Journal of NELTA

Volume: 17 Number: 1-2 December 2012

Advisor Hemanta Raj Dahal

Editor-in-Chief Jai Raj Awasthi

Editors Sajan Kumar Karn Prem Bahadur Phyak Bal Krishna Sharma Ghanashayam Sharma

Reviewers Bal Ram Adhikari Majed Abu Dabeel Binod Luitel Masoud Mahmoodzadeh Ganga Ram Gautam Patrice Michele Crysler Glenys Katharine Roberts Pin-hsiang Natalie Hsiu-ying Chang Lisa Amira Rutherford Laxman Gnawali Nathanael Rudolph

Nepal English Language Teachers' Association (NELTA) GPO Box 11110, Kathmandu, Nepal Phone: 977-1- 4226522 E-mail: [email protected] Price: Rs. 650/- Price:

Journal of NELTA has been indexed in: • Academicindex.net • Journalseek.net • Linguistlist.org Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 I NELTA Office Bearers for the Year 2011 – 2013

Advisors

Prof. Dr. Jai Raj Awasthi Prof. Dr. Tirth Raj Khaniya Prof.Dr. Govinda Raj Bhattarai

President Mr. Hemanta Raj Dahal

Senior Vice President Vice President Ms. Meera Shrestha Ms. Maya Rai

General Secretary Secretary Mr. Kamal Poudel Ms. Sarita Dewan

Treasurer Mr. Padam Bdr. Chauhan

Members Prof. Dr. Chandreshwor Mishra Mr. Ganga Ram Gautam (IPP) Ms. Man Maya Sharma Mr. Ashok Sapkota Ms. Motikala Subba Dewan Ms. Saraswati Dawadi Ms. Madhu Neupane Mr. Kashi Raj Pandey Mr. Dinesh Kumar Yadav Mr. Bimal Nepali Mr. Shankar Dutta Bhatta Mr. Arun Kumar Kshetree Mr. Ashok Raj Khati

Editorial

Journey ahead ….

We are pleased to bring out this volume of the Journal of NELTA in your hands. We present this as the last volume for the present editorial team. During these four years, we learned lot from the authors and reviewers whose contribution was only one source of our energy to publish the journal every year. During our tenure, we have established and enhanced a blind peer review process that has not only added to the quality of the work in the journal but also given editors, reviewers, and authors alike the opportunity for practice and professionalism in academic writing scholarship. We are also proud of the many other achievements of the journal including its indexing in major international scholarly databases including Nepjol, Journalseek, Linguistlist, Googlescholar, and ERIC database (under consideration). As print journals around the world face increasing challenges against sustainability, the commitment of our organization, NELTA, toward keeping this journal strong must be appreciated; however, we also urge colleagues in and outside of official positions to engage in serious discussions about building our scholarship from the ground up. Take for instance an article about “homework” in this issue: it is one thing to study, discuss, and write about globally popular ELT theories, latest pedagogical approaches, and new methods/strategies of teaching English but quite another to accept realities on the ground, realities of assigning and assessing homework by our teachers and that of completing them by their students in extremely adverse economic situations. Thus, we urge you as readers to think about the challenges that you and this community at large face on a daily basis, at the basic level of day-to-day teaching. We also urge scholars and policy makers to seriously consider how our scholarship

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 III can be developed from the ground up. We certainly should draw on and take advantage of the world of ideas from all places and times; but we are ultimately teaching real people in real time and expecting the knowledge that our students acquire from us to help them solve real challenges of their lives, right now and for years to come. We hope that this journal helps this wonderful community address these larger and serious challenges of what knowledge can and should do in an emerging democracy and society like ours. As the journal moves forward with a new team of editors, we look forward to providing any support toward building on our success and institutionalize our achievements. We are also pleased about the fact that in spite of the great distance among us as editors, as well as with our reviewers and authors, that the publication process of the journal has been smooth. We are sure that NELTA will continue to take the journal forward in the years to come.

Like in previous years, this volume includes articles that deal with a wide range of issues concerning teaching English in Nepal and beyond. Focusing on the importance of reflective practices in professional development, Shiva Ram Pandey claims that teacher training and knowledge of teaching method are not sufficient for teachers to address students’ needs and complexity of classroom dynamics. He argues that it is through engaging themselves in enduring reflective practices of their own teaching teachers can understand what, how and why aspects of teaching. Phan Thi Tuyet Van, based on an experimental research, shows how ‘reflective writing paper’ helps students become an autonomous learner. Van’s study shows that through the reflective writing process students can be engaged in self- learning, self-monitoring and self-researching processes. This process will help teachers identify students’ language ability and provide them with required instructions. Similarly, Ashok Sapkota’s study shows that peer correction is a useful way to promote students’ collaborative learning practices in the classroom and beyond. Sapkota’s paper provides teachers with ideas on how to help students learn from their own peers. In another article, Ichchha Purna Rai compares tense and aspect systems in Chulung, one of the minority languages in Nepal, and English. Rai’s study indicates that teachers should know the languages students speak that help them develop students’ critical language awareness skills. Highlighting some of the obvious benefits of homework, Jagadish Paudel in his article points out the lack of discourse and scholarship about the situation in which homework is given and accomplished in

IV Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 Nepalese public school. Using survey data from grade eight in schools in Dadeldhura District, he explores the motivations and challenges as well as material conditions that affect students’ abilities to do homework at home; he also looks at homework on the side of the teachers. He suggests some strategies for increasing homework completion rates and making homework meaningful for the students. In a different kind of article based on research in Kenyan schools, which however is highly relevant to ELT in Nepal, Logamurthie Athiemoolam and Agnes Kibui assess grade ten Kenyan learners’ proficiency in English by examining their performance in comprehension and vocabulary on the basis of three tests incorporating multiple choice and interpretative questions. Using data from 422 tenth grade learners representing sixteen schools in four provinces of Kenya, they show that a large percentage of Kenyan learners encounter challenges with comprehension and vocabulary which impacted on their English language proficiency, even though English is the first additional language as well as the medium of instruction in the country. The authors suggest that there is a need for reading skills development programmes incorporating word analysis, recognition of the purpose of the text and tone, and the enhancement of inferential as well as predictive and interpretive skills. Sajan Karn’s article presents arguments that the study of creative writings in English by Nepalese literary authors exhibit typical Nepaleseness in such an amplitude that a distinctive English literature can be inferred to be in the making. Sajan examines nativization in various genres of literature written in English in Nepal and also contends with the evidences that we have leapt towards Nepalese English literature considered from World Englishes literature perspective. Similarly, Pratiti Shirin’s article focuses on exploring the efficacy of applying the communicative approach to teaching German at the Goethe Institute in Bangladesh. Since emphasis was given on testing reading and writing rather than on evaluation of all four skills, applying CLT was tailored to teaching reading and writing rather than speaking and listening with the effect that students at the end of the course had elementary knowledge of reading and writing but poor knowledge of speaking and listening. Pratiti notes limitations of applying CLT to the German language class and the dilemma that comes with it as to which approach is the best approach to teach a foreign language. Nkechi M. Christopher’s article investigates the level of teacher motivation, the association between teacher motivation and language learning and teaching, as well as the factors that could impact on them in two states in the Nigeria federation. One major finding that Nkechi notes is that

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 V teachers’ lack of motivation to teach is supported by negative assessment of several variables in the teaching/learning environment that are critical in raising and maintaining teacher motivation, teaching efficiency and effective language learning. Likewise, drawing on his experience of exploiting critical thinking strategies while teaching short stories, Mukti Prasad Thapaliya, shares his observations on how teaching literature in general and short stories in particular can be made more participatory, enjoyable and effective while promoting active learning. He offers a number of critical thinking strategies that can successfully be practiced in EFL/ ESL classrooms to bring about the changes in Nepalese classrooms where conventional teacher dominated practices like dictation, paraphrasing, lecture etc. have long been in practice. Together the articles in this volume promote teacher and student agency and criticality building on situated practices of English language teaching. This volume goes beyond Nepal and provides a transnational perspective on various issues of teaching English. We believe that such transnational academic works should be furthered to understand how ELT is influenced by context-specific reality. We are extremely grateful to our authors and reviewers, who were very cooperative and supportive. We also thank NELTA Central Committee for providing us with timely support. As always, we are thankful to Chandra Khaki for elegent design work. We hope you find the articles in this volume useful.

Jai Raj Awasthi Sajan Kumar Karn Prem Phyak Bal Krishna Sharma Ghanashyam Sharma

Table of Contents

Journey ahead …. V An Analysis of Kenyan Learners’ Proficiency in English Based on Reading Comprehension and Vocabulary 1 Logamurthie Athiemoolam & Agnes Kibui

Teacher Motivation as a Factor in Language Teaching and Learning in Nigeria 14 Nkechi M. Christopher

This is How I Can Write: Towards Nepalese English Literature 26 Sajan Kumar Karn

Reflective Practice: A Gateway to Professional Development 40 Shiva Ram Pandey

Dealing with Homework in English Language Teaching: A Case of Dadeldhura District 50 Jagadish Paudel

English Tense and Aspect: EFL Problems That Chhulung Learners Have 61 Ichchha Purna Rai

Developing Students’ Writing Skill through Peer and Teacher Correction: An Action Research 70 Ashok Sapkota

How Communicative is the Communicative Approach? – The German Teacher’s Experience 83 Pratiti Shirin

Teaching Short Story through Critical Thinking (CT) Strategies 93 Mukti Prakash Thapaliya

The impact of reflective writing paper on non-English major learners’ autonomy in the context of Vietnam 104 Phan Thi Tuyet Van

An Analysis of Kenyan Learners’ Proficiency in English Based on Reading Comprehension and Vocabulary Logamurthie Athiemoolam & Agnes Kibui Abstract In Kenya, English is the medium of instruction in schools and the official language of the country, although the majority of the learners are first additional language speakers of English. The study on which this article is based aimed to assess grade 10 Kenyan learners’ proficiency in English by examining their performance in comprehension and vocabulary on the basis of three tests incorporating multiple choice and interpretative questions. The data were collected from 422 grade 10 learners representing 16 schools in four provinces of Kenya. Learners were assessed on three comprehension passages which were selected from different genres. The results revealed that a large percentage of Kenyan learners encountered challenges with comprehension and vocabulary which impacted on their English language proficiency. The implications of the study is that there is a need for a reading skills development programme incorporating word analysis, recognition of the purpose of the text and tone, and the enhancement of inferential as well as predictive and interpretive skills. Key words: Reading Comprehension, English as Second Language Learners, Kenya

Introduction (for example, Luo). Besides the respective Kenya is a highly diverse, multi-ethnic mother tongues of the population Kiswahili country comprising Africans and Asians is a common lingua franca, whilst English who speak various mother tongues, is the medium of instruction in primary Europeans of different nationalities, Arabs school from grade 6, secondary and tertiary and other nationalities that come from institutions. diverse linguistic backgrounds (Kenyan The participants in the research project Central Bureau of Statistics 1999). The speak their respective mother tongues, (that African languages are traditionally regarded is, Gikuyu, Kalenjin, Luhya and Kikamba) as belonging to four major linguistic groups and Kiswahili which they have acquired in which are; Bantu (for example, Gikuyu, and outside the classrooms. The acquisition Akamba, Luhya), Para-Nilotic (for example, of English, however, is quite different from Nandi, Kipsigis, Maasai), Cushitic (for Kiswahili as it is only learnt in schools example, Orma, Somali, Galla), and Nilotic where it is taught as a subject. This means

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 1 that the subjects of the research project do expressed by teachers and learners are the not practise English after school because the overloaded English language syllabus and lingua franca that is used in most homes is the ‘integration approach’ which provides either Kiswahili or the vernacular. Most of limited time for the facilitation of reading these learners do not stay in their homes to comprehension and vocabulary skills. read in the evenings because their families Although Kiswahili is also a non-primary live in small, cramped rooms. Instead, language for many Kenyans, the current they hang out with their friends in the language policy states that it should be neighbourhood where they speak pidgin introduced as a compulsory subject from English, known as ‘sheng’. This is a mixture kindergarten to Form IV (grade 12) as it of English, Kiswahili, and many local is the national language in Kenya. Since languages. According to Espelago (2001), there are many avenues and resources for peer pressure dictates that for one to belong learning Kiswahili both in and outside and be accepted in a group, he/she must school the learners do not encounter behave like it. Therefore, the Kenyan youth problems mastering the language. On the must speak ‘sheng’ as speaking English is other hand, the learning and mastery of unacceptable and is regarded as a formal English poses more complex challenges. way of communication. The speaking The teaching and learning of English is of ‘sheng’ hampers the development problematic because the classroom is and mastery of English. Therefore, the the only environment where the learner environment at home does not assist these can hear and attempt to speak it. In this learners as they struggle to acquire the regard Gebhard (2000) points out that in skills in English communication. English as second language settings there English as a medium of instruction are fewer opportunities for learners to plays a major role in Kenyan schools and apply what they study to communicative institutions of higher learning, which situations outside the classroom since makes it a determining factor in the the only comprehensible English some learners’ performance in other subjects. of these learners hear and read is in the The advent of the 8.4.4 system of education, classroom. In the context of this study the (that is, eight years in primary, four years Kenyan participants have limited exposure in secondary, and four years in university) and reinforcement outside the classroom implemented by the Ministry of Education despite the fact that in Kenya, English and the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) assumes extra significance because it is the about 20 years ago yoked English language to medium of instruction. literature in what has been described as ‘the The merging of English and Literature in integration approach’. The corollary of this 1986 has had an adverse effect on both the is that certain important teaching methods teaching and learning of English and has like discussion, drills, dramatization and led to poor performance in the Kenyan others are discarded in favour of those Senior Certificate Examinations (KSCE) that can expressly meet the purpose of as the syllabus is not adequately covered. covering the syllabus. The major concerns One of the reasons is that English lost some

2 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 lessons in the time-table to Literature and Ellis (1999) and Coady (1993) point out Kiswahili, thus making it difficult for the that in second language learning formal teachers to cover the syllabus efficiently instruction for vocabulary acquisition and and adequately. As a result, complaints have comprehension is beneficial and suggest a been raised about the declining standards mixed approach to vocabulary instruction of the English language. Muya (1993) for in which basic vocabulary is explicitly example articulates the general outcry by taught along with strategies that will educationists, potential employers, and allow learners to deal effectively with less ordinary citizens who contend that most of frequent vocabulary than they encounter the secondary school leavers and university in context so that such vocabulary can be graduates are not equipped with the basic learned when needed. Currently in the skills in reading and writing in English. Kenyan context such formal instruction is In Kenya, there is a national concern for the not possible due to the implementation of problem encountered by children of all ages the ‘integrated approach’ which essentially and levels of learning in comprehending reduces the time available for formal written material. The ability to read with instruction in vocabulary and reading comprehension is a skill that is essential in comprehension skills. modern society as learners are confronted Objectives of the study with material on a daily basis that need to be The study aimed to examine Kenyan read, analysed, interpreted and understood. learners’ proficiency in English with specific Yet, a large number of people never master reference to their comprehension and it completely. Comprehension is pivotal to vocabulary skills by means of quantitative reading as it occupies the central place on measures and to identify challenges the continuum where input from the print experienced by learners relating to these and the reader is in central balance (Sadoski, sub skills. 2004). Quite often, comprehension is difficult for second language readers The Hypotheses of the study because of cultural factors. Hypothesis I A study conducted by Gichaga (1986) on There is a low level of proficiency the factors that influence secondary school in the interpretative skill in reading learners’ performance in the English comprehension of Form IV learners. language at Kenyan Certificate School Examination level in two different districts Alternative Hypothesis indicated that reading comprehension There is a high level of proficiency constituted amongst the major challenges in the interpretative skill in reading to learners. The findings also revealed that comprehension of Form IV learners. since learners’ exposure to the English Hypothesis II language was limited, they lacked the ability to express themselves adequately in spoken There is a low level of proficiency in and written English. vocabulary of Form IV learners.

