 3.3; Dabney 1996a, no. 125 Loomweight C 7044 Lw 21 House X, Ch. 3.3; Dabney 1996a, no. 98 Loomweight C 7060 Lw 27 House X, Ch. 3.3; Dabney 1996a, no. 99 Loomweight C 7135 Lw 28 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C7314 Lw 25 House X, Ch. 3.3; Dabney 1996a, no. 86 Loomweight C 7438 Lw 40 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 7491 Cl 4 House X, Ch. 3.5 Drain fragment C 7506 Cl 3 House X, Ch. 3.5 Drain fragment C 7581 Lw 26 House X, Ch. 3.3; Dabney 1996a, no. 95 Loomweight C 7704 Cl 2 House X, Ch. 3.5 Drain fragment C 8021 Lw 22 House X, Ch. 3.3; Dabney 1996a, no. 85 Loomweight C 8098 Lw 23 House X, Ch. 3.3; Dabney 1996a, no. 87 Loomweight C 8099 Lw 24 House X, Ch. 3.3; Dabney 1996a, no. 88 Loomweight C 8100 Lw 17 House X, Ch. 3.3; Dabney 1996a, no. 94 Loomweight C 8789 Lw 53 House X, Ch. 3.3; Dabney 1996a, no. 160 Loomweight C 9027 Lw 49 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9028 Lw 39 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9066 Lw 54 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9067 Lw 15 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight CONCORDANCE OF EXCAVATION AND CATALOG NUMBERS 133

Excav. House X References Object Type No. Cat. No.

C 9068 Lw 55 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9069 Lw 16 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9136 F 5 House X, Ch. 3.7 Male figurine torso C 9207 Lw 58 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9210 Lw 41 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9211 F 4 House X, Ch. 3.7 Female figurine C 9216 Lw 42 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9217 Lw 19 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9219 Lw 20 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9220 F 3 House X, Ch. 3.7 Miniature bull’s horn C 9221 Lw 6 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9222 Lw 18 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9223 Lw 7 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9224 Lw 8 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9227 Lw 57 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9387 Cl 6 House X, Ch. 3.5 Terracotta slab C 9401 Sp 63 House X, Ch. 3.3 Spindle whorl C 9453 Lw 1 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9454 Lw 2 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9455 Lw 3 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9456 Lw 4 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9457 F 1 House X, Ch. 3.7 Tiny terracotta figurine C 9493 Lw 37 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9502 Lw 38 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9523 Lw 5 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9524 Lw 36 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9529 F 2 House X, Ch. 3.7 Female figurine C 9530 Lw 12 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9534 Lw 14 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9536 Lw 29 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9633 Lw 13 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9706 Lw 9 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9707 Lw 10 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C9708 Lw 11 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9784 Lw 33 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9788 Cl 1 House X, Ch. 3.5 Potter’s wheel C 9797 Lw 34 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 9815 Lw 35 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 10075 Lw 51 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 10088 Lw 43 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 10109 Lw 44 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 10129 Lw 45 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 10157 Lw 56 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 10203 Lw 46 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight C 10249 Lw 52 House X, Ch. 3.3 Loomweight L 19 Me 29 House X, Ch. 3.2; Dabney 1996b, no. 3 Weight L 25 Me 30 House X, Ch. 3.2 Weight L 26 Me 31 House X, Ch. 3.2 Lead object Mi 6 J 3 House X, Ch. 3.6; Dabney 1996c, no. 12 Bead 134 HOUSE X AT KOMMOS

Excav. House X References Object Type No. Cat. No.

Mi 190 Ot 1 House X, Ch. 3.8 Glass vessel P 176 Fr 9 House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment P 181a, P181b Fr 1a, 1b, 2 House X, Ch. 2 Lily fresco fragment P 181c Fr 3 House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment P 182 Fr 7 House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment P 183a Fr 8 House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment P 188 Fr 5 House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment P 189 Fr 6 House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment P 190 House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment P191 Fr 4 House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment P 291 Fr 10 House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment P 292 House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment P 293a–c House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment P 294 Fr 9 House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment P 295 House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment P 295a–d House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment P 296 House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment P 297 House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment P 298 House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment P 299 House X, Ch. 2 Fresco fragment S 58 J 1 House X, Ch. 3.6; Dabney 1996c, no. 24 Bead S 60 J 2 House X, Ch. 3.6; Dabney 1996c, no. 36 Bead S 139 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Tool S 144 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Tool S 333 St 12 House X, Ch. 3.4 Cobble S 334 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Tool S 342 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Tool S 1000 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble S 1385 St 23 House X, Ch. 3.4 Differentially weathered stone S 1451 St 7 House X, Ch. 3.4 Whetstone S 1603 St 40 House X, Ch. 3.4; Schwab 1996, no.1 Squat alabastron S 1697E St 35 House X, Ch. 3.4 Stone axe S 1711 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble S 1712 St 21 House X, Ch. 3.4; Blitzer 1995, GS 600 Disk S 1713 St 22 House X, Ch. 3.4; Blitzer 1995, GS 601 Disk S 1714 St 18 House X, Ch. 3.4; Blitzer 1995, GS 569 Weight S 1743 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Whetstone S 1865 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble S 1867 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble S 1875 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble S 1885 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Whetstone S 1888 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Hand stone S 1897 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble S 1898 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble S 1899 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble S 1900 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble S 1900B House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble CONCORDANCE OF EXCAVATION AND CATALOG NUMBERS 135

Excav. House X References Object Type No. Cat. No.

S 1902 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Polisher S 1906 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Whetstone S 1908 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble S 1910 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble S 1915 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Hand stone S 1922 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Polisher S 1923 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Quern S 1924 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Large cobble S 1926 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Hand tool S 1929 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Hand tool S 1930 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble S 1931 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Hand tool S 1934 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Hand tool S 1936 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Whetstone S 1939 House X, Ch. 1.2 Pivot slab S 1947 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Quern S 1952 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Small cobble S 1962 St 6 House X, Ch. 3.4 Whetstone S 1966 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Flat oval stone S 1968 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble S 1972 St 19 House X, Ch. 3.4; Blitzer 1995, GS 571 Cobble S 2128 St 46 House X, Ch. 3.4 Lid S 2129 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Quern S 2130 St 28 House X, Ch. 3.4 Basin S 2133 St 14 House X, Ch. 3.4 Weight S 2134 St 20 House X, Ch. 3.4 Slab with depression S 2137 St 48 House X, Ch. 3.4 Lid S 2138 J 5 House X, Ch. 3.6 Bead S 2139 J 12 House X, Ch. 3.6 Bead S 2140 St 25 House X, Ch. 3.4 Basin S 2141 St 26 House X, Ch. 3.4 Mortar S 2142 St 9 House X, Ch. 3.4 Abrader S 2143 J 16 House X, Ch. 3.6 Serpentine lentoid S 2144 J 14 House X, Ch. 3.6 Steatite stamp S 2145 J 13A House X, Ch. 3.6 Bead S 2146 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Hand stone S 2147 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Hand stone S 2148 J 10 House X, Ch. 3.6 Steatite shell pendant S 2152 St 8 House X, Ch. 3.4 Whetstone S 2153 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Pecked cobble S 2154 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Flat rounded cobble S 2155 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Hand stone S 2156 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Pecked cobble S 2157 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Pecked hand tool S 2158 St 42 House X, Ch. 3.4 Fragmentary lamp S 2161 J 6 House X, Ch. 3.6 Bead S 2162 J 19 House X, Ch. 3.6 Jeweler’s mold S 2167 St 15 House X, Ch. 3.4 Weight S 2168 J 11 House X, Ch. 3.6 Stone pendant 136 HOUSE X AT KOMMOS

Excav. House X References Object Type No. Cat. No.

S 2170 St 10 House X, Ch. 3.4 Pestle S 2173 St 17 House X, Ch. 3.4 Drill wedge S 2175 St 43 House X, Ch. 3.4 Bowl fragment S 2182 St 44 House X, Ch. 3.4 Lid S 2183 J 13 House X, Ch. 3.6 Pebble pendant S 2185 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Quern of beach rock S 2186 J 17 House X, Ch. 3.6 Serpentine disk S 2187 J 18 House X, Ch. 3.6 Steatite cushion seal S 2189 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble S 2191 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble S 2192 St 11 House X, Ch. 3.4 Handstone S 2194 St 2 House X, Ch. 3.4 Cobble S 2195 St 1 House X, Ch. 3.4 Cobble S 2196 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble S 2197 St 3 House X, Ch. 3.4 Cobble S 2198 St 4 House X, Ch. 3.4 Cobble S 2200 St 24 House X, Ch. 3.4 Saddle quern S 2201 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Hand stone S 2202 St 33 House X, Ch. 3.4 “Stamnostatis” S 2203 St 34 House X, Ch. 3.4 “Stamnostatis” S 2205 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Cobble S 2207 J 4 House X, Chs. 3.6, 4.6 Shell bead S 2208 St 16 House X, Ch. 3.4 Drill wedge S 2209 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Hand tool S 2210 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Hand tool S 2211 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Quern fragment S 2214 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Hand stone S 2219 J 9, St 13 House X, Ch. 3.4, 3.6 Pebble pendant S 2222 J 15 House X, Ch. 3.6 “Talismanic” amygdaloid S 2223 St 38 House X, Ch. 3.4 Obsidian core S 2224 St 47 House X, Ch. 3.4 Ribbed chalice or pyxis S 2225 St 37 House X, Ch. 3.4 Obsidian flake S 2238 St 39 House X, Ch. 3.4 Obsidian blades S 2241 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Quern fragment S 2242 St 31 House X, Ch. 3.4 Mortar S 2243 St 32 House X, Ch. 3.4 Mortar S 2269 House X, Ch. 1.2 Small, disk-shaped column base S 2282 St 5 House X, Ch. 3.4 Cobble S 2283 St 27 House X, Ch. 3.4 Slab S 2284 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Saddle quern S 2285 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Saddle quern S 2286 St 36 House X, Ch. 3.4 Obsidian wedge S 2295 House X, Ch. 1.2 Stone pedestal S 2304 St 41 House X, Ch. 3.4 Kernos fragments S 2309 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Hand tool S 2310 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Polisher S 2324 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Tool S 2341 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Tool S 2348 House X, Ch. 1.2, Table 5.3 Half of a large quern CONCORDANCE OF EXCAVATION AND CATALOG NUMBERS 137

Excav. House X References Object Type No. Cat. No.

S 2349 St 29 House X, Ch. 3.4 Mortar S 2350 St 30 House X, Ch. 3.4 Mortar Sh 10 Sh 10 House X, Ch. 4.6 Shell assemblage Sh 11 Sh 11 House X, Ch. 4.6 Triton shell Sh 12 J 7, Sh 12 House X, Chs. 3.6, 4.6 Two shell necklaces Sh 13 J 4, Sh 13 House X, Chs. 3.6, 4.6 Shell bead Sh 17 J 8, Sh 17 House X, Chs. 3.6, 4.6 Shell pendant Sh 19 Sh 19 House X, Ch. 4.6 Glycymeris with symbol References

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abrader, 82 strips, 21, 76 agrimi (Capra aegagrus), 96–97 tweezers, 31, 77 Akrotiri (Thera) utensils, 20 Building Delta, 63 wires, 76 ceiling heights, 48 n. 21 Building T, 41–42, 118–119, 123 frescoes, 57, 63, 64, 65 House of the Ladies, 64 cattle (Bos), 96, 97–98, 108 staircases, 44 Chamaizi, 89 West House, 120–121, 122, 123 Chania, 67, 122 window and door, 8 Chinese brush painting, 69, 73 n. 9 Xeste 3, 63, 119, 122 clay drain fragments, 41, 84 alabastron, 21, 21, 84 cobbles, 82 Amnisos, floral fresco, 57 cooking, 10, 16, 27, 28, 33, 41, 42, 101, 110, 112, 125, amphorae, Egyptian, 14, 30 127–128 anvil, 77 cooking pots, 5, 21 Arcularia shells, 95, 99 tripod, 10, 30 cowrie (Erosaria), 106 beads, 10, 21, 85, 99, 100, 116 crustaceans, 94 bird remains, 94 cups, 10, 11, 13, 21 boar’s tusk, 107, 115 bone objects, 115 dog (Canis), 97 braziers, 13, 14 drill wedges, 20, 82 bronze drinking and feasting in X2, 19, 20, 103 bull, 15, 48 n. 32 drinking in X8, 28, 105 fishhooks, 6, 77, 103, 105 knives, 49 n. 50, 76, 99, 105 needles, 77 earthquake in MM III, 2, 3, 117 sickle blade, 77 Egyptian glass paste bottle, 9, 90 148 HOUSE X AT KOMMOS

Evans, A., on ritualistic use of shells, 113 House X, cont. dating, 3, 125–126 decline of, 125, 127 fallow deer (Dama), 97, 103 dimensions of, 2 faunal remains, 93–95, 98, 108, 109–112. See also individual east sector, 3 species as elite structure, 119 fish, 94, 116 excavation of, 1–2 food consumption, 103, 106, 108, 109 as freestanding structure, 118 food preparation, 35, 99, 100, 105, 127 leveling process for construction, 46 Fotou, V., on preparation of building ground, 46 LM II dumps north of, 44, 45 frescoes. See also individual sites; Lily Fresco; Spiral Fresco; Location Y2, 3, 45 Stems Fresco main entrance, 121 buon fresco technique, 53, 68, 71, 73 n. 15 as mansion, 117, 120 dating of, 53, 72 masonry of, 2 digital online images of, 54 MM III deposits north of, 45 evidence for drafting techniques, 67–69 MM III walls, 3 general observations, 62 north facade, 2 giornata process, 69 position of, 1 intonaco (slip), 68, 69 relation to Building T, 118 Pantone color matches, 72 n. 2 reconstruction of, 123 a secco technique, 53 roof terraces, 122, 123 sinopia (sketch lines), 68–69, 71 size comparisons, 120 in Space X1, 6, 54–56 south facade, 26 in Space X2, 59–60 as Type 2 house, 120 in Space X3, 60–61 upper story, 26, 122, 123 in Space X4, 10, 56–57 west facade, 2 in Space X5, 60 west sector, 2–3 in Space X6, 61 windows, 122 in Space X8, 28, 60, 68 in Space X9, 60 in Space X11/X12, 62–63 Ialysos (Rhodes), 63 in Spaces X13 and X7, 57–58 in Spaces X14a and X14b, 58–59 jars, 5, 11, 14, 21, 24, 30 storage of, 53–54 jeweler’s stone mold, 36, 48 n. 44, 87–88, 126 string-impressed lines, 61 jewelry production, 11, 100, 126 fulmar (Fulmarus), 105 juglets, trefoil-mouthed, 14 jugs, 5, 13, 14, 32 Galatas, Knossian influence at, 71 Glycymeris shells, 7, 10, 11, 14, 22, 24, 33, 36, 44, 95, 100, Kamilari, Tholos Tomb, 89 101, 104, 106, 110, 111–115 Kato Zakros, Sanctuary Rhyton, 63 Greek Building F, 37, 38, 39 Kernos bowl, 84 kestrel (Falco), 105 Hagia Eirene (Keos), 57 Knossian painters, 71, 72 Splash Pattern Fresco, 66 Knossos Hagia Triada the Caravanserai, Partidge and Hoopoe Fresco, 64, 65 Adorant Fresco, 66 Hall of the Double Axes, 8, 67 Knossian influence in, 71 House of the Frescoes, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 70 Portico 54 grafitto, 56 Royal Roads Excavations grafitto, 56 Royal Villa, 63 Royal Villa, 119 Villa Reale, 120 Sponge Fresco, 66 hare (Lepus), 97, 106 Unexplored Mansion, Floral Fresco, 69 hearths Kommos, 119 Iron Age, 15, 31 harbor, 47 n. 1 pi-shaped, 7 international trade, 15, 30–31, 128, 129 n. 14 Heraklion Museum, House X objects in, 90 n. 1 Kophinas, 89 House with the Press, 121–122 House with the Snake Tube, 22, 118 Lachish, shell floors, 114 House X. See also individual Spaces and Staircases lead weights, 77 blocking of doorways, 124 libation tables, 26 central sector, 3 Lily Fresco in House X, 6, 54–56, 57, 62–67 ceramic phases, 125 loom, 81, 90 n. 8 circulation within, 121–122 loomweights, 6, 7, 19, 35, 36, 78–80, 81, 126 compared with West House in Akrotiri, 120–121, 122 INDEX 149 mammal remains, 94–95 Space X2, cont. marble pounder, 30 Floors 1–4, 19–22 metal objects, dating of, 76 food consumption in, 109 metalworking, 15, 76 slab platform, 19 mollusks, 94, 95–96 stratigraphy, 19–22 Monodonta spp. (topshell), 95, 99 walls, 17–19 mortars, 29, 30, 39, 83, 105, 121, 127 Space X3 doorway, 31, 125 necklaces, shell, 16, 85, 102, 115 faunal remains, 105–106 food consumption in, 110 as a kitchen, 32, 33, 105 obsidian, 83–84 north facade of, 45–46 stratigraphy, 32–33, 45 Palaikastro, 122 walls, 31–32 Patella spp. (limpets), 16, 95, 99, 100, 102, 109, 110, 111 Space X4 pendants collapsed upper story, 10 metal, 77 cooking, 10 pebble, 82, 85, 104 doorjamb bases, 8, 9 Spondylus shell, 85, 107, 116 faunal remains, 100–101 steatite shell-shaped, 10, 85 floor of, 8–9 stone, 85 functions of, 10 pestle, 82 painted plaster revetment, 9 pig (Sus), 96, 97, 99 slab structure, 9 Piskokephalo, 89 stratigraphy, 9–10 pithoi, 11, 17, 19, 20, 24, 109 window and door, 8, 11 pivot block, 8, 12, 48 n. 24, 122 Space X5 Plakes, stone stands from, 25–26 column base, 22 porticoes, facing a road, 50 n. 83 doorway, 23 potter’s wheel, 84 faunal remains, 104 pumice, 42 light-well, 8, 22, 23 Pylos, Bluebird Frieze, 64 portico, 22, 23, 24 pyxis, 11, 24, 84, 126 remodeling, 25 slab and drain, 22 south doorway, 23, 25 querns, 20, 21, 35, 39, 83 stone stand, 25–26 stratigraphy, 23–25 Rampa dal Mare, 118 sump, 22, 23 rat (Rattus), 97 walls, 23 Road 17, 1, 26, 41, 44, 50 n. 106, 118 Space X6 Road 32/34, 1, 41, 44, 118 collapsed upper story, 35, 36 rods, 76 doorways, 33, 34 faunal remains, 106–107 floor, 34 sea bream (Sparidae), 100, 103 food consumption in, 109 seals, 7, 14, 20, 85–87 LM II dump in, 125 sheep/goats (Ovis/Capra), 96, 97, 99, 108 slab and drain, 3, 33, 34 shells. See individual species; mollusks stratigraphy, 34–36 ritual significance, 101, 111–112, 116 walls, 34 Snake Goddess, 89–90 Space X7 Snake Tube, 14, 89 collapsed upper story, 14, 101–102 Space X1 doorways, 13 anta, 4 faunal remains, 101–102 blocked doorway, 6, 124 as passageway, 13 as a closet, 4, 5, 7, 109, 120, 126 remodeling into shrine, 124 faunal remains, 99–100 ritual significance of shells, 101, 111–112 as kitchen, 110 as shrine, 13, 14, 101, 110, 128 as LM IB dump, 7 stone table, 13 scaffolding socket, 4 stratigraphy, 13–14 stratigraphy, 5–7 Space X8 walls, 4–5, 46 doorways, 26–27 Space X2 faunal remains, 104–105 as dining room, 109 floor, 27 doorless space, 17–18, 19, 120 remodeling of, 124–125 doorway, 17, 18–19 stone bench, 27 faunal remains, 103–104 150 HOUSE X AT KOMMOS

Space X8, cont. Spaces X14a and X14b, cont. stratigraphy, 28–29 slab bins, 15 walls, 27 stratigraphy of X14a, 15–16 windows, 27 stratigraphy of X14b, 16–17 Space X9 spindle whorls, 12, 36, 80 blocking of north door, 125 Spiral Fresco, 16, 58–59, 67 blocking wall, 29 sprinklers, 14 doorways, 29 Staircase X13 faunal remains, 105 building phases of, 11–12, 15 floor, 29 circulation and upper story, 122, 123 industrial area, 120 faunal remains, 102 stratigraphy, 30–31 height of risers, 11, 48 n. 20 terrace above, 30 sottoscala, 12, 15 Space X10 stratigraphy, 12 ceiling, 36 window, 8, 12, 122 faunal remains, 107 Staircase X15 floor, 36–37 dividing wall, 43 LM II dump, 2, 38, 39 faunal remains, 107–108 mortar in, 121, 127 layout and construction, 42–44 pier, 36, 37 sottoscala, 3, 29, 121 pillars, 36, 37 stratigraphy, 44 as portico, 36, 37 stamnostatis (potstand), 7, 83, 105 post-Minoan construction, 38 Stems Fresco, 6, 55, 56, 69–71 stratigraphy, 38–39 stone objects superstructure above, 37 axe, trapezoidal, 83, 90–91 n. 12 Space X11/X12 bowls, 84 as closet, 41, 121 disks, 28, 82 faunal remains, 107 handstone, 82 gamma-shaped structure, 40 lamp, 84 LM II dump, 41, 125 polishers, 21 as passageway, 39–40 vase lids, 84 stratigraphy, 40–41 weight, 82 walls, 40 Space X16 terracotta sculpture, 20, 33, 88, 89 circulation and, 121 terracotta slab, 84 as corridor and lobby, 41 Triton shell (Charonia), 14, 96, 101, 111, 115 faunal remains, 107 trowel, 30, 77 floor, 41 Tylissos, 50 n. 88 remodeling of, 42, 125 retaining wall, 42 road system and, 41–42 weasel (Mustela), 97 stratigraphy, 42 weaving, 19, 35, 80–81, 110, 111, 119, 126–127 Spaces X14a and X14b whetstones, 82 anta, 15 wild boar, 97. See also boar’s tusk blockage of east doorway of X14a, 16, 124 construction of, 14–15 Zakros, 119 faunal remains, 102 Tables TABLE 1.1

Space Group Context Date Brief Description of Context

Floor deposit at 5.03 m over pebbles at west, at 5.00 m X1:1 Floor LM IA Final over beaten soil capped by small stones at east and in center, and fill above to ca. 5.15/5.22 m

Upper fill above LM IA Final floor in center and east X1:2 Fill LM IA Final of room, ca. 5.15/5.22 m to 5.38/5.42 m

Uppermost fill above LM IA Final floor in center and east Mixed LM IA Final X1:3 Fill of room; LM IB Late ca. 5.38/5.42 m to 5.44 m (west)/ and LM IB Late 5.56 m (east)

Disturbed fill above LM IA Final floor toward west end of Mixed LM IB Late X1:4 Fill room, and LM II ca. 5.15 m to 5.36/5.42 m (Trench 73A), and LM II ca. 5.12 m to 5.48/5.52 m (Trench 81A)

X1:5 Fill LM II X1/X4 doorway: initial door blocking

X1:6 Fill LM II X1/X4 doorway: secondary door blocking

Level with painted plasters from the Lily Fresco, sloping with a few LM II sherds from 5.44 m to 5.56 m in Trench X1:7 Fill LM II 73A and with its top also at 5.56 at the very west end of Space X1 the room in Trench 81A

Initial LM II floor at 5.50/5.55 m with slabs that may have X1:8 Floor LM II served as potstands along both north and south walls at the east and LM II fill immediately above to 5.60/5.74 m

Fill above initial LM II floor overlain by a series of slabs stepping up from the room’s east end at 5.75 m (in trench 66A) to a high point of 6.11/6.12 m (immediately behind X1:9 Floor LM IIIA:1 the eastern segment of the blocked doorway to X4 in Trench 73A) and extending all the way to the west end with a slab in Trench 81A overlying a surface at 6.10 m

Fill above lowest slabs of partially paved floor at west end of Space X1, ca. 5.72 m to 6.09 m (i.e., up to same X1:10 Floor and Fill LM IIIA:1 level as higher slabs of same floor in center and west of room)

Soil surface at ca. 6.10 m and fill above to ca. 6.20 m all X1:11 Floor? LM IIIA:2(?) over Space X1; originally LM IIIA2 but disturbed in Archaic times?