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 3 Alternative Hypothesis Population There is a high level of proficiency in The population comprised Form IV learners vocabulary of Form IV learners. from secondary schools in Kenya. From this population the sample was selected The study from 16 schools. That is, four schools from The study focused on an analysis of each of the four provinces sampled were Kenyan learners’ proficiency in English used for the study. The sample was selected with specific reference to the two sub from Form IV learners for the following skills namely reading comprehension and reasons: vocabulary. The data was collected from (i)Forms, I, II, III would not have completed learners representing 16 schools in four the syllabus as indicated in KCSE Syllabus provinces of Kenya on the basis of three (2000-2001:22). “At this level, the learners’ comprehension passages selected from vocabulary is limited. Therefore, the different genres. The details of the study are selection of the materials intended to briefly presented here: develop the learners’ vocabulary should be Methodology done very carefully.” This study was conducted using quantitative (ii)Form IV learners were the most suitable research methodology. According to class as they had completed the syllabus. Reaves (1992), Fraenkel and Wallen (1996), “The learner will have acquired a wider quantitative research is a study that involves range of vocabulary than he/she had measuring quantities of things, usually in Form I, II, and III. He/She therefore numerical quantities and its purpose is to should be exposed to more difficult reading describe a particular situation or event. materials and a wider range of register using the activities suggested in Forms I, II The aim of this study was not to judge and III.” (KCSE, 2000-2001:22) but to identify the level of proficiency in comprehension and vocabulary skills by There are eight provinces in Kenya which testing and reporting observations of sub- are Nairobi, Central, Coast, Eastern, North skills by quantifying the findings. The study Eastern, Rift Valley, Nyanza, and Western. was also correlational as it intended to This study consisted of one stage stratified investigate the relationship if any, between random sampling of four provinces out of the two sub-skills of the group in the sample. eight. That is, using the procedure, Nairobi The data are reported in terms of scores with and Western were selected to represent the higher scores indicating that more of the high performing provinces while Eastern variable is present than do lower scores. and the Rift Valley represented the low

TABLE 1.1:NUMBER OF ITEMS PER COMPREHENSION Part I vocabulary Part II vocabulary Part III comprehension Part IV comprehension Total No. of Total No. of items multiple choice inferential multiple choice inferential items for all tests Test A 5 5 5 5 20 Test B 5 5 5 5 20 Test C 5 5 5 5 20 60

4 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 performing provinces. The classification message from the context and recognition was based on the KCSEE (Kenyan Certificate of the writer’s purpose and tone the of Secondary Education) results for the last learners’ schemata were required in all the five years (Daily Nation: 2001, 2002, 2003, questions. 2004 and 2005). The four provinces were 50 The comprehension and vocabulary per cent of the total number of provinces in questions were prepared using guidelines Kenya. This gave the study a fair chance for by Palinscar and Brown (1984) focusing on each province. daily comprehension assessment, Barrett Description of research instruments (1995) taxonomy of reading comprehension and data collection about “comprehension questions”, Cheryl The instruments consisted of three (1997) taxonomy of evaluating reading reading comprehension tests namely: comprehension in EFL (English as a Tests A, B, and C. Each comprehension foreign language) about “multiple choice was divided into four sub-tests in terms and inferential questions”, Tierney (1998) of sections. While Part I and part III in Block et al (2004) “ten principles comprised multiple choice questions that concerning comprehension assessment”, tested comprehension and vocabulary and Hamday (2002:12-14) four forms of respectively, Part II and IV consisted of standardized tests under “Typical Reading inferential questions which tested the same Comprehension Questions”, which are: sub skills. The three tests were administered (a)Questions based on the entire passage. among Form IV learners by the researcher (b)Questions based on sections of the with the help of a research assistant. The passage. answer sheets for the three test papers were collected for analysis. The instruments (c)Questions based on words, phrases, or were developed by the researcher who sentences. took into consideration the level of the Each of the above sections was given equal learners and the requirements expected for attention and marks. Learners answered good performance in the examination and questions about the gist of the passage, the proper communicative purposes during author’s intention, main ideas, and content school and after completion of school. (the entire passage). The instruments The tests were designed to measure consisted of three reading comprehension comprehension and vocabulary, which are tests namely: reading comprehension A, B, aspects of the school curriculum in Kenyan and C. which were divided into four sub- secondary schools, through a sample of tests in terms of sections as follows: texts that were suitable for the level of the a. Part I comprised 5 multiple-choice learners in Form IV. The learners in this questions that tested comprehension. study were familiar with the content of b. Part II consisted of 5 inferential the three passages as the cultural setting questions that tested comprehension. was taken into consideration. Since the c. Part III had 5 multiple-choice questions required learners to infer the vocabulary questions that tested

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 5 Table 1.2: Correlations: Vocabulary scores compared Multiple Choice Inferential Vocabulary Inferential Multiple Choice

Vocabulary Scores Scores Comprehension Scores Comprehension Scores Pearson Correlation 1 .580(**) .540(**) .475(**) Sig. (2-tailed) . .000 .000 .000 N 422 422 422 422 Pearson Correlation .580(**) 1 .628(**) .585(**) Sig. (2-tailed) .000 . .000 .000 N 422 422 422 422 Pearson Correlation .540(**) .628(**) 1 .575(**) Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 . .000 N 422 422 422 422 Pearson Correlation .475(**) .585(**) .575(**) 1 Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 . N 422 422 422 422

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

vocabulary. 5. Using effective reading strategy to d. Part IV consisted of 5 inferential assist comprehension. questions that tested vocabulary. 6. Finding answers to questions answered The three comprehension tests were based implicitly or explicitly from the context. on multiple choice and inferential format 7. Recognizing the writer’s purpose, as shown in Table 1. attitude, tone and mood This variety of sub-tests of multiple-choice The scoring was done as follows: every and inferential questions in comprehension correct response was awarded 2 marks and vocabulary was required for the (the coding for correct response was 1, elimination of any guessing of the answers. and incorrect response was 2); no marks That means, if a learner guessed in the were awarded for any blank or incorrect multiple choice sections, he/she would be response. Since each of the three passages required to display his/her proficiency in had 20 questions the total score was 40 the inferential sections where explanation marks per passage. The total marks for of the answers was required. each comprehension was converted into percentiles. These three subtests tested the following abilities: Data analysis 1. The ability to follow instructions and to Non-parametric method Binomial tests select the correct answer. using Statistical Package for Social Sciences 2. Remembering word meanings. (SPSS) was used to test hypotheses one and two. The hypotheses were: There is a low 3. Drawing inferences about the meaning level of proficiency in the interpretive skill in of a word from context. reading comprehension of form four learners 4. Drawing inferences from content. and there is a low level of proficiency in

6 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 vocabulary of Form IV learners respectively. Results A variable with two levels was created using The multiple choice comprehension scores the KNEC’s (Kenyan National Education for each test were obtained and compared Commission’s) 2006-2007 formula. That with the inferential scores. The mean was is, Low proficiency: 0-54; High proficiency: obtained and a comparison was made 55-100. In language studies, the significant between the two scores in comprehension. level is set at p<.01 (1/100) or at p<.05 The same comparison was done for the two (5/100), depending on whether the vocabulary scores as shown in Table 2. researcher is willing to accept only 1 percent A correlation exists between the following error or up to 5 percent error, respectively scores: (Brown, 1988:116). In this research, the null-hypothesis is test proportion 0.5, (a)Multiple Choice Vocabulary Scores and that is, 50 percent equal. The significant inferential Vocabulary Scores of 0.580. level of the test is 0.05. Pearson Chi- (b)Multiple Choice Comprehension Scores Square test was used to test dependence and inferential Comprehension Scores of of the two variables. The two variables 0.575 were proficiency in comprehension and vocabulary. The significant level used was (c)Multiple Choice Vocabulary Scores and 0.05. That means that if the probability Multiple Choice Comprehension Scores of value was less than 0.05, the null hypothesis 0.475. was rejected. Descriptive statistics was (d)Inferential Vocabulary Scores and used to analyze the scores. Minimum and inferential comprehension Scores of 0.628 maximum scores were analyzed by the use (e)Inferential Vocabulary Scores and of tables, graphs and percentiles. Multiple Choice Comprehension Scores of

Multiple choice and inferential 0.58570 vocabulary scores 60

Scores of multiple choice vocabulary 50 questions of the three comprehensions 40 were added together for each learner. 30 A percentage was calculated in order to 20

10 Std. Dev = 17.91 acquire a general view of all the learners by Mean = 59.1 0 N = 422.00 the use of percentiles, graphs, and tables. 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0 The use of the percentages assisted in the calculation of the range of scores, that is, the largest score, and the smallest one. Figure 1.1: Multiple choice Comprehension Scores of Tests A, B and C The same procedure was used to calculate scores of inferential vocabulary questions Multiple choice comprehension scores which was done in order to compare the appear to be normally distributed with a learners’ performance in the two sub–tests. mean score of 59.1 and standard deviation of 17.91.

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 7 60 Based on Z Approximation. 50 Hypothesis I that there is a low level of

40 proficiency in comprehension of Form IV learners has been accepted. With a test 30 proportion level of 0.50 the results indicate

20 that 40% have a high level of proficiency in comprehension while 60% of the 10 Std. Dev = 19.42 learners have a low level of proficiency in Mean = 50.7 0 N = 422.00 comprehension. Since the test proportion 5.0 15.0 25.0 35.0 45.0 55.0 65.0 75.0 85.0 95.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0 of 0.50 is more than the significant level of 0.000 Hypothesis I can be accepted. The alternative hypothesis has been rejected Figure 1.2: Inferential Comprehension Scores of Tests A, B and C since the significant level is 0.000 which is Inferential comprehension scores appear less than 0.05. to be normally distributed with a mean of 60 50.7 and standard deviation of 19.42 70 50

60 40 50

40 30

20 20

10 Std. Dev = 17.61 10 Mean = 60.8 Std. Dev = 20.68 0 N = 422.00 Mean = 47.9 15.0 25.0 35.0 45.0 55.0 65.0 75.0 85.0 95.0 105.0 N = 422.00 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0 0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 5.0 15.0 25.0 35.0 45.0 55.0 65.0 75.0 85.0 95.0

Figure 1.3: Results of all comprehension scores of the three tests Figure 1.4: Multiple choice Vocabulary Scores The scores appear to be normally distributed with a mean of 60.8 and standard deviation Multiple choice vocabulary scores appear of 17.61 to be normally distributed with a mean of

42.780 and standard deviation of 15.94. Table 1.3: Descriptive Statistics

N Mean Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum 60 Grading Results 422 1.60 .490 1 2 40 Table 1.4: Binomial Test

20 Category N Observed Test Prop. Asymp. Std. Dev = 15.94 Prop. Sig. Mean = 42.7 0 N = 422.00 (2-tailed) 7.5 12. 17. 22. 27. 32. 37. 42. 47. 52. 57. 62. 67. 72. 77. 82. 87. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Group 1 High 167 .40 .50 .000(a) Group 2 Low 255 .60 Total 422 1.00

8 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 Figure 1.5: Inferential Vocabulary Scores more than the significant level of 0.000, Inferential vocabulary scores appear to be Hypothesis II can be accepted. Therefore normally distributed with a mean of 47.9 the alternative hypothesis has been rejected since significant level is 0.000 which is less and40 standard deviation of 20.68. than 0.05.

30 40

20 30

Std. Dev = 16.31 20 Mean = 45.3 0 N = 422.00 7.5 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5 32.5 37.5 42.5 47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5 77.5 82.5

Std. Dev = 15.22 Figure 1.6: Results of all vocabulary scores of the three tests Mean = 50.1 0 N = 422.00 Scores of all comprehension scores of the 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5 32.5 37.5 42.5 47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5 77.5 82.5 three tests appear to be normally distributed with a mean of 45.3 and standard deviation Figure 1.7: Combined Results of the scores of the three tests of 16.31. The results of all the three tests appear to be Table 1.5: Descriptive Statistics normally distributed with a mean of 50.1 Std. N Mean Minimum Maximum and standard deviation of 15.22 Deviation Vocabulary Scores 422 1.71 .454 1 2 Table 1.7: Correlations: Comprehension and Vocabulary % All Comprehension % All Vocabulary Scores Table 1.6: Binomial Test: Vocabulary scores Scores Observed Asymp. Sig. Pearson Correlation 1 .768(**) Category N Test Prop. Prop. (2-tailed) Sig. (2-tailed) . .000 Group 1 High 300 .71 .50 .000(a) N 422 422 Group 2 Low 122 .29 Pearson Correlation .768(**) 1 Total 422 1.00 Sig. (2-tailed) .000 . Based on Z Approximation. N 422 422 Hypothesis II that there is a low level of ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). proficiency in vocabulary of Form IV The results of the three tests revealed learners has been accepted. With a test that many factors affect comprehension. proportion level 0.50 the results indicate Among the factors are: failure to follow that 29% of the learners have a high level of instructions; failure to refer to the context proficiency in vocabulary while 71% have of the text as required by the questions; a low level of proficiency in vocabulary. failure to make calculated guesses in Since the test proportion level of 0.05 is multiple choice questions; application of

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 9 wrong schemata; and a lack of background A further example of limited reasoning skills knowledge. Below is an analysis of some is evident in their responses to the question: of the incorrect responses provided by “What made the author feel brave?” The the learners and an interpretation of their majority of them were unable to identify responses: the correct response as: “There were plenty In response to a question from text A: “Did of people who could give him support”. the author regard Chumley as handsome? This is implicitly stated in paragraph one. Give reasons for your conclusion”. A number The answer needed reasoning in order of students responded incorrectly as they to understand the question as the word thought that ‘terrific personality’ was a sign ‘support’ was the guiding cue. It emerged of beauty. Others thought that the chain he from this example that a number of learners wore was beautiful and so was part of his were unable to identify context clues in a beauty. Otherwise the answer was explicitly reading text. stated in the passage that is, “although he Discussion of findings was not exactly a nice chimp to look at (I The responses to the questions provided had seen more handsome). Their incorrect by many of the learners revealed that Form responses indicate that there was a failure IV Kenyan learners do not have a wide on the learners’ part to refer to the context knowledge of the world and the English of the text as required by the question. language, consequently the schemas they In response to another question: “What was had to draw from was a limiting factor it about Chumley that made the author feel in the three tests. Adequate context inferior?” 35.1% answered correctly. The provided them with immediate clues answer is implied in paragraph two that for guessing while insufficient context is, his intelligence and terrific personality. and a low proficiency in vocabulary and The majority of those who responded comprehension led to mismatches in incorrectly wrote, “the way he surveyed the word analysis and recognition that caused surrounding” but failed to understand that confusion and misinterpretation of the this only made the author feel embarrassed texts. about the condition of the hut but not These test strategies reveal that a inferior. The answer required analysis and respondent might perform highly or poorly reasoning which seemed to be lacking on not because of his cognitive ability but the their part. ability to respond wisely to instructions In response to the question based on text and questions. For example, in the case of A: “Which part of Songhai did Kisimi come this study the participants were familiar from?” those who responded incorrectly with some of the items in the test but wrote that “Kisimi came from Lokko in applied their schemas without referring Songhai”. They did not understand that to the instructions and the text especially ‘Lokko’ was the tribe and not the location. in the vocabulary section. That means This is a demonstration of the application they did not construct accurate literal of the incorrect schemata. interpretations as they just explained

10 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 the meaning of the words from their and reading acquisition, Compton (2005) experiences and not from the text as was found that skilled comprehension readers required. In Test A question 5 ‘make-up”, are rapid at word decoding than less the correct answer was (B), “character”. skilled readers. He also found that the Although 74.2% circled the correct answer, establishment of decoding skills through those who responded incorrectly circled structured intervention acted as a boot (D) “cosmetics”. The answer was clearly strapping mechanism to improve reading stated in the last paragraph from the skills, such as word recognition skill, chimpanzee’s behaviour and the guiding reading fluency, and comprehension. word ‘vices’. Some of the other vocabulary This is an indication that skilled readers that they interpreted incorrectly due in part are able to use their skills in reading for to their lack of skills in identifying context meaning rather than for word recognition clues included “rude shock”, “terrific” which only. Reading for meaning depends they interpreted as terrifying, “ ducked”, upon vocabulary knowledge, syntactic “fumbled” and they described “roared out” integration, inferences, and other higher as “walked out”. order overlapping skills that make demands on the same mechanism responsible The learners who gave incorrect responses for converting the printed code into the provided dictionary meanings without due language code. regard to the context and therefore failed to understand the message. This was an These findings are supported by a study on example of incorrect use of background the role of comprehension of meaningful knowledge and poor test strategies. Some language input in young adults’ second learners took short cuts to arrive at the language learning by Paribakht, and Wesche answers and they did not read the text as (1992). Their study indicated superior gains was required in order to understand the in the comprehension-based class in text content. In reading comprehension, word comprehension and discourse processing, decoding alone without understanding the despite smaller gains in grammatical meaning is not adequate. In this regard as knowledge. This finding was on the highlighted by Scheckle (2009) in Ferreira ‘use of introspection in exploring links (2009) for learners to read successfully between comprehension of meaning and they need a combination of decoding and acquisition of vocabulary’. This suggested understanding where they are able to use that explicit grammar instruction is not their knowledge of letters and words to needed to enhance comprehension skills, make sense of what they read. In order for but vocabulary knowledge is important. comprehension of written text to take place, A further study by Koda and Keiko (1989) readers must infer or deduce meaning on the examination of effects of transferred from the text using the words written by vocabulary knowledge on the development the author. In this sense just sounding of second language reading on Japanese out words aloud is limited if there is no college learners indicated that vocabulary understanding of what is being read. knowledge was highly correlated with reading comprehension. These research In a study on word recognition, transfer,

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 11 findings resonate with this study in that teachers should use teaching methods that it also highlights the significant role that would improve their learners’ predictive vocabulary plays in terms of text analysis and interpretive skills relating to reading but more specifically in relation to the comprehension. context clues within a text. Finally, learners should be aware that Implications of the findings becoming a good reader takes time and From the findings of the study, there involves sustained reading effort. With appears to be a need for a reading guidance and support from their teachers intervention programme across all schools and a great deal of exposure to different incorporating all the skills that are required genres, learners will, over time, have the for effective reading comprehension. opportunity to become proficient readers There is a need to build an adequate sight with enhanced interpretive, critical and vocabulary by exposing the learners to a analytical skills. variety of texts, genres, content areas, and About the authors styles of writing. Word analysis should be Dr. Logamurthie Athiemoolam is a senior lecturer in the taught, and the reading programme should Faculty of Education at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University in Port Elizabeth, where he trains teachers to focus on the development of inferential, teach English at home and first additional language levels predictive, and interpretive skills. and presents modules in multicultural education, English language proficiency and language across the curriculum. Conclusion His fields of research are English second language teaching, drama-in-education and multicultural education. He has co- It is evident from the study that Kenyan edited a book on drama-in-education with Professor Wolfgang Nitsch from the University of Oldenburg in Germany entitled learners are experiencing challenges with ‘North-South- Cooperation in In-Service Teacher Training’. the interpretation and application of Currently he is Head of the ACE-LLT (Language in Learning reading comprehension and vocabulary and Teaching) Programme in the Faculty of Education. skills that are essential to the promotion of effective reading with the focus on meaning Dr. Agnes Kibui is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education at the University of Nairobi in Kenya where she is engaged making. in training teachers to work in secondary schools. Her fields of expertise and research are English language teaching and Some reading difficulties experienced linguistics and she has extensive experience in empowering by the learners within the context of this pre-service teachers to teach English as a second language in secondary schools in Kenya. She has written a number of study could be attributed to problems articles on English second language teaching and didactics. external to the reader which could include a lack of background knowledge, the way texts are written and organized, the References style and complexity of the language, Barret, G. (1995). Reading comprehension; an impoverished reading culture and “Comprehension Questions” and the whole environment, and inadequate experience issue of checking understanding. Teacher link, and exposure to the manifold contexts in vol. 2, issue (March 1995). Retrieved on 25th June which reading occurs. Moreover, poor 2011 from http://www.mgu.ac.jp/-ic/helgesen/ marc.article 1.htm teaching can both initiate and perpetuate Block, C.C., Rodgers. L.L., & Johnson, R.B. (2004). reading difficulties for learners. That means Comprehension Process Instruction. New York:

12 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 The Guilford Press. Tora. Brown, J.D. (1988). Understanding research in Kenyan Central Bureau of Statistics. (1999). Republic second language learning. New York: Cambridge of Kenya: 2001. Population and Housing Census University Press. (vol. 1) Jan 2001 Nairobi: Government Press. Cheryl, L. (1997). Evaluating reading Koda and Keiko. (1989). The effects of transferred comprehension: multiple choice and inferential vocabulary knowledge on the development of L2 E.F.L. 35( 2), 20-35. reading proficiency.Retrieved on August 28 2008 Coady, J. (1993). Research on ESL/EFL vocabulary from http://web28.epmet.com 85-975. acquisition: Putting it in context. In T. Hucklin; Muya, W. (1993). “Why varsity graduates are M. Haynes; and J. Coady (Eds.), Second language illiterate.” Nairobi: The Daily Nation, 20th June. reading and vocabulary learning (pp. 3-23). Palinscar, A. and Brown, A. (1984). Reciprocal Norwood, N.J.: Ablex. teaching of comprehension and comprehension Compton, D.L. (2005). Putting transfer back on monitoring activities. Illinois: University of trial: Modeling individual differences in the Illinois transfer of decoding-skill gains to other aspects Paribakht, T. S and Wesche, M, B. (1992). A of reading acquisition. methodology for studying the relationship Daily Nation (1991, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, between comprehension and second language 2005). Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education development in a comprehension-based/ Results. Nairobi: The Daily Nation. ESLProgram. Retrieved on September 20, 2011 Ellis, R. (1999). Learning a second language through from http://web28.epnet.com interaction. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Reaves, C.C. (1992). Quantitative research for the Publishing Co. behavioural sciences. New York: John Willy & Espelago, D.L., and Holt M.K. (2001). Bullying Sons, Inc. and victimization during early adolescence: Peer Sadoski, M. (2004). Conceptual foundations of influences and psychological correlates (pp123- teaching reading. New York: The Guilford Press. 142). Binghamton: MY, Haworth Press. Scheckle, E. (2009). Strategies and practices for Fraenkel, J.R. & Wallen, N.E. (1996). How to design effective reading. In A Ferriera (Ed.),Teaching and evaluate research in education. New York: language (pp. 133-147). Gauteng: Macmillan. McGraw-Hill, Inc. The Kenya Institute of Education. (1990).The Gebhard, J.G. (2000). Teaching English as a foreign English syllabus for secondary schools. Nairobi: or second language. A teacher self- development K.I.E. and methodology guide. Michigan, U.S.A.: The The Kenya National Examinations Council. (1993, University of Michigan Press. 2000, 2003, 2005). Candidates’ performance Gichaga, M. (1986). A study of the factors that Report. Nairobi: The Kenya National influence performance in English language at Examinations Council. the Kenya Certificate of education in Kiambu The Kenya National Examinations Council. (1997, District. Unpublished M.ED Thesis, Kenyatta 2000, 2002, 2005,& 2006-2007). The Kenya University. National Examinations Council; Regulations Hamday, A.T. (2002). General purpose learning and Syllabus. Nairobi: The Kenya National strategies: Reading comprehension. New York.: Examinations Council.

Teacher Motivation as a Factor in Language Teaching and Learning in Nigeria Nkechi M. Christopher Abstract A survey was carried out to investigate the level of teacher motivation, the association between teacher motivation and language learning and teaching, as well as the factors that could impact on them in two states in the Nigeria federation. This study became necessary in order to assess the impact that government efforts, particularly the use of salary incentives, have made in restoring standards in the school system. The view is held that there has been no commensurate improvement in student performance in response to government’s gesture. However, this study indicates that most teachers are more intrinsically than extrinsically motivated in their exhibition of commendable classroom behaviours. Teachers’ claim that they are not motivated to teach is supported by negative assessment of several variables in the teaching/learning environment that are critical in raising and maintaining teacher motivation, teaching efficiency and effective language learning. Key words: Language Learning, Student Performance, Teacher Efficacy, Teacher Motivation

Introduction were well recognised before the 1980s, Teacher motivation is of utmost importance and teachers were seen as disciplinarians in ensuring that the time spent in school that helped parents guide children on is beneficial to students and fulfilling their path to becoming responsible adults. to teachers, especially in a lacklustre Nonetheless, teachers have somewhat environment. In situations where the home always been the butt of Nigerian society’s and school environments do not provide jokes, especially on the issue of low wages; the atmosphere and features that spur and but they were all the same venerated as support the gratification of curiosity and character moulders, so much so that they inquisitiveness, students may attend school constantly received gifts from parents. without being able to exploit opportunities They were, however, to be further debased available for learning to the maximum during a prolonged general economic without teacher support. The teacher’s hardship due to non-payment of salaries role therefore should not be limited to the over long periods. They became the ridicule teaching of subject matters, but teaching in of society and their students as well. It is ways that make learners want to learn. obvious from Achimugu’s (2005) catalogue of teachers’ agonies that few teachers are In Nigeria, teachers’ roles in students’ lives in the profession for the love of it rather

14 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 than for lack of alternatives. Moreover, activities and related behaviour (Ofoegbu, the loss of the thirst for knowledge, now Yong, 2004, Kocabas, 2009), and can reduced to certification attainment, implies influence students’ belief and attitude that dedication to learning has waned. (Debnath, Tandon & Pointer, 2007), By implication, teacher motivation is of thereby determining whether students utmost importance in the restoration and would like or dislike education (Czubaj, sustenance standards. 1996). While teachers with low motivation Recognising waning teacher motivation, would likely produce low quality students and to resuscitate the education sector in (Mertler, 2002), those with high motivation order to meet the demands of Education cultivate a determination that enables them for All and achieve the Millennium to motivate non-intrinsically motivated Development Goals (MDG targets), students to learn, even in challenging since 2001 federal and state governments situations (Alderman, 2004; Mendler, embarked on various programmes to restore 2001). lost glories of yesteryears. The governments Dedication to duty and willingness to have indulged to various extents on continue in the profession would be school infrastructure upgrade, class size determined by how satisfied teachers reduction and school rationalisation for are with the work itself and surrounding easy administration, salary increase and factors that make it easy or difficult to advancement of car loans to teachers, in- accomplish tasks. According to Davidson service training, institution of awards, and (2007), writing about Tanzanian situation, professionalisation of teaching. It needs teacher motivation is mostly “linked to be ascertained that these are far-reaching how teachers feel they are being treated measures. The relevance of this study is in its and to the way they perceive their own investigation of the extent to which teachers working and living conditions.” Similar have been motivated, and the presentation perception determines career commitment of empirical evidence that indicates why among teachers in Brunei (Yong, 1999). government efforts on teacher motivation According to Yong, teacher motivation may not have sufficiently impacted student and career commitment are among the outcome to the extent and with the urgency most important factors that affect school expected. effectiveness. Low morale among teachers has negative implications for student Literature review learning and teachers’ health (Mertler, According to Glatthorn (1995, p. 42), 2002; Moloi & Bush, 2006). motivation “refers to the strength of Some of the issues that caused dissatisfaction the inner drive to achieve professional among Tanzanian teachers, according to goals.” Motivation stimulates appropriate Davidson (2007), were: mismatch of salary behaviour (Ofoegbu, 2004) required to with important needs, inability to send ensure that teachers perform their duties children to school, poor living conditions, (Davidson, 2007). Teacher motivation and limited access to health care. However, reflects in a teacher’s attitude to teaching Yong (1999) found that the main reason

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 15 for disenchantment among some Brunei Various extrinsic motivating factors can teachers was that the job was “too stressful” be initiated or manipulated to increase or “too demanding.” Nonetheless, among different aspects of teacher motivation, for the Brunei teachers some were committed example: to the job because they loved working with • Deliberate administrative effort children and desired to impart knowledge. through performance incentives In essence, teacher motivation can be (Mertler, 2002; Bright futures for intrinsically and extrinsically induced exceptional learners, 2000; Kelley & and sustained. According Ofoegbu (2004) Finnigan, 2003), infrastructure and intrinsic motivation is necessary for the positive atmosphere can be used to teacher to teach effectively, and is the “what increase teacher satisfaction (Czubaj, of change;” while extrinsic motivation is 1996). the “how of change,” engendered for the • Supportive environment drives up purpose of school improvement through motivation, causing the release of giving incentive for work done. An example teacher quality and energy for positive of extrinsic motivation is the performance- growth of teacher, learner and school based award introduced in Kentucky and (Glatthorn, 1995; Davidson, 2007). Charlotte-Mecklenburg School District Physical environment is also crucial (US) (Kelly et al., 2002) which saw student (UNESCO, 2006; Moloi & Bush, 2006) performance improve as teachers worked – overcrowded classrooms, poor supply towards obtaining promised awards. of teaching and learning materials, Award for good work increases motivation. dilapidated buildings (or no building), Nevertheless, Performance Pay (2004, p. and too many teaching periods/ 18) quotes William J. Slotnik as saying that subjects (Davidson, 2007; Yong, 1999; “Pay for Performance is neither a silver Achimugu, 2005) do not help teacher bullet nor a magic wand.” motivation. Extrinsically driven teacher motivation • Positive feedback from student aims to make teachers happy, satisfied, performance and from administrators dedicated and committed to bringing out and supervisors increase motivation their best in their places of work (Ofoegbu, (Glatthorn, 1995), while loss of public 2004). Monetary reward is a major means respect could puncture it (Achimugu, of increasing worker motivation, and poor 2005; Yong, 1999). pay is the bane of the teaching profession in • Collegiality increases morale (Czubaj, many situations. “Pay is a measure of teacher 1996). Team teaching creates learning worth” (Yong, 1999). Irregular payment opportunities and allows teachers to (UNESCO, 2006), deductions from pay share negative and positive experiences and delayed promotion (Achimugu, 2005; (Glatthorn, 1995; Spies, 2003). Davidson, 2007) erode motivation. Menon Each potential source of motivation would and Saitis (2006) found that while the Greek have different impact on teachers due to teachers they studied were happy with the individual differences (Kocabas, 2009) job itself they were not with their pay.

16 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 Table 1: Profile of study respondents Primary Secondary State Highest qualification Secondary students teachers teachers Lagos State 55 61 NCE = 23 (19.8%) 204 (6 out of 20 local govt. areas) Bachelors = 69 (59.5%) Masters = 15 (12.9) JSS = 99 (48.5%) 116 NR + other = 4 (7.7%) SSS = 105 (51.5%)

Oyo State 189 NCE = 142 (75.1%) (14 out of 33 local govt. areas) Bachelors = 40 (21.2%) Masters = 2 (1.1) NR + other = 5 (2.6%) in beliefs and expectation (Clark, 1994). of changes provides a good basis for Therefore, an ideal situation is one that evaluating progress made so far to increase allows teachers to find reasons to continue teacher motivation among teachers in the to put in their best in helping learners to states studied. These questions guide the learn. presentation and discussion of results of Teacher motivation influences classroom analysed data: practice and both of these influence 1. How much of the teacher workforce is students’ belief and attitude, and thus motivated? teacher motivation level can enhance or 2. What are teachers’ perceptions on weaken student performance (Ofoegbu, variables that are instrumental in 2004; Debnath, Tandon & Pointer, 2007). teacher motivation? Mertler (2002), Moloi and Bush (2003) 3. What relationship exists between and Kocabas (2009) posit that dissatisfied teacher efficacy and motivation of teachers will most likely produce low students to learn? quality students. This is what is suggested by Ahimugu’s (2005) paintings of Nigerian 4. What is the relationship between teachers, as the blurb to his book reflects: teacher motivation and student “An average Nigerian teacher is politically performance? harassed, socially assaulted, financially Methodology humiliated, professionally handicapped, In this descriptive survey, data were psychologically depressed, emotionally generated by means of questionnaires traumatised and morally frustrated.” administered to teachers and students This acerbic summation runs counter to of public schools in two states (Lagos government’s “utopian policies,” which reads and Oyo Sates) in the southwest zone in part: to “encourage the spirit of enquiry (Nigeria has six geopolitical zones). The and creativity in teachers; help teachers fit first set of teacher questionnaire and a into the social life of the community and student questionnaire were administered society at large” (Achimugu, p.55). to primary and secondary school teachers Achimugu’s (2005) assessment teachers’ as well as secondary school students in situation prior to the introduction Lagos State in the first quarter of 2010 through personal contact. The teacher

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 17 Table 2: Teachers’ assessment of payment and promotion adequacy (%) Agree Disagree Lagos Oyo Lagos Oyo My salary is adequate 29.2 9.5 58.4 83.6 My salary is paid regularly 63.1 32.1 28.8 54.9 I receive my promotion whenever it is due 44.6 12.1 48.5 76.9 *Difference between “Agree” & “Disagree” = “Don’t know” response questionnaire was slightly revised by was National Certificate of Education dropping a few items and administered to (NCE). There however were Bachelors primary school teachers (only) in Oyo State Degree holders in primary schools in both during a training workshop in the fourth states, as well as four NCE (and 4 other) in quarter of 2010. While it is expected that the secondary schools. the secondary school teachers are English For easy response, close-ended 3-5 points subject teachers, a few primary teachers Likert’s scaled items were grouped so may not necessarily have trained to teach respondents could indicate 1) the extent to English – subject specialisation is yet to which they agreed with a statement, or 2) be achieved in Nigerian primary schools. how much a statement was true of them/ The return rates are high, almost 100% their case and 3) the adequacy of situations for students and over 95% for teachers in or resources in the school environment. the first state, and 85% in the second state Since experience has shown that people (workshop). Table 1 shows an analysis of generally ignore open-ended items these the study respondents. were very minimal; for example, out of In Lagos, teachers were drawn from 34 116 teachers in Lagos only two responded schools – 15 primary schools, 11 junior to the question: “At the end of the session secondary schools (JSS) and eight senior students should be able to do what tasks secondary schools (SSS); and students using English? Please list.” from 11 JSS and 10 SSS schools. The Oyo The data collected were subjected to teachers came from well over 160 primary descriptive statistical analysis, and the schools. The highest teacher qualification percentages of positive or desirable options was Masters Degree and there were two are presented in tables. Although trends holders in primary schools in each state, in the manifestation of indicators are where predominant highest qualification Table 3: Teacher assessment of administrative actions