Fill on top of irregularly sloping bedrock at 4.04/4.11/4.16 X2:1 Fill LM IA Advanced m up to floor at ca. 4.20/4.24 m

Floor at 4.20/4.24 m and fill above to ca. 4.58 m (south), X2:2 Floor LM IA Advanced 4.78 m (center), and 4.88 m (north) Space X2 Material composing the pebbled floor at 4.89/4.90 m, a X2:3 Fill LM IB Late thin layer of crushed sherds below, and a thin layer of soil below

Pebble Floor 1 at 4.89/4.90 m and fill above to X2:4 Floor LM IB Late ca. 4.99 m

Table 1.1. Pottery groups by room in House X, showing the spatial and stratigraphic contexts of the groups as defined and dated by J.B. Rutter, September 25, 2008. TABLE 1.1

Space Group Context Date Brief Description of Context

X2:5 Floor LM IB Late Floor 2 at 4.98/5.02 m and fill above to ca. 5.07/5.08 m

Floor 3 at 5.04 m (south), 5.09 m (north), and fill above X2:6 Floor LM IB Late to ca. 5.26/5.35 m

Floor 4 at ca. 5.30/5.40 m corresponding with top of X2:7 Floor LM IB Final uppermost step (top at 5.40 m) leading up into Space X2 from X5 to the south, plus fill above to ca. 5.70 m

X2:8 Fill LM IIIA Deep overlying fill from 5.43/5.47 m to 5.79/5.85 m Space X2, Mixed fill above Neopalatial levels, from ca. 5.90 m to cont. X2:9 Fill LM IIIB 6.10 m (Trench 66A) and from ca. 5.95 m to 6.25/6.30 m (Trench 74A)

Uppermost purely Minoan levels over Space X2, ca. X2:10 Fill LM IIIB 6.05 m to 6.25 m

North of X2: surface at ca. 6.16 m and fill above to ca. X2(N):1 Fill LM II 6.35 m

Mixed LM IA Final X2(N):2 Fill North of X2: upper fill from ca. 6.35 m to ca. 6.80 m to LM IIIA:1

Sounding Sounding below LM IB Late floor and in fill over original X3:1 LM IA Final below floor floor, from ca. 4.97 m to 5.06 m

Floor at ca. 5.08/5.14 m and fill above surface at X3:2 Floor LM IB Late +5.08/5.14 m and up to 5.20 m

X3:3 Floor LM IB Late Floor at ca. 5.22/5.24 m

Burned fill ca. 0.10–0.15 m thick above floor at X3:4 Fill LM IB Late 5.22/5.24 m

Collapsed (Collapsed?) floor at ca. 5.30/5.35 m and fill up to ca. X3:5 LM IB Final floor? 5.35/5.40 m

Space X3 Fill ca. 0.20 m thick above LM IB Late/Final X3:6 Fill LM IIIA:2–IIIB (collapsed?) floor

North of X3, west: surface at 5.91/5.95 m and fill above X3(N):1 Floor LM IA Final to ca. 5.97/6.04 m

North of X3, east: fill of foundation trench for north wall X3(N): 2 Fill LM IA Final of X3 (?), from ca. 5.30 to 5.51 m

North of X3, east: Lower fill, from ca. 5.25/5.30 m to X3(N):3 Fill LM IB Final ca. 5.80/5.85 m

North of X3, east: upper fill, from ca. 5.80/5.85 m to X3(N):4 Fill LM II ca. 6.25 m

West half of X4: fill below LM IIIA:2 Early abandonment X4:1W Fill LM IIIA:2 at ca. 4.90/4.95 m Space X4 East half of X4: fill below LM IIIA:2 Early abandonment X4:1E Fill LM IIIA:2 surface at 5.07 m overlying original LM IIIA:1 floor(?) at ca. 4.90/4.95 m

Table 1.1, cont. Pottery groups by room in House X, showing the spatial and stratigraphic contexts of the groups as defined and dated by J.B. Rutter, September 25, 2008. TABLE 1.1

Space Group Context Date Brief Description of Context

Space X4, X4:2 Floor LM IIIA:2 X4: Ground floor at 5.07 and fill above to ca. 5.38 cont. X4:3 Floor LM IIIA:2 Collapsed upper story floor, ca. 5.40 to 5.78 m

Fill below pebble floor in northeast corner of room, X5:1 Floor LM IA Final 4.73–4.81 m and exposure of lower slab paving at 4.77/4.82/4.83/4.84 m

Removal of upper slab floor at 4.91 m and exposure of floor of pebbles (concentrated in northeast corner in front of door to X2) and slabs (concentrated in X5:2 Floor LM IA Final southwest corner just inside door leading from X8 to the south) at 4.94 m (southwest), 4.84 m (northwest), and 4.81–4.85 m (northeast)

Space X5 Sounding below lifted slab in light-well in southeast X5:3 Fill LM II corner of room, 4.42–4.83 m

Floor of slabs at ca. 4.90 m in areas of X5 outside of X5:4 Accumulation LM IB–IIIA:2 Early the light well

Massive floor deposit above 4.90 m in light-well (in X5:5 Floor LM IIIA:2 southeast corner), above ca. 5.10 m in remainder of room, up to ca. 5.25 m

Uppermost fill above LM IIIA:2 floor deposit, ca. X5:6 Fill LM IIIA:2 5.25–5.90 m

Surface at ca. 4.75 m and fill above to ca. 4.85 m X6:1 Floor LM IA Final (Trench 93A/107)

X6:2 Floor LM IB Late Surface at ca. 4.85 m and fill above to ca. 4.90 m

X6:3 Fill LM IB Late Fill of wall blocking doorway from X6 south into X9 Space X6 X6:4 Dump LM II Surface at ca. 4.90 m and fill above to ca. 5.05/5.14 m

X6:5 Dump LM IIIA:1 Surface at ca. 5.05/5.14 m and fill above to ca. 5.70 m

Surface at ca. 5.70 m and fill above until the amount of X6:6 Floor LM IIIA:2 historic material is noticeable

Floor of soil and stone slabs at 4.81/4.82 m and fill X7:1 Floor LM IB Late above to ca. 4.92 m

Floor of soil and a couple of stone slabs at 4.90 m (soil), X7:2 Floor LM II 4.92 m (slabs), and fill above to ca. 5.06–5.09 m (southwest) and 5.03–5.04 m (northeast)

Space X7 Floor of soil at 5.06–5.09 (southwest), 5.03–5.04 m X7:3 LM IIIA:1 (northeast), and fill above to ca. 5.22/5.25 m

Beaten soil floor at ca. 5.25 m and fill above to ca. 5.50 X7:4 Floor LM IIIA:2 m, including finds from top of stone table at 5.53 m

Collapsed upper story floor, ca. 5.50 m to 5.75 m, X7:5 LM IIIA:2 with whole pots found Table 1.1, cont. Pottery groups by room in House X, showing the spatial and stratigraphic contexts of the groups as defined and dated by J.B. Rutter, September 25, 2008. TABLE 1.1

Space Group Context Date Brief Description of Context

Mixed Neopalatial Surface at 4.45 m (south), 4.55 m (north), and fill above X8:1 Fill through LM II to ca. 4.90 m

Space X8 X8:2 Fill LM II–IIIA:1 Fill used to raise floor level from ca. 4.90 m to ca. 5.10 m X8:3 Floor LM IIIA:1 Surface at ca. 5.10 m and fill above to ca. 5.20/5.22 m

X8:4 Fill LM IIIA:2 Early Fill in wash levels from ca. 5.20/5.22 m to ca. 5.55 m

X9:1 Fill LM IB Final Fill from soundings below LM II floor at 4.45/4.60 m

Floor at 4.45 m (south), 4.50 m (center), 4.55 m (north) X9:2 Floor LM II and fill above to ca. 4.70/4.75 m

Space X9 Wall collapse from north and west walls of X9, ca. X9:3 Fill LM II–IIIA:2(/B?) 4.70/4.75 m to ca. 5.25/5.30 m

Fill deposited over collapsed rubble of walls from ca. X9:4 Fill LM IIIA:1 5.25/5.30 m to 5.40/5.45 m

X10: floor deposit at 4.96 m and dump from surface at ca. X10:1 Dump LM II 4.96 m to ca. 5.80 m. Watrous (1992) deposits 19 (probable floor) and 24 (probable fill)

Space X10 X10:2 LM IIIA:2 Material composing the surface, ca. 5.70 m, to 5.80 m (fill)

Surface at ca. 5.80 m laid in LM IIIA:2 and fill above to X10:3 Floor LM IIIB 5.88 m. Watrous (1992) deposit 33

X10(N):1 Fill LM II North of X10: fill from ca. 5.25/5.36 m to ca. 6.30 m

Surface at 5.00/5.05 m and fill above to ca. 5.20 m. X11/X12:1 Floor LM IB Late Watrous (1992) deposit 9 Space X11 Fill from above LM IB Late floor deposit (top at ca. 5.20 m) X11/X12:2 Fill LM II to ca. 5.55/5.60 m. Watrous (1992) deposit 18

X13:1 Fill LM I–II Fill of soil and stones from 5.07/5.10 m to 5.73 m Space X13 X13:2 Fill LM II Fill in removed blocking of doorway from 5.73 m to 5.24 m

Upper dirt surface at ca. 4.50 m plus overlying fill below X14a:1 Floor LM IB Late pebble floor (with much Protopalatial) Space X14a Abandonment surface of dirt at 4.76/4.77 m plus X14a:2 Floor LM II overlying fill up to 4.86 m (south) and 4.90 m (north)

Fill of brown soil and stones underlying sloping surface on Space X14b X14b:1 Fill LM I–II which west wall of X14b was built, ca. 4.60 to 4.76/4.86 m

Fill in sottoscala of staircase’s west return flight from ca. X15:1 Fill LM IIIA:1 Space X15 4.36/4.42 m to ca. 5.10/5.14 m X15:2 Floor LM IIIA:1 Surface at 5.10/5.14 m and fill above to ca. 5.65 m

Collapsed second story floor deposit, 4.70/4.72 m to X16:1 Floor LM IIIA:1 5.10/5.16 m Space X16 Surface at 5.04 m (south) and 5.13 m (north), and fill X16:2 Floor LM IIIA:2 above to ca. 5.38 m (south) and 5.53 m (north)

Table 1.1, cont. Pottery groups by room in House X, showing the spatial and stratigraphic contexts of the groups as defined and dated by J.B. Rutter, September 25, 2008. TABLES 1.1 AND 2.1

Space Group Context Date Brief Description of Context

Post-Minoan

Soil surface at ca. 6.20 m overlain by mixed Minoan Space X1 X1:12 Floor? Archaic(?) (through LM IIIA:2) and Archaic/Classical sherds up to ca. 6.40/6.45 m

Fill with small amounts of Archaic material over pure Space X2 X2:Misc. Fill Archaic Minoan strata

Construction of Archaic walls overlying X3 inside original Space X3 X3:Misc. Fill Archaic north and west walls

Miscellaneous pieces of interest from Iron Age levels Space X9 X9:Misc. Fill LM IIIB–IIIC over X9

X14a and X14b: miscellaneous pieces of interest from fill LM I–IIIA:2 with of soil and with some Archaic stones deposited against Space X14 X14:Misc. Fill some Archaic north and west walls of X14b (above 4.76/4.86 m in X14b, above 4.86/4.90 m in X14a)

Miscellaneous piece of interest from southernmost portion Space X15 X15:Misc. Fill Mixed LM II–IIIA:2/B of platform at east in X15

Miscellaneous piece of interest from historic fill above Space X16 X16:Misc. Fill Mixed uppermost purely Minoan levels

Table 1.1, cont. Pottery groups by room in House X, showing the spatial and stratigraphic contexts of the groups as defined and dated by J.B. Rutter, September 25, 2008.

Catalog Space, Trench, and Description References Numbers Pottery Group

Lily Fresco. Fragments depicting the upper, Fr 1a Dumped in X1; Trenches Chs. 1, 2, Frontispiece, Col. flowering part of plant; mounted over an area of Fr 1b 73A/82, 117; 80A/19, 20; Pl. 1B; M.C. Shaw 2009, 4, 0.345 m x 0.285 m; also five solid yellow fragments (P 181a) 81A; X1:4–X1:7 fig. 4 from the upper part of the background.

Lily Fresco. Fragments representing a rocky terrain, most painted deep red; other fragments depicting Dumped in X1; Trenches Chs. 1, 2, Frontispiece, Col. Fr 2 broad leaves from the lower portions of a lily plant, 73A/82, 117; 80A/19, 20; Pl. 1B; M.C. Shaw 2009, 7, (P 181b) painted blue-green on a red background; mounted 81A; X1:4–X1:6 fig. 8 over an area of 0.305 m x 0.280 m; belonging to the lower portion of the fresco.

Stems Fresco. Fragments depicting brown stems with pointed lower ends and no foliage; another pur- Fr 3 Dumped in X1; Trench plish brown, unidentified element; mounted Chs. 1, 2, Col. Pl. 2A; M.C. (P 181c) 80A/19, 20; X1:4–X1:6 over an area of ca. 0.570 m x 0.420 m; some Shaw 2009, 8, 9, figs. 11, 12 fragments thicker and curving outward, as if they were near the floor of the room.

Table 2.1. Distribution and description of the principal fresco fragments from House X. TABLE 2.1

Catalog Space, Trench, and Description References Numbers Pottery Group

Fr 4 X4, in situ along the south Fragments forming strip of two adjoining pieces (P 191) wall; Trench 73A/62; covered in thick blue slip with scattered pale or ruddy Chs. 1, 2 X4:1W spots; preserved area of ca. 0.060 m x 0.050 m.

X4, in situ along the north Fr 5 Poorly preserved fragments with abstract motifs form- end of the west wall; Chs. 1, 2, Col. Pl. 2B (P 188) ing strip ca. 1.00 m long and 0.070–0.100 m high. Trench 86B/11; X4:1W

Fragments of red background with small abstract Fr 6 X4, in situ along east part forms and spots, in one instance white, in another Chs. 1, 2, Col. Pl. 2C (P 189) of north wall multicolored (blue, black, and yellow).

Dumped or fallen from the Chs. 1, 2, Col. Pl. 3A, B; Fr 7 Spiral Fresco. Single fragment measuring 0.120 m x wall of X14a; Trench M.C. Shaw 2009, 8, 10, (P 182) 0.125 m with spiral frieze, drawn using a compass. 80A/34; X14a:2 fig. 15

Fr 8 Fallen(?) from the west wall Fragments of plaster measuring 0.195 m x 0.150 m Chs. 1, 2, Col. Pl. 3C; (P 183a) of X8; Trench 80A/29a; with bluish-white slip and traces of unknown patterns M.C. Shaw 2009, 8, 10, X8:1 painted in red. fig. 15

Fr 9 Three joining fragments of a plaster molding Chs. 1, 2, Col. Pl. 3D; Dumped in X6; Trenches (P 176, measuring 0.085 m x 0.037 m as preserved; M.C. Shaw 2009, 8–10, 66A/34, 73B/99; X6:5 P 294) decorated with orange-red paint. fig. 15

Dumped or fallen in Chs. 1, 2, Col. Pl. 4A; Fr 10 Fragment measuring ca. 0.080 m x 0.040 m with blue X11/X12; Trench 81C/32; M.C. Shaw 2009, 8, 10, (P 291) and white bands separated by thick blue gray lines. X11/X12:2 fig. 15

Table 2.1, cont. Distribution and description of the principal fresco fragments from House X. TABLE 3.1 5 2 6 2 1 7 3 9 4 7 5 21 15 10 87 11 60 11 266 Total 2 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 — — — — — — — — — 10 21 Outside House X 1 1 9 2 1 1 1 1 3 4 1 — — — — — — — 25 Above House X 2 3 1 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — X16 1 6 7 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — X15 1 1 2 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — X14 1 1 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — X13 9 5 3 1 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — X12 X11/ 2 2 3 4 1 — — — — — — — — — — — 10 11 33 X10 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 — — — — — — — — — — — 10 X9 4 1 1 1 2 2 — — — — — — — — — — — — 11 X8 House X Spaces/Areas 1 1 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — X7 1 2 5 4 3 1 1 3 2 8 — — — — — — — — 30 X6 1 1 1 2 1 — — — — — — — — — — — — 14 20 X5 8 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 — — — — — — — — — 20 X4 1 1 6 3 1 2 — — — — — — — — — — — — 14 X3 2 2 1 2 1 1 6 1 — — — — — — — — — 18 34 X2 8 3 1 2 2 1 4 2 1 1 — — — — — — — — 25 X1 Cobbles (all types) Querns Mortars/basins Differentially weathered stones bone Worked Bronze blades Disks Type Whetstones/polishers Stamnostates Obsidian Naturally perforated stones Spindle whorls Loomweights Fishhooks Bronze rods/strips slabs Worked Total Bronze Bronze needles wheel Potter’s Table 3.1. Approximate Approximate findspots3.1. of Table utilitarian objects and within, outside above, House X. TABLE 4.1

Latin Name Common Name Use

Mollusks

Acathocardia tuberculatum Spiny cockle E

Arca noae Noah’s ark shell E, B

Arca barbatia Fringed ark shell E, B

Arcularia gibbosula Mud or basket shell D

Astraea rugosa Star shell D

Bittium reticulatum Needle shell D

Cassis sulcosa Helmet shell E, D

Cerastoderma edule glaucum Common cockle E

Cerithium vulgatum Horn shell E, B

Chama gryphoides Jewel box D

Charonia tritonis sequenzae Triton shell D

Columbella rustica Dove shell D

Conus mediterraneus Cone shell D

Cypraea pyrum Pear cowrie D

Dentalium vulgare Tusk shell D

Donax trunculus Wedge shell D, B

Erosaria spurca Yellow cowrie D

Euthria corneum Spindle shell U

Glycymeris glycymeris Dog cockle I, E

Glycymeris violacescens Violet dog cockle I, E

Mactra corallina Surf shell E

Monodonta turbinata Toothed topshell E

Murex brandaris Dye shell I

Murex trunculus Trunk shell I

Nassarius reticulata Mud shell D

Natica maculata Moon shell D

Ocenebra erinaceus Spiny muricid D

Ostrea edulis Common oyster E

Patella caerulea Mediterranean limpet E Table 4.1. Species identified in various strata of House X. B = species is known to be used for bait. E = species is edible and is known ethnographically to be collected for food. D = species has aesthetic qualities; contexts often indicate decorative items or gaming pieces. I = species has industrial or construction uses, as shown from archaeological and historical contexts. M = species exploited historically for milk and other derivative dairy products. R = species used in recreation or as hunting aides. S = species exploited for their skins. U = uses for species unknown. W = used for work, either hunting or as beasts of burden. TABLE 4.1

Latin Name Common Name Use

Mollusks, cont.

Patella lusitanica Limpet E

Patella vulgatum Limpet E

Pinna nobilis Fan shell D

Pisania maculosa Mud whelk D

Sepia sp. Cuttlefish E

Spondylus gaederopus Thorny oyster E, I, D

Thais haemastoma Rock shell I

Tonna galea Giant tun shell E, D

Venerupis aurea Golden carpet shell E

Venus gallina Chicken venus shell E

Venus verrucosa Rippled venus shell E

Vermetus gigas Giant worm shell U

Land Mollusks

Ceciloides acicula Blind snail U

Clausilia cruciata Door snail U

Eobania vermiculata Field snail U

Helicella spp. Banded snails E

Helix aspersa Common garden snail E

Helix aperta Vine snail E

Helix melanostoma Dark-mouthed snail E

Oxychilus sp. Glass snail U

Rumina decollata Decollate snail D

Crustaceans

Cancer pagurus Edible crab E

Eriphia spinifrons Yellow crab E

Echinoderms

Paracentrotus lividus Rock urchin E

Fish

Diplodus sp. Sea bream E

Epinephelus sp. Grouper E

Lophius piscatorius Monkfish E Table 4.1, cont. Species identified in various strata of House X. B = species is known to be used for bait. E = species is edible and is known ethnographically to be collected for food. D = species has aesthetic qualities; contexts often indicate decorative items or gaming pieces. I = species has industrial or construction uses, as shown from archaeological and historical contexts. M = species exploited historically for milk and other derivative dairy products. R = species used in recreation or as hunting aides. S = species exploited for their skins. U = uses for species unknown. W = used for work, either hunting or as beasts of burden. TABLE 4.1

Latin Name Common Name Use

Fish, cont.

Merluccius merluccius European hake E

Pagellus erythrinus Pandora E

Pagrus pagrus Couch’s sea bream E

Serranus cf. cabrilla Comber E

cf. Rajidae Skate/Ray E

Birds

Alectoris chukar Partridge E

Calonectris diomedia Cory’s shearwater E

Columba livia Rock pigeon E

Columba palumbus Wood pigeon E

Falco peregrinus Peregrine falcon R, W

Falco tinnunculus European kestrel R, W

Fulmarus glacialis Northern fulmar E

Puffinus puffinus Mediterranean shearwater E

Mammals

Bos taurus Cattle E, W, M

Canis familiaris Domestic dog R, W

Capra aegagrus Wild goat E, S

Capra hircus Domestic goat E, S, M

Dama dama Fallow deer E

Equus asinus Donkey W, M

Lepus europaeus European hare E, S

Mustela nivalis Weasel U

Ovis aries Domestic sheep E, S, M

Rattus rattus Black rat U

Sus scrofa Pig E, S Table 4.1, cont. Species identified in various strata of House X. B = species is known to be used for bait. E = species is edible and is known ethnographically to be collected for food. D = species has aesthetic qualities; contexts often indicate decorative items or gaming pieces. I = species has industrial or construction uses, as shown from archaeological and historical contexts. M = species exploited historically for milk and other derivative dairy products. R = species used in recreation or as hunting aides. S = species exploited for their skins. U = uses for species unknown. W = used for work, either hunting or as beasts of burden. TABLES 4.2 AND 4.3

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mid rib Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 2 1 1 mid metatarsus Imm.+

Dama 1 right glenoid Imm.+ 1 1

Alectoris 1 mid femur Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 7

Helix 6

Euthria 2

Ostrea 2

Pisania 2

Arcularia 1

Bittium 1

Donax 1

Monodonta 1 worked bead 1 J 4/Sh 13

Murex t. 1 ww Table 4.2. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:1 (LM IA Final floor deposit). Sample wt. 74.6 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 glenoid fragment Imm.+

1 mid scapula Imm.+

2 distal right/left tibiae Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 7 1 1 acetabulum fragment Imm.+

2 proximal phalanges Imm.+

1 distal phalanx Imm.+

1 mid scapula Imm.+

1 proximal metacarpus Imm.+

2 mid ribs Imm.+ Sus 7 2 1 proximal phalanx Imm.+

2 right calcanea Imm.+

1 tarsal Imm.+

Helix 4

Arcularia 1 Pierced

Patella 1

Table 4.3. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:2 (upper LM IA Final fill above LM IA Final floor). Sample wt. 84.0 g. TABLES 4.4 AND 4.5

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 maxilla molar Imm. +

4 mid ribs Imm. + Ovis/Capra 8 2 1 medial phalanx Imm. +

2 cranial fragments Juv.