Category Indicators Lagos Oyo

Professional development I will be allowed to go for further studies 76.2 83.3 I know where I can get more training 68.6 43.5 The Min of Education provides in-service training 59.1 69.3 I attend conferences, workshops and seminars on ELT 53.6 59.0 Administration Regular visits & supervision by inspectors/supervisors 78.3 89.3 MOE/SUBEB response to needs 33.3 52.3 Discipline in school 64.8 69.0

18 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 similar for both states, actual extents differ; contrary to expectation, considering the consequently, data for the two states are backgrounds of these states. While Lagos presented side by side for easy comparison. State teachers enjoyed higher pay, the Oyo State teachers had a running battle with Data analysis and discussion the state governor for almost two years on Results of data analysis for Lagos and salary issues by the time of data collection. Oyo States suggest similar trends but The explanation for the apparent inverse considerable difference in variablesassociation between pay and teacher manifestations. Therefore, results for motivation in this study may be provided the two states are presented side by side, by some other study findings. while differentiation between primary and secondary teachers’ data is only applied Teachers’ perceptions on factors that contribute to teacher motivation where secondary students’ data are also used. Achimugu (2005) had observed that “Nigerian teachers are among the worst Motivated teacher workforce paid in the world” (p.41), further noting Contrary to the thinking of education that “his salary is delayed; for the arrears, managers, most teachers in the study he has to smell it when he gets to heaven. disagree (Lagos = 62.5%; Oyo = 52.5%) The teacher is like a church rat” (p.36) that teachers are adequately motivated to and had to borrow from peasants. Table 2 teach. Only 22.3% of Lagos teachers and shows teachers’ view on adequacy of salary, 40.2% of Oyo teachers accept that they are promptness of its payment and promotion. motivated to teach. Nonetheless, 81.3% Oyo teachers trail terribly behind their of Lagos and 98.9% of Oyo teachers are Lagos counterparts on positive assessment “Happy to continue teaching,” suggesting of three important salary issues raised in that intrinsic motivation may prevail where external factors fail in the drive to improve the study. It is therefore quite interesting student performance. The higher figures that the Oyo teachers still indicated higher recorded for Oyo over Lagos teachers runs level of motivation than their Lagos

Table 4: Teachers’ assessment of environmental factors (%)

Category Indicators Lagos Oyo Workload Students are not too many for me 24.8 75.7 My workload is just ok 52.3 64.8 Physical environment Classroom is conducive 16.4 26.5 Classroom arrangement, space & furniture 38.6 48.2 Convenience 39.6 36.6 Resources availability Library for learners (Sec schl = 31.6%) 38.0 41.0 Teacher has material for teaching 21.5 28.2 Availability of books for teachers (Sec schl. =42.8%) 43.2 41.2 Availability of books for learners (Sec schl. = 55%) 58.0 44.6 Budget for ELT 41.4 36.0

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 19 Table 5: Teachers’ assessment of response from students and colleagues Category Lagos Oyo Student behaviour I am encouraged to teach by the way students respond in class 50.5 66.9 Discipline among learners, e.g. do assignment, paying attention in class 50.0 58.8 Collegiality Collegiality (regular discussion on ELT) 38.8 43.3 counterparts. Apparently, although salary to access them. Similarly, the numbers is a measure of a teacher’s worth (Yong, of teachers attending conferences and 1999), this finding imply that other factors workshops are low (item d); this being an must also be important in provoking more area yet to be developed in ways that would dedication and efficiency from teachers. attract school teachers. ELT conferences Tables 3–5 show percentages of teachers are usually scholarly affairs among higher that positively rated some other variables education teachers and have not addressed known to contribute to teacher motivation. the need for professional development of Table 3 shows percentages of teachers teachers at lower levels. that positively rated indicators on the Another factor that can sustain availability of opportunities for professional teacher motivation is the role of school development and growth as well as roles administration from outside and from played by education administrators. within the school. Teachers in both states Professional development can increase indicated that the level of administrative teacher efficacy, and where certified, leads and supervisory visits was commendable to promotion. The first item on the table (item e) but that the needs expressed to the suggests that both states make room for management bodies were not adequately teachers to go for certificate awarding responded to; more so in Lagos than in Oyo professional development, and this is State (item f). However, on within-school confirmed by other study finding which administration, 80.2% of Lagos teachers reveals that of 116 who had spent 21–34 and 88.8% of Oyo teachers considered years on the job, 115 received their highest general school discipline adequate. Item qualification 0–20 years ago. Most of the g suggests that school discipline was few that were not sure that they would be commendable in both states. It seems that allowed to go for further training also did the unsavoury incidences of teachers being not know where to look to for more training beaten up and harassed by students and (item b) or had not sought for. their parents alike (Achimugu, 2005) may Further, since signing into Education for have reduced significantly. All agenda, and in view of poor academic Of all the 7 items on Table 3, Lagos exceeds achievement among students, federal and Oyo teachers only in one (b). If these state governments (in conjunction with variables, as well as those in Table 4 (below), international agencies) had been organising contribute to teacher motivation, then it is training programmes for teachers. The possible that they could account for some results in the table (item c) confirm the differences in levels of motivation between availability of such programmes, but the two states. Table 4 displays variables in suggest that not all teachers had been able 20 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 Table 6: Teacher efficacy assessment Lagos Oyo Adequacy of training 88.7 97.3 Need more training to teach better 77.7 92.3 Curriculum has not advanced beyond training 77.4 -- Understand students’ learning needs 83.3 77.7 Use student performance to judge effectiveness 78.1 94.0 Reflect on teaching regularly 91.2 97.7 Feel incapable when learners don’t perform well 56.4 -- three categories: teacher workload, physical since the time of Achimugu’s publication, environment of learning and resources it is worth mentioning that in addition to availability. overcrowding, some classrooms not only The only impressive figures in Table 4 occur lacked furniture, but were also dilapidated. in the teacher workload category, with Oyo Under such condition, it is no surprise that situation looking better than that of Lagos. many schools either did not have libraries This can easily be explained by the fact that or a functional one (item f). The situation Oyo State had rationalised its schools into may be worse than the data on the table manageable school and class units, while suggest; for example, while 31.6% of Lagos Lagos State was just beginning the process. secondary school teachers indicated that While primary class population in Oyo a school library existed only 17.6% of State was within 30 pupils per class, some students in the study so indicated. Lagos State secondary classes, especially at Similarly, there is difference in teachers’ the junior secondary level were well over and students’ perception/rating of book 100. availability among each group, with the Additionally, in terms of physical one overrating the other. Whereas 42.8% environment, teachers assessment suggest secondary school teachers indicated a demoralising work environment in that they had adequate books, 64.7% of both states (Oyo is slightly better). Lagos students believed they did. On the other still had similar scenario described by hand, 29.9% of students indicated that Achimugu (2005), that a classroom they had books, while 55% of teacher designed for 30 students in 1960s was thought they did. Student belief about now being used for 96 pupils. Although teacher access to teaching resources could some improvement may have been made impact on students’ perception of teacher Table 7: Students’ perception of teachers’ behaviour that can motivate learning (Lagos, secondary school students) Item Not true Somewhat true True My teacher teaches English well 1.0 4.4 94.6 Teacher allows imagination/creativity 2.0 6.4 91.7 Teacher makes student feel important 3.4 13.2 83.3 Teacher gives support 3.0 15.8 81.3 Teacher gives encouraging words 10.9 12.9 76.1 Teacher allows student control 12.7 22.1 65.2 Teacher is not too concerned with marks 25.1 19.7 55.2 Teacher is not partial to the intelligent 36.0 20.8 43.1

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 21 Table 8: Teacher assessment of student learning outcome (percentage of teachers) Learning Outcome Learnt enough 56.2 Need more effort outside school 41.1 Not done enough 2.7 Total 100.0 credibility, with possible effect on student motivation to learn. On the other hand, student discipline, which was also more misalignment between teacher perception discouraging in Lagos than Oyo State. of students’ access to books and actual Perhaps if there is a high level of collegiality access could create perceptual problems for among teachers, they would have avenues teachers that may impact on how students for productive discussion of issues are regarded and treated when they fail and problem in their ELT experience. to meet expectations on assignment and Contrarily, less than half of teachers performance. in each state indulged in regular ELT In spite of much ado about free education discussion with their colleagues (Table 5). and free textbooks, the data in the table Lack of interaction among subject teachers suggest that after nine years of UBE is suggestive of low-level team teaching (universal basic education) many students and sharing of professional experience, did not have books. Governments do not which may partly be occasioned by limited supply adequate books and materials for number of subject teachers in each school. teaching and learning (items g–i). A book- Moreover, active ELT associations and and literacy-unfriendly environment can forums are needed to create avenues neither support effective language learning for in-service teacher development and nor increase teacher and student motivation interactions. to teach and learn in enthusiastic ways Relationship between teacher efficacy and that will yield desired outcome. Positive motivation of students to learn outcome begets positive effort. High efficacy teachers, according to Teachers need to see and believe that their Alderman (2004), feel good about students respect them and value their effort themselves, their teaching and their in order to be positively motivated to help students; they are also innovative in their students to learn. Table 5 shows that only practice (Glatthorn, 1995). Since this study half of the Lagos teachers assessed response establishes that very significant percentage from their students as encouraging (Oyo of the teachers is happy to continue = 66.9%). Related to this is individual teaching, Table 6 shows teachers’ ratings

Table 9: Relationship between teacher motivation and student performance Lagos Oyo Extrinsic motivation: “Teachers are well motivated to teach” 22.3% 40.2% Salary index 8.4 6.2 Intrinsic motivation: “I am happy to continue teaching” 81.3% 98.9% “I am happy with my students’ performance” 44.2% 77.7%

22 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 of other variables that indicate teacher assessment of items g and h may suggest efficacy. Also shown on the table are items that some teachers were not able to carry that allow an evaluation of teacher efficacy. along those that did not show sufficient Items a–d in Table 6 are indicative of level of proficiency in English. teachers’ belief of their ability to execute Relation between teacher motivation and their practice creditably. In terms of (a), 89– student performance 97% of the teachers in the study are certain Year after year woeful national examination that “My training prepared me adequately results raised concern about the wellbeing for teaching English.” Nonetheless, they of the education system. Can teacher found that they still needed more training motivation give insight to why students to teach better (item b), even though the perform poorly? Data presented so far Lagos teachers did not assess the curriculum indicate that while most teachers may as having advanced beyond their training be intrinsically motivated, factors in the (item c). These findings suggest that most education context had not improved teachers in both states can be placed in sufficiently to drive teacher motivation and the high efficacy bracket, since individual improved student performance. teachers held “I can” and “I will” beliefs, and claimed that they understood their Table 8 shows teachers’ confidence level, students’ learning needs (item d). Items indicating that only 56.2% of teachers e–f suggest that the teachers applied their considered their students as generally beliefs in their practice, with the result having learnt enough during a school that 56.4% of Lagos teachers (item g) “Feel year. Confidence level drops at the senior incapable when learners don’t perform secondary level – only 11 out of 28 teachers well.” In essence, this set of teachers perceived their students as having learnt evaluated themselves against their beliefs enough. While, no doubt, all students need using students’ performance. Further, to put in “more effort outside school,” most Table 7 summarises students’ perception of did not have the avenue for doing so. Indeed, teachers’ classroom behaviour that reflect many students may not have seen the need teacher qualities. to do so – 86.7% of students were confident of their communicative competence skills, Interestingly, despite consistent recurrent and 61–68% indicated that they had no poor student performance in national problems in putting their skills to use in examinations, 94.6% of 202 students in the performing language tasks, such as writing study believed that their teachers taught correct sentences and reading textbooks. English well (item a). Students’ favourable Meanwhile, half of the secondary school perception of their teachers’ classroom teachers in the study were not happy with behaviours in b–e suggests that teachers their students’ performance. motivated their students to learn English. However, power sharing between teachers Table 9 displays, for comparison, teachers’ and students (item f) is low, which may motivation levels and their satisfaction discourage optimum student involvement with their students’ performance. in the teaching process. On the hand, the Factors that support teacher motivation

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 23 were low, more so in Lagos than in Oyo teachers were driven mostly by intrinsic State, probably accounting for teachers’ motivation, but that this was inadequate feeling that they were not well motivated to engender efficient teaching or effective to teach. Further, this study confirms that learning. This assertion and the study whereas salary incentives are important in findings equally apply to other states in teacher motivation, they are not capable Nigeria, as this excerpt insinuates: of transcending or compensating for My office is under the tree, likewise the demotivating factors in the teaching and seven teachers we have here. We don’t have learning environment. Taken together, tables and desks. These children are meant the data on Table 9 suggest that student to sit anyhow and anywhere while classes performance correlated with motivation are taken. We have been like this since last level, but that it was not determined so year and I do not know for how long we will much by how much salary teachers were continue this way. (A headteacher in Enugu paid as much as it was by other extrinsic State [Njoku, The Guardian, 2011, p.2]) factors of motivation. Fortunately, as many other systems in Conclusion Nigerian society, neither the teachers nor The study has shown that teacher motivation students had really lost hope in the school level could predict student performance, as system, since students had faith in their indicated in literature, and as governments teachers’ ability to teach them. Nonetheless, in Nigeria already know. However, while to improve the teaching and learning of state governments felt that they had English in Nigeria, a lot needs to be done put in enough effort to increase teacher to create a supportive environment that motivation, the study findings indicate will motivate both teachers and learners to that whereas adequate salary is important, work towards achieving desired outcome; many issues relevant to teacher motivation bearing in mind that the English language may have been underestimated. Moreover, is foundational to learning and performing many factors that contribute to teacher well in all other school subjects. motivation and that are also important for Further, the findings of this study student learning have been adjudged as underscore the importance of backing inadequate, as summarised below: and evaluating government policies with Motivation variable Assessment research findings. The indication is that Teachers motivated 22–40% education managers’ assumptions about Salary and promotion Very Poor/Poor teachers and the education system need Training Fair to be validated through research. In this Administration (supervision) Fair Administration (response) Poor process, the involvement of teachers in Parental support Very Poor making decisions that concern them, Resource availability & provision Poor their practice and the welfare of the entire Physical environment Poor education system is inevitable, even if this Workload (50–65% are coping) Fair would require both sides to undergo a It can be deduced from the study that learning process initially. Teachers should

24 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 be involved in planning development and W. Anderson (Ed.) International encyclopedia of changes, as their participation tend to boost teaching and teacher education (pp. 41–46), New teacher motivation. York: Pergamon. Kelley, C. J. & Finnigan, K. (2003). The effects of About the author organizational context on teacher expectancy. Nkechi M. Christopher, PhD., is a member of IATEFL, ELTAN, Educational administration quarterly, 39, 603– IRA, South-West Coordinator (2006-2008) Reading Association 634. of Nigeria(RAN) and Consultant on English Language Kocabas, I. (2009). The effects of sources of Teaching, British Council (Nigeria). She is a Senior Lecturer motivation on teachers’ motivation levels. in the Department of Communication and Language Arts, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She has published articles in Education, 129(4), 724–733. books, local and international journals on English language Mendler, A. N. (2001). Connecting with students. learning and assessment, as well as on literacy and book Alexandria, VA: ASCD. publishing in Nigeria. The author can be reached at [email protected] Menon, M. E. & Saitis, C. (2006). Satisfaction of pre-service and in-service teachers with primary References school organization: Evidence from Greece. Achimugu, L. (2005). The agonies of Nigerian Educational management administration & teachers. Ibadan: Heinemann Educational leadership, 34, 345–363. Books. Mertler, C. A. (2002). Job satisfaction and perception Alderman, M. K. (2004). Motivation for achievement: of motivation among middle and high school Possibilities for teaching and learning (2nd edn.). teachers. American secondary education, 31(1), Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 43–53. Bright Futures for Exceptional Learners. (2000, Moloi, K. & Bush, T. (2006). An overview of July/August). Teaching Exceptional Children, 32, education management in South Africa. 56+. Retrieved January 10, 2012, from Management in education, 20, 15–22. Questia database: http://www.questia.com/ Njoku, L. (February 20, 2011). In Enugu, pupils PM.qst?a=o&d=5035445190. study under tress as neglect cripples primary Clark, R. E. (1994). Assessment of distance learning education. The Guardian, p.2. technology. In E. L. Baker & H. F. O’Neil (Eds.). Ofoegbu, F. (2004). Teacher motivation: A factor for Technology assessment in education and training classroom effectiveness and school improvement (pp.63–78). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum in Nigeria. College student journal, 38(1), 81–88. Associates. Performance Pay. (2004). ASEE Prism, 13, Czubaj, C. A. (1996). Maintaining teacher 18. Retrieved January 11, 2012, from motivation. Education, 116(3), 372–378. Questia database: http://www.questia.com/ Retrieved January 8, 2012, from Questia PM.qst?a=o&d=5037551036. database: http://www.questia.com/ Spies, P. (2003). Promised land or assembly PM.qst?a=o&d=5000367863 line? Journal of staff development, 24(3), 57–62. Davidson, E. (2007). The pivotal role of teacher UNESCO. (2006). Teacher motivation, motivation in Tanzanian education. The compensation and working conditions. educational forum, 71(2), 157–166. Retrieved Guidebook for planning education in emergencies January 8, 2012, from Questia database: http:// and reconstruction, Paris: International Institute www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5035109024 for Education Planning (IIEP) Debnath, S. C. Tandon, S. & Pointer, L. V. (2007). Yong, B. C. (1999). The career commitment of Designing business school courses to promote primary teachers in Brunei Darussalam: student motivation: An application of the job Perceptions of teaching as a career. Research in characteristics model. Journal of management education, (62), 1+. Retrieved January 8, 2012, education, 31, 812–831 from Questia database: http://www.questia. Glatthorn, A. (1995). Teacher development. In L. com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5035480817.

This is How I Can Write: Towards Nepalese English Literature Sajan Kumar Karn Abstract Nepalese English is arguably making its presence felt in virtually all domains in Nepal and English literature from Nepal is no exception. The study of creative writings in English by Nepalese literary authors exhibit typical Nepaleseness in such an amplitude that a distinctive English literature can be inferred to be in the making. This paper studies nativization in various genres of literature written in English in Nepal and also contends with the evidences that we have leapt towards Nepalese English literature considered from World Englishes literature perspective. Key words: Nepalese English, Bilinguals’ Creativity, Nativization, World Englishes, Nepalese English Literature

Backdrop mother tongue merely but extends beyond. I speak three languages, write in two, dream This is why people have been able to create in one literary texts in whatever language/s they Do not write in English, they said use. I myself write in Maithili-my mother English is not your mother tongue………….. tongue, in Nepali- mother tongue like The language I speak becomes mine, its language and also in English -another distortions, its queerness second language as I began learning both All mine, mine alone, it is half English, half English and Nepali simultaneously. As a Indian, funny perhaps user of three languages, I have cultivated but it is honest, it is as human as I am profound compassion for all and pick human…. whatever language I feel comfortable to It voices my joys, my longings my hopes articulate my feelings and thoughts with at particular times. Many people remark that (Kamala Das, 1965, p. 10). my Nepali is Englishized and my English It feels as if Kamala Das, an Indian poet is Nepalized and my Maithili is both composed the above poem for me and Nepalized and Englishized but I say this perhaps for you also if you share the is how I can write; this is how I can speak same sentiment I have. She wrote as she or use languages as poet Das inferred in experienced- nothing more, nothing the above verse. Neither nativization nor less. In the multilingual milieu, literary Englishization is weird today. They are so creativity cannot be confined to one’s own natural and spontaneous. My assumption

26 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 leads me to envisage that most non-native used in diverse sociolinguistic contexts” writers of English are probably sailing the (p.528). Also known as New Englishes, same boat in the course of their voyage World Englishes is said to have developed with English literature. However, inward through education system; has developed I could not satiate myself utterly with in an area where a native variety of English this supposition and a passion soared was not the language spoken by most of the inside and led me to investigate into the population; is used for a range of functions theories and practices both behind such a among those who speak or write it in the faculty, that is, literary creativity of non- region where it is used and has become native users of English. Chiefly, I wished localized or nativised by adopting some to discern: What is bilinguals’ creativity in language features of its own (Plat et al., actuality? Why is the English of bilingual/ 1984, pp 2-3, cited in Jenkins, 2009, p. 25- multilingual authors said to be nativized? 26). The plural phrase Englishes represents Is this nativization in literature deliberate? the formal and functional variations, the What strategies do such non native writers divergent sociolinguistic contexts, the of English employ in creating literary texts? linguistic, sociolinguistic and literary What is the status of English literature in creativity and the various identities English Nepal? How far is English literature from has accrued as a result of its acculturation Nepal nativized? What implications does in new sociolinguistic ecology (Kachru, such nativization have in ELT in Nepal? and 1965;, Stevens, 1992). so forth. An attempt here has been made to In Kachru’s (1992) three concentric seek answers of these questions with study circles, Nepal falls into expanding circle and insights both. which suggested that Nepal is an English Nonetheless, before I jump into such as a Foreign Language (EFL) country but discourses, I would like to recapitulate because of its massive use in all domains Nepalese English discourses and theoretical today, the status of English in Nepal is said to bases for World Englishes literature, have debatably shifted to a second language without which it perhaps will not make any (Bhattarai & Gautam, 2005; Sharma, 2006; sense to discuss Nepalese English literature, Karn, 2011). In fact, the tag Nepal as an EFL the very heart of this paper. country is not justifiable for by doing so we would not be seeing any difference between World Englishes and Nepalese English the status of English and Chinese, English The English language has spread far and and Spanish or English and Japanese which wide. This spread has led it towards such are more alien for us. McArthur’s circle diversifications that today English has been of World Englishes employs the phrase nativized in most of the places it is used. ‘Nepalese English’ as a sub-variety of South Owing to the expansion and nativization, Asian English (McArthur, 1998, p. 97). This a number of varieties of English have is perhaps the biggest recognition of the sprung which has been labeled World Nepalese socio-cultural facets in English Englishes. In words of Bhatt (2001), World in Nepal. Nevertheless, Nepalese English Englishes refers to “varieties of English discourse augmented only after Rai (2006)

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 27 presented a paper and then converted is the reason Mid-Western University, it into an journal article titled ‘English, a newly established university in Nepal Hinglish and Nenglish’. His thesis truly has proposed a course, namely ‘Nepalese created a sensation amongst academicians English and Nepalese ELT’ for Master of that English spoken in Nepal does not Educational Science (M.ES.). This is truly only differ from standard Englishes such a historical leap in the study of World as British English, American English Englishes discourse in Nepal in general but also from the neighboring variety of and also a milestone to help authenticate Indian English. His study was based on Nepalese English in particular. The data taken from newspapers, classroom proposed course expects the students to discourses, English literature from Nepal study the typical Nepalese expressions and etc. Rai called the new variety of English in cultural elements in English used in the Nepal, Nenglish considering the influence fields such as education, media, social life, of Nepali upon English. Brett (1996) had work places and also in English literature also implicitly hinted at more or less the created here in Nepal. identical phenomenon. She had used Having established that Nepalese English Nepali English to differentiate it from is creating space in academic dialogues in other varieties of English. Most of her Nepal, I would like to move towards the data come from classroom-students and discourses of World Englishes literature in teachers and interactions between them. order to pave the way for the discussion of Likewise, Daniloff-Merril (2010) studied Nepalese English literature. how Nenglish reflects the identity of Nepalese students. Her analysis was based World Englishes literature and literary on the compositions of Nepalese students creativity pursuing their studies in an American There are various phrases used for English university. Her attempt was to furnish literature created in the ESL and EFL evidence and justify Nepalese English as countries. Whereas some use World an established variety. In their talk, Phyak Englishes literature, others favor the use and Karn (2010) argued that it was the call of ‘contact literatures’ ‘new Englishes of time to construct a corpus for Nepalese literatures’ or ‘new literatures in English’ English in order to authenticate it. Of late, and yet others go for ‘bilingual literature’. Karn (2011) reviewed the discourses (Brett, Whatever the phrases may be, the 1996; Rai, 2006; Daniloff-Merril, 2010; connotation is virtually the same. In other Phyak & Karn, 2010) on Nepalese English words, World Englishes literature refers to and argued strongly that it is important to English literature from outer and expanding build a corpus of the proliferating variety circles of English after Kachru(1998). I of English in Nepal to help establish would like to quote Dawson (2001) who our own distinctive variety of English. gives a very comprehensive definition These academic discussions have brought of the term: “World Englishes literature considerable changes in the mindset of explores the culture(s) of the country and Nepalese academicians and perhaps this people from which it is written (these

28 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 countries belong to Kachru’s Outer and altered context of situation for language, it Expanding circles); usually the literature emerges from configuration of two or more employs the English of that place (to a languages and it must not be seen from lesser or greater degree); and, moreover, the perspective of formal combination of the writer chooses to write in that English two or more languages but also a creation over other languages in which she could of cultural, aesthetic, societal and literary alternatively write” (p.4). I follow Boehmer canons. Likewise, in connection to literary (2005) and Dawson (2011) and reject the creativity in English, Bhatt (2001) maintains interpretation of world Englishes literature “the nativization and alteration of English as exclusively post-colonial which is how ensured its use as a medium for indigenous many people earlier understood the term. expressions” (p. 537). Various studies such World Englishes literature for them is not as D’Souza (1991), Kamwangamalu (1992), tantamount to postcolonial literature solely Lowenberg (1992) and Valentine (1992) though the latter is of course a component have revealed that “literatures written in of the former. Unfortunately, most of the different varieties are as unique as the studies available have remained focused varieties themselves”. For instance, Iyengar on literary works from outer circle and (1962,) puts: “Indian writing in English is therefore literary works form expanding but one of the voices in which India speaks. circle have remained ignored. However, It is a new voice, no doubt, but it is as much recently due attention has been given to Indians as the others” (p. 3). literature from expanding circle as well (Chutisilp, 1984; Zhang, 2002). English literature in Nepal: an overview As Nepalese English is considered an World Englishes literature thus is the extension of World Englishes so is the product of literary creativity in ESL/EFL relation between World Englishes literature users. It was in 1985 that Braj Kachru and Nepalese English literature. When coined a phrase bilinguals’ creativity to we attempt to trace the origin of English refer to “those creative linguistic processes literature in Nepal, we find that it has been which are the result of competence in two some seven decades that creative writings or more languages” (p. 20). Further, it refers in English in Nepal began. It was in 1940’s to the act of creating literary texts using that Mahakavi Laxmi Prasad Devkota and the linguistic resources of two or more poet cum dramatist Bal Krishna Sama tried languages …” (ibid.). He went on to elaborate their hands in writing poetry in English. the phenomenon and noted “literary texts Followed by them were Abhi Subedi, Peter J composed in a language other than what Karthak and Padma Devkota during 1970’s. may be termed the ‘mother tongue’ of the Their works are still appearing. A diverse writer……” (1985, p. 25). Kachru (1987) group of writers joined them in 1980’s and discusses the defining characteristics of they were Mani Dixit, Greta Rana, Keshar literary creativity. For him, the processes Lall, Prakash A Raj, Kesang Tseten, Manju originate from local, cultural and stylistic Kachuli, Shailendra K Singh, Yuyutsu strategies, the process of nativization RD Sharma, Tek B Karki, Pallav Ranjan, and acculturation of text postulates an Para Limbu, Laxmi Rajbhandari and D.B.

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 29 Gurung (Thapa, 2001; Tsteen & Thapa, ‘The Asian English Language Teachers 2002). Published by Martin Choutari in Creative Writing Group’ formed in 2003. 2002, an other voice: English literature from This group aims to write materials for use Nepal is a powerful testimony to inform in schools and colleges in Asia. Besides the world that Nepal does have authors holding creative writing conferences who can write in fine English. The book in Asian countries annually, Pearson contains poems by Padam Devkota, Tsering Malaysia has been publishing anthologies Wangmo Dhoomap, Wayne Amtzis, Manjul of poems and stories by Asian teachers for Kanchuli, E. Ann Hunkins, Kesar Lall, Abhi Asian students with the belief that what is Subedi, Greta Rana, Tek Bahadur Karki, D. available is not culturally appropriate for B. Gurung, Hannah Chi, Yuyutshu R.D. Asian students. They have had conferences Sharma and Stories by Samrat Upadhyay, in the Philippines, Vietnam, Cambodia, Manjushree Thapa, Kesang Tseten, Joel Oman, Nepal, Thailand, Laos, Malaysia, Isaacson, Mani Dixit, Sushma Joshi and Hanoi, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Indonesia. Sunil Nepali. Another notable work on In fact, they have had conference twice English literature from Nepal is new Nepal, in Kathamandu, once in Pokhara and new voices: An anthology of short stories this year they are assembling in southern edited by Shushma Joshi and Ajit Baral, Nepal - Birgunj. A university teacher cum published in 2008 by Rupa & Co. This is creative writer Vishnu Singh Rai, one of a compilation of fifteen stories written by the eminent members of the group is co- Nepalese authors scattered in different parts coordinating the events in Nepal (“Asian of the world including Nepal. The stories English Language Teachers’ Creative there are by Prawin Adhikari, Wayane Writing Project - Our writing”, 2012). Amitzis, Ajit Baral, Sohan Dhakal, Smriti Another significant contribution in Ravindra, Sushma Joshi, Manju Kanchuli, promotion of English literature in Nepal Peter J. Karthak, Madan K. Limbu, Sunil is by Society of Nepali Writers in English Nepali, Greta Rana, Gyanu Sharma, Tara, (NWEN). Established in 2000, NWEN aims Manjushree Thapa, and Sanjeev Uprety. In to promote original writings in English by the concluding paragraph of the editorial, Nepalese authors. The most significant one of the editors maintains “Whether thing about this organization is “to create a emerging or famous, realist or surrealist, sense of national identity through literature, whether their English stems from living in cultural interaction and activities and an English speaking country or through to promote international understanding reading books at the British Council and amity through cultural exchanges”. Library, the writers of the this collection In addition to regular poetry reading have managed to reflect the Nepali sessions, talks, symposia and discussions, experiences through their own particular NWEN publishes a literary magazine lenses” (Joshi, 2008, p. Not given). namely ‘Of Nepalese Clay’ and eighteen A landmark contribution in unleashing volumes of it have already been published. the creativity of English language learners The seventeenth issue ofOf Nepalese Clay and teachers in Nepal is by a group named incorporates the poems by Mohan Lohani,

30 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 Shreedhar Lohani, Padma Devkota, English literature in Nepal, I have selected Amamarj Joshi, Prakash Subedi, Keshab two anthologies of stories - one by Samrat Sigdel, Sewa Bhattarai and others (www. Upadhyay and the other by Rabi Thapa, nwen.org.np). two poems-one by Abhi Subedi and Some credit for promoting English literature the other by D. B. Gurung, one essay by in Nepal also goes to Nepal Literature Govinda Raj Bhattarai, one play by Vishnu Festival. The festival has been organized Singh Rai, and one novel by Manjushree in Kathmandu twice in 2011 and 2012 by Thapa. They are selected for the reason that the Bookworm Trust in collaboration with they are well known authors having strong Nepal Academy. This brings together both academic background and also powerful nationally and internationally acclaimed writing skills in English. First, I have picked literary figures and literature lovers to up and presented, from those works, the a common platform. Their interactions expressions that exhibit Nepaleseness and and book exhibitions have created some subsequently, I have analyzed them with awareness about English literature home reference to the criteria of transfer, shift, and abroad. hybridization, lexical borrowing, code switching and mixing and reduplication, Similarly, there is a long list of poems, the linguistic strategies following Kachru’s stories, novels, dramas, travelogues etc. framework (1987). from the Nepalese languages rendered into English which should be considered to Nativization in Stories form a part of Nepalese English literature Samrat Upadhyay is an established fiction but the length limit of this article does not writer from Nepal though he lives in the allow me to enter into translated works and US. Arresting God in Kathmandu (2000), but I promise to write about them in future. The Guru of Love (2003), The Royal Ghosts From the above discussions, this is fair to (2006) and Buddhas’ Orphans (2010) are his establish that creative writing activities popular literary fictions. WhereasArresting have thrived in Nepal and therefore it God in Kathmandu, an anthology of stories is important to study them and initiate won him Whiting Writers’ Award, The Guru academic discourses on how and at what of Love was a New York Times’ Notable points English literature produced in Nepal Book of the Year 2003. I have picked up his diverges from other English literatures in anthology Arresting God in Kathmandu for the world. this study. In the following sections, I have made some Arresting God in Kathmandu has the efforts to reveal why, how and to what characters with Nepalese names such as degree English literature created in Nepal Radhika, Pramod, Shambhu, Acharya, is nativized. Durga, Deepak Misra, Anju, Bandana, Hiralal, Rukmini, Shanti, Shakuntala, Nepaleseness in English literature in Moti, Rammaya, Ramcharan, Shanti, Nepal Nandini etc. The settings of the stories In order to study the nativization in are various locations of the Kathmandu

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 31 valley such as Pashupatinath, Hanuman birth. Dhoka, Annapurna Hotel, Royal Palace, You miss your mother? Swyambhunath Temple, Jaisideval, Tundikhel field, Thapathali, Chhetrapati, Please, Ba. I have a headache. Keshar Mahal, Tribhuvan International HIralal took a plate of dal-bhat to his room. Airport, Durwar Marg etc. The deliberate I will expect Moti babu will get a job once selection of Nepalese characters and they are married. settings and events in the stories play a crucial role in demonstrating Nepalese First I get married to a drunkard, then he socio-political and cultural attributes. calls me a langadi and walks out. On my Besides, the anthology is heavily nativized wedding day. from linguistic perspective. Let us observe She is at the hotel, hajur. some expressions picked from the stories: I want Nani to feed me. “Hare Shiva, she said, “How are we going to pay the next month’s rent?” (Upadhyay, 2000, pp. 1-191) I will go and see Shambhu-Da tomorrow. Rabi Thapa is the recent appearance in English literature in Nepal. Like Pramod-ji, I did not know your were such a Upadhyay’s, Thapa’s anthologyNothing to religious man declare (2011) has plentiful Nepaleseness. “That’s ridiculous” Nani Memsaheb said Sixteen stories in the collection are titled: abruptly. Initiation, Angels, No Smoke Without fire, A Nepali Maid, The Trail, From the Road, Shambhu-Da is still doing puja, praying and Tiger!, Home for Dashain, Julus, Night chanting to the gods. out in Kahtmandu, After Party, Arranged I will kill him, he said and laughed. Marriage, Aryaghat and Valley of Tears. The smells of deep-fired jilebies, vegetable Again the events in the stories are set in curries…………… Nepal and revolve around socio-political and cultural realities of Nepal. Specifically, He returned to the neighborhood the stories exhibit ample use of Nepalese bhatti……………….. interjections, words, phrases and sentences Ma ma ma ma ma ……My wife is langadi from Nepali. Some of the Nepalese English Today she was wearing a Pubjabi salwar expressions in his stories are as follows: kameej Chup! That’s enogh… Come in, come in It’s a big day for you –you’re going to be a Consider yourself family. man once your bratabandh is done. She would tilt her head as she combed the Khadka Miss was unmarried………………. coconut-scented Dabur Anwla oil throught La, see you tomorrow. her hari. Oho! Sunita Upadhyay has become a People do what etched on their forehead at pheminist, you hear?