1 cervical vertebra Imm.+ Sus 2 1 1 mandible incisor Imm.+

1 mid long bone fragments Imm.+ 2 1 Mammal 1 incisor fragments Imm.+

1 distal right femur Imm.+ Alectoris 2 1 1 distal right humerus Imm.+

Patella 6

Helix 3

Monodonta 3

Ostrea 3

Arcularia 1 Pierced

Murex t. 1

Pisania 1

Venus g. 1 Table 4.4. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:4 (mixed LM IB Late and LM II disturbed fill above LM IA Final floor). Sample wt. 42.8 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mandible canine Imm.+

1 mid scapula Imm.+ Butchered

1 right fibula Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 4 mid ribs Imm.+ 10 2

1 cranial fragment Juv.

1 mid left humerus Juv.

1 distal left tibia Juv.

Mammal 1 long bone fragment Imm.+ 1 1

Eriphia 1 pincher Imm.+ 1 1 Table 4.5. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:5 (LM II deposit from west blocking of doorway between X1 and X4, stage 1). Sample wt. 19.1 g. TABLES 4.6 AND 4.7

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Ovis/Capra 2 mid ribs Imm.+ 2 1 Table 4.6. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:6 (LM II deposit from west blocking of doorway between X1 and X4, stage 2). Sample wt. 1.5 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

2 mandible incisors Imm.+

5 mandible molars Imm.+

5 mid ribs Imm.+

3 tarsals Imm.+

1 proximal phalanx Imm.+

1 medial phalanx Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 24 2 1 mid humerus Juv.

2 thoracic vertebrae Juv.

1 caudal vertebra Juv.

1 mid ilium Juv.

1 mid tibia Juv.

1 mid metatarsus Juv.

1 cranial fragment Imm.+

2 mandible incisors Imm.+

1 proximal phalanx Imm.+

Sus 1 mandible molar Adult 8 3

1 right maxilla incisor Imm.

1 mandible canine Juv.

1 metapodial V Juv.

Patella 38

Monodonta 8

Arcularia 5 Pierced

Ostrea 5

Pisania 5

Murex t. 5

Helicella 4 Table 4.7. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:7 (LM II level with Lily Fresco). Sample wt. 188.3 g. TABLES 4.7 AND 4.8

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Bittium 1

Charonia 1

Glycymeris 1

Helix 1 Table 4.7, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:7 (LM II level with Lily Fresco). Sample wt. 188.3 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 left horncore fragment Imm.+

2 mid left humeri Imm.+

5 mid ribs Imm.+

1 mid ilium Imm.+

1 mid ischium Imm.+

1 proximal right metatarsus Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 1 left calcaneum Imm.+ 18 4

1 medial phalanx Imm.+

1 right mandible M3 Adult

1 proximal phalanx Imm.

1 mid metacarpus Juv.

1 sacral vertebra Juv.

1 left calcaneum Juv.

2 distal phalanges Imm.+

1 mid rib Imm.+

1 cranial Juv. Sus 8 2 2 mid left scapulae Juv.

1 mid ischium Juv.

1 caudal vertebra Juv.

Aves 1 mid tibiotarsus Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 38

Monodonta 25

Glycymeris 7 ww, 1 hole

Murex t. 5 2 ww Table 4.8. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:8 (initial LM II floor with slabs along north and south walls). Sample wt. 282.6 g. TABLES 4.8 AND 4.9

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Helicella 4

Arcularia 3

Pisania 2

Anatalis 1

Cerithium 1 ww

Cerstoderma 1

Ostrea 1 Fossil Table 4.8, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:8 (initial LM II floor with slabs along north and south walls). Sample wt. 282.6 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

3 cranial petrous bones Imm.+

1 maxilla molar Imm.+

1 mandible incisor Imm.+

5 mandible PMs Imm.+

1 mandible molar Imm.+

1 axial dens Imm.+

1 distal left humerus Imm.+

1 mid left ulna Imm.+

1 prox left metacarpus Imm.+

2 vertebrae fragments Imm.+

14 mid ribs Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 73 5 1 mid ilium Imm.+

1 long bone fragment Imm.+

1 mid tibia Imm.+ Butchered

1 patella Imm.+

4 proximal phalanges Imm.+

1 medial phalanx Imm.+

5 distal phalanges Imm.+

1 mandible PM1 Adult

1 maxilla molar Imm.

1 mandible M1 Imm.

1 vertebral epiphysis Imm. Table 4.9. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:9 (LM IIIA:1 fill above LM II floor at the east end of the room). Sample wt. 1,676.1 g. TABLE 4.9

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

2 proximal femur ball epiphyses Imm.

1 metapodial epiphysis Imm.

1 proximal phalanx Imm.

1 phalanx epiphysis Imm.

1 cranial fragment Juv.

2 atlases Juv.

1 axis Juv.

1 left scapula Juv.

1 right scapula Juv. Butchered Ovis/Capra, cont. 73 5 1 mid scapula Juv.

1 left humerus Juv.

1 right humerus Juv.

3 mid humeri Juv.

3 vertebral fragments Juv.

1 proximal left femur Juv.

1 mid femur Juv.

1 mid tibia Juv.

1 proximal calcaneum Juv.

1 cranial fragment Imm.+

1 mandible molar Imm.+

1 mid humerus Imm.+

1 proximal radius Imm.+

7 mid ribs Imm.+

1 proximal fibula Imm.+

4 tarsals Imm.+

Sus 1 metapodial V Imm.+ 34 3

1 distal phalanx Imm.+

1 maxilla incisor Imm.

1 mandible incisor Imm.

1 mandible PM Imm.

1 distal radius Imm.

1 metapodial V Imm.

1 metapodial V epiphysis Imm. Table 4.9, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:9 (LM IIIA:1 fill above LM II floor at the east end of the room). Sample wt. 1,676.1 g. TABLE 4.9

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 medial phalanx V Imm.

1 jugular bone Juv.

1 distal humerus Juv.

1 distal humeral epiphysis Juv.

1 mid radius Juv. Sus, cont. 34 3 1 mid ulna Juv.

1 cervical vertebra Juv.

1 mid tibia Juv.

1 metapodial V Juv.

1 distal phalanx Juv.

Bos 1 mandible canine Imm.+ 1 1

1 proximal tibiotarsus Imm.+ Aves 2 1 1 mid tarsometatarsus Imm.+

Sparidae 1 dentary Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 298

Glycymeris 105 ww, 36 holes

Monodonta 54

Helix 34

Helicella 26

Arcularia 7

Murex t. 4 1 ww

Ostrea 4

Columbella 3

Donax 3

Anatalis 2

Pisania 2 1 pierced

Charonia 1

Natica 1

Venerupis 1 Table 4.9, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:9 (LM IIIA:1 fill above LM II floor at the east end of the room). Sample wt. 1,676.1 g. TABLE 4.10 AND 4.11

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Mammals 27

Fish 1

Glycymeris 40 ww, 14 holes

Patella 27

Helix 3

Murex b. 2 ww

Conus 1

Monodonta 1 Table 4.10. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X1:10 from the study by D. Reese (LM IIIA:1 fill above slabs of partially paved floor at west end of room). Sample wt. unknown.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mandible incisor Imm.+

3 mid ribs Imm.+

5 vertebrae fragments Imm.+

2 left calcanea Imm.+

1 tarsal Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 17 3 1 mid metatarsus Imm.+

1 proximal phalanx Imm.+

1 distal phalanx Imm.+

1 mandible M3 Adult

1 right scapula Juv.

1 mid mandible Imm.+

1 mid ulna Imm.+

1 vertebra fragment Imm.+

1 mid rib Imm.+

2 tarsals Imm.+

1 medial phalanx Imm.+ Sus 18 2 6 deciduous PMs Imm.

1 distal radius Imm.

1 distal metacarpal Imm.

1 vertebral epiphysis Imm.

1 fibular epiphysis Imm.

1 metapodial epiphysis Imm.

Table 4.11. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X4:1W (LM IIIA:2 Early fill below LM IIIA:2 floor deposit in west half of room). Sample wt. 398.8 g. TABLES 4.11 AND 4.12

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Lepus 1 mid tibia Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 42

Glycymeris 17 ww, 8 holes

Ostrea 6

Arcularia 3 1 pierced

Monodonta 3

Charonia 2 1

Helix 2

Erosaria 1 Table 4.11, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X4:1W (LM IIIA:2 Early fill below LM IIIA:2 floor deposit in west half of room). Sample wt. 398.8 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mandible canine fragment Imm.+

1 mid radius Imm.+

1 mid ulna Imm.+ Sus 8 1 1 med phalanx Imm.+

3 long bone fragments Imm.+

1 distal radial epiphysis Imm.

Aves 1 proximal humerus Imm.+ 1 1

Glycymeris 127 ww, 54 holes

Patella 57

Monodonta 6

Bittium 3

Murex t. 3

Helicella 2

Helix 2

Arcularia 1 ww

Cypraea 1 ww

Fascularia 1

Pisania 1 Table 4.12. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X4:1E (LM IIIA:2 fill below LM IIIA:2 floor deposit in east half of room). Sample wt. 500.5 g. TABLE 4.13

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 maxilla PM4 Imm.+

1 mandible M1 Imm.+

2 mandible molars Imm.+

1 mid ulna Imm.+

1 distal left metacarpus Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 1 dorsal vertebral fragment Imm.+ 22 2

10 mid ribs Imm.+

1 patella Imm.+

1 mid right calcaneum Imm.+

2 medial phalanges Imm.+

1 mid tibia Juv.

Ovis 1 right astragalus Imm.+ 1 1

1 mid ulna Imm.+

1 patella Imm.+

Sus 3 tarsals Imm.+ 7 1

1 proximal phalanx Imm.

1 metapodial V Imm.

1 patella Imm.+ Dama 2 1 1 left astragalus Imm.+

Canis cf. 1 dorsal vertebral fragment Imm.+ 1 1

Mammal 1 long bone fragment Imm.+ 1 1

Aves 1 mid coracoid Imm.+ 1 1

Glycymeris 30 ww, 12 holes

Patella 21

Monodonta 6

Helix 3

Ostrea 3

Helicella 2

Murex b. 2

Donax 1

Tonna 1 Table 4.13. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X4:2 (LM IIIA:2 ground floor deposit and fill above). Sample wt. 353.0 g. TABLES 4.14 AND 4.15

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

2 maxilla molars Imm.+

1 left calcaneum Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 1 tarsal centrale Imm.+ 8 1

1 left astragalus Imm.+

3 proximal phalanges Imm.+

1 medial phalanx Imm.+

2 mid ribs Imm.+

Sus 3 carpals Imm.+ 8 1

1 proximal phalanx Imm.+

1 distal tibia Imm.

Glycymeris 11 ww, 4 holes

Patella 11

Ostrea 4 2 fossil

Helicella 3

Helix 3

Monodonta 2

Arca b. 1

Conus 1

Cypraea 1

Murex 1 Table 4.14. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X4:3 (LM IIIA:2 collapsed upper floor deposit). Sample wt. 220.4 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Ovis/Capra 2 mandible molars Imm.+ 2 1

Ovis 1 mandible DP4 Imm. 1 1

1 maxilla right incisor Adult Sus 2 2 1 medial phalanx Imm.

Cassis 1 Table 4.15. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X7:1 (LM IB Late floor of soil and stone slabs). Sample wt. 22.0 g. TABLE 4.16

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 left canine Imm.+

1 mandible incisor Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 1 central vertebra fragment Imm.+ 5 1

1 mid rib Imm.+

1 proximal phalanx Imm.

1 tarsal Imm.+

Sus 1 medial phalanx Imm.+ 3 1

1 distal phalanx Imm.+

Aves 1 mid tibiotarsus Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 22

Glycymeris 11 ww, 4 holes

Monodonta 8

Helicella 6

Helix 3

Ostrea 2

Conus 1

Erosaria 1

Euthria 1

Murex t. 1

Tonna 1 Table 4.16. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X7:2 (LM II floor and fill above). Sample wt. 105.8 g. TABLES 4.17, 4.18, AND 4.19

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Patella 21

Monodonta 14

Glycymeris 9 ww, 2 holes

Helicella 3

Helix 2

Ostrea 2 Fossils

Arcularia 1

Nassarius 1 Table 4.17. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X7:3 (LM IIIA:1 floor of soil and fill above). Sample wt. 87.3

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Glycymeris 12 Sh 10

Patella 10

Monodonta 3

Cerastoderma 1

Charonia 1 Sh 11

Helicella 1 Table 4.18. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X7:4 (LM IIIA:2 beaten soil floor and fill above, including shell on top of stone table). Sample wt. ca. 500.0 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Patella 19

Glycymeris 9 ww, 6 holes

Helix 2 Table 4.19. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X7:5 (LM IIIA:2 collapsed second story with small, thin slab floor). Sample wt. 104.3 g. TABLES 4.20 AND 4.21

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Ovis/Capra 1 mid long bone Imm.+ 1 1

Sus 1 metapodial V Imm. 1 1

Patella 10

Helix 6

Glycymeris 3 ww, 1 hole

Monodonta 2

Arcularia 1

Euthria 1

Murex t. 1

Ostrea 1

Pisania 1

Tonna 1 Table 4.20. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X13:1 (LM I–II fill of soil and stones). Sample wt. 73.0 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 anterior mandible fragment Imm.+

1 mandible PM4 Imm.+

1 mandible M1 Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 6 1 1 mid rib Imm.+

1 mid tibia Imm.+

1 medial phalanx Imm.+

Sus cf. 3 mid ribs Imm.+ 3 1

Mammal 1 mid long bone Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 110

Ostrea 9

Glycymeris 4 ww

Monodonta 4

Cerithium 1

Helicella 1

Helix 1 Table 4.21. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X14a:1 (LM IB Late with much Protopalatial from upper dirt surface and fill below pebble floor). Sample wt. 382.2 g. TABLES 4.22, 4.23, AND 4.24

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Ovis/Capra 1 mandible coronoid Imm.+ 1 1

Sus 1 mid rib Imm.+ 1 1

Arcularia 4 Pierced

Helix 3

Donax 2

Patella 2

Pisania 2

Monodonta 1 Table 4.22. Summary of faunal remains from X14a not assigned to a pottery group (LM IB Late pebble floor and overlying fill up to abandonment level). Sample wt. 15.7 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Mammal 3 mid long bones Imm.+ 3 1

Arcularia 2 necklaces 91 J 7/Sh 12

Helix 13

Bittium 3 J 7/Sh 12

Cerastoderma 1 J 7/Sh 12

Glycymeris 1 J 7/Sh 12

Monodonta 1

Ocenebra 1 J 7/Sh 12 Table 4.23. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X14a:2 (LM II abandonment surface and overlying fill). Sample wt. 36.1 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Patella 12

Glycymeris 3 ww, 2 holes

Helicella 1

Helix 1

Murex t. 2 Table 4.24. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X14a:Misc/lower fill (LM IIIA fill of brown soil and rubble). Sample wt. 67.2 g. TABLES 4.25, 4.26, 4.27, AND 4.28

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mid rib Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 2 1 1 right calcaneum Imm.

Mammal 1 mid long bone Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 48

Glycymeris 11 ww, 3 holes

Monodonta 2

Helix 1 Table 4.25. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X14a:Misc/upper fill (LM IIIA upper fill of soil and stones). Sample wt. 245.6 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Patella 1

Tonna 1 Table 4.26. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X14b:1 (LM I–II fill of soil and stones underlying the surface on which the west wall of X14b was built). Sample wt. 9.9 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Monodonta 2

Glycymeris 1 Table 4.27. Summary of faunal remains from X14b beneath the north wall, not assigned to a pottery group (LM III:A2[?] fill of soil and stones underlying the surface on which the north wall of X14b was built). Sample wt. 19.3 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Ovis/Capra 1 cervical vertebra Imm.+ 1 1 Butchered

Ovis 1 mid mandible Juv. 1 1

Sus 1 mid rib Imm.+ 1 1

Bos 1 mid rib Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 8

Glycymeris 2 ww, 1 hole

Helix 1

Monodonta 1

Murex t. 1 Table 4.28. Summary of faunal remains from X14b by north and west walls, not assigned to a pottery group (LM III:A2[?] fill of soil and stones deposited against the north and west walls). Sample wt. 84.0 g. TABLES 4.29 AND 4.30

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mid rib Imm.+

1 mid metatarsus Imm.+

1 cervical vertebra Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 6 2 Burned 1 proximal right radius Imm.+

1 proximal right ulna Imm.+

1 proximal phalanx Imm.

1 proximal left metacarpus Imm.+

Capra 1 distal left humerus Imm.+ 3 1

I proximal phalanx Imm.+

1 mid right scapula Imm.+

Sus 1 mid rib Imm.+ 3 1

1 distal femur Imm.

Helix 4

Patella 2

Monodonta 1

Pisania 1 Table 4.29. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:1 (LM IA Advanced fill on top of irregularly sloping bedrock up to floor). Sample wt. 83.9 g

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

3 cranial fragments Imm.+

2 mandible incisors Imm.+

3 mandible PMs Imm.+

4 mandible molars Imm.+

2 mid mandibles Imm.+

1 mandible condyloid Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 53 5 1 mid axis Imm.+

2 mid radii Imm.+

1 distal right radius Imm.+

1 mid metacarpus Imm.+

2 vertebral fragments Imm.+

1 sacral vertebra Imm.+ Table 4.30. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:2 (LM IA Advanced floor and fill above). Sample wt. 411.2 g TABLE 4.30

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

11 mid ribs Imm.+

1 mid ilium Imm.+

1 distal femur Imm.+

1 distal tibia Imm.+

1 left calcaneum Imm.+

1 mid metatarsus Imm.+

1 distal left metatarsus Imm.+

1 distal metapodial Imm.+

Ovis/Capra, cont. 3 proximal phalanges Imm.+ 53 5

2 medial phalanges Imm.+

1 distal phalanx Imm.+

1 mandible M3 Adult

1 distal left femur Subadult Butchered

1 mandible M3 Imm.

1 proximal humeral epiphysis Imm.

1 distal metapodial Juv.

1 vertebral fragment Juv.

1 proximal left femur Imm.+

Ovis 1 left astragalus Imm.+ 3 1

1 proximal phalanx Imm.+

1 proximal right metacarpus Imm.+

2 left astragali Imm.+

Capra 1 proximal phalanx Imm.+ 6 2

1 medial phalanx Imm.+

1 left calcaneum Imm.

1 cranial fragment Imm.+

2 maxilla fragments Imm.+

1 maxilla incisor Imm.+

1 mid canine fragment Imm.+

Sus 1 mandible M1 Imm.+ 18 4

1 right glenoid Imm.+

2 left glenoids Imm.+

1 distal right humerus Imm.+

1 mid fibula Imm.+

Table 4.30, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:2 (LM IA Advanced floor and fill above). Sample wt. 411.2 g TABLES 4.30 AND 4.31

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 proximal phalanx Imm.+

2 cranial fragments Imm.+

Sus, cont. 1 mid humerus Juv. 18 4

2 left calcanea Juv.

1 medial phalanx Juv.

Lepus 1 vertebral centrum Imm.+ 1 1

Mammal 2 vertebrae Imm. 2 1

1 mid carpometacarpus Imm.+

1 first phalanx Imm.+ Aves 4 1 1 left acetabulum Imm.+

1 mid tibiotarsus Imm.+

Alectoris 1 right humerus Imm.+ 1 1

1 proximal left coracoid Imm.+ Columbus p. 2 1 1 mid tibiotarsus Imm.+

Charonia 10 1

Patella 9

Monodonta 7

Murex t. 3 1 hole

Ostrea 3

Arcularia 2 1 pierced

Bittium 1

Columbella 1

Euthria 1

Helicella 1 Table 4.30, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:2 (LM IA Advanced floor and fill above). Sample wt. 411.2 g

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

4 mid horncores Imm.+

1 mandible incisor Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 1 mandible PM Imm.+ 19 1

1 proximal humerus Imm.+

1 proximal right radius Imm.+ Table 4.31. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:3 (LM IB Late pebble floor and thin layers of sherds and soil below). Sample wt. 158.1 g TABLES 4.31 AND 4.32

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 articular rib Imm.+

3 mid ribs Imm.+

1 acetabulum Imm.+

1 patella Imm.+ Ovis/Capra, cont. 19 1 2 proximal phalanges Imm.+

1 medial phalanx Imm.+

1 mid phalanx Imm.+

1 mid right mandible Adult

5 cranial fragments Imm.+

Sus 2 mandible molars Imm.+ 8 1

1 distal radial epiphysis Imm.

Mammal 1 mid mandible fragment Imm.+ 1 1

Alectoris 1 right carpometacarpus Imm.+ 1 1

Columba p. 1 distal right humerus Imm.+ 1 1

Monodonta 3

Patella 3

Murex t. 1 Table 4.31, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:3 (LM IB Late pebble floor and thin layers of sherds and soil below). Sample wt. 158.1 g

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mid mandible Imm.+

1 mid glenoid fragment Imm.+

2 mid scapulae Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 2 mid radii Imm.+ 10 1

1 vertebra fragment Imm.+

2 mid ribs Imm.+ Butchered

1 left acetabulum Imm.+

Capra 1 proximal phalanx Imm.+ 1 1

Sus 1 mandible DP3 Juv. 1 1

Aves 1 mid right femur Imm.+ 1 1

Fish 1 mid vertebral spine Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 18 Table 4.32. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:4 (LM IB Late Floor 1 and fill above). Sample wt. 82.2 g. TABLES 4.32, 4.33, AND 4.34

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Monodonta 5

Ostrea 3

Arcularia 2 1 pierced

Donax 2

Helicella 2

Pisania 2

Glycymeris 1 ww Table 4.32, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:4 (LM IB Late Floor 1 and fill above). Sample wt. 82.2 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 maxilla M1 Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 2 1 1 left glenoid Imm.+

1 right scapula Juv.