32 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 I made food for you, hajoor, I can heat it up. never knew. Sitting close to me, he would Subodh-babu, the food is ready ask, “Where do you sit in the iskool Saila? Does Thule also sit along with you? She wanted to say darshan to you but you were happily asleep. Mother would shout: don’t use the chulesi, Maila! No, Raja, you do not get these things in London. Hyallow Marsing, How do you ? Oi! What were you doing mujhi? Hyallow Gopal, How do you do? Welcome to UK, hai? Then she brought some ashes in a scoop from the glowing hearth and sprayed it around Jay Shambho, Bikram had intoned as he’d our bed: Now keep the Gita book under the fired up the joint. pillow, and no bad dream will chase you Chiya mastersaab she said. In the meanwhile Maldai spoke: I keep the Gita and Chandee books under my (Thapa, 2011, Pp.1-172) pillow, and a small Khukuri too, but Saila Nativization in prose puts his bag. Govinda Raj Bhattarai writes thought One day one of my phupas came to our place provoking essays and exceptional with his son Omnath, junior to me at the travelogues in English though he is arguably iskool. the greatest postmodern fiction writer cum At the end of the day we would earn some critic in Nepali literature. I have selected four or eight anas, some gifts, presents, one memoir-like- essay by Govinda Raj offerings and lot of honor. To be worshipped Bhattarai ‘Reminiscing My Childhood Days’ as a bahunnani or guruputra or the son of a (Ignorance is bliss) from Journal of Nepalese Brahmin was a great honor, incomparable. Literature, Art and Culture published by Nepal Academy (2012). This is perhaps The Pundits and Dhamis were much honored the most nativized English text available in those days. in English literature in Nepal. A critique (Bhattarai, 2012, Pp. 155-164). on encroachment of the English language and cultures upon Nepalese life, this shows Nativization in drama the extreme case of nativization of English Vishnu Singh Rai has tried his hand in literary text from Nepal. Let us see some poetry, stories and plays and his works are expressions from the essay. well-liked and taught in universities. His The neighbor asked him “Why pundit, where Realities (2012) is a wonderful play which with little Saila ? feels to be composed especially for Nepalese audience in that the author has deliberately Maldaju would sit close by me and ask, made his character utter Nepalised English “What did the masters do to you today Saila? expressions to give a distinctive flavor to So I was very important, I pretended to the text, which however sounds natural. Let know many things that Maldai and Mother us look at some expressions excerpted from

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 33 the play: Nepal’-‘Get Lost!’ by Abhi Subedi and Namaste! I ‘m Prashna. I came from the Crepuscule by D. B. Gurung. Today and Tomorrow TV. Because of its condensed length, it is obvious How many children do you have Prabhuji? that poetry relatively reveals lesser degree of nativization. In Get Lost!, the poet’s Kale, O Kale! Come here. Go and tell your mentioning of holy threads, Bagmati murky malkini to make tea for the guests and then waters, New Road’s nose, Sajag Rana’s tantra bring it. Oi! Come back here. How many house, dharma of growing stupefaction etc cups of tea you will bring here? Four cups, does render Nepalese socio-cultural values. you understand. [TO PRASHNA] Yes? Besides, the poet also nativizes the poem The sarkies (shoe makers) have abandoned with abrupt code-switching conceivably making shoes and the damais (tailors) because he finds it worth to communicate, have stopped playing bands in a marriage to the world, Nepalese linguistic value ceremony. along with culture. Let us see this part of the poem: Hajoor! Children haven‘t eaten anything since yesterday. You’re the only help I know. I will go the bazaar and buy betel leaves for Where should I go? you, my darling! It’s Kamala’s. So what? I will give you 300 Bajaarai jaanchhu rupees for the buffalo, and 50/- for yours Paan kini lyaunchhu wife’s treatment. OK? Come in the evening. I will make the paper ready by then. Kale, Kanchhilai bhaner oi Kale! Don’t you hear, you shit-eater? Tell majam polko thung dalkyou jobana your malkini to give this man some rice. ………………………………………….. If everyone becomes babusaheb, then who (Subedi, 2002, Pp. 84-87) will work for us? Another poem for analysis is by D. B. Kale! Kale!! You donkey. Don’t you see that Gurung. In his poem ‘Crepuscule’, the poet the bullocks are thirsty? Who will give them has borrowed lexical items such as jhankris, water –your father? These servants are all shakti from Nepali. Additionally, the theme idle, lazy bastards. Once you take your eyes of his poem entirely revolves around social off them, they stop working. mess in Nepal. Do the Namaste to the uncle from the TV Up in the attic crepuscular and breezy; (Rai, 2012) Trees dancing like a huddle of jhankris in top Nativization in poetry trance. Whereas Abhi Subedi is a well-known A wide animated view of the Kathmandu playwright and poet from Nepal, D. B. valley Gurung is known for fiction as well as ………………………………………………… poetry. I have chosen two poems published in ‘an other voice, English literature from …………………………………………

34 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 His eyes though lusterless blink with the Ba, I am going to America. shakti of hope Use the opportunity well, chhori And plunge into the metaphysics of another Dal-bhat, She asked. nameless night You cooked dull-bath and ate it all by (Gurung, 2002, p. 129). yourself. Nativization in novel You are the new Nepali, hanh? Manjushree Thapa is another prolific writer Bas, Okay, Chalo. Lets get to work. from Nepal. Her books of fiction include Seasons of Flight, The Tutor of History and Luis, meet my Niru didi and Sushil Bhinaju Tilled Earth. For the present purpose, I (Thapa, 2010, Pp. 1-223) selected Seasons of Flight, her most recent publication. Like Samrat Upadhyay, she Analysis also borrows Nepalese kinship terms The analysis of the above mentioned stories, such as Didi, Bahini, Ba, chhori etc. from essay, drama, poems and novel reveals Nepali. Though the settings are alien here, a that the authors have attempted various Nepalese character struggles to keep intact rhetorical strategies to add Nepalese her original identity even while conversing essence in their literary texts. Some of the with Americans. Let us observe Nepalese strategies used have been discussed briefly elements in the expressions excerpted here: below. ‘Ah, it’s your tea, Didi, it keeps us wanting In order to show Nepaleseness in English more’ literature in Nepal, most Nepalese authors have exploited the process of transfer to Her mother, devout,, used to worship the col show Nepalese socio-cultural elements. at the centre as a shaligram, an avatar of Transfer here refers to both transfer of Vishnu. language and that of cultural and social La, ta. Trailokya shrugged affably. elements. Whereas in some cases, the texts What’s two hundred rupees for a sir like you? show linguistic transfer, in other cases, cultural and social elements have been Did you feel the tremors, Bahini? transported to convey Nepaleseness. For The himals are not visible from the bazaar instance, most of the authors I selected for but foothills ringed the north. the study have suffixed the names of elders You are as good as a son to me. and seniors with –ji, a typical Nepali way of addressing elders and respectable people. Oho, Sir, Sister, Welcome back! Similarly, in the stories, novel, essay and ‘A letter sister! A letter for you from an drama, the Nepalese kinship terms such as Americane Da, Didi, Bhinaju, Bhai, Bahini, Ba, Chhori, mastersaab, phupaju, etc. have been used We do not know anything, Sah’b? which justifies that English equivalents if Much less than you do, Harihar-dai? used, would have conveyed only fractional

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 35 and hazy senses. Zhang (2002) argues In his essay, Govinda Raj Bhattarai has “address terms play an important role in abundantly borrowed lexical items and conveying cultural messages, especially interjections from Nepali. The words such concerning the interlocutors and power as, chulesi, khukuri, iskul etc. Similarly relation between them” (p.308). Particularly Vishnu Singh Rai in his drama has in the stories of Samrat Upadhyay and borrowed Nepalese words such as sarki, Rabi Thapa and the novel of Manjushree damai, bramhin, bund etc. Rabi Thapa has Thapa, such Nepali kinship words are used borrowed the words such as bratbandh, ubiquitously. It can be argued that the doko , slang expression like mujhi etc. authors found it deficient to use English Code-switching is another strategy used by equivalents in those places. In the same Nepalese authors. They have often switched way, Govinda Raj Bhattarai in his essay has their code from English to Nepali at times. transferred Nepali address terms e.g. Saaila, Abhi Subedi in his poem has abruptly and Maldaju, Kaka, Fupas, bahunani, guruputra utterly switched to Nepali to express what etc. Vishnu Singh Rai, in his drama, has perhaps was impossible to be expressed in used Nepalese interjections such as hajoor, English that aesthetically. Similarly, D. B. and address terms particularly used in Gurung has mixed Nepali words such as Terai babusaheb, malkini etc. jhankris, shakti etc. Govinda Raj Bhattarai In addition to transfer, Nepalese authors has also adopted this strategy at times. are found to hybridize words in order to Many a time, Rabi Thapa has switched code exhibit cultural identities. Hybridization in his stories. refers to the amalgamation of words from Govinda Raj Bhattarai has made use of two or more languages to form compound. several old saying and metaphors that Manjushree Thapa has used the words such are shifted from the Nepali language. The as Americane. This is the Nepalese way of following shift in fact reveals cultural addressing to underestimate the addressee transfer as well. or to show anger or maybe affection towards him/her. In colloquial Nepali, Nepalese use Now keep the Gita book under the pillow, Rame, Shyame, Gite instead of Ram, Shyam, and no bad dream will chase you (Bhattarai, Gita, etc. 2012, 159). Lexical borrowing, another strategy adopted Vishnu Singh Rai has adopted translation by Nepalese authors in their literary texts in his play. The following expressions are refers to the use of lexical items from local translation of Nepalese expression: languages if target language lacks them. kale! Kale! Ta gadha. Herdinas goruharu When English lacks a lexical item with the tirkhako? same semantic interpretation, the authors Kale! Kale!! You donkey. Don’t you see that have targeted borrowing from the Nepalese the bullocks are thirsty? (Rai, 2012) languages. There are ample examples of such borrowings. They have also borrowed In some cases, Nepalese literary authors many Nepalese interjections such as oho, have attempted reduplication differently. Aeya, oi, hanh, heyaah, khai, bas etc. Reduplication involves the process of

36 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 tremendous nativization of literary texts syntactic repetition, namely repetition of written in English by Nepalese authors. The a constituent of the sentence or the use of impulses behind such appropriation are: to appositive elements. manifest the authors’ individual as well as Aah, kasto naraamro sang maaryo ni socio-cultural values, to seek identities and tyaslai. Bichara! How they killed him, the dignity in immensity of World Englishes poor wretch. (Thapa, 2011, p. 120). literature; to communicate the Nepalese Another example from Thapa (2011, p. social values to rest of the world and to 122) is show some empathy towards the English language, the second most used language Ey tya jaumna hami pani, ke bhairacha’. Hey in Nepal after Nepali. Although there let’s go there too and see what’s happening. have been resistance towards English, the Rai(2012) has also attempted reduplication literary creations in English creates a sense but using brackets: of belongingness in Nepalese towards English. Evidences are enough to justify The sarkies (shoe makers) have abandoned that a distinct English literature is in route making shoes and the damais (tailors) to becoming which I have phrased here have stopped playing bands in a marriage ‘Nepalese English literature’ owing to ceremony. uniqueness in it. Nepalese English literature Bhattarai’s essay has also instances of is not merely a fraction of English literature reduplication. For example, but also forms an important component I read it haltingly, after some time she spoke: of Nepalese literature. Thumboo(2008) janne bhaichhas saila tara kyari bujhiyena. has rightly argued that authors in such Oh Saila, you are quite a learned boy now circumstances are formed by two worlds but I could not understand anything (2012, and thus are guided by literary ecosystems p.160). of both English and their mother tongues. Nepalese English literature expresses these In the above expressions, translation and two worldviews in their works. reduplication have gone together so that the texts are comprehensible for both English The growth of English literature in general and Nepalese audiences. and its appropriation in particular carry a lot of implications in Nepalese linguistic Discussion and conclusion and ELT landscapes. This development is Gargesh (2006) notes “South Asian writers sure to add new dimension in Nepalese contextualize their English to the extent ELT discourses and reshape teaching of that the connotations and semiotics the English language and English literature that exist in their local languages are both. imported into the medium used” (p.107). This is the first undertaking to examine the According to him, South Asian writers strategies used by Nepalese literary authors are contributing to the development of while writing in English and therefore new canons in world English literature. In further studies are required to study both the same vein, the above analyses reveal originally written and translated works in

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 37 English in Nepal in order to strengthen the Bolton, K. (2010). Creativity and World Englishes. claim. Similarly, in this study, I have not World Englishes, 29, 4, 455-466. taken into consideration the literary works Brett, L. (1999). Standard English? Welcome to translated into English from the Nepalese Nepal. Journal of NELTA, 4, 85-92. languages, which is essential to substantiate Chutisilp, P. (1984). A sociolinguistic study of an additional language. English in Thailand. the argument. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of Illinois at Urbana- About the author Champaign. Sajan Kumar Karn is a Lecturer in English Education at Tribhuvan University, Nepal. He has published on education, applied Das, K. (1965). Summer in Calcutta: Fifty poems. linguistics and ELT. To his credit, there are about two dozens New Delhi: Rajinder Paul. of articles. He has contributed in editing three course books Daniloff-Merril, M.E. (2010). Nenglish and for B. Ed. and M. Ed., under Tribhuvan University namely, New Paradigms (2010), Explorations in English (2010) and Reading Nepalese student identity. Reinventing Identities Beyond Borders (2012). He is the editor of ELT Today, a journal in Second Language Writing. Pp. 240-256. of NELTA Birgunj and co-editor of Journal of NELTA. Earlier, he Dawson, E. (2011). Beyond the postcolonial: also served as a co-editor of NELTA Choutari, a web magazine a project in World Englishes literature. and Academic Voices, a multidisciplinary journal. His areas of interest include World Englishes, especially Nepalese English Translational Literature, 3, 1-9. and Critical Pedagogy. D’Souza, J. (1991). Speech acts in Indian English fiction.World Englishes, 10, 307-316. Gargesh, R. (2006). South Asian Englishes. In Acknowledgements B.B. Kachru, Y. Kachru & C. C. Nelson (Eds.), The handbook of world Englishes (pp.90-113). I am grateful to Prem Phyak, my friend for Blackwell Publishing: Blackwell Reference availing me with recent materials on World Online. Englishes. Similarly, my thanks also go to Bal Jenkins, J. (2012). World Englishes: A resource book Krishna Sharma, another friend of mine for for students. India: Routledge. going through the manuscript and sharing Joshi, S. & Baral, A. (2008). New Nepal new voices: his observations for further improvement. an anthology of short stories. New Delhi: Rupa Similarly, I extend my gratitudes to two & co. anonymous reviewers for their suggestions Kachru, B. B. (1985). The bilinguals’ creativity. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 6, 20-33. to revise the manuscript and bring it to the present form. Kachru, B. B. (1987). The bilingual’s creativity and contact literatures. Discourse across cultures: References Strategies in World Englishes. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Asian English language teachers’ creative writing Kachru, B. B. (1998). English as an Asian language. project. (2012). Retrieved November 22, 2012 Links & Letters, 5, 89-108. from flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/cw/index. html. Karn, S. K (2011). On Nepalese English discourse: granting citizenship to English in Nepal via Bhatt, R. (2001). World Englishes. Annual Review of corpus building. Journal of NELTA, 16, 30-41. Anthropology, 30, 527-50. Khotphunwiang, W. (2010). LSCAC 2010 Bhattarai, G. (2012). Reminicing my childhood Proceedings, 502-514. days. Journal of Nepalese Literature, Art and Culture, 7, 1-2, 155-164. Lowenberg, P. H. (1992). The marking of ethnicity in Malaysian English literature: Nativization and Boehmer, E. (2005). Colonial and postcolonial its functions. World Englishes, 11, 251-258. literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Phyak, P. & Karn, S. K. (2010). Identity and Variety

38 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 in Learners’ English: Building Corpus for Thapa, R. (2011).Nothing to declare. New Delhi: Nepalese English. A paper presented at Asian Penguin Books India. English Spoken Language Corpus workshop on 23 Thumboo, E. (2008).The handbook of World rd November, 2010 in Kathmandu. Englishes. Wiley Online Library. Platt, J., Weber, H. & Ho, M. (1984). The new Upadhyay, S. (2002). Arresting god in Kathmandu. Englishes. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. New Delhi: Rupa & co. Rai, V. S. (2006). English, Hinglish and Nenglish. Valentine, T. M. (1992). The nativizing of gender: Journal of NELTA, 11, 34-39. Speech acts in the new English literatures. World Rai, V. S.(2012). Realities: A radio drama. Englishes, 11, 259-70. Kathmandu: Bhundipuran Prakashan. Watkhaolarm, P. (2005). Think in Thai, write in Sharma, K.C. (2006). English in Nepal from the past English: Thainess in Thai English literature. to present. Journal of NELTA, 11, 24-33. World Englishes, 24, 145–158. Thapa, M. (2010).Seasons of flight. New Delhi: Zhang, H. (2002). Bilingual creativity in Chinese Penguin Books India. English: Han Jin’s In the Pond. World Englishes, Thapa, D. Tseten, K. (2002). In other voice: English 21, 305-315. literature from Nepal. Kathmandu: Martin Choutrai.

Reflective Practice: A Gateway to Professional Development Shiva Ram Pandey Abstract The main purpose of this research paper is to explore the power of reflection in the teaching and learning process. The prime research question is how do English language teachers reflect their opinion and experience in reflective practice? This research is a qualitative study of English teachers from the Kathmandu district higher secondary schools. The results of this study show that reflective practice enhances teaching skills and brings changes in instructional practices. Teachers have to think, act and reflect tenaciously. As a result, the instructional process is activated and improved. It further presents that every incident has enormous insights to learn through this practice. Reflective practice enhances the professional development of English language teachers. Key words: Pondering, Planning, Reflection, Perfection, Professionalism

While pondering on reflective teaching, I and uncertainties to critically evaluate their would like to remember the philosophical practice in order to make a meaningful idea of Dewey (1933) who called for teachers change. He considered it to be a special form to take reflective action that entails “active, of problem solving, thinking to resolve an persistent, and careful consideration of any issue which involved active chaining, and a belief or supposed form of knowledge in careful ordering of ideas linking each with light of the grounds that support it and the its predecessors. further consequences to which it leads” (p. Chaudhary (2008) in his article “reflection 9). as a key concept for teacher development” Furthermore, he identified threeconcludes that reflection is a means through attributes of reflective individuals, which which teacher development takes place. It is are still important for teachers today: a very useful tool for meditation. It can also open-mindedness, responsibility, and be called the flash back method. Reflection wholeheartedness. Open-mindedness is in teacher development can be the best way a desire to listen to more than one side of to explore teachers’ hidden identity. It is an issue and to give attention to alternative helpful to discover our own unconscious views. Responsibility involves careful and unexplored potential. It helps us to consideration of the consequences to modify our ritual knowledge. It involves a which an action leads. Wholeheartedness major shift in emphasis on our thinking and implies that teachers can overcome fears acting. The relationship between teacher

40 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 development and reflection is important. to the situation directly. Reflection-on- Reflective practice is a meditative process action is the idea that after the experience of learning the language. It provides a practitioner analyses his or her reaction the response to an event. Generally to the situation and explores the reasons when we start thinking, it gives birth to around, and the consequences of his or her creativity. It enables teachers to assert actions. This is usually conducted through their professional identity as change agents a documented reflection of the situation. with moral purposes and it is essential to In this connection, Brookfield (1995) self-knowledge. It is a problem solving contended: activity. It involves a critique of practice; Through reflection, a teacher becomes the values that are implicit in that practice; better able to justify and explain educational the personal, social, institutional and actions to self and others. Reflection aids broad policy contexts in which practice educators in speaking about their practice takes place; and the implications of these in a confident and informed manner. I used for improvement of that practice. It is an to think I’d be a great reflective teacher. I essential means of reexamination and had visions of spending time at the end of renewal of passion by those who care about each day replaying my classes to see what their work, who are captivated by their worked and what didn’t, etc., but quite pupils’ potential for learning. honestly, by the end of the day. I am so Reflective practice seeks to offer a frazzled from just trying to keep up. I can dynamic, reliable, and viable means by hardly even remember what took place only which the teacher can develop his or her hours ago. And most of the time, I am so professionalism, because it is teacher- worried about tomorrow. I don’t even want initiated and teacher-directed: it involves to think about yesterday or today. I’ve taken teachers observing themselves, collecting to doing things for myself in the evenings data about their own classrooms and their now in order to get my mind off (as cited in roles within them, and using the data as a Cole, 1997, p.9). basis for self-evaluation and change and The ways of developing reflection are daily their professional growth (Richards and journal or teacher’s diary, cross disciplinary Lockhart, 1994). sharing, observation, recording lesson and Schon (1978) introduced the concept student feedback. Reading the reflections of Reflection-in-action and Reflection- of others aid in self-realization. By reading on-action. Reflection-in-action can be the reflections of others, it always helps described as the ability of a practitioner to me in self-improvement. It also prevents ‘think on their feet’, otherwise known as repetition of the same mistake. ‘felt-knowing’. It revolves around the idea Method of the study that within any given moment, when faced My ontology in this study is that there are with a professional issue, a practitioner multiple realities pertaining to reflective usually connects with their feelings, practice from the perspective of teachers. emotions and prior experiences to attend The epistemology of this study is that

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 41 knowledge regarding reflective practice is out his research on, “a study on teacher subjective. The research methodology of development through reflective teaching: this study is qualitative. The site and sample perceptions and practices of English are higher secondary English teachers from language teachers” and found a very the Kathmandu district. During the study, deplorable condition of the use of reflective the participants’ real names have not been practice in English language teachers’ disclosed in accordance with research situation. He found them not practicing ethics. The data is interview-based. Open- the tool of reflective teaching as a means ended questions were used to explore the of their professional development. They subject of reflective practice, what it does were found having various constraints to and how it contributes to the professional implement the tools of reflection in English development of teachers. Analysis of the classrooms as a way to their professional data was conducted inductively. development. Reflections on reflection However, teachers had shown positive attitudes towards its use in the classroom. Pandey (2007) has conducted a research Moreover, they tend to blame others for on, “a study on the reflective practice of their inability to implement reflective secondary level English teachers” and practice in the classroom. They are not found that language teachers have positive so cooperative and supportive to their attitudes towards reflective practices though colleagues to enhance reflective practices in they are not trained in reflective practice their classrooms. They do not seem to make formally. Similarly, he found that many use of their learners’ constructive feedback language teachers do not record their best in their professional development. way of teaching. He has also recommended some ideas from the findings of the research. Reflective practice appears as a solution He recommended that all the in-service to a problem. It helps language teachers to teachers should be provided training in solve problems. reflective practice and the teacher’s training Pertaining to what reflection is, Teacher B courses should include reflective model to says: some extent. He has also recommended that teacher support group should be managed Reflection is essential in language teaching. within a school and among schools to share Even after finishing the class, one should go their opinions about their own strengths back to the class and ask questions to oneself. and weaknesses between colleagues and to For instance whether students understood attend in reflective conversation. my class or not, whether the methods went well or not, whether the materials are It is through audio-visual aids that language abundant or not, and whether the objectives teachers can better present language are successfully achieved or not. In my case, materials. However, it is truly difficult to when I am not satisfied with my teaching, manage such information to make the I change methods, use materials. As a instructional process really instrumental. language teacher I have experienced failure Similarly, Phuyal (2008) has carried many times. Reflective teaching gives me an

42 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 opportunity to improve my weaknesses to understanding of their own individual become a reflective and professional teacher. teaching styles through reflective practice, Both teacher A and C agree with what teachers can improve their effectiveness in teacher B said in matter of what reflective the classroom. practice is. Through recalling and Teaching is a reflective process (Underhill, self- assessment, teachers can develop 1991). Teachers need to be continuously professionalism. The language teacher has reflecting on and developing their work, to ask questions to herself or himself. With not only because change keeps coming this technique, language instructors can from outside, but because knowledge is assess their weaknesses and strengths. continuously changing and developing and Each moment is momentous in the teaching no schools or teachers can afford to erode and learning process. Being a language skills and knowledge they have learnt teacher requires remembering important formally or informally is reflected in action moments as good source of learning into the classroom. Reflective practices to further the horizon of knowledge. help professional teachers to correct their Therefore, the language teacher has to ill practice. create such situation in the classroom at the Teacher development is the process of time of teaching. becoming the best teacher as far as possible. In this connection teacher A who is an M.Ed To equip teachers with the knowledge, in English, and an experienced teacher, has attitudes, behaviors and skills, they require been teaching English for ten years, makes performing their tasks effectively in the the following statement: school and classroom. Teachers want the best for their students. Teacher development Teachers must evaluate their performed involves personal, professional and social work, analyze the situation they have development. lived through; explore the understandings they have brought through their work to In this fast changing global scenario, prepare themselves for their future action no other processes except for reflective into the classroom. Reflective practices help practice, could serve the ever growing professional teachers to correct their ill needs of the English language learners and practice. teachers by integrating both theory and practice (Bartlett, 1990). The reflective theory supports planning, action and reflection. Research on effective Current teacher education needs innovative teaching over the past two decades has changes. Reflective practice in a collaborative shown that reflective practice is linked culture helps teachers grow in their job. to inquiry, reflection, and continuous Teachers can develop professionally and professional growth. Reflective practice personally if they understand themselves can be a beneficial form of professional and their own actions. They need to look development at both the pre-service and in- into their beliefs, values and attitudes and service levels of teaching. By gaining a better how they affect their classroom practices in which reflective practice is the main

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 43 principle. Investigation is easier and more because it creates a context which promotes productive if it is done collaboratively. professional development. The reflective There is hardly any bigger joy than the approach promises to address this need. joy of reflectivity. The job of teaching is It is an ‘insider’ approach or ‘self-directed’ the collection of experiences. Experience approach (Richards and Farrell, 2005). is the best reflective teacher. Reflection is In other words, in the reflective approach, the motivating gateway and headway to the teacher experiences knowledge: he professional development of teachers, no or she constructs his or her own theories matter how well they teach; there is always of teaching, drawing on his knowledge, room for improvement. The reflective habit skills, training, and his own experience of helps teachers to reveal the reality of the teaching. His or her professional growth teaching and learning process. takes place through the process of critical reflection that this involves. This is in Significance of reflective practice marked contrast to the widely prevalent Here I would like to acknowledge my applied science model in which the teacher colleague for his invaluable insights merely receives knowledge and applies it. regarding the significance of reflective At this juncture, Brubacher and his practice. He has done his M.Ed. in English. colleagues, in answer to the question why He has got five years of teaching experiences does a teacher devote time and energy to and profoundly produces the following becoming a reflective practitioner? And remarks: suggest three principal benefits: reflective All teachers have struggled from time to time practice helps to free teachers from with their job as they want to improve the impulsive, routine behaviour; it allows teaching learning process. They spend time, teachers to act in a deliberate, intentional money and effort by attending varieties of manner; and it distinguishes teachers as training. They receive feedback from others educated human beings since it is one of the then improve a little bit. But, after sometime, hallmarks of intelligent action (Brubacher there is no one to help them continuously. et al., 1994, p.25). It is only them who can decide whether to improve continuously or not. And the Obstacles and opportunities solution is becoming a reflective teacher. Motivation is a gateway to enter into the Teachers who examine their own teaching ocean of knowledge. It is a driving force to through reflection develop positive attitudes further and develop knowledge. Another and awareness which can benefit their big challenge before educators is that it professional growth as teachers, as well as is very difficult to reflect and motivate in improve their support for students’ learning. a large number of audiences. Teacher B Reflective teaching is extremely valuable says that he is not able to manage time for as a stance, state of mind, and a healthy, reflection. To further illustrate this, he says: questioning attitude towards the practice I have problems with teaching strategies. of teaching profession. It is worth doing I am not successfully able to motivate the

44 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 students. In the case of me I have problem It is very interesting to know that with time. I feel afraid of reflecting before the teachers who have busy schedule can’t seniors. be a professional teacher. Determination Some educators feel they are not truly towards the profession is really important studious enough to tackle the situation. to become a professional person rather A sense of responsibility is lacking. The than simply becoming an easy teacher. ground of thinking can be low and slow. However, one shouldn’t be disappointed Many think very much one- sided. Teacher with this problem. One should understand C who is an M.Ed. in English, is an that problem also contains progress. It is experienced teacher. He, in this connection important to note that reflective practice is compounded by many problems which helps to identify the individual talent, who he presents in the following ways: we are, what we do and how we do the activities. It brings the abstract into the Time consumption thought, motivation practical. This is the beauty of reflective factor, lack of analytical type of thinking, practice. less study habit, hesitation, lack of social responsibility, lack of subject matter etcetera There aren’t any places without problems. are some of the problems we are facing in Again, it can be said that where there is a general. problem there is a solution. We shouldn’t forget the fact that today’s problems come He seems to be worried about time. from yesterday’s solutions. In this case, we Teachers, who have to teach in different should solve the problems very wisely and colleges, make a hurried trip in the process carefully. As language teachers, we should of teaching and learning. The problem identify the problem on time and solve it among us is that we always blame other very tactfully. In this connection, Teacher people but we do not blame to ourselves. A says: It means we put a question mark in others’ activities but we do not raise the voice of our Lack of English environment, time shortcomings. Until and unless this culture management, motivation, superiority rules the language teachers, they cannot complex, political invasion, feeling shame to better reflect in the language. Teacher B express in English etc are some of the forces says that busy teachers can’t reflect well. To that deter from doing the reflective practice. illustrate it further, he says: When these problems are solved, there will be the improvement in the reflective practice One can’t teach in hustle and bustle. What I of English teachers. Still, it helps to solve the feel is busy teacher doesn’t have time to think. problem. She or he thinks of her or his motorcycle to go to another college after she or he finishes It is very difficult to reflect in a large the class in one college. In my case, I am number of students. Some students are very not motivated because there is scarcity of shy. They don’t like to interact. Sometimes materials, resources and remuneration. educators feel shy to reflect before senior However, it is a great matter of opportunity colleagues. A lack of experience matters a to reflect my inner tenacity. lot. Managing time with friends is also a

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 45 problem which affects language teachers and even at the time of meeting. English from being reflective practitioners. A lack language teachers do not dare to share and of motivation affects language teaching. reflect feelings at the time of meetings. In spite of all these difficulties, it helps However, it requires involvement in the the language teacher to reveal the reality, activities of reflective practice. The demand participate in problem solving activities of time is that educators have to make it a and enhance the level of sharing among habit to achieve success in the academic friends, colleagues and teachers. Therefore, and teaching life of a teacher. teachers should be motivated to reflect Teachers of English, do not reflect much more in the teaching and learning process regarding their strengths and weaknesses. to develop professionally. In this research study, it has been Teaching is clearly understood as an activity discovered that reflective teaching is a that is situated in a particular time and new concept. Later, in professional life, the place (Freeman, 1996). Because teaching reflective habit brings a significant change is a situated activity, it requires teachers to in the level of thinking and in the horizon figure out how to teach a particular topic, of knowledge. It helps educators to reflect with a particular group of students, at a in the language while interacting with particular time, in a particular classroom, friends and colleagues. It is truly a great within a particular school (Johnson, 1999). matter of joy to reflect one’s own opinions and experiences. This is possible through Therefore, we need to activate our hearts, reflective practice. For the language teacher, heads and hands to take part in the it is an indispensable vehicle to create exercise of doing the reflective practices. successful and meaningful teaching. The moment we share our success story to others, they will benefit from it. Reflective process is one in which every Presentation skills develop engagement in aspect of the English teacher education reflective activities. Each incident involves experience becomes open to critical insights to energize and enlighten the examination and reconsideration. When perspectives of knowledge. teachers question their own assumptions about themselves, teaching, learners and Epilogue learning, they begin to recognize the The language teacher has to think, plan, consequences of their beliefs, knowledge meditate, act, assess and evaluate himself or and experiences on their own teaching. herself. A reflective teacher becomes critical The duty of the teacher of English is and creative too. Questioning skills develop not just to teach English texts, but also and they do not take things as for granted. to help students with other skills like Therefore, being reflective means having all communicative, analytical, and logical these qualities. The significance of this study skills. To be able to deal with the growing is to learn how to be a reflective teacher. demands on the English teacher, timely Some teachers do not have the habit of orientation towards professionalism is of reflecting language materials before others dire importance. It has been found that