Sus 1 vertebra Juv. 4 1

2 vertebral epiphyses Juv.

Patella 5

Murex t. 2 Table 4.33. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:5 (LM IB Late Floor 2 and fill above). Sample wt. 27.9 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mandible incisor Imm.+

1 mandible canine Imm.+

1 mandible PM4 Imm.+

1 mandible M1 Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 8 2 1 distal left tibia Imm.+

1 mandible M3 Imm.

1 vertebra Imm.

1 vertebral epiphysis Imm.

Dama 1 proximal right femur Imm.+ 1 1

Mammal 13 fragments Imm.+ 13 1 Table 4.34. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:6 (LM IB Late Floor 3 and fill above; fauna also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 98.4+ g. TABLES 4.34, 4.35, AND 4.36

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Sparidae 1 premaxilla Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 12

Glycymeris 4 ww, 1 hole

Monodonta 3

Conus 1

Helicella 1

Mactra 1 ww

Murex t. 1

Ostrea 2 Fossil Table 4.34, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:6 (LM IB Late Floor 3 and fill above; fauna also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 98.4+ g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Ovis/Capra 1 right mandible M3 Imm.+ 1 1

Mammal 2 fragments Imm.+ 2 1 Table 4.35. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:7 (LM IB Floor 4, corresponding to the uppermost step leading into Space X2 from X5 to the south and fill above; fauna also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 9.1+ g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mandible molar Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 1 mid right humerus Imm.+ 3 1

1 mid radius Imm.+

1 mid right scapula Imm.+ Dama 2 1 1 mid radius Imm.+

Helicella 3

Patella 3

Tonna 1 Table 4.36. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:8 (LM IIIA deep fill). Sample wt. 59.5 g. TABLES 4.37, 4.38, 4.39, AND 4.40

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Mammal 3 fragments Imm.+ 3 1

Glycymeris 44 ww, 11 holes

Patella 6

Helicella 2 Table 4.37. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:9 (LM IIIB mixed fill; fauna also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 344.8+ g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Mammal 6 fragments Imm.+ 6 1

Glycymeris 13 ww, 1 hole

Helix 5

Patella 2

Ostrea 1 Fossil Table 4.38. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2:10 from the study by D. Reese (LM IIIB uppermost purely Minoan levels over Space X2). Sample wt. unknown.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Mammal 7 fragments Imm.+ 7

Thais 1 ww Table 4.39. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X5:1 from the study by D. Reese (LM IA Final fill below pebble floor in northeast corner of room and exposure of lower slab paving). Sample wt. unknown.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Mammal 2 fragments Imm.+ 2

Patella 7

Bittium 1

Euthria 1

Helix 1

Monodonta 1 Burned Table 4.40. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X5:2 from the study by D. Reese (removal of LM IA Final upper slab floor and exposure of floor of pebbles). Sample wt. unknown. TABLES 4.41, 4.42, 4.43, AND 4.44

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Ovis/Capra 1 long bone fragment Imm.+ 1 1

Anatalis 1 Table 4.41. Summary of faunal remains not assigned to a pottery group from the LM IB lower blocking of the doorway between X5 and X8, studied by D. Reese (Trench 66A, pail 42). Sample wt. unknown.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Mammal 5 fragments Imm.+ 5 1

Rodent 1 bone Imm.+ 1 1

Fish 1 bone Imm.+ 1 1

Erosaria 1 ww Table 4.42. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X5:3 from the study by D. Reese (LM II sounding below lifted slab in light-well in southeast corner of room). Sample wt. unknown.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Mammal 17 fragments Imm.+ 17 Table 4.43. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X5:4 from the study by D. Reese (LM IB–IIIA:2 Early floor of slabs in areas of X5 outside of the light-well). Sample wt. unknown.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Mammal 99 fragments Imm.+ 99

Lepus 1 mandible fragment Imm.+ 1 1

Fish 1 vertebra Imm.+ 1 1

Glycymeris 132 ww, 48 holes

Patella 50 2 burned

Monodonta 8

Acanthocardia 2 ww, hole

Arcularia 1 ww, hole

Cerithium 1

Euthria 1

Natica 1

Pisania 1

Thais 1 Table 4.44. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X5:5 from the study by D. Reese (LM IIIA:2 floor deposit within the light-well). Sample wt. unknown. TABLE 4.45, 4.46, AND 4.47

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Mammal 12 fragments Imm.+ 12

Glycymeris 102 ww, 58 holes

Patella 4

Helix 3

Helicella 1

Tonna 1

Table 4.45. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X5:6 from the study by D. Reese (LM IIIA:2 upper part of floor deposit). Sample wt. unknown.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Ovis/Capra 1 mid rib Imm.+ 1 1

Sus 1 distal metapodial V Imm. 1 1

Mammal 11 fragments Imm.+ 11

Aves 1 mid tibiotarsus Imm.+ 1 1

Fish 1 vertebra Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 6

Murex t. 4

Glycymeris 3 ww, 2 holes

Helix 2

Ostrea 2

Rumina 1 Table 4.46. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X8:1 (mixed Neopalatial through LM II floor and fill above; fauna also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 45.3+ g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

2 mid ribs Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 1 mandible molar Imm. 5 1

2 vertebrae fragments Imm.

Mammal 6 fragments Imm.+ 6

Glycymeris 22 ww, 10 holes

Patella 11

Helix 4

Monodonta 2

Murex t. 1 Table 4.47. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X8:3 (LM IIIA:1 floor and fill above; fauna also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 146.3+ g. TABLES 4.48, 4.49, AND 4.50

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Mammal 39 fragments Imm.+ 39

Glycymeris 118 ww, 54 holes

Patella 63

Cerastoderma 1 ww

Helix 1

Monodonta 1 Table 4.48. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X8:4 from the study by D. Reese (LM IIIA:2 Early wash levels). Sample wt. unknown.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Ovis/Capra 1 mid metatarsus Imm.+ 1 1

Mammal 1 mandible incisor fragment Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 2

Anatalis 1

Helicella 1

Helix 1

Monodonta 1

Murex t. 1 Table 4.49. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X9:1 (LM IB Final fill from construction of Space X9, sounding below the LM II floor). Sample wt. 22.8 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mid long bone Imm.+

1 distal left tibia Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 1 distal femur Imm. 5 3

1 proximal tibia Imm.

1 distal tibia Juv.

Bos cf. 1 mid long bone Imm.+ 1 1

Capra 1 proximal phalanx Adult 1 1 Male cf.

Sus 1 proximal phalanx Imm.+ 1 1

Mammal 2 fragments Imm.+ 2

Aves 1 mid ulna Imm.+ 1 1

Helix 21

Table 4.50. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X9:2 (LM II floor and fill above; fauna also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 302.0+ g. TABLES 4.50 AND 4.51

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Ostrea 10 2 Fossil

Patella 4

Monodonta 3

Helicella 2

Columbella 1

Glycymeris 1

Pinna 1

Vermetus 1 Table 4.50, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X9:2 (LM II floor and fill above; fauna also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 302.0+ g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mid right scapula Imm.+

1 distal right humerus Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 1 vertebral centrum Imm.+ 5 1

1 mid rib Imm.+

1 proximal phalanx Imm.+

1 left glenoid Imm.+

1 metapodial V Imm.+ Sus 4 1 1 proximal phalanx Imm.+

1 distal phalanx Imm.+

Helix 28

Glycymeris 16 ww, 9 holes

Monodonta 6

Oxychilus 3

Helicella 2

Patella 2 Table 4.51. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X9:3 (LM II–IIIA:2/B? collapse of north and west walls, Phase 1; fauna also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 271.0+ g. TABLES 4.52, 4.53, AND 4.54

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Ovis/Capra 1 mid metatarsus Imm.+ 1 1

1 mid scapula Imm.+ Sus 2 1 1 mid left humerus Imm.+

Glycymeris 34 ww, 15 holes

Patella 5

Helix 2

Monodonta 2

Charonia 1 Table 4.52. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X9:4 (LM IIIA:1 deposition of soil over collapsed rubble of walls in east half of X9). Sample wt. 431.7 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Ovis/Capra 1 mid rib Imm.+ 1 1

Mammal 1 long bone fragment Imm.+ 1 1

Helicella 1

Table 4.53. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3:1 (LM IA Final material from sounding below lowest exposed floor). Sample wt. 4.7 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

2 mid ribs Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 3 1 1 mid left tibia Imm.+ Bo 57

1 distal tibia Imm.+ Sus 2 2 1 distal tibial epiphysis Imm.

Mammal 1 mid rib fragment Imm.+ 1 1

Monodonta 1

Table 4.54. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3:2 (LM IB Late surface and fill above). Sample wt. 37.7 g. TABLES 4.55 AND 4.56

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mandible incisor Imm.+

1 mid radius Imm.+

1 mid right ulna Imm.+

1 dorsal vertebra fragment Imm.+

1 mid rib Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 11 3 2 acetabulae fragments Imm.+

1 mid left tibia Imm.+

1 mid right mandible Adult

1 proximal humerus Subadult

1 distal tibia Juv.

2 mid horncores Imm.+

Ovis 1 right radius Imm.+ 4 1

1 proximal left metacarpus Imm.+

Sus 1 mid tibia Juv. 1 1

Aves 1 mid femur Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 2

Pisania 2

Monodonta 1

Murex t. 1 Table 4.55. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3:3 (makeup of LM IB Late floor with copious stone tools). Sample wt. 207.9 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 patella Imm.+

3 mid ribs Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 6 1 1 proximal humerus Imm.+

1 mid left tibia Imm.+

1 mid ilium Imm.+ Sus 2 2 1 mid right humerus Juv.

Falco t. 1 right femur Imm.+ 1 1

Fulmarus 1 first phalanx Imm.+ 1 1

Fish 1 urihyal Imm.+ 1 1

Monodonta 14

Patella 3

Glycymeris 1 ww, 1 hole Table 4.56. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3:4 (LM IB Late burned level above floor). Sample wt. 83.7 g. TABLES 4.57 AND 4.58

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mid mandible Imm.+

3 mandible teeth Imm.+

2 mid ribs Imm.+

1 sacral vertebra fragment Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 11 2 1 proximal humerus Imm.

1 proximal tibia Imm.

1 mid left humerus Juv.

1 distal radius Juv.

Sus 1 mid radius Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 5

Monodonta 4

Glycymeris 2 ww, 1 hole

Helix 1 Table 4.57. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3:5 (LM IIIA:2 surface with loomweights under a fill of soft brown soil). Sample wt. 88.8 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 vertebra fragment Imm.+

2 dorsal vertebral fragments Imm.+

4 mid ribs Imm.+

2 sternal segments Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 1 mid ilium Imm.+ 14 2

1 tarsal centrale Imm.+

1 proximal left metatarsus Imm.+

1 mid metatarsus Imm.+

1 mid left humerus Juv.

1 maxilla left incisor Imm.+ Sus 2 2 1 mandible PM4 Juv.

Lepus 1 mid radius Imm.+ 1 1

Glycymeris 20 ww, 6 holes

Patella 4

Erosaria 1

Helicella 1

Monodonta 1 Table 4.58. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3:6 (LM IIIA:2–IIIB upper fill sealed by deep rubble fill; fauna also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 257.0+ g. TABLES 4.59 AND 4.60

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 distal radius Imm. Ovis/Capra 2 2 1 mid metacarpus Juv.

3 mid mandible fragments Imm.+

1 mid humerus Imm.+

1 mandible incisor Imm. Sus 8 1 1 mandible PM Imm.

1 mid pubis Imm.

1 distal fibula Imm.

Glycymeris 52 ww, 20 holes

Patella 6

Helix 2

Ostrea 2 Fossil

Helicella 1 Table 4.59. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3:7 (LM IIIA:2–IIIB deposit dumped as foundation fill for Archaic floor; fauna also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 597.3+ g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mandible molar Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 1 mid tibia Imm.+ 3 2

1 distal left humerus Juv.

Capra 1 distal right humerus Imm.+ 1 1

1 mid right scapula Imm.+ Sus 2 1 1 mid rib Imm.+ Table 4.60. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X6:1 (LM IA Final surface and fill above). Sample wt. 57.8 g. TABLES 4.61 AND 4.62

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

2 mid scapulae Imm.+

1 mid rib Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 5 1 1 distal left tibia Imm.+

1 left calcaneum Imm.+

Ovis 1 distal left metapodial Imm.+ 1 1

Capra 1 distal left humerus Imm.+ 1 1

1 proximal right glenoid Imm.+ Sus 2 1 1 proximal fibular epiphysis Imm.

Dama 1 vestigial metapodial Imm.+ 1 1

Mammal 68 fragments Imm.+ 68

Fish 2 fragments Imm.+ 2 1

Patella 8

Glycymeris 3 ww

Monodonta 2

Arcularia 1 ww, pierced

Euthria 1

Helicella 1

Murex t. 1 Burned Table 4.61. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X6:2 (LM IB Late surface and fill above; fauna also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 84.9+ g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 maxilla molar Imm.+

1 mandible molar Imm.+

1 cervical vertebra Imm.+

1 dorsal vertebral fragment Imm.+

1 left glenoid Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 15 2 1 proximal right radius Imm.+

1 mid metacarpus Imm.+

6 mid ribs Imm.+

1 distal phalanx Imm.+

1 mid maxilla Adult Table 4.62. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X6:4 (LM II floor and fill above; also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 223.7+ g. TABLES 4.62 AND 4.63

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Capra 1 proximal metatarsus Imm.+ 1 1

1 maxilla canine Imm.+

1 glenoid Imm.+

Sus 1 metacarpal Imm.+ 6 1 Female

1 mid tibia Imm.+

2 tarsals Imm.+

101 fragments Imm.+ 101 Mammal 1 worked bone point Imm.+ 1 Bo 54

Fish 1 fragment Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 7

Glycymeris 5 ww, 2 holes

Helix 3

Monodonta 3

Ostrea 2 Fossil

Arcularia 1 Pierced

Murex t. 1

Tonna 1 Table 4.62, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X6:4 (LM II floor and fill above; also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 223.7+ g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

5 mandible molars Imm.+

2 mid mandibles Imm.+

1 mandible coronoid Imm.+

3 mid long bones Imm.+

1 proximal humerus Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 3 carpals Imm.+ 45 3

1 metacarpus Imm.+

11 mid rib Imm.+

1 vertebral fragment Imm.+

2 sacral vertebrae Imm.+

1 caudal vertebra Imm.+ Table 4.63. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X6:5 (LM IIIA:1 dumped fill; fauna also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 597.4+ g. TABLE 4.63

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 patella Imm.+

1 right tarsal centrale Imm.+

1 proximal phalanx Imm.+

1 medial phalanx Imm.+

1 mid mandible Imm.

2 mandible teeth Imm.

Ovis/Capra, cont. 1 mandible left M3 Imm. 45 3

1 dist metapodial epiphysis Imm.

1 mandible M1 Juv.

1 mid right humerus Juv.

1 mid right radius Juv.

1 distal radius Juv.

1 left acetabulum/ishium

1 right calcaneum Imm.+

1 proximal phalanx Imm.+ Ovis 4 3 1 left mandible DP4 Imm.

1 left mandible DP4 Juv.

1 distal left radius Imm.+

2 proximal phalanges Imm.+

Capra 1 medial phalanx Imm.+ 8 2

2 left mandible DPs Imm.

2 right mandible DPs Imm.

1 mid cranial fragment Imm.+

1 mid ulna Imm.+

3 carpals Imm.+

1 patella Imm.+ Sus 10 1 1 mid fibula Imm.+

1 distal phalanx Imm.+

1 mid left mandible Imm.

1 vertebral fragment Imm.

Lepus 1 distal femur Imm.+ 1 1

Mammal 273 fragments 273

4 fragments Imm.+ Aves 6 1 mid tibiotarsus Imm.+ Table 4.63, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X6:5 (LM IIIA:1 dumped fill; fauna also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 597.4+ g. TABLES 4.63 AND 4.64

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Aves, cont. 1 mid femur Imm.+ 6

Fish 11 fragments 11

Glycymeris 160 ww, 64 holes

Patella 36

Monodonta 34

Helix 7

Murex t. 6

Helicella 5

Ostrea 3 2 fossils

Acanthocardia 2 ww, 1 hole

Arcularia 2 1 ww

Cassis 1

Columbella 1

Erosaria 1 Table 4.63, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X6:5 (LM IIIA:1 dumped fill; fauna also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 597.4+ g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mid rib Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 2 1 1 mid tibia Imm.+

Dama 1 mandible molar Adult 1 1

Mammal 1 fragment Imm.+ 1 1

Glycymeris 8 ww, 2 holes

Helix 3

Monodonta 2

Patella 2

Helicella 1 Table 4.64. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X6:6 (LM IIIA:2 floor and fill above; fauna also studied by D. Reese). Sample wt. 81.7+ g. TABLE 4.65

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

2 mid horncores Imm.+

1 mid maxilla Imm.+

3 max molars Imm.+

1 mid left mandible Imm.+

3 mandible molars Imm.+

1 mid left humerus Imm.+

1 mid radius Imm.+

1 vertebral fragment Imm.+

1 proximal right tibia Imm.+

1 mid tibia Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 24 3 1 distal right tibia Imm.+

1 mid metatarsus Imm.+

1 medial phalanx Imm.+

1 worked bone awl Imm.+ Bo 59

1 mid horncore Adult Female

1 left mid mandible Adult

1 mandible tooth Imm.

1 mandible M3 Imm.

1 mid right tibia Imm.

1 thoracic vertebra Imm.

Ovis 1 distal metacarpus Imm.+ 1 1

2 mid horncores Imm.+ Male

Capra 1 right calcaneum Imm.+ 4 1

1 proximal phalanx Imm.+

1 mandible molar Imm.+

1 mid scapula Imm.+

1 mid rib Imm.+

1 left maxilla molar Imm. Sus 8 2 1 mid right mandible Imm.

1 mid right canine root Imm. Female

1 proximal humerus Imm.

1 mid left humerus Juv.

1 horncore Adult 3 1 Bos 2 mid left ulna fragments Imm.+ Table 4.65. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X10:1 (LM II dumped fill over LM IB Late? surface). Sample wt. 856.3 g. TABLES 4.65, 4.66, AND 4.67

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Dama 1 mid radius/ulna Imm.+ 1 1 Butchered

1 mid long bone Imm.+ Mammal 2 1 1 long bone worked point Imm.+ Bo 6

Fish 1 spine Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 11

Glycymeris 9 ww, 6 holes

Charonia 3 fragments

Monodonta 1

Helix 1

Murex t. 1 Table 4.65, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X10:1 (LM II dumped fill over LM IB Late? surface). Sample wt. 856.3 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mid ulna Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 1 mid rib Imm.+ 3 1

1 calcaneum epiphysis Imm.

Monodonta 11

Patella 3

Sepia 3 fragments 1

Glycymeris 1 ww, burned

Helix 1

Murex t. 1

Rumina 1

Spondylus 1 waterworn pendant 1 J 8/Sh 17 Table 4.66. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X11/X12:1 (LM IB Late floor). Sample wt. 77.9 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Ovis/Capra 1 mid radius Imm.+ 1 1

Dama 1 distal phalanx Imm.+ 1 1

Mammal 3 worked rib fragments Imm.+ 2 1 Bo 4, Bo 5, Bo 7

Patella 5

Glycymeris 2 ww, 1 hole Table 4.67. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X11/X12:2 (LM II fill dumped over LM IB Late floor). Sample wt. 22.8 g. TABLES 4.68, 4.69, 4.70, AND 4.71

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mandible incisor Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 2 1 1 mid long bone Imm.+

Mammal 1 long bone fragment Imm.+ 1 1 Table 4.68. Summary of faunal remains not assigned to a pottery group from LM II floor deposit above slab pavement in Space X16 (Trench 81C, pail 81). Sample wt. 5.2 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mandible incisor Imm.+

1 mandible molar Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 1 proximal left ulna Imm.+ 5 1

1 vertebral facet Imm.+

1 mid tibia Imm.+

Mammal 3 mid long bones Imm.+ 3 1

Patella 6

Glycymeris 5 ww, 1 hole

Ostrea 1 Table 4.69. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X16:1 (LM IIIA:1 deposit from collapsed second story or further fill above slab floor). Sample wt. 109.6 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 distal left humerus Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 2 1 1 proximal phalanx Imm.+

Glycymeris 1 Table 4.70. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X16:2 (LM IIIA:2 floor and fill above). Sample wt. 12.7 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Glycymeris 1 ww, hole

Helicella 1

Helix 1

Patella 1 Table 4.71. Summary of faunal remains not assigned to a pottery group from the LM IIIB fill in Space X16 (Trench 81C, pail 33). Sample wt. 14.3 g. TABLES 4.72 AND 4.73

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mid right humerus Imm.+

1 vertebral centrum Imm.+

1 cervical vertebra fragment Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 1 mid rib Imm.+ 7 2

1 distal metapodial Imm.+

1 distal metatarsus Imm.+

1 mid humerus Juv.

1 left glenoid Imm.+

1 metapodial V Imm.+ Sus 4 2 1 distal phalanx Imm.+

1 metapodial epiphysis Imm.

Aves 1 proximal ulna Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 5

Glycymeris 5 ww, 4 holes

Monodonta 3

Helix 1

Pisania 1 Table 4.72. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X15:1 (LM IIIA:1 fill in sottoscala of west staircase). Sample wt. 135.7 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

2 mandible molars Imm.+

1 mandible coronoid Imm.+

1 distal right humerus Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 1 mid radius Imm.+ 12 1

4 mid ribs Imm.+

1 mid femur Imm.+

2 proximal phalanges Imm.+

1 proximal right metatarsus Imm.+ Ovis 2 1 1 distal metatarsus Imm.+

Capra 1 proximal phalanx Imm.+ 1 1 Table 4.73. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X15:2 (LM IIIA:1 surface and fill above). Sample wt. 852.9 g. TABLES 4.73 AND 4.74

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mandible incisor Imm.+

Bos 1 costal cartilage fragment Imm.+ 3 1

1 proximal right metatarsus Imm.+

1 mandible incisor Imm.+

1 mid mandible Imm.+ Sus 4 1 1 mid humerus Imm.+

1 mid right calcaneum Imm.+

Dama 1 proximal phalanx Imm.+ 1 1

Glycymeris 74 ww, 31 holes

Patella 18

Helix 15

Helicella 6

Ostrea 4 Table 4.73, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X15:2 (LM IIIA:1 surface and fill above). Sample wt. 852.9 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

2 mid mandibles Imm.+

1 mandible condyloid Imm.+

1 mandible molar Imm.+

3 mid scapulae Imm.+

1 mid right humerus Imm.+

1 distal right humerus Imm.+

1 proximal left radius Imm.+

4 mid radii Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 25 3 1 mid ulna Imm.+

1 mid metacarpus Imm.+

4 mid ribs Imm.+

1 proximal left tibia Imm.+

1 distal left tibia Imm.+

1 proximal phalanx Imm.+

1 mandible condyloid Juv.

1 mid tibia Juv. Table 4.74. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2N:1 (LM II fill above surface north of Space X2). Sample wt. 749.2 g. TABLES 4.74 AND 4.75

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Ovis 1 ledt mandible Juv. 1 1

1 mid left metacarpus Imm.+

Bos 1 distal phalanx Imm.+ 3 1

1 proximal phalanx Imm.

Sus 1 thoracic vertebra Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 17

Glycymeris 8 ww, 7 holes

Helix 5

Ostrea 2

Mactra 1

Monodonta 1 Table 4.74, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2N:1 (LM II fill above surface north of Space X2). Sample wt. 749.2 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

2 mandible PMs Imm.+

1 mandible molar Imm.+

1 mandible hinge Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 1 mid radius Imm.+ 8 1

1 mid metacarpus Imm.+

1 mid tibia Imm.+

1 mid left tibia Imm.+

1 mid right scapula Imm.+

Sus 1 mid rib Imm.+ 4 1

2 mandible PMs Imm.+

Glycymeris 99 ww, 45 holes

Patella 17

Helix 4

Monodonta 2

Bittium 1

Ostrea 1 Table 4.75. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X2N:2 (LM IIIA:1 or LM IIIA:2 Early fill above surface north of Space X2). Sample wt. 1,185.7 g. TABLES 4.76 AND 4.77

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

Ovis/Capra 1 incisor Imm.+ 1 1 Table 4.76. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3N:1 (LM IA Final surface and fill above area west of the retaining wall running north–south from the midpoint of Space X3). Sample wt. 2.1 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

2 mid mandibles Imm.+

2 mandible molars Imm.+

1 right mandible molar Imm.+

2 mid radii Imm.+

1 proximal left ulna Imm.+

2 dorsal vertebral fragments Imm.+

2 lumbar vertebrae Imm.+ Butchered

Ovis/Capra 1 articular rib Imm.+ 20 3

1 mid rib Imm.+

1 left femur trochanter Imm.+

1 distal left tibia Imm.+

1 medial phalanx Imm.+

1 mandible incisor Imm.

1 mid left mandible Imm.

1 mid long bone Juv.

1 left mandible diastema Imm.+

Bos 3 cranial fragsments Imm.+ 3 1

1 mandible molar Adult

1 patella Imm.+

Sus 1 mid left maxilla Adult 3 2

1 mid left mandible Imm.

Dama 1 mid humerus Imm.+ 1 1

Canis 2 mid ribs Imm.+ 2 1

Aves 1 distal ulna Imm.+ 1 1

Glycymeris 1 ww Table 4.77. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3N:3 (LM IB Final lower fill from area east of the retaining wall running north–south from the midpoint of Space X3). Sample wt. 295.3 g. TABLE 4.78

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 maxilla M3 Imm.+

2 mandible incisors Imm.+

1 left mandible canine Imm.+

5 mandible molars Imm.+

1 right mandible molar Imm.+

3 mid left mandibles Imm.+

1 mid scapula Imm.+

1 mid radius Imm.+

1 proximal right radius/ulna Imm.+

1 mid metacarpus Imm.+ Ovis/Capra 29 4 1 proximal metapodial Imm.+

2 mid ribs Imm.+

1 distal left tibia Imm.+

1 distal right tibia Imm.+

2 mid metatarsi Imm.+

1 mandible molar Adult

1 mandible molar Imm.

1 mid left humerus Imm.

1 distal metatarsus Imm.

1 distal femur Juv.

1 proximal phalanx Imm.+ Ovis 2 2 1 mandible DP Juv.

1 proximal left metatarsus Imm.+

1 proximal right metatarsus Imm.+ Capra 4 1 1 proximal phalanx Imm.+

1 distal phalanx Imm.+

Bos 1 medial phalanx Imm.+ 1 1

Bovid 3 mid horncore fragments Imm.+ 3 1

1 maxilla incisor Imm.+

1 mandible incisor Imm.+

1 axis fragment Imm.+ Sus 12 3 2 mid right scapulae Imm.+

3 mid ribs Imm.+

1 mid fibula Imm.+ Table 4.78. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3N:4 (LM II upper fill from area east of the retaining wall running north–south from the midpoint of Space X3). Sample wt. 749.1 g. TABLES 4.78 AND 4.79

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 maxilla incisor Imm.

Sus, cont. 1 mandible incisor Imm. 12 3

1 anterior maxilla fragment Imm.+

Dama 1 distal right humerus Imm.+ 1 1

Mammal 1 mid long bone Imm.+ 1 1

Cancer 1 pincher Imm.+ 1 1

Eriphia 1 pincher Imm.+ 1 1

1 ceratohyal Adult Epinephelus 2 1 1 quadrate Adult

Patella 59

Monodonta 45

Anatalis 1

Glycymeris 1 ww

Helix 1

Murex t. 1 Table 4.78, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X3N:4 (LM II upper fill from area east of the retaining wall running north–south from the midpoint of Space X3). Sample wt. 749.1 g.

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 cranial fragment Imm.+

1 horncore fragment Imm.+

2 maxilla molars Imm.+

1 mid left mandible Imm.+

2 mid right mandibles Imm.+

2 mandible molars Imm.+

Ovis/Capra 1 mandible M3 Imm.+ 42 5

1 mandible condyloid Imm.+

1 cervical vertebra Imm.+

1 right glenoid Imm.+

1 mid left scapula Imm.+

1 mid right humerus Imm.+

1 mid humerus Imm.+ Table 4.79. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X10N:1 (LM II fill from area east of the west wall of Space X10). Sample wt. 1,262.9 g TABLE 4.79

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 mid left humerus Imm.+

1 mid radius Imm.+

6 mid ribs Imm.+

1 mid ilium Imm.+

1 mid acetabulum Imm.+

1 mid ilium/acetabulum Imm.+

1 distal femur Imm.+

1 proximal left metatarsus Imm.+

1 proximal metatarsus Imm.+ Ovis/Capra, cont. 42 5 3 mid metatarsi Imm.+

2 mid left tibiae Imm.+

1 mid right tibia Imm.+

1 distal left tibia Imm.+

1 mid right mandible Adult

1 mid left mandible Imm.

1 distal left tibia Imm.

1 right glenoid Juv.

1 distal left femur Juv.

Ovis 1 mid horncore Imm.+ 1 1

Capra a. 1 mid horncore Imm.+ 1 1 Male

1 atlas fragment Imm.+ Male

Capra h. 1 right astragalus Imm.+ 4 1 Male

2 proximal metatarsi Imm.+

Bos 1 mandible coronoid Imm.+ 1 1

1 distal metacarpus Imm.+

1 metapodial V Imm.+ Sus 4 2 1 mid tibia worked awl Imm.+ Bo 59

1 distal metacarpus Imm.

1 axis Imm.+

1 cranial fragment Imm.+

1 mid radius Imm.+ Butchered Dama 9 1 1 mid rght ulna Imm.+

1 proximal left radius/ulna Imm.+

1 mid long bone Imm.+ Table 4.79, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X10N:1 (LM II fill from area east of the west wall of Space X10). Sample wt. 1,262.9 g TABLES 4.79 AND 5.1

Species Elements Ages NISP MNI Comments

1 ilium/acetabulum Imm.+

Dama, cont. 1 distal tibia Imm.+ 9 1

1 distal left tibia Imm.+

Lepus 1 mid left tibia Imm.+ 1 1 Butchered

Mammal 4 mid long bones Imm.+ 4 1

Aves 1 mid ulna Imm.+ 1 1

Epinephelus 1 vertebra Imm.+ 1 1

Fish 1 fragment Imm.+ 1 1

Patella 80

Monodonta 15

Glycymeris 10

Helix 9

Bittium 2

Charonia 2 fragments

Ostrea 1 fragment Table 4.79, cont. Summary of faunal remains associated with Pottery Group X10N:1 (LM II fill from area east of the west wall of Space X10). Sample wt. 1,262.9 g

Room or LM IA LM IA LM IB LM IB LM IIIA:2 LM II LM IIIA:1 LM IIIB Space Advanced Final Late Final Early

X1    

X2    

X3     

X4 

X5   

X6    

X7   

X8   

X9    

X10   

X11/X12  

X13  (LM I–II)

X14a  

X14b  (LM I–II)

X15 

X16   Table 5.1. Ceramic phases preserved in each room or space of House X. TABLE 5.2

Within House X

Pottery Space Type of Object Catalog Number Context Date Group

X1 Loomweight Lw 1–Lw 4 X1:1 LM IA Final

X1 Loomweight Lw 6, Lw 8 X1:2 LM IA Final

X1 Loomweight Lw 7 X1:3 LM IB Late

X1 Loomweight Lw 5 X1:4 LM IB/LM II

X1 Loomweight Lw 41 X1:9 Mixed LM II/LM IIIA

X4 Loomweight Lw 58 X4:1E LM IIIA:2 Early

X4 Loomweight Lw 57 X4:2 LM IIIA:2

X4 Needle Me 22 X4:2 LM IIIA:2

X13 Spindle whorl Sp 61 X13:1 LM I to LM II

X2 Loomweight Lw 9–Lw 11 X2:1 MM II–LM IA Advanced

X2 Loomweight Lw 12–Lw 14 X2:3 LM IB Late

X5 Loomweight Lw 17 X5:4 LM IB–LM IIIA:2

X8 Loomweight Lw 26 X8:3 LM IIIA:1

X8 Loomweight Lw 25 X8:4 LM IIIA:2 Early

X9 Loomweight Lw 29 X9:1 LM IB Final

X3 Loomweight Lw 52 X3:2 LM IB Late

X3 Loomweight Lw 16 X3:3 LM IB Late

X3 Loomweight Lw 55 X3:4 LM IB Late

X3 Loomweight Lw 15, Lw 54 X3:5 LMIB Late or Final

X3 Loomweight Lw 56 X3:6 LM IIIA:1

X6 Loomweight Lw 18 X6:2 LM IB Late

X6 Loomweight Lw 20 X6:4 LM II

X6 Spindle whorl Sp 64 X6:4 LM II

X6 Bone with worked point Bo 30 X6:4 LM II

X6 Needle Me 21 X6:4 LM II

Lw 19, Lw 22–Lw 24, X6 Loomweight X6:5 LM IIIA Lw 53

X8 Loomweight Lw 21 X8:4 LM IIIA:2

Lw 30–Lw 35, Lw 50, X10 Loomweight X10:1 LM II Lw 59, Lw 60, GS 519

Table 5.2. Evidence for weaving activity: loomweights, spindle whorls, and needles. TABLES 5.2 AND 5.3

Outside or Above House X Space Trench/Pail Type of Object Catalog Number

Above or north of House X 74A/36A Loomweight Lw 49

Above or north of House X 74A/44 Loomweight Lw 39

Northeast of House X 87A/20 Loomweight Lw 37

Northeast of House X 87A/22 Loomweight Lw 38

Above or north of X3 93E/56 Loomweight Lw 51

Above or north of X3 93E/64 Loomweight Lw 43

Above or north of X3 93E/78 Loomweight Lw 44

Above or north of X3 93E/83 Loomweight Lw 45

Above or north of X3 93E/85 Loomweight Lw 46

Above X6 59A/5 Loomweight Lw 47

Above X6 59A/5 Loomweight Lw 48

Above X6 73B/98 Spindle whorl Sp 62

Above X8–X9 59A1/37 Loomweight Lw 27

Above X8–X9 59A1/44 Loomweight Lw 28

X8/X9 59A1/57 Loomweight Lw 40

Above X1, X4, X13 73A/75 Loomweight Lw 41

Above X14 80A/21 Loomweight Lw 36

Above X6, X12 73B/98 Loomweight Lw 42 Table 5.2, cont. Evidence for weaving activity: loomweights, spindle whorls, and needles.

Space Type of Object Catalog Number Pottery Group Context Date

X1 Sickle blade Me 17 X1:10 LM IIIA:1

X1 Cobbles S 1908, S 1910, S 1968

X1 Cobbles S 1865, S 1867 X1:11 Mixed LM IIIA:1, LM IIIA:2, Iron Age

X1 Quern S 2129 X1:11 Mixed LM IIIA:1, LM IIIA:2, Iron Age

X4 Pecked hand tool S 2157 X4:1W LM IIIA:2

X4 Bronze strip Me 10 X4:1E LM IIIA:2

X4 Pecked cobble S 2153 X4:1E LM IIIA:2

X4 Flat rounded cobble S 2154 X4:1E LM IIIA:2

X4 Hand tool S 2155 X4:1E LM IIIA:2

X4 Pecked cobble S 2156 X4:1E LM IIIA:2

X4 Whetstone St 8 X4:1E LM IIIA:2

X4 Hand tool S 2146 X4:2 LM IIIA:2

X4 Hand tool S 2147 X4:2 LM IIIA:2 Table 5.3. Spatial distribution and chronology of implements and tools. TABLE 5.3

Space Type of Object Catalog Number Pottery Group Context Date

X4 Small fine abrader St 9 X4:2 LM IIIA:2

X4 Mortars St 25, St 26 X4:2 LM IIIA:2

X4 Slab with depression St 20 X4:3 LM IIIA:2

X4 Rough bowl/mortar St 28 X4:3 LM IIIA:2

S 2201, S 2214, S 2208–S 2210, X2 Hand tools X2:2 LM IA Advanced S 2309, S 2310

X2 Cobbles S 2191, S 2198, S 2205, St 1–St 3 X2:4 LM IB Late

X2 Bronze tool Me 18 X2:4 LM IB Late

X2 Bronze strip Me 8 X2:6 LM IB Late

X2 Bronze tool Me 20 X2:6 LM IB Late

X2 Stone tool S 1922, S 1924 X2:6 LM IB Late

X2 Quern S 1923 X2:6 LM IB Late

X2 Polisher S 1902 X2:7 LM IB Final

X2 Whetstone S 1906 X2:7 LM IB Final

X2 Cobble S 1930 X2:7 LM IB Final

X2 Small cobble S 1952 X2:7 LM IB Final

X5 Hand tools S 1926, S 1929, S 1931, S 1934 X5:5 (2b) LM IIIA:2

X5 Hand stone S 1915 X5:5 (2c) LM IIIA:2

X5 Cobbles S 1000, S 1897–S 1900, S 1900B X5:6 (3a) LM IIIA:2

X5 Whetstone S 1885 X5:6 (3a) LM IIIA:2

X5 Hand stone S 1888 X5:6 (3a) LM IIIA:2

X5 Cobble S 1875 X5:6 (3b) LM IIIA:2

X8 Fragment of quern S 2211 X8:1 LM II

X8 Pounder St 8 X8:1 LM II

X8 Cobble S 1711 X8:3 LM IIIA:1–2 Early

X8 Whetstone S 1743 X8:4 LM IIIA:2 Early

X8 Flat oval stone S 1966 X8:4 LM IIIA:2 Early

X9 Pounder St 11 X9:1 LM IB Final

X9 Mortar/quern St 25 X4:2 LM IIIA:2

X9 Mortar St 30 X9:2 LM II

X9 Stamnostatis St 34 X9:2 LM II

X9 Cobble S 2189 X9:3 LM IIIA:2

X9 Stamnostatis St 33 X9:3 LM IIIA:2

X3 Stone tool St 5 X3:4 LM IB Final Table 5.3, cont. Spatial distribution and chronology of implements and tools. TABLES 5.3 AND 5.4

Space Type of Object Catalog Number Pottery Group Context Date

X3 Drill wedge St 17 X3:4 LM IB Final

X3 Slab with depression St 27 X3:4 LM IB Final

X6 Obsidian wedge St 36 X6:1 LM IA Final

X6 Querns S 2284, S 2285 X6:2 LM IB Late

X6 Metal strip Me 13 X6:2 LM IB Late

X6 Whetstone St 6 X6:2 LM IB Late

X6 Quern S 1947 X6:4 LM II

X6 Metal strip Me 9 X6:5 LM IIIA:1

X6 Whetstone S 1936, St 7 X6:5 LM IIIA:1

X6 Pestle St 10 X6:5 LM IIIA:1

X10 Whetstone GS 244 X10:1 LM II

X10 Stone tools GS 002, S 144, S 342, S 139, GS 649, S 334 X10:1 LM II

X10 Fragment of quern S 2241 X10:1 LM II

X10 Metal rod Me 2 X10:1 LM II

X10 Quern St 31 X10:1 LM II

X10 Mortar St 32 X10:1 LM II

X11/X12 Metal shaft Me 1 X11/X12:2 LM IB Late

X11/X12 Tweezers Me 23 X11/X12:2 LM IB Late

X11/X12 Elongated cobble St 12 X11/X12:2 LM IB Late

X16 1/2 large quern S 2348 X16:1 LM IIIA:1

X16 Quern S 2185 X16:2 LM IIIA:2

X15 Cobble S 2196 X15:1 LM IIIA:1 Table 5.3, cont. Spatial distribution and chronology of implements and tools.

Catalog Number Pottery Group Context Date

C 9083, C 9328 X1:3 LM IA Final–LM IB Late

C 7931, C 7932, C 7933 X1:10 LM IIIA:1

C 7935, C 7936, C 7937 X1:10 LM IIIA:1

C 9005 X4:2 LM IIIA:2

C 9367 X2:6 LM IB Late

C 8072 (5:5/34), C 8080 (5:5/44), C 8672 (5:5/45) X5:5 LM IIIA:2

C 8079 (5:5/47) X5:5 LM IIIA:2

C 8690 X5:5 LM IIIA:2 Table 5.4. Cooking vessels listed by pottery group and date. Catalog numbers and entries to be published in Rutter, forthcoming. TABLE 5.4

Catalog Number Pottery Group Context Date

C 8670 (5:6/10), C 8671 X5:6 LM IIIA:2

C 8165 (6:4/21) X6:4 LM II

C 8096 (6:5/52), C 8165 (6:5/50), C 10987 (6:5/57) X6:5 LM IIIA:2

C 7617, C 7710, C 7723 X8:1 LM II

C 7724 X8:1 LM II

C7728 X8:1 LM II

C 7505 X8:3 LM IIIA:1

C 7545, C 7546, C 7566, C 7567, C 7616, C 7572, X8:4 LM IIIA:1–IIIA:2 Early C 7866, C 8800, C 8801

C 7564, C 7565 X8:4 LM IIIA:1–IIIA:2 Early

C 11886 X9:2 LM II

C 7737 X9:2 LM II

C 11108 (3:1/3) X3:1 LM IB Late or LM II Early

C 11121 (3:1/4) X3:1 LM IB Late or LM II Early

C 10220 (3:6/7) X3:6 LM IIIA:2–IIIB

C 10221 (3:6/8) X3:6 LM IIIA:2–IIIB

C 11848 (16:1/8), C 11849 (16:1/9) X16:1 LM IIIA:1

C 11846 (16:1/10) X16:1 LM IIIA:1

C 11865 (15:2/12) X15:2 LM IIIA:1, Phase 2

C 10853 (10:1/84) X10:1 LM II

C 10843 (10:1/86) X10:1 LM II

C 10855 (10:1/83) X10:1 LM II

C 10947 (10:1/85) X10:1 LM II

C 10948 (10:1/81) X10:1 LM II

C 12013 (13:1/2) X13:1 LM II

C 9402, C 9407 X14a:1 LM IB and earlier? Table 5.4, cont. Cooking vessels listed by pottery group and date. Catalog numbers and entries to be published in Rutter, forthcoming. Figures FIGURE 1.1

20.00 21.00 22.00

4.00

9.00 8.00

2.00 6.00 7.00 3.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 16.00 17.00 18.00 19.00

5.00 10.00 15.00

Hilltop Houses

modern retaining wall

Central Hillside LYBIAN SEA

Greek Sanctuary

0 5 10 15 20 25 m

Middle Minoan Late Minoan Greek Contours of present ground level at meter intervals

Figure 1.1. Simplified plan of Kommos with excavated areas on the Hilltop, Central Hillside, and Southern Area (M. Nelson, G. Bianco). North at top. FIGURE 1.2 1010.00x 1020.00x 1005.00x 1025.00x 1030.00x 1015 .00x 1130.00y 1130.00y

5.25

fence X10 grid north

1125.00y 1125.00y X2 4.91 4.99 4.90 X11 4.93

X1 4.93 X12 X5 X6

4.91 lightwell X4 entrance 4.77 X16 +_ 4.45 1120.00y 1120.00y 4.77 4.60

X15 X13n X7 X15e Road 32 X9 w X13s X8 4.50 4.60 X15s x14a X14b 1115.00y 1115.00y

3.65 Road 33

3.24 Road 17 Road 34

3.18

3.30 1110.00y 1110.00y 24 a

23 24 b

1105.00y 1105.00y 25 a 20

Building T

29 25 b

entrance into 1100.00y 1100.00y Building T

3.36

1095.00y 1095.00y 1025.00x 1010.00x 1020.00x 1005.00x 1030.00x 1015 .00x

HOUSE X, GROUND FLOOR restored window 0 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 m restored walls

Figure 1.2. Simplified plan of original phase of House X, including adjacent northeast corner of Building T (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Dotted lines indicate unseen parts of walls and other topographical features.