46 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 methodology, training and concept alone English language teachers have been living will not make a teacher competent enough in suffocation. They hide their problems. to train students at college level to meet They do not release them. As a result, they their requirements. In this fast changing suffer a lot. If they really reveal their pain, global scenario, no other processes, except they can certainly gain a lot of information. for reflective practice, could serve the ever A teacher has to be crystal clear in the growing needs of the English language matter of expressing the mountains of learner and teacher by integrating both materials. Thus, professional development theory and practice. However, the need of of teachers is possible through reflective reflective practice is to assess and evaluate practice. Revealing the reality is the essence our weakness and strength in teaching. of reflective practice. However, it is not the Therefore, through reading the reflections only panacea. There are other factors that of others, it helps us to improve ourselves also affect professional development of and learn from mistakes. The reading of teachers. Reflection, therefore, is the ability reflections spurs to improve because it to convert the abstract into the practical gives ideas of what is expected by others in and the idea into action. Thinking back and teaching and learning process. By reading moving ahead with action is reflection. It other people’s weaknesses and strengths leads to invention. It is a mulling process. It indirectly helped teachers in choosing generates new ideas to learn better. It is also which method to use, what kinds of a heutagogical practice of directing one’s mistakes need to be avoided and also how learning and practice. to bring in front of older audience. The main purpose of teaching is to reflect About the author the reality. In the case of a language teacher, Shiv Ram Pandey, a life member of NELTA is a lecturer of English Education at Gramin Adarsha Multiple Campus, it is a must. As it is commonly said that to Kathmandu, Nepal. He has received PhD in Education from die is better than to lie, in that case if a Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Nepal. He has published articles in the academic journals. He is a researcher, trainer teacher speaks lies he or she is producing and educator as well. He has taught from nursery to tertiary the liars. Reflective practice helps teachers level students. He has been researching for seven years to become truthful. in diverse disciplines. He considers teaching as passion, patience and perseverance. In that sense, educators do not have to be References afraid of revealing the weaknesses since they contain strength. The importance Bartlett, L. (1990). Teacher development through reflective teaching.Cambridge University Press. of reflection is to reveal such hidden Brookfield, S. D. (1995). Becoming a critically weaknesses before others. This is the reason reflective teacher. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass. that the joy that comes from reflectivity is Brubacher, J. W., Case, C. W., and Reagan, T. G. crucial in teaching and learning activity. (1994). Becoming a reflective educator: How As a language teacher, the duty and to build a culture of inquiry in the schools. California: Corwin Press. responsibility is to prepare students Chaudhary, D. R. (2008). Reflection as a key concept to become honest and truthful. This for teacher development, vol.13.No.1-2. is possible through reflective practice. Journal of NELTA. Kathmandu.

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 47 Dewey, J. (1933). How we think. Madison: University Phuyal, G.P. (2008). A study on teacher development of Wisconsin Press. Elias, J. Merriam, S. (2005). through reflective teaching: Perceptions and Philosophical foundations of adult education practices of English language teaching. An Malabar, F Krieger. unpublished M.Ed. thesis. Kathmandu Freeman, D. (1996). Redefining the relationship Universiy. Nepal between research and what teachers know. In K. Richards, J. C., & Farrell, T. S. C. (2005). Professional M. Bailey & D. Nunan (eds). Voices from the development for language teachers. New language classroom (pp.88-115). NewYork: York: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C., & Lockhard, C. (1994 ). Reflective Johnson, K.E. (1999). Understanding language teaching. New York: Cambridge University teaching: Reasoning in action. Boston:Heinle & Press. Heinle. Scon, D. (1978). Educating the reflective practitioner. Pandey,H.L.(2007). A study on the reflective practices San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. of secondary level English language teachers. Underhill, A. (1991). Best of British ELT. Plenary An unpublished M.Ed. thesis. Tribhubhan talk on Teacher Development University. Kathmandu, Nepal.

48 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 Appendix 1. How do you ponder on reflection? 2. How do you perceive on reflective practice? 3. How does reflective practice contribute for the professional development of English language teachers? 4. Why is reflective practice important for the professional development of English language teachers? 5. What obstacles have you faced in reflective practice? 6. What opportunities have you seen in reflective practice? 7. What will be the future of English language teachers in reflective practice?

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 49 Dealing with Homework in English Language Teaching: A Case of Dadeldhura District Jagadish Paudel Abstract Homework is a good means of reactivation; it helps students to practice language items and consolidates learnt knowledge and skills at their home. It is an indispensible tool for students to step forward in the subject. But if we glance at homework dealing situation at school level education in Nepal, the role of homework is hardly talked about in the majority of the schools, especially at government aided school. Similarly, if we look at researches and papers that are talked about on homework dealing situation at school level education, we will rarely find. For this reason, I have strived to explore homework dealing situation of English langauge teaching at grade eight in Dadeldhura District through survey questions to the students and the teachers, such as when do students feel difficult to do homework, why do they do homework, how much time do they spend to do homework, who does help them to do homework at home, how do they like their homework to be corrected, how do the teachers correct homework, and the like. It also suggests some strategies for increasing homework completion rates and making homework meaningful for the students. Key words: Homework, Assessing Homework, Nepalese Public Schools, English

Introduction in language learning. It also encourages Homework is assignment that students learners to consult various resources such are required to complete at their home. as dictionaries and grammar reference Homework has been defined as “tasks books. assigned to students by school teachers that are meant to be carried out during Homework helps students develop non-school hours” (Cooper, 1989, p. 86). good study habits, such as goal setting, Cooper points out a number of benefits following directions, organizing materials, of homework such as improvements in planning ahead, and budgeting time, as factual knowledge, understanding concept, well as strategies for dealing with mistakes, attitudes to learning, study skills, self- difficulties, and distractions (Center for discipline, and problem solving skills. He, Public Education, 2007b). Homework in his research findings, concludes with serves as a diagnostic tool that allows clear evidence that homework improves teachers to regularly monitor their students’ academic achievement for high school progress (West Allegheny School District, students. Homework develops study n.d.). habits and makes learners autonomous It is commonly accepted that it is necessary

50 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 to assign homework because it is helpful in examination than those that are denied to consolidate their learnt knowledge extra learning time. (p. 180) and skills, and to ensure and reinforce It is commonly acknowledged that Nepali the students to work harder as well as learners of English have limited exposure increasing their general understanding to practice language items in school time. of the language. Homework is good for Most of the government aided schools have students, -because they spend more time allocated forty five minutes period per day working with English, and they become for English subject. It is very limited time better at it. Yet it is often a dispiriting for the students for practicing the language work. Sometimes students do not enjoy items. In such a situation homework can doing homework when teachers give them offer opportunities for extensive activities. disinteresting tasks (Harmer, 2008). For Hence, it can be used as a tool to practice this reason, teachers should let students language exercises at the students’ home decide what homework they wanted to do themselves, ultimately it fosters learner (Painter, 1999; as mentioned in Harmer, autonomy. 2007, p.399). Teachers can assign different types of homework, as per students It has some drawbacks also. Homework interest and ability, such as question overload can cause students to lose interest answer, drawing activities, handwriting, in the academic material and become substitution, using worksheets, matching physically and emotionally fatigued, denial halves, gapped texts, multiple choice and of access to leisure time and community true-false items, parallel writing, guided activities, parental interference, copying writing, free writing/ easy writing, task and increases differences between high and reading, fill in the blanks, speaking on a low achievers (Skaggs, 2007; Cooper, 1989). given topic, listening tape, memorizing Objectives vocabulary, project work, making report and many more depending on the language The objectives of the study were: items that are given in the text. • To explore homework dealing situation Homework is an extended work which of English language teaching at grade helps to strengthen the students’ learning. eight in Dadeldhura district. In this connection, Cross (1992) writes: • To suggest some pedagogical implications in English language Homework is a form of reactivation of teaching at school level. learnt activities. During out- of- school time, students rework material or engage Methodology in practice activities. The chief factor For the questionnaire survey, I Sampled that militates against successful language one hundred and twenty students of grade learning in the school is probably time… eight, thirty students from each school by increasing their contact time; we can from four government aided schools of increase the students’ level of competence. Dadeldhura district, to get the required Classes that get homework usually reach a information on homework dealing higher level of achievement and do better

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 51 situation of English language teaching. The students (68.33%) are not helped i.e. they population was sampled using purposive have to do homework themselves at their random sampling procedures. I asked home. 84.16% students are encouraged to sixteen close ended survey questions to do homework by their guardians at their the students and five close ended survey home. There is no provision of reward for questions to the teachers. I also conducted the student who does homework regularly focused discussion among the students and and correctly. 81.66% students do not the teachers of the respective schools. enjoy doing English subject homework they just do homework forcedly. None of Interpretations of results the students have homework diary; there The data obtained through questionnaire is no provision of homework dairy system survey have been interpreted descriptively in their school. 66.66% students have only below. rough copy for English subject. 96.66% Descriptive analysis of questionnaire results students do not enjoy homework from out from the students of the textbook. 84.16% students expect From the study it was shown that18.33% their homework be checked daily. None of students feel difficult English subject the students prefer lots of corrections and homework when they do not understand suggestions in their written homework. teacher’s instruction; 81.66% students They feel shocked if they get their copy back feel difficult English subject homework with full of correction with red ink. 80.83% when they do not know word meaning students pay less than thirty minutes to deal and grammar. 95.83% students like their with English subject homework; 19.16% written homework to be checked by the students pay thirty minutes to one hour teacher. Very nominal students like their to deal with English subject homework homework to be checked by peers, and by and none of the students pay more than self correction technique. 52.5% students one hour time. Similarly, none of the always do homework. 53.33% students teachers assign spoken homework. Spoken do homework because they think that homework is neglected by the teachers. it helps to practice the language items; Questionnaire results from the students 4.16% students do homework because they The study showed that all the teachers most think that if they do not do homework often correct students’ written homework the teacher becomes angry with; 42.5% making correction on the blackboard do homework because they think that i.e. the teacher writes the correct answer if they do homework the teacher loves on the blackboard and students correct to them. At the students’ home only 5% answers on their copy if their answers are students are helped to do homework by incorrect. Regarding homework dealing it their parents; 20.5% students are helped was found out that, in all the four schools, by their brother; 5.83% students are helped there is no monitoring system by the by their sister; none of the students are school administration. All the teachers ask helped by the tuition teacher since they do homework to their students randomly. This not have tuition teacher. Majority of the study clearly showed that no teacher assigns

52 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 different homework to different students to encourage all students to do homework i.e. teacher gives same type of homework there need to be the provision of reward to all students. Similarly, the study showed as well as there should be coordination that the teachers do not assign homework between the teacher and guardians. in pair and group. All the four teachers from four different Discussions schools emphasized that correcting One of the English teachers who participated individual students’ written home in this study asserted “students do not do assignment is time consuming which is homework due to the lack of awareness almost impossible in large classes. Further, and coordination between the teachers and they added that they cannot check all guardians, most of the guardians do not students’ homework when they are over encourage their children to do homework loaded, for example, seven periods in and even they do not buy notebook and a day. They opined that to be checked textbook on time. They only think that we homework individually and daily there have sent our children to school it is the should be small number of students and job of teachers to encourage them to do English teacher’s load should be reduced. A homework and make them do homework questions was asked to all the four teachers and check out homework. Guardians do –what reasons do you often find not doing not want to take responsibility.” He added homework by your students? The teachers that especially lower caste children do not said that students do not do homework come school regularly and they do not due to various reasons. If they ask them- do homework. He further said that some why didn’t you do homework? students boys do not do homework due to their responses will be like that-not knowing negligence- they think that even if they how to do homework, I forget, I was sick, do not do homework the teacher will not I lost my pen, copy finished, being busy in do anything to them since punishment is housework, there was wedding ceremony not allowed. According to him most of the in my village, I have only one copy that has students do not enjoy homework just they been taken by another subject teacher for do homework forcedly. They do homework homework checking and the like. just to show teacher and make him satisfy. Most of the students have misconceived He added that to encourage students to do homework. They think that only writing homework there should be provision of and reading is homework. It is also found reward, teacher-guardians coordination that most of the teachers only assign and guardians should be ready to take reading and writing homework. They have responsibility. He further added that school neglected speaking skill from homework. administration should pay attention to it. School administration should ask the Recommendations students’ report from the teacher who does On the basis of the results we can homework daily and who does not do. draw some recommendations for the Another school’s teacher also added that enhancement of English language teaching in general and homework dealing situation

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 53 of English subject at school level education homework will become something that in particular. Teachers can suggest some students want to be involved in. Similarly, strategies for increasing homework individual learning styles should be taken completion rates and making homework into account. Moreover, teacher can ask meaningful for the students. the students their views on homework There is the highest frequency of the (Harmer, 2008; Cross, 1992). But while students who feel English subject assigning homework all language items and homework difficult due to lack of word skills should be kept in balance. power and grammar. Hence, it is suggested As we know respect is vital in solving every that all teachers should teach word problem. It has a great role for encouraging meaning and grammar properly while the students to do homework. Every student assigning homework. Similarly, a clear expects respect from teacher, not disparage. instruction makes the students easy to do The teacher should respect the students; homework. If the students are given clear he or she should never ridicule them even instructions they may show their interest to if they do unplanned things, but instead do homework. Hence, the students need to should use a respectful professionalism be provided comprehensible instructions to solve the problem. Both teacher and to do homework (Harmer, 2008). students should have a sense of respect Teacher should assign different tasks for towards homework; students should take it homework on the basis of students’ interest as for their betterment and teacher should and ability. If the students are assigned take it as their professional duties and homework tasks on the basis of their ability responsibilities. The students need to know and interest then they can be motivated to that the effort they have made in doing the do homework. For example, some students tasks will be reciprocated by the teacher like question answer exercises, some (Harmer, 2008). Teacher should not be students like free writing, some students mean to provide praise and encouragement like fill in the blank exercises, some if the students do homework. If they do students like homework from out of the homework the teacher should praise saying text, some students like drawing activities or writing on note copy- very good, good, and the like. There should be variety, from excellent, absolutely correct, well expressed, one day to the next. Teacher should ask good use of words, and the like. Teacher the students what is interesting, enjoyable should make the students look at homework and relevant for them so that he or she can when they get back their homework; assign homework as their interests and and feedback should be given to them. usefulness. To make homework interesting Teacher should encourage them to look at and funnier, for example, teacher can comments and feedback, left on their own, give out homework tasks in envelopes or they cannot improve their ability. Teacher send them in e-mails, if possible. Teacher needs to change this behaviour by ensuring can give them some crazy tasks. Then, not only that the feedback he or she gives on homework is useful, but also that students

54 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 are encouraged to correct their mistakes Correction is best done by the students and learn from them before putting the themselves, especially where the classes are returned homework away. Teacher needs large (Cross, 1992). This also reduces load to provide opportunities for the students to on the part of teachers. react to suggestions teacher make on their As we know reward is a key to success, homework or to discuss the task that was set teachers should make provision of reward in the light of teacher comments (Harmer, (pen, copy, dictionaries) to those students 2008). Teacher should not criticize on who do homework regularly and correctly. the students’ mistakes even if they have If teacher provides rewards to them they committed mistakes rather he or she should will be motivated more to do homework. follow gentle correction. Most students And it can be the source of inspiration to glance at the returned work, if they find others, too. Similarly, teacher should make their corrected homework with full of red the students understand the usefulness of marks then they might put the homework homework; he or she should tell them the away feeling despondent. Hence, while advantages of doing homework. Individual correcting mistakes teacher should ask counseling is very helpful to find out the them how they like to be corrected. Teacher true causes of not doing homework. Teacher should not make them feel humiliation. should ask the students’ causes of not doing Similarly, while dealing with the students homework and should counsel accordingly. homework teacher should not discriminate It helps the students to be motivated to do them; every student should be treated fairly homework. and frankly so that they will not feel biased and unpleasant. All guardians should encourage their children to do homework at home. They Teacher should assign homework in should be ready to take some portions pairs