FIGURE 1.3 1000.00x 1015.00x 1020.00x 1025.00x 1005.00x 1010.00x

1135.00y 1135.00y

1010.64x 1018.79x 1131.59y 1131.41y 8.15

87A 1130.00y

1130.00y 2.34 10 04.54x 1129.25y 4.55 6.30 4.35 1020.39x 1.46 3.60 1127.79y P491 5.00

4.00 74A 6.97 el. x10 1009.81x 74B 1004.20x 1126.63y 4.31 11A 1125.30y x3 0.31 1125.00y 1125.00y 3.45 5.00 2.85 4.00 4.00 x2 1021.35x 3.00 1123.54y 73A x11

x1 66A 0.75 x6 2.96 66A6.00 59A x12 72C 6.00 73B x4 x5 2.90

81A 8.55 1120.00y 5.50 1120.00y 73A x16 P390 4.60 6.805 el. x13 P290 x9 x15 x15 1021.18x n x7 w e 2.99 5.92 el. 1119.60y x13 2.19 1009.79x

4.94 81C s 1119.60y 1001.55x x15 1117.42y 6.30 80A x8 s 1021.18x x14 x14 59A1 6.62 1115.00y 1115.00y b a 7.24 5.79 1114.95y 2.80 6.85 1015.91x 1113.60y 1004.54x 5.50 1113.90y 1010.53x 1015.39x 1112.46y 1112.32y 3.10 1011.39x 1111.70y 54A2 1110.00y 1110.00y 1016.55x P184 1110.57y 1011.17x 5.09 el. 1109.43y 1013.23x 1109.42y

1105.00y 01 2 3 4 5m 1105.00y 1005.00x 1025.00x 1000.00x 1015.00x 1020.00x 1010.00x

Figure 1.3. Trench plan 1 showing earlier excavation of House X and the immediately surrounding area (G. Bianco). FIGURE 1.4 1010.00X 1020.00X 1015.00X 1005.00X

1130.00Y 93E 1130.00Y

x10 P491 6.97 el. 93E 1009.81X x3 1125.00Y 1126.63Y 1125.00Y 80A x2 x11

x1 86B 66A x6 x12 x5 80A 86C x4 1120.00Y 86B x16 1120.00Y 93E P290 P390 x9 x7 5.92 el. x15 x15 6.805 el. x13 w e n 1009.79X 1021.18X 80A 1119.60Y 1119.60Y x13 s x8 x15 s x14 x14 97G 1115.00Y b a 1115.00Y

1110.00Y 1110.00Y

P184 5.09 el. 1013.23X 1005.00X 1010.00X 1015.00X 1109.42Y 1020.00X

0 1 2 3 4 5m

Figure 1.4. Trench plan 2 showing later excavation of House X and the immediately surrounding area (G. Bianco). FIGURE 1.5

F M E‘ J‘ 1010.00x 1020.00x 1005.00x 1025.00x 1015 .00x

1130.00y G‘ 1130.00y C‘

X10 grid north

M‘ F‘

1125.00y D‘ 1125.00y

X2 K X11 D L X1 K‘ X6 X12 A

X5 X4 entrance

1120.00y X16 H‘ 1120.00y

H A‘ Road 32 X13n X7 X15w X15e House X B‘ X9 X13s X8 X15s

B x14a X14b 1115.00y 1115.00y E Road 33 J L‘

C Road 17

original walls G Road 34

restored walls

blockings HOUSE X, POST LM I

0 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 m

1110.00y later walls 1110.00y

Figure 1.5. Simplified plan of remodeled House X, with archaeological and architectural sections indicated (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). FIGURE 1.6

1125.00 Y 1120.00 Y 1130.00 Y P390 6.795 EL. 1021.18 X 1119.60 Y stairs 6.83 6.73 6.63 D‘ 5.33 6.65 1020.39 X 1127.79 Y 5.38 5.22 5.32 6.55 5.34 5.38 5.42 5.18 6.80 6.52 6.50 7.08 A X15e 6.62 6.67 5.37 6.69 5.19 5.41 5.27 5.33 5.84 6.93 6.32 6.81 5.74 5.13 Building F 5.22

5.24

X15s 6.78 1020.00 X 1020.00 6.81 5.42 5.32 6.58 6.91 6.75 F 5.72 5.93 5.13 Building 1126.03 Y 5.43 1018.74 X 6.96 el. P 377 6.72 5.33 H‘ 5.74 6.44 5.74 6.79 4.81 5.40 6.48 /4.28 6.73 4.43 5.96 rubble 6.78 7.37 4.55 slab 4.35 6.78 5.52 bott.4.53 top 4.65 tilted slab/step? 4.60 6.75 6.23 5.83 6.36 6.79 5.01 6.40 4.58 X15w 5.07 5.95 bottom 5.69 bottom bottom 5 39 5.10 4.80 4.60 6.77 5.10 5.57 4.36 5.61 5.51 sand 4.78 bottom 5.41 bottom X16

5.78

6.43 5.80 5.23 5.30 5.71 bottom 4.91 5.48 bottom 5.86 5.67 bottom 5.70 6.44 5.10 5.10 X11 5.51 4.75 5.81 5.53 5.12 5.85 4.63 4.63 5.92 6.19 5.88 4.83 bottom 5.97 bottom 4.46 5.11 5.10 5.24 4.47 4.46 bottom 5.46 4.73 5.39 4.48 5.68 bottom 5.22 5.64 4.34 bottom 4.83 4.12 bott. 489 bottom 4.83 X12 4.42 bottom 4.59 6.24 5.11 4.36 5.36 5.55 4.73 threshold bottom 4.76 5.44 bottom 4.80 5.49 sand 5.26 5.33 bottom 5.74 X10 5.37 6.10 J‘ 5.47 4.30 6.09 4.84 5.71 4.98 bottom 4.32 5.15 5.75 5.47 5.97 bottom 5.77 6.22 5.74 6.20 4.77 bottom 4.96 5.34 4.89 5.67

4.74 6.14 5.83 4.63 5.25 4.61 5.94 5.16 5.14 5.91 4.39 bottom 4.57 4.74 4.90 4.70 E‘ 5.22 6.11 D 6.24 rubble 5.20 4.53 6.51 bottom 4.58 5.90 4.72 4.54 6.33

threshold 5.56

1015.00 X 1015.00

5.91 X9 5.30 4.43 6.44 5.94 4.90 5.89 4.57 6.51 4.85 quern 5.83 4.74 4.87 4.34 4.62 4.65 4.94 6.53 5.74 5.39 4.98 6.54 6.43 5.28 4.44 X6 4.61 bottom 4.99 5.30 4.50 bottom 5.02 5.01 5.17 5.03 6.76 5.26 4.46 4.66 4.70 5.04 5.27 5.11 bottom 5.51 5.04 5.50 6.15 bottom 5.30 5.14 bottom 4.85 4.61 Y5 5.13 6.56 5.06 bottom 5.01 5.14 5.36 6.73 bottom 5.27 6.23 slab 6.77 5.07 4.97 4.64 earlier wall? 4.55 drain bottom 4.91 4.96 5.92 5.96 6.36 4.93 X3 4.99 5.54 4.56 upright slab 6.63 5.33 5.00 5.34 threshold 4.58 6.30 later threshold 4.89 6.22 earlier wall 5.52 4.66 6.38 H 4.89 5.49 4.68 6.23 X8 F‘ M‘ 6.24 4.59 6.84 6.07 5.03 6.33 5.99 bott. 5.73 5.83 4.54 4.90 5.68 bott. 4.97 6.17 4.27 5.08 bott. 6.16 4.68 bench 6.00 4.93 5.06 4.72 5.68 4.87 5.83 4.18 6.10 4.60 4.58 6.01 5.77 5.69 6.79 pit 4.86 4.26 bott. M 4.61 4.47 5.72 Y4 4.43 5.79 4.81 4.55 6.50 6.68 blocking 5.82 4.91 F 4.86 4.61 6.87 4.86

bottom 4.53 4.47 4.94 threshold

B‘ 5.09 5.01 4.84 6.91 5.89 4.77 4.76 4.54 4.62 4.34 4.59 4.77 bott bott. 4.62 4.94 4.41 5.38 4.93 threshold 4.91 5.38 4.97 bottom bottom 4.43 4.28 4.86 4.82 bottom below 4.54 5.04 4.61 X5 4.54 4.19 bottom 4.83 6.16 4.67 shist 4.75 purple 4.64 6.95 5.97 4.21 bott. 5.06 4.69 6.97 5.05 4.60 bottom 4.63 4.86 4.65 5.02 5.70 4.7 4.13 6.05 5.46 base 4.86 5.27 threshold 4.88 bott.4.98 4.87 column X2 6.91 4.95 4.77 7.64 4.60 5.32 Y3 4.38 bott. 6.01 4.91 bott.6.00 6.01 6.04 4.92 5.53 4.11 5.01 4.71 5.00 6.19 7.06 bottom

4.91

5.95 5.07 bottom 4.35 6.12

1010.00 X 1010.00 4.79 bottom 6.02 5.84 5.08 6.06 6.18 bott.5.03 5.42 5.95 4.82 4.86 6.89 4.99 5.58 4.93 6.00 4.95 4.89 4.70 6.04 4.88 4.89 bott. 6.44 4.91 4.91

4.90 p290 5.92 EL. 1009.79 X 1119.60 Y window sill 4.92 5.99 6.07 4.81 4.89 5.96 6.11 5.41 5.08 bottom 6.15 4.76 6.15 6.67 4.88 5.65 6.62 5.77 5.49 6.64 5.46

5.89

5.53 5.94 6.23 6.09 X7 4.89 5.01 6.67 6.04 bottom bott.4.77 4.88 Y2 blocked opening 4.92 5.00 6.09 4.86 bottom 4.90 bottom 4.85

K 4.81 5.76 5.97 bottom 5.22 5.00 6.70 5.15 4.90 4.80 6.15 red plaster 6.38 4.87 6.69 4.79 5.90 5.26 stairs up L 4.88 5.50 5.56 6.53 5.97 bottom 4.86 table 4.91 5.42 5.52 5.29 5.21 6.15 6.67

6.01

5.98 MM wall 5.16 5.99 6.59 5.61 5.16 G‘ 5.87 C‘ 5.96 5.71 4.92 bottom 4.79 6.84 bottom 6.21 5.95 6.10 5.71 5.13 6.32 bottom 7.26 4.91 4.98 bottom 5.14 5.08 4.91 5.60 5.35 6.47 5.82 7.59 white plaster threshold 5.58 4.95 5.85 5.51 6.22 rubble X1 6.94 5.96 6.08 4.91 4.97

2.00m. 6.90 Y1 6.32 bottom 4.99 7.65 5.86 5.64 5.70 6.28 5.79 rubble

6.84 5.73 4.77 bottom 6.55 6.42 X13s 6.08 5 83 6.60 6.08 6.41 5.98

7.03 X 13 n 6.53 6.90 X4 6.09 blue plaster

1.00 4.99 5.96 bottom 6.55 6.38 5.08 6.08 6.36 6.48 7.93 5.99

0.50 6.34 5.95 5 88 6.28 blue plaster 6.36 5.99 bottom 6.37 6.21

6.71

4.97 6.25

1005.00 X 1005.00 6.21

0 MM wall 6.76 KOMMOS PLAN 6.08 5.73 bottom 7.56 7.08 6.44 7.90 bottom 6.26 6.40 6.61 7.83 6.48 bottom 5.03 7.60 7.95 7.05 5.03 1004.54 X 1129.25 Y A‘ 6.61 6.54 6.62 6.60

6.73 6.45 6.61 6.50 1130.00 Y 1120.00 Y 1125.00 Y

Building V K‘ 6.40 Figure Figure 1.6. State plan of northern portion of House with X, Figure 1.7 overlapping (G. Bianco, M.C. Shaw). FIGURE 1.7

1125.00 Y 1120.00 Y 11150.00 Y P390 6.795 EL. 1021.18 X 1119.60 Y 7.04 stairs 6.83 1021.62X 1114.49Y 6.73 6.63

D‘ 5.33 6.65

5.38 5.22 5.32 5.27 6.55 5.34 5.38 5.42 5.18 4.99 6.80 6.52 6.50 A X15e 6.62 6.67 5.37 6.69 5.23 5.19 5.41 5.27 5.33 5.84 6.93 6.32 6.81 5.74 5.13 Building F 5.22

5.24

X15s 6.78 6.81 5.42 5.32 6.58 6.91 6.75 F 4.20 4.79 5.72 5.93 6.61 rubble 4.62 5.13 Building 1126.03 Y 5.43 1018.74 X 6.96 el. P 377 6.72 5.33 H‘ 5.74 6.44 slab 5.74 4.10 4.85 4.09 6.79 4.81

4.15 5.40 6.48 /4.28 6.73 4.43 5.96 rubble 6.78 4.20 4.55 slab 4.35 4.16

J 4.87 6.78 E 5.52 4.10 bott.4.53 top 4.65 tilted slab/step? 4.60 4.36 6.75 5.83 6.79 5.01 6.40 4.58 X15w 5.07 5.95 bottom bottom 5.39 5.10 4.50 4.49 4.80 4.60 6.77 4.36 5.10 5.57 4.36 5.61 5.51 sand 4.78 bottom X16 5.49

5.78

6.43 5.80 5.23 4.43 5.30 5.71 bottom 4.91 5.48 bottom 5.86 5.67

6.78 6.44 5.10 X11 5.51 4.75 5.81 5.53 5.85 4.63 4.63 threshold 5.88

4.83 bottom 5.97 bottom 4.46 5.11 5.10 4.42 5.24 4.47 4.46 bottom 5.46 4.73

4.48 5.68 5.64 4.34 bottom 4.83 4.12 bott. 489 bottom 4.83 X12

4.42 bottom 4.59 5.11 4.36 5.36 5.55 4.73 threshold bottom 4.76 5.44 bottom 4.80 5.49 sand

5.33 bottom 5.74 5.37 6.10 5.47 4.30 6.09 4.84 5.71 4.98 bottom 4.32 5.75 5.47 5.97 bottom 5.77 6.22 5.74 6.20 4.77 bottom 4.96 5.34 4.89 5.67 4.74 6.14 5.83 4.63 4.40 6.73 4.61 5.94 5.91 4.39 bottom 4.57 4.74 4.90 4.70 6.11 D 3.34 4.53 3.24 bottom 4.58 5.90 4.72 4.54 6.33

threshold 5.56 4.31 4.37

1015.00 X 1015.00 5.91 X9 4.43 5.94 4.90 4.42 5.89 4.57 3.24 4.85 quern 5.83 4.74 4.99 4.87 4.34 4.62 4.65 4.94 5.06 5.74 5.39 4.98 5.28 4.44 X6 4.61 bottom 4.99 4.50 17 4.47 4.50 bottom 5.02 5.01 5.17 5.03 5.26 4.46 4.66 4.44 4.70 5.04 5.11 bottom 5.51 4.46 5.04 5.50 6.15 5.14 bottom 4.85 4.61 5.13 6.56 5.06 bottom 5.01 5.14 5.36 6.23 slab road 5.07 drain 4.97 4.64 earlier wall? 4.55 drain bottom 4.91 4.96 4.93 X3 4.99 4.56 upright slab 6.63 4.48 5.33 5.00 5.34 3.23 threshold 4.58 later threshold 4.89 earlier wall 4.47 5.52 4.66 4.60 H 4.89 5.49 6.23 4.68 X8 F‘ M‘ 4.59 6.84 6.07 5.73 5.83 4.54 4.62 4.90 3.31 6.17 5.08 4.68 bench 6.00 4.93 C 4.72 4.87 4.50 6.10 4.60

4.58 G 6.01 5.77 6.79 pit 4.86 4.26 4.61 4.44 4.47 4.81 4.55 3.21 6.50 6.68 4.91 4.86 4.61 6.87 4.86 4.67 4.47 4.94 threshold B‘ 5.01 6.91 4.84 4.77 4.76

4.62 4.34 4.59 4.77 bott bott. 4.62 4.94 4.41 bottom 4.66 blocked opening 5.38 4.93 threshold 4.91 5.38 4.97 4.55 bottom bottom 4.58 bottom 4.28 4.86 4.82 4.58 5.04 4.61 4.60 X5 4.19 bottom 4.83 6.16 4.67 shist 4.75 purple 4.64 6.95 5.97 4.21 bott. 5.06 4.69 6.97 5.05 4.98 4.60 bottom 4.63 5.32 4.86 4.65 5.02 5.44 5.70 4.7 4.13 6.05 5.46 base 4.86 5.27 5.27 threshold 4.88 bott.4.98 4.87 column X2 6.91 4.95 4.77 4.97 4.60 5.57 4.38 bott. 6.01 4.91 bott.6.00 6.01 5.38 6.04 4.92 4.11 5.01 4.71 5.00 6.19 7.06 bottom

4.91 5.07 5.95

6.12 bottom 4.35

1010.00 X 1010.00 4.79 6.02 bottom 5.84 4.64 5.08 6.06 6.18 4.68 bott.5.03 5.42 5.95 bottom 4.82 4.86 4.39 6.89 4.99 4.93 shist 4.95 6.00 4.89 X14a purple 4.70 6.04 4.88 4.42 6.44 4.91 4.43 4.91 p290 5.92 EL. 1009.79 X 1119.60 Y window

sill 4.92 5.99 6.07 4.42 4.81 L‘ 4.89 6.11 5.96 5.41 5.08 4.76 6.15 6.67 5.65 6.62 4.68 5.77 5.49 4.64 6.64 5.46

5.53 4.44 4.43 5.94 6.23 6.09 4.64 X7 4.89 6.67 6.04 bottom bott.4.77 4.88 blocked opening 4.92 4.45 5.00 6.09 4.86 bottom 4.85

K 4.81 5.76 5.97 bottom 5.22 6.70 4.45 4.57 5.15 4.90 4.80 6.15 red plaster 6.38 4.79 5.90 5.26 stairs up L 4.88 5.50 5.56 6.53 5.97 bottom 4.86 table 4.91 5.42 5.52 4.79 bottom 4.56 plaster !oor 5.29 5.21 4.75 6.15 bottom 4.65

6.01 4.77

5.98 MM wall 4.52 5.16 5.99 6.59 5.61 5.16

5.87 5.96 4.64 5.71 4.92 bottom 4.79 6.84 4.70 bottom 6.21 5.95 6.10 5.71 5.13 6.32 4.91 4.98 bottom 5.14 5.08 4.91 5.87 5.60 5.35 5.21 4.67 5.82 white plaster threshold 5.58 bottom 4.95 5.85 5.51 6.22 rubble X1 6.94 5.96 6.08 4.91 4.97 6.90 Y1 6.32 X14b bottom 4.99 5.86 5.64 5.78 5.70 4.96 4.82 bottom 5.19 bottom 4.73 5.79 rubble

6.84 5.73 4.77 bottom 4.86 bottom 6.55 6.42 4.63 X13s 6.08 5.83 6.60 6.08 6.41 5.98

7.03 X 13 n

6.90 4.86

X4 6.48 6.09 blue plaster 5.19 4.99 5.96 bottom 6.38 5.08 6.08 5.26 6.48 5.80 5.99 6.34 5.95

5.88 6.36 blue plaster 6.13 6.70 5.99 bottom 6.37 6.21

6.71 4.97 6.25 X 1005.00

6.21

MM wall 6.76 6.55 6.25 6.08 5.73 7.08 6.44 bottom 6.26 6.40 6.61 6.50 B

7.83 6.10 6.48 bottom 5.03 7.60 7.05 5.03 A‘ 6.61 6.54 6.62 6.60

6.73 6.45 6.61 6.50 1115.00 Y 1120.00 Y 1125.00 Y

Building V K‘ 6.40 Figure Figure 1.7. State plan of southern portion of House with X, Figure. 1.6 overlapping (G. Bianco, M.C. Shaw). FIGURE 1.8

1125.00y 1120.00 Y 1130.00Y 11150.00 Y rd rth o n grid 5.27 5.23 X15e

Building F

1020.00 X 1020.00 1020.00 X 1020.00 4.75 X15s 5.29 5.39 5.33 4.73 4.76 5.34 X15w 5.13 X16 Road 17 X11 bottom 5.92 bottom 5.87 5.36 5.29 5.24 bottom 4.50? 6.01 6.08 X12 6.00 bottom 5.00 bottom 5.78 5.86 6.06 blocked opening bottom 5.13 X10 bottom 5.35 5.88 5.56 bottom 5.90 5.71 5.45 bottom 5.95 5.80 5.24 blocked opening bottom 4.80 6.40 5.33

5.33 5.32

blocked opening bottom 4.85 X9 1015.00 X 1015.00 1015.00 X 1015.00 5.48 5.34 6.39 bottom bottom 5.71 X6 5.39 bottom Y5 5.13 bottom 5.95 - 6.22 X3 bottom 5.32 bottom 5.53 5.95 bottom 5.37 6.43 5.76 6.84 bottom 5.89 6.26 6.15 bott. 5.86 6.89 5.80 6.63 6.87 bottom 5.92 5.15 6.36 6.87 blocked opening bottom 5.23 5.98 6.84 5.84 X8 6.87 6.51 6.54 6.93 bottom 5.45 6.65 5.73 6.59 5.7 5.50 bottom 6.63 Y4 5.48 5.32 bottom 6.61 blocked opening bottom 4.97 5.23 5.49 6.76 5.33 5.48 6.74 X5 5.20 6.71 blocked doorway bottom 4.91 5.48 5.47 6.69 X2 Y3 5.73

bottom 6.56

5.83

1010.00 X 1010.00 1010.00 X 1010.00 X14a Y2 X7 bottom bottom 7.06 7.18 bottom bottom 7.12 7.08 7.10 7.21 bottom 7.33 7.35 7.43 bottom 7.00 7.44 2.00 m 7.57 7.42 7.47 7.59 7.26 X1 Y1 X14b

1.00 X4 X13n X13s blocked doorway bottom 5.24 0.50 5.73

0 6.22 KOMMOS PLAN OF REMOVED STRUCTURES

6.0

1005.00 X 1005.00 1005.00 X 1005.00 bottom 5.16 6.12 5.99 blocking bottom 5.16 1115.00 y 1130.00 y 1120.00Y 1125.00 y Building V Later walls that were removed Minoan walls of House X Figure 1.8. Figure State the plan masses showing of stone and minor structures(G. Bianco, that M.C. removed were Shaw). FIGURES 1.9 AND 1.10

trench 81 A trench 73 A trench 66A

X1 building V

21 16 18 6.67 3 6.64 22 6.43 9 4 29 10 11 6.20 31 14 slab floor 11 6.10 6.10-6.16 12 32 16 69 19 13 72 72 72 22 5.74 74 5.74/5.60 floor 14 75 floor 5.56 15 77 79 (73A) 79 5.56 floor 5.50 16 painted plaster 82 82 17 114 114 5.38 18 115 19 117 118 20 21 120 (73A) 121 119 122 5.12 floor floor 8 5.03 10 8 5.00 floor 9 4.89 4.93 15 5.00 13 16 17 18 19 18 19 4.85 floor 4.84 29 4.78 4.75 lepis floor 30 4.72 31 4.51 4.48 4.46 trench 86 B

reference line + 4.00 elevation

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SECTION K–K'

0 0.50 1.00 2.00 m

Figure 1.9. Section K–K' running east–west through X1, view from the south (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). For key to soil differentiation, see Figure 1.10.

sand ash, burning small rubble and gray clay earth and sand

brown earth plaster small rubble and gray silt pebbles and earth

gray clay ashlar block small rubble 12 pail number

brown earth and clay rubble small rubble and brown earth line between pails

brown silt stone chips large rubble trench line

gray silt pebbles small rubble and brown clay

charcoal bedrock large rubble and brown earth

Figure 1.10. Key for types of soils depicted in the archaeological sections (G. Bianco). FIGURE 1.11

1125.00y 1125.00y 1010.00x 1005.00x

4.86 4.88

bottom 4.52 bottom 4.86

4.74 4.90 bottom 4.76 bott. 4.47 4.73 4.85 bottom bottom 4.77 X1 4.72 4.82 4.80 4.74 bottom 4.93 bottom 4.93 4.78 5.02 5.02 4.99 LM I walls

4.97 4.89 LM I !oor 4.71 bench 5.00 4.70 white plaster 4.82

4.90 4.67 4.69 burned area 4.67 4.72 4.69 hearth pebble !oor 4.69

4.69 X4 4.71 4.72 4.84 4.67 4.81 4.85 1120.00y 4.70 1120.00y 4.72 4.69

4.71 P290 5.92 el. 1009.79x 4.83 1119.60y 4.81

s2256

0 0.50 1.00 2.00 m

Figure 1.11. Plan of MM walls and floor under X1 and X4, with gray walls belonging to House X (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). FIGURE 1.12

grid north grid grid north grid 5b 5b doorway D 5a 5a PHASE PLAN PHASE PLAN

6 6 blocked doorway D

B. D. 4 4 X14a 5.22 4.80 floor 1 X7 X7 X14a 2 floor 4? 7 4.81 table 4.80 doorway B 3 up platform 5.13/5.16 threshold threshold doorway A up 5.16 1 8 8 1 doorway E 4.97 4.92 4.92 2 2 5.13 5.13 up 4.91 3 3 X14b doorway C threshold 4 4 9 9 1.00 2.00 m 11 X14b 5 5 X13s X13s 1 1 6 6 X 13 n X 13 n wood supportswood upper flight for 7 7 0 0.50 8 8 under landing landing sottoscala

10 10 grid north grid bottom 4.66 bottom blocked opening 5.38 5.04 4.61 4.60 shist purple 4.75 5.06 4.64 bottom

4.63

4.65 5.44 north grid 5.27 threshold 4.88 4.77 4.60 5.57 6.01 4.91 6.01 5.38 6.04 6.19 5b 5.95 4.91 6.12 5.84 5a 4.68 6.18 5.95 bottom 4.95 X14a 4.70 6.04 blocked doorway D 6 4.42 4.91 4.43 4.91 5.92 EL. 1009.79 X 1119.60 Y p290 4.92 5.96 4 5.08 4.76 1.00 2.00 m 5.65 5.03/5.09 4.90/4.92 5.77 4.44 5.94 4.64 X7 X7 X7 X14a bott.4.77 4.88 4.45 floor 2 floor 3 4.81 7 5.76 doorway B blocked doorway B 5.22 bottom 4.57 4.80 4.79 5.90 5.50 5.56 stairs up 3 0 0.50 table up 5.42 5.52 bottom platform 4.56 5.13/5.16 plaster oor doorway A blocked doorway A bottom 4.65 threshold 6.01 4.52 5.16 5.99 5.16 5.16 8 5.87 1 4.92 4.92

4.70 5.13 4.91 5.14 5.14 2 5.13 up 5.08 5.87 4.91 5.35 5.21 4.67 3 5.82 bottom threshold doorway C 4.95 threshold doorway C 5.51 X14b 4 5.96 6.08 9 11 4.99 X14b 5.64 5.78 5 X13s 5.19 4.82 bottom 5.79 1 5.73 6 X 13 n X13s X13s 5.83 blocking 5.98 X 13 n X 13 n 4.86 7 X4 X4 6.09 blue plaster 5.19 5.96 8 5.08 6.08 5.80 landing 5.99 5.95 5.88 5.99 10 6.21 4.97 6.25 6.21 5.73 STATE PLAN OF X7 AND X13 6.44 PHASE PLAN

6.40 A. C. Figure Figure 1.12. State plan (A) and phase plans B–D of G. X13 Bianco). and X7 (M.C. Shaw, FIGURES 1.13 AND 1.14

Figure 1.13. Reconstruction of X5, with window looking into X4 at rear right and door leading to X8 on left, view from northeast (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco).

5.07

C9010

5.07 grid north 5.17 St48 5.11 C9009 J5 J12 5.19 C9011 C9007 C9012 C9006 5.18 C9008 5.04 5.21 5.16 5.11

5.18 burning 5.09 5.27

5.09 C9013 C9005 X4 C9167 5.28 5.03 S2157 St26 5.27 C9004 C9172 4.91

4.92 5.22 5.42 5.12 4.91 P290 4.95 5.92 el. 1009.79x 5.14 1119.60y

C9004 decorated jar C9167 Canaanite jar C9005 tripod cooking pot C9172 patterned amphora C9006-7-8 conical cups J5 bead C9009 jug J12 bead ROOM X4, FLOOR DEPOSIT C9010-11 champagne cups St26 mortar 0 0.50 1.00 2.00 m C9012 patterned pyxis St48 stone lid C9013 Cypriot pyxis

Figure 1.14. Plan of final floor deposit in X4 (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). trench 73 A trench 80 A

X4 X7 X14a present ground level 6.70 6.55 destroyed south-east 6.53 corner of Building V 1 1 6.45 2 2 5 6.37 27 27 33 35 3 30 6.28 30 34 + 37 34 6.18 4 41 36 38 5 42 8 7 39 40 6.00 45 40 43 9 45 45 41 5.90 10 50 43 46 11 49 47 5.76 5.80 12 5.77 5.65 48 5.73 13 5.66 14 5.56 table 15 53 51 5.50 17 54 blocked 18 57 21 floor opening floor 55 61 76 5.22 27 5.07 59 64 60 60A 65 78 84 89 66 floor 30 63 4.88 80 5.06 4.90 89 67 81 31 94A 94A surface 4.77 34 4.71 25 95A 67A 94B pebble floor 4.73 4.68 4.91 27 26 36 floor 4.79 floor 4.80 floor 4.91 4.66 4.64 89 4.81 bottom 38 4.45 90 reference line + 4.50 elevation slab floor 4.70 4.77 91 4.64 4.57 93 4.50 surface unexcavated floor 4.42 4.43 rubble on top trench 86B plaster and of southern end slab paving of X14a

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SECTION L–L'

0 0.50 1.00 2.00 m FIGURE 1.15 FIGURE

Figure 1.15. Section L–L' (north–south) through X4, X7, and X14a looking east (G. Bianco). For key to soil differentiation, see Figure 1.10. FIGURE 1.16 FIGURE

estimated level of upper !oor 7.32

wood steps to upper !oor 1.17 6 rrisers @ 19.5 average

landing 6.15 preserved 5.98 stone steps door 0.17 to X4 5.79 0.19 5.64 0.15 5.51

5.35 0.13 1.35 8 risers @

sottoscala rubble and earth "ll 16.9 average 0.16

5.13 0.22

door jam bases 4.92 0.17 0.16 original location of !oor first step 4.80

0.54 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.33 0.24 0.33 0.22 0.24

2.60 Restored staircase X13

0 0.50 1.00 2.00 m

Figure 1.16. Restored section of original staircase X13 and surrounding structures, looking north (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). FIGURE 1.17

X8 grid north grid 8 6 doorway A 7 enclosure? earth surface 4.50 X14a 4.42/4.45 slab floor X7 enclosure? step 4.57 4.81 Road 17 doorway B threshold/step 5 4 3 doorway C

X8 north grid 2 X13s 8 X14b A 6 wood supportswood upper flight for 1.00 2.00 m blocked doorway A 7 under landing sottoscala 1a abandonment surface 4.76/4.79 X14a 4.70/4.73 pebble floor 0 0.50 X7 ROOMS X14a AND X14b blocked doorway B B B. PHASE 1 (LM IB) Road 17 window? 5 4 3 doorway C

9 grid north grid X13s X14b 4.55 4.58 4.61 4.60 X13n blocking shist purple rebuilt? wall west 4.98 5.32 4.65 D upper flight 5.44 5.27 5.27 1.00 2.00 m 4.97 5.57 1b 6.01 5.38 5.95

4.64 4.68 5.95 bottom 4.39 ROOMS X14a AND X14b PHASES 2–3 (LM IB LATE–LM II) shist X14a 0 0.50 purple 6.04 4.42 4.43 4.91 C. 4.42 5.96 5.08 window? 4.68 4.64 4.44 4.43 5.94 4.64 bott.4.77 blocked opening 4.45 4.81 5.76 4.57 4.45 5.90 5.50 5.56 4.79 bottom 4.56 plaster oor 4.75 bottom 4.65 6.01 4.77 4.52 5.87 4.64 , , STATE PLAN 4.70 5.08 5.87 5.21 4.67 5.82 bottom X14b 5.78 4.96 4.82 bottom 5.19 bottom 4.73 bottom 4.86 4.63 X13s 5.83 4.86 6.48 6.09 5.19 5.08 5.26 5.80 5.88 ROOMS X14a AND X14b 6.13 6.70 5.99 6.21 A. Figure 1.17. Architectural phases in 1.17. X13s, X14a, and X14b Figure (G. Bianco, M.C. Shaw). FIGURES 1.18 AND 1.19

level of sand accumulation (not to scale) 9.80

level of sand accumulation (not to scale) 9.52

present ground level 6.70 X14b X14a X8

blocked blocked opening 6.01 5.90 5.94 5.96 5.95 opening 5.87 5.87 5.78 5.80 5.73

5.36 5.27

5.24 bottom bottom bottom 5.19 5.19 5.21 blocked bottom opening 4.86 4.86 4.82 4.69 4.67 4.63 bottom4.75 4.65 bottom 4.70 4.61 4.57 4.48 bott.4.65 4.64 bottom 4.67 4.44 4.44 4.48 plaster

refence line +4.00m. elevation 0 0.50 1.00 2.00 m SECTION B–B’ Figure 1.18. Section B–B' (west–east) in X14a and X14b, looking north (G. Bianco). grid north

5.24 5.26

5.32 5.35 floor 5.22 / 5.24 stair up 5.35 X7 5.32 X7 C9304 C9305 SH 11 C9303 C9019 C9014 5.22 C9020 C9307 C9301 5.22 C9001 5.25 C9302 C9018 C9016 C9015 5.56 C9308 C9003 C9017 table C9306 C9311 under table 5.50 C9312 C9002

ROOM X7, FLOOR DEPOSIT, lower layer ROOM X7, FLOOR DEPOSIT, upper layer

0 0.50 1.00 2.00 m

Figure 1.19. Lower and upper layers of main floor deposit in X7 (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). FIGURE 1.20 4.86 6.03 c 4.35 d b

bott. 5.29 X2 5.00 slabs 4.35 bott. 6.00 6.64 SECTION C–C' a a 4.11 slab 5.00 4.92 6.62 bedrock 1.00 2.00 m pithos 5.49 5.83 bottom 4.21 6.15 4.86 6.05 5.00 4.38 bottom 5.23 0 0.50 5.05 5.91 4.94 5.53 threshold present ground level 7.50 6.74 4.82 6.66 bottom 6.15 window sill 4.91 6.69 5.93 X5 6.15 5.40 5.02 6.68 bench reference line + 4.00 elevation 6.59

4.88 wall Y2

4.91 top 5.17 blocking bottom 5.21 blocking 6.41 top 5.83 rubble wall 6.21 bottom MM slab !oor 5.84 4.63 4.77 4.94 6.23 6.04 6.44 7.01 threshold 6.18 f e 6.11 6.90 House X north wall c bottom 4.98 4.58 6.67 6.00 House X 4.62 wall earlier 5.90 6.00 bott.5.34 4.71 5.97 4.65 a a bottom 4.11 6.03 4.86 6.01 6.03 c 4.35 4.61 d b

4.54 bott. 5.29 X2 5.00 slabs 5.27 4.35 bott. bottom 4.66 6.00 6.64 X8 5.24 blocked doorway a a 4.11 slab 5.00 slab 4.60 4.92 6.62 bedrock pithos 5.44 5.49 5.83 bottom 4.58 bottom 4.21 6.15 4.86 slab 4.58 6.05 5.31 5.00 4.38 bottom 5.23 5.15 5.05 5.91 4.94 4.54 5.53 reference line + 4.00 elevation threshold 4.92 4.82 4.62 window sill 4.91 X5 5.40 6.66 3.31 drain wall retaining 3.24 17 road paved wall Figure 1.20. Section C–C' 1.20. Figure (south–north) through Road 17, X8, Y2 X5, looking X2, (G. west and Bianco). FIGURE 1.21 32 5.05 present 7.50 ground level 5.20 pithos 6.74 4.94 38 threshold 24 20 15 17 6 33 7 bottom 6.15 5.93 1.00 2.00m. 25 6.66 trench 86 C 29 4.93 trench 66A 4.82 30C a a 5.02 bench X5 27B 3 5 4 4.88 0 0.50 32A 5A 54 47 53 41 56 50 49 52A 33A ARCHAEOLOGICAL SECTION G–G' threshold trench 74 A Y2 51 46 55 30 35A 4.91 top 5.17 bottom 5.21 4.77 5.83 56A 27A wall 10 wall 56B blocking 4.63 41 42 MM slab !oor 4.94 35 6.44 5.40 23 25 4.80 4.68 6.04 7.01 surface surface 4.58 5.30 pebble floor trench 59 A 6.90 5.09 5.54 5.30 5.36 5.45 4.67 4.81 4.90 5.72 bottom 4.98 6.67 6.00 5.21 4.62 wall 6.70 earlier 46 5.90 65 floor surface 50 63 77 82 68 76 69 37 40 72 74 43 80 62 71 84 41 67 71 4.86 4.25 77 27 45 75 39 71 42 4.71 73 85 41 43 bottom 4.11 63 65 67 78 66 50 64 68 5.27 5.34 4.54 X2 5.16 trench 80 A 4.90 42 45 48 62 77A 69 4 21 15 12 13 18 25 X8 69 49 46 28 4.11 bottom 4.21 66 74 72 4.92 70 pithos 5.49 bedrock 41 30 43 62 61 66 47 83 5.16 5.40 78 4.38 5.23 bottom 4.86 trench 59 A1 5.06 32 5.05 5.20 trench 59 A1 5.00 pithos 4.94 4.54 reference line + 4.00 elevation 52 38 threshold 24 20 15 17 33 4.62 trench 86 C 29 4.93 trench 66A 4.82 42 a a 54 56 3.31 drain X5 40 45 3.24 50 49 47 48 59 threshold 4.91 top 5.17 bottom 5.21 4.77 5.83 51 60 58 57 5.47 53 road 17 wall 61 10 wall 5.25 4.23 4.37 blocking 4.63 41 4.53 42 5.21 50 55 54 5.40 23 25 4.80 4.68 3.26 4.58 4.14 3.64 4.53 3.98 4.21 4.36 trench 59 A trench 54A2 5.54 5.30 5.36 5.45 4.67 4.81 5.72 trench 59 A1 reference line + 4.00 elevation 5.17 5.00 Figure 1.21. Section G–G' (south–north), looking west through Road 17, X8, X5, X2, and Y2 (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). For key to soil differentiation, see Figure 1.10. Figure see differentiation, soil to key For Bianco). G. Shaw, (M.C. Y2 and X2, X5, X8, 17, Road through west looking (south–north), G–G' Section 1.21. Figure FIGURES 1.22 AND 1.23

Figure 1.22. Elevation of doorway from X5 to X6, looking east (G. Bianco).

blocking narrowing of original opening 6.26 6.18 6.23 6.15 6.15

original wall partly rebuilt

X2 5.23 threshold bottom of grid north top 5.00 blocking 6.15 width 0.92 5.00 6.23 refence line + 4.50 m. elevation 6.23 threshold 6.01 Elevation B

6.07

threshold 6.10 relocated 4.93 B later wall in room X6 4.82 stone 6.07 5.08 4.93 5.98 5.93 original 5.75 threshold later 5.73 5.08 X6 threshold 5.71 5.49 A 4.87 5.73 5.46 wall addition original wall X5 4.97 blocking 5.75 bottom threshold 5.06 original wall top 4.93

5.83

original 4.87 narrowing of threshold later original opening top 4.93 width 0.92 threshold Plan top 5.08

0 0.50 1.00 2.00 m Elevation A

refence line + 4.00 m. elevation

Figure 1.23. Plan (left) and elevations (right) of remodeled doorways between X5, X6, and X3 (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). FIGURES 1.24 AND 1.25

14.00 13.2 10.3 1.4 12.4 8.0 2

9.5 plan 13.2 53.5

14.8

broken area

0 5 10 20 cm section 13.8

Figure 1.24. Stone pedestal (S 2295) found in X5 (G. Bianco).

entrance

4.60 X16 4.55

4.40 4.63 4.46

4.58 1 grid north

7.39 15 3 sottoscala 7.18 X15e 4

5 X15w 6

7 road 32

window? X15s

4.09/4.16 4.43 threshold 4.49/4.52

window?

STAIRS X15, STAGE 2 road 17 0 0.50 1.00 2.00 m

Figure 1.25. Later phase of Staircase X15, with entrance from X16 to X15w blocked and new doorway cut through the south end of wall separating X15 from X9 (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). FIGURES 1.26 AND 1.27

trench 59 A1 trench 81 C

X9 X16 X16 unexcavated

5.94

blocking 5.66 5.36 5.56 5.51 5.55 41 5.46 32 43 5.44 32B 5.37 47 42A 33 66 34 restored 5.11 5.16 69 47 35 east facade 5.04 37 of house X 76 bottom 5.00 52A 74 79 4.98 77 4.76 78 54 4.68 81 4.56 4.63 79 80 4.56 4.51 4.55 84 55 86 81 58 57A 59 4.50 4.44 bottom 4.43 4.53

reference line + 4.00 elevation ARCHAEOLOGICAL SECTION H–H' trench 81C 0 0.50 1.00 2.00 m

Figure 1.26. Section H–H' (west–east) through X9 and part of X16, looking north (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). For key to soil differentiation, see Figure 1.10.

X3 1 015.00X 1 125.00Y

bottom

5.14 grid north

5.00 4.90 threshold 4.99 4.90 floor slabs bottom 4.91 4.66 4.74

4.66 5.08 4.61 later threshold 4.74 threshold 4.93 5.08 4.89 4.62 4.63

X6 4.74 upright slab 5.06 top

4.64

4.89 4.85 4.96 5.04 5.02 X5 slab 4.99 drain 4.72

4.93 5.04 threshold 4.98 4.84 4.97 5.01 5.03

4.70 1 120.00Y bottom X9

0 0.50 1.00 2.00 m 1 015.00X

Figure 1.27. Plan of X6 after excavation, with sounding at its north end (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). FIGURE 1.28 4.92 5.77 wall bottom 4.85 + 4.00 m. elevation 4.69 5.70 refence line refence MM !oor 4.82 4.91 4.96 door jamb base a a 5.84 bott. SECTION A–A’ 5.83 5.21 top 4.91 threshold 0 0.50 1.00 2.00 m 4.88 5.17 5.60 5.48 blocked doorway 6.51 5. 05 5.38 10.00 accumulation (not to scale) level of sand Building V 4.94 4.61 4.71 5.35 + 4.00 m. elevation 6.35 4.47 5.00 5.95 4.68 blue plaster 4.71 4.84 bottom 5.83 refence line refence plaster fallen step 6.08 5.31 House X step 5.98 S 5.66 drain 5.79 step 4.97 5.72 4.83 5.73 4.90 5.57 wall bottom 4.95 4.88 5.96 4.83 4.99 5.35 step 4.69 5.06 5.99 5.14 4.91 5.04 threshold partition wall of staircase 4.79 4.93 5.02 4.92 bott. MM slab !oor 5.38 4.94 jamb bases 5.31 door 5.33 blocked doorway 4.92 5.31 5.77 blocked doorway wall bottom 4.85 4.83 X4 !oor 5.68 4.69 5.70 MM !oor 4.82 4.91 5.72 5.7 4.96 door jamb base a a 5.44 5.84 bott. 5.52 5.83 5.21 top 4.91 threshold bottom 4.83/4.85 4.83 4.88 5.17 5.16 5.60

5.11 5.48 !oor blocked doorway 5. 05 4.83 5.38 X12 X6 X5 X4 5.49 5.15 bottom 4.83/4.85 5.71 5.48 5.96 6.40 6.77 10.80 level of sand accumulation 6.62 Building F Figure 1.28. Section A–A' (east–west) looking Figure A–A' 1.28. (east–west) south Section through Building F and X12, X6, G. X5, Bianco). and X4 (M.C. Shaw, FIGURES 1.29 AND 1.30

House X

modern retaining wall X6 X11 Building F 6.77 6.74 6.58

6.42 E–E ’ 6.22 6.10 bottom 5.96 5.97 5.82 5.85 5.75 5.68

5.48 5.46 5.44 5.34 doorway

5.16 5.13

4.85 4.91 4.88 bottom bottom 4.80 4.94

4.34 4.38

4.12

refence line + 4.00 m. elevation 0 0.50 1.00 2.00 m SECTION D–D’

Figure 1.29. Section D–D' (west–east) through X11, looking north (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco).

entrance

4.60 X16 4.55

4.40 4.63 stairs 4.46 up 4.58 1 grid north

4.58 2

4.78 15 3

sottoscala 7.12 4.98 X15e 14 4 X15w 6.93 5.18 13 5

6.74 5.38 12 6 6.55

5.58 road 32 11 7 6.36 5.78 10 8 6.17

X9 9 stairs up

window?

5.98 landing X15s

window?

road 17 STAIRS X15, STAGE 1 0 0.50 1.00 2.00 m

Figure 1.30. Plan of original Staircase X15 with wooden steps suggested for upper flight X15w (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). FIGURE 1.31 4.38 5.96 a a 5.64 5.18 5.23 bottom + 4.00 m. elevation trench 11A 7.67 present present level ground 5.82 5.13 level of sand accumulation 10.10 (not to scale) doorway 6.72 6.44 5.93 6.09 5.84 refence line 5.45 5.61 1.00 2.00 m 4.50 4.34 4.12 bottom 4.91 63 5.68 5.46 5.28 42 D - D’ 40 47 31 22 36 58 43 33 57 25 62 27 5.87 13 16 36 23 5.45 25 18 30 38 41 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SECTION J–J' 6.00 0 0.50 X11 14 rubble pile rubble of pillar west 60 5.41 5.22 5.26 6.24 10 6 5.57 5.74 5.94 later addition later 4.50 4.34 4.75 trench 87a trench 92 6.19 91 96 98 5.92 104 107 109 97 93 100 53 50 22 37 73 44 X12 51 41 46 70 33 A - A ’ House X 5.03 4.85 5.50 X10 5.11 5.56 5.59 5.11 trench 73B trench 39 45 54 bottom c. 4.60 5.57 5.10 37 35 32 34 5.24 74 81 33 5.10 5.05 slab slab 80 bottom 37 4.60 30 X16 31 5.36 78 5.81 blocked opening blocked opening 79 81 77 4.65 4.72 4.65 39 5.23 6.20 5.66 5.12 5.46 5.78 34 26 29 17 13 4.32 35 44 15 31 28 21 24 19 20 40 5.88 5.90 43 5.70 5.80 blocking wall without south face 5.68 5.83 5.12 4.73 4.96 4.73 4.38 5.96 30 a a 5.64 28 5.49 36 5.18 5.23 bottom 54A trench 11A 52 4.37 4.43 5.82 5.13 doorway 32D 38 4.65 X15w 4.50 4.34 4.12 51 bottom 4.91 trench 81C 4.88 5.68 4.53 5.46 42 D - D’ 48 5.12 22 33 27 13 36 16 23 25 18 38 41 30 52 X11 14 4.24 79 5.41 4.61 5.26 4.17 78 + 4.00 m. elevation 5.57 5.74 trench 97G 5.31 77 4.13 X15s 5.94 4.50 4.34 refence line 4.75 32A 30C 4.19 38 51A 54 57 44 52A 31C 36A 28B 4.73 4.37 4.87 5.26 5.38 5.71 5.56 5.75 5.82 3.30 _ + 4.00 m. elevation + 6.60 paved road paved 17 refence line level of sand accumulation (not to scale) present present level ground 10.00 Figure Figure 1.10. Figure 1.31. Section J–J' (south–north) through X15s, X15w, X16, X12–X11, and X10, looking west (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). For key to key G. soil see 1.31. Figure Bianco). differentiation, Section For J–J' X16, (south–north)X12–X11, and through X10, (M.C. X15s, looking Shaw, X15w, west FIGURES 1.32 AND 1.33

grid north

5 ‘ A 4 6 7 A 5.33 5.18 5.41 5.37 5.38 5.22 5.38 5.34

5.32

5.19 a

5.41 5.27 5.22 5.42 5.32 b 5.24 5.33 5.13

PLAN

step 6 step 7 5.41 front front step 5 5.37 5.38 5.38 front 5.34

step 4 5.22 5.18 5.19 base

SECTION A–A’ 0 10 20 30 40 50 cm Figure 1.32. Plan and section A–A' of lower flight X15e with some steps still in situ (G. Bianco).

stair wall estimated upper floor 7.32

7.12

6.93 restored wood steps X15s 6.74

X16 6.55 7 risers @ 0.19 average

6.36 1.34 X15w 6.17 estimated landing 5.98 stair wall 5.78 0.20 5.58 0.20

5.38 door to stone steps in situ 0.20 outside _ 5.18 + X15s 0.20 1.55 9 risers 1 @ 0.15 7 @ 0.20 average 4.98 possible wood and stone 0.20 4.78 support 0.20 slab floor 4.58 4.58 0.20 0.15 level of sottoscala floor slab floor further east 4.09 / 4.16

RESTORED STAIRCASE X15 road 17 0 0.50 1.00 2.00 m +_ 3.30

Figure 1.33. Restored elevation of original Staircase X15, looking east (G. Bianco, M.C. Shaw). FIGURE 1.34

Road 17

Figure 1.34. Restoration of Staircase X15, with possible stages 1 and 2, looking east (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). FIGURE 1.35 17.0 15.0

bottom broken and roughly cut FRONT ELEVATION A FRONT ELEVATION B BLOCK c BLOCK b

roughly cut 44.0

32.0 smooth worn

21.0 surface broken 21.0

42.0 58.0

A TOP VIEW B TOP VIEW BLOCK c BLOCK b

broken chisel marks chisel marks 19.0 17.5

rough chisel marks

FRONT ELEVATION C FRONT ELEVATION D BLOCK a BLOCK d 26.0 21.0 18.0 broken

63.5 48.0 c D TOP VIEW TOP VIEW BLOCK a BLOCK d

CUT BLOCKS (STEPS?) 0 10 20 30 40 50 cm FROM ROOM X15

Figure 1.35. Drawings of blocks, some are possible steps of Staircase X15 found loose in X15s amid stone debris (G. Bianco). FIGURE 1.36 4.38 5.96 5.64 6.09 bottom 5.13 doorway 6.20 5.82 a a bottom 4.91 1.00 2.00 m 6.22 SECTION E–E’ 5.68 5.46 6.10 4.12 D - D’ 5.75 X11 4.80 bottom 5.74 0 0.50 bottom 5.47 4.34 4.83 5.51 level of sand accumulation 10.10 (not to scale) 5.53 7.67 present present level ground + 4.00 m. elevation + 4.00 m. elevation refence line refence refence line refence 5.24 X12 5.49 A - A ’ House X 5.44 4.85 5.36 5.11 5.42 6.53 5.10 5.27 5.55 5.17 bottom c. 4.60 5.10 5.24 bottom 4.60 5.36 5.00 blocked opening X16 6.51 5.05 slab 4.65 bottom 5.12 6.25 5.25 5.78 X10 blocking wall without south face 5.67 5.62 5.91 4.37 4.43 5.57 4.65 X15w 6.14 4.74 bottom 4.96 5.51 4.88 4.53 bottom 4.98 5.83 4.32 5.39 4.73 5.49 4.38 5.96 5.64 6.09 bottom 4.17 4.52 5.13 doorway 6.20 5.82 4.13 a a X15s 4.37 4.19 bottom 4.91 6.22 5.68 5.46 6.10 4.12 D - D’ 4.87 5.75 X11 4.80 bottom 5.74 (not to scale) 3.30 bottom _ + + 4.00 m. elevation 6.60 paved road paved 17 accumulation present present level ground 10.00 refence line refence Figure 1.36. Section E–E' 1.36. Figure (south–north) X16, through X12–X11, X15s, and X15w, X10, looking (G. west Bianco). FIGURES 1.37 AND 1.38

level of sand level of sand accumulation (nts) accumulation (nts) 10.00 9.90

Y4 6.72 upper wall with different orientation

87 A 28 87 A 20 6.23 57 59 slab-like 61 stones 5.91 5.89 63 surface? 69 70

73 73 small stones 5.56 surface? 77 5.47 78 78a large stones with rectangular face 79 5.09

4.94 80 81 4.92 82 4.63 83 84 85

4.53 87 4.54 4.44 90 4.25 4.18 reference line + 4.00 elevation bottom 93 E

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SECTION F–F' THROUGH SPACE Y4 LOOKING EAST 0 0.50 1.00 2.00 m

Figure 1.37. Section F–F' (south–north) through Y4, looking east (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco).

level of sand level of sand accumulation (nts) accumulation (nts) 10.00 9.90

Y4 6.72 upper wall with different orientation 6.34 6.39 6.29 6.23 6.16 6.13 slab-like stones 5.89 5.91 5.79 5.68 bottom 5.99 5.86 small stones 5.68 bottom 5.56

large stones with rectangular face 5.09 5.09 4.99 5.02 blocking 4.93

4.53 4.54 bottom 4.44 bottom 4.25 4.18 reference line + 4.00 elevation bottom

SECTION M–M' THROUGH SPACE Y4 LOOKING EAST 0 0.50 1.00 2.00 m

Figure 1.38. Section M–M' (north–south) through Y4, looking east (G. Bianco). FIGURES 2.1 AND 2.2 1010.00x 1020.00x 1005.00x 1025.00x 1015 .00x 1130.00y

fence X10 grid north

1125.00y X2 P 295 a-d X11 Fr 9 Fr 10 X1 P 293 a-c X12 Fr 1-3 X5 X6 X Fr 6 P 292 P 290 lightwell Fr 9 Fr 5 X4 entrance X16 1120.00y X Fr 4

P297 P298 X X15 X13n X7 X X15e Road 32 X9 w P299 X13s Fr 8 X8 X P296 X15s x14a X14b Fr 7 1115.00y Road 33

Road 17 Road 34 Fr cataloged pieces of plaster P pieces of plaster only inventoried HOUSE X, GROUND FLOOR x x x badly worn, generally small, fragments 0 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 m

Figure 2.1. Plan of distribution of plasters (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco).

0 1 2 3 cm

Figure 2.2. Incised lines shown in gray (a graffito?) on part of the Stems Fresco (Fr 3). FIGURES 2.3 AND 2.4

0 2 4 cm

Figure 2.3. Preliminary lines on plaster fragment from the House of the Frescos, Knossos (from Cameron 1968c, fig. 7, no. 41).

0 1 2 cm

Figure 2.4. Linear designs in sepia from the House of the Frescoes, Knossos (after Cameron 1968b, fig. 1, no. 1). FIGURE 3.1

Me 16

Me 18 Me 19

Me 21 Me 22

Me 27 (1:1) Me 30 Me 31

St 35

profile top bottom St 40

St 46

St 42 (1:4) St 44 St 47

Figure 3.2. Stone and glass objects: axe (St 35); stone squat alabastron (St 40); fragmentary stone lamp (St 42); stone lids (St 44, St 46); stone ribbed chalice/pyxis (St 47). Scale 1:2 unless otherwise indicated. FIGURE 3.3

Cl 1 (1:4)

Cl 2 Cl 3 Cl 4

Figure 3.3. Clay objects: potter’s wheel (Cl 1); terracotta drain fragments (C 12, C 13, C 14). Scale 1:3 unless otherwise indicated. FIGURE 3.4

Ot 1 (1:2) J 10 (1:2)

J 14 (1:1) J 15 J 17 J 18

J 19 (1:1)

Figure 3.4. Glass vessel, jewelry, seals, and a mold: glass vessel (Ot 1); steatite shell pendant (J 10); pendant seal (J 14); cornelian amygdaloid seal with fish (J 15); disk seal (J 17); cushion seal (J 18); jeweler’s mold for earrings (J 19). Scale 2:1 unless otherwise indicated. FIGURE 3.5

F1 (1:1)

F2 (1:1)

F4 (1:2)

F5 (1:2)

Figure 3.5. Four terracotta figurines: F 1, F 2, F 4, F 5. Drawings by J. Clarke. FIGURES 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, AND 4.4

Patella

Glycymeris Land snail

Monodonta Figure 4.1. Summary of Other Composition of Sample of Composition mollusks recovered from House X. 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Ovis/Capra Sus

Bos

Da ma Other Unidentified Figure 4.2. Summary of

Composition of Sample of Composition animals represented Bird in Minoan levels of Fish House X.

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

<1 Year 1–2 Years 2–3 Years

Figure 4.3. Age range of Adult sheep and goat remains Sample of Composition from House X. 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

<1 Year 1–2 Years 2–3 Years Adult

Sample of Composition Figure 4.4. Age range of pig remains from House X.

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

FIGURE 4.5 grid north

X10

X2 X11 X1

X6 X12 X5

X7 House X

X13s X9 X8

X15 X14b

= Perimeter of the concentration of Glycymeris shell deposition. 0 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 m

Figure 4.5. The spatial distribution of LM IIIA:1 Glycymeris worn valves (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). FIGURE 5.1

N19

A grid north 01 02 04 018 B 011

C 7 D

E 1

A : North House B : Oblique House C : Cliffside House D : House of the Press E : House of the Snake tube F : House X : main entrance F 32

0 5 10 15 20 25 m 17 33

17 34

BUILDING T

Figure 5.1. Schematic plan of Kommos showing chief Neopalatial buildings excavated and roads connecting them (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). FIGURES 5.2 AND 5.3 1010.00x 1020.00x 1005.00x 1025.00x 1015 .00x 1130.00y

ground parapet floor fence X10 grid north

terrace X3

1125.00y X2 X11

X1 X12 X5 X6

light X4 railing well X16 1120.00y to roof

railing X15 X15e Road 32 X13n X7 w X9 X13s X8 terrace railing X15s x14a X14b parapet 1115.00y parapet Road 33

Road 17 Road 34

restored window roofed area restored walls 0 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 m doorway HOUSE X, RESTORED SECOND FLOOR restored door ground floor leading to terrace Figure 5.2. House X, restored plan of second floor indicating roofed areas (shaded) and open terraces (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco).

Figure 5.3. Isometric restoration RESTORATION OF HOUSE X of House X, view from the southwest (M.C. Shaw, G. 0 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 m Bianco). FIGURE 5.4

5.25 grid north fence X10

loomweights LM I–LM II X3 loomweights LM III

X2 spindle whorls LM I–LM II 4.91 X11 4.90 needles X1 loomweights in higher levels X6 X12 X5 and above walls

4.91 lightwell blocked doorway / later wall X4 entrance X16 4.60

X15 X13n X7 X15e X9 w X13s X8 4.50 4.60 X15s LOOMWEIGHTS AND x14a X14b RELATED TOOLS

Road 17 HOUSE X

5.25

grid north hand tools LM I–LM II fence X10 hand tools LM III

mortars/querns LM I–LM II

X3 mortars/querns LM III

bronze object / tool

X2 4.91 tweezers 4.90 X11

X1 stamnotatis LM I–LM II X6 X12 stamnotatis LM III

4.91 X5 lightwell X4 entrance drill wedge / obsidian X16 4.60 sickle blade X15 w blocked doorway / later wall X13n X7 X15e X9 X13s X8 4.50 4.60 X15s x14a IMPLEMENTS AND TOOLS X14b 0 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 m

Road 17

Figure 5.4. Schematic plans of House X showing distribution of loomweights and related tools and of other stone and metal implements (M.C. Shaw, G. Bianco). Plates PLATE 1.1

Plate 1.1A. View of west part of House X from north (M.C. Shaw).

Plate 1.1B. Detail of northwest corner of X1 (M.C. Shaw).

Plate 1.1C. Eastern wall of X1 (M.C. Shaw).

Plate 1.1D. North part of X4, with blocked doorway and partial view of X1 from south. PLATE 1.2

Plate 1.2A. General view of House X from west.

Plate 1.2B. General view of House X from southwest. PLATE 1.3

Plate 1.3B. Western part of south wall of X4 and blocked original doorway from north.

Plate 1.3A. Level with slabs in X1 from east.

Plate 1.3D. East part of south wall of X4 (with restored Plate 1.3C. Threshold and cut doorjamb bases between jamb) and entrance to X7 and X13, view from north X4 and X7 from north (M.C. Shaw). (M.C. Shaw). PLATE 1.4

Plate 1.4A. General view of House X from southeast.

Plate 1.4B. Staircase X13 and Space X4 with floor deposit from east. PLATE 1.5

Plate 1.5A. West part of X5 with ashlar wall separating it from X4, view from east (M.C. Shaw).

Plate 1.5B. Views of X4, X13 (foreground), X7, and X5 from west.

Plate 1.5C. MM III slab floor with hearth and plaster benches under LM floor of X4, view from southeast. PLATE 1.6

Plate 1.6A. X14b and X14a with slab floor in latter, view from south.

Plate 1.6B. Southwest area of X8 with views of its floor, west wall, and blocked doorway from east (M.C. Shaw).

Plate 1.6C. Pottery found on the floor in the northeast corner of Shrine X7. PLATE 1.7

Plate 1.7A. Pottery and shells found scattered on stone table in Shrine X7.

Plate 1.7B. Pottery, Triton shell, and pebbles from main floor deposit in X7, roughly positioned as found (see also Fig. 1.19).

Plate 1.7C. Pottery from the latest use of Shrine X7 (T. Dabney). PLATE 1.8

Plate 1.8A. North area of X2 with Cross Wall visible in Plate 1.8B. View of south area of X2 from north, with foreground, view from south. triangular slab at center placed over original threshold to raise its level.

Plate 1.8C. East side of west walls of X2. Plate 1.8D. Exterior northwest corner and part of interior of X2 from west (M.C. Shaw). PLATE 1.9

Plate 1.9A. Pithoi and slab structure in south part of X2 Plate 1.9B. Detail of southwest corner of X2 and finds after removal of pebble floor, view from northeast. in fill above pebble floor, view from northeast.

Plate 1.9C. South part of X5, with drain and sump (arrow) and doorway (right) leading south to X8.

Plate 1.9D. Rectangular stone stand (S 2295) in X5 built into low wall along the west side of the sump, view from south.

Plate 1.9E. Column base next to stacked slabs Plate 1.9F. Two successive thresholds in doorway surrounding the sump in X5, view from south. between X5 and X6 from west (M.C. Shaw). PLATE 1.10

Plate 1.10A. General view of east part of House X from south.

Plate 1.10B. Trenchmaster S. Shubert and workmen with the large pithos (C 7990) in X5, view from south. PLATE 1.11

Plate 1.11A. View of Road 17 and north facade of Building T looking south from X8.

Plate 1.11B. Stone bench along north wall of X8 (M.C. Shaw).

Plate 1.11C. View from south of X6 (middle), parts of X9 (bottom), and X3 (top) after removal of blocked doorways (M.C. Shaw). PLATE 1.12

Plate 1.12A. Slab floor reached in sounding in area X15s of the staircase, directly east of entrance from X9, view from east.

Plate 1.12B. Steps of lower flight in X15e found in situ, with parts of spaces under upper flight X15w and in X15s, view from east (M.C. Shaw).

Plate 1.12C. North wall of X6, with blocking of door leading into X3, view from south.

Plate 1.12D. Room X6 with washing slab and drain in its southwest corner, view from northeast. PLATE 1.13

Plate 1.13A. General view of House X from northeast.

Plate 1.13B. Central area of House X from northeast. PLATE 1.14

Plate 1.14A. Staircase X15 with parts of nearby rooms Plate 1.14B. Steps of lower flight of X15e in situ, along visible north and west and Building F’s southwest with view of part of the interior face of the east corner at center right, view from south. facade wall exposed next to lower step, view from west (M.C. Shaw).

Plate 1.14C. Partially excavated X10 and X11 (at left Plate 1.14D. Fallen stones, including parts of stone mortar and bottom right, respectively), with corner of (St 32), leaning against northeast pillar of X10, view Greek Building F on right, view from southwest. from south. PLATE 1.15

Plate 1.15B. Lobby X16 with view from west of scarp of unexcavated fill under Greek Building F.

Plate 1.15A. View of X11/X12 with later north–south wall at center foreground, from south.

Plate 1.15C. Detail of west face of later north–south Plate 1.15D. Fallen blocks in the west part of X15s with wall seen in Pl. 1.15A. threshold of new doorway on left leading to X9, view from southeast. PLATE 1.16

Plate 1.16A. View of space under upper flight of X15w from south (M.C. Shaw).

Plate 1.16B. Superficial retaining wall, starting at the junction of the north facades of X2 and X3 and extending north, view from north.

Plate 1.16C. North facade of X3 with retaining wall extending north, view from north (M.C. Shaw).

Plate 1.16D. North facade wall of X3 rising above earlier wall in sounding in Y4, view from north. PLATE 2.1

Plate 2.1A. Detail of Stems Fresco (Fr 3) from Space X1.

Plate 2.1B. Detail of painted plaster in situ at the base of the west wall of X4.

Plate 2.1C. Northwest areas of X1 and X4. PLATE 3.1

Me 1 Me 2

Me 3 Me 4

Me 5 (1:2)

Me 6

Me 7 Me 9

Me 10 Me 13

Plate 3.1. Bronze/copper rods, strips, and wire rods (Me 1–Me 4); strips and wires (Me 5–Me 7, Me 9, Me 10, Me 13). Scale 1:1 unless otherwise indicated. PLATE 3.2

Me 14 Me 16

Me 17 Me 18

Me 19 Me 20

Me 21 Me 22

Me 23 (1:1) Me 24 (1:1) Me 27 (1:1)

Me 28 (1:1) Me 29 Me 30

Plate 3.2. Various bronze/copper and lead objects: knife blades (Me 14, Me 16); sickle blade (Me 17); “pendant” (Me 18); “trowel” (Me 19); blade/anvil (Me 20); needles (Me 21, Me 22); tweezers (Me 23, Me 24); fishhooks (Me 27, Me 28); and lead weights (Me 29, Me 30). Scale 1:2 unless otherwise indicated. PLATE 3.3

Lw 23 Lw 42 Lw 45

Lw 48 Lw 50 Lw 53 Lw 54

Sp 1 (1:1) Sp 2 (1:1) Sp 3 (1:1)

Plate 3.3. Clay loomweights: discoid weights (Lw 42, Lw 45, Lw 48); discoid weight with tabular top (Lw 23); half discoid (Lw 50); cylindrical weight (Lw 53); trapezoidal weight (Lw 54); stone and clay spindle whorls (Sp 1–Sp 3). Scale 1:2 unless otherwise indicated. PLATE 3.4

St 1 St 2 St 3

St 4 St 6 (1:1) St 7 (1:1) St 8 (1:1)

St 5 St 5 and St 27 (1:5)

Plate 3.4. Stone tools: cobbles (St 1–St 5); whetstones (St 6–St 8); cobble and hollowed slab (St 5 and St 27). Scale 1:2 unless otherwise indicated. PLATE 3.5

St 9

St 10 St 11

St 13/J 9 (1:1)

St 14 (1:3)

St 15 (1:3) St 16

Plate 3.5. Stone tools: abrader (St 9); pestle (St 10); handstone (St 11); pebble pendant(?) (St 13/J 9); weights (St 14, St 15); drill wedge (St 16). Scale 1:2 unless otherwise indicated. PLATE 3.6

St 17 (1:2) St 19 (1:1)

St 18 (1:2)

St 23 (1:1) St 24 (1:4)

St 25 (1:3) St 28 (1:3)

Plate 3.6. Stone tools: drill weight (St 17); weight (St 18); cylindrical cobble (St 19); weathered stone (St 23), saddle quern (St 24), fragmentary basins (St 25, St 28). Scales as indicated. PLATE 3.7

St 29 St 30

St 31 St 32

St 33 St 34

Plate 3.7. Stone tools: mortars (St 29–St 32); fragmentary stamnostates (St 33, St 34). Scale as indicated. PLATE 3.8

St 35 (1:2) St 36 St 37 St 38

St 39 St 40 (1:2)

St 42 (1:4) St 44 (1:2) St 45

Plate 3.8. Stone objects: axe (St 35); obsidian wedge (St 36); obsidian blades (St 37, St 39); obsidian core (St 38); stone squat alabastron (St 40); fragmentary stone lamp (St 42), stone lid (St 44); serpentine lid (St 45). Scale 1:1 unless otherwise indicated. PLATE 3.9

Cl 1 (1:2)

Cl 6 (1:4)

Ot 1 (1:1)

Plate 3.9. Clay and glass objects: clay potter’s wheel (Cl 1); terracotta slab (Cl 6); glass vessel (Ot 1). Scale as indicated. PLATE 3.10

J 4 (2:1) J 5 J 8 (1:2)

J 7 (1:2)

J 10 J 11 J 12 J 13

Plate 3.10. Jewelry: shell bead (J 4); stone bead (J 5); shell pendant (J 8); two shell necklaces (J 7); steatite shell pendant (J 10); stone pendant (J 11); pebble pendants (J 12, J 13). Scale 1:1 unless otherwise indicated. PLATE 3.11

J 14 (1:1) J 15 J 16

J 17 J 18

J 19 (1:1)

front F 1 (1:1) back

Plate 3.11. Seals, mold, and figurine: conical stamp seal (J 14); cornelian amygdaloid seal with fish (J 15); lentoid bead- seal with bird-woman (J 16); disk seal (J 17); cushion seal (J 18); jeweler’s mold for earrings (J 19); terracotta figurine (F 1). Scale 2:1 unless otherwise indicated. PLATE 4.1

Bo 56 Bo 57

Bo 59

Plate 4.1A. Worked bone: flat bar (Bo 56); bone point with fragments (Bo 57); awl (Bo 59). Scale 1:1.

Plate 4.1B. Glycymeris shell assemblage (Sh 10) from Plate 4.1C. Triton shell (Sh 11) from Shrine in X7. table in Shrine in X7. Scale 1:3. Scale 1:3.

Plate 4.1D. A Glycymeris valve with a possible symbol (Sh 19). Views of interior (left), exterior with background erased to clarify marks (middle), and unmodified exterior (right). Scale 1:1. Color Plates COLOR PLATE 1

Color Plate 1A. Reconstruction of Shrine X7. Digital ren der - ing by Chris Dietrich.

Color Plate 1B. The Lily Fresco (Fr 1, Fr 2). Extended recon - struction by Anne Chapin. COLOR PLATE 2

Color Plate 2A. The Stems Fresco (Fr 3) from X1.

0 3 cm

Color Plate 2B. Strip of painted plaster (Fr 5) with abstract patterns from base of west wall in X4.

0 3 cm

Color Plate 2C. Two strips of painted plaster (Fr 6) with abstract patterns from the north wall of X4. COLOR PLATE 3

0 5 10 cm

Color Plate 3A. Fragment with Spiral Fresco (Fr 7) Color Plate 3B. Reconstruction of the Spiral Fresco (Fr 7). from X14a.

Color Plate 3C. Fragment of plaster (Fr 8) with Color Plate 3D. Fragment of a painted plaster molding (Fr design in red, from X8. 9) from X6. COLOR PLATE 4

4A. Fragment of painted bands (Fr 10) from X11/X12.

4B. Detail (left) of Kommos lily from House X, compared with (right) lilies from ancient Ialysos (modern Trianda), Rhodes (A.P. Chapin). For relative size, see Color Plate 1B.

4C. Detail of riverine scene from Miniature Frieze in the West House, Akrotiri (from Doumas 1992, pl. 32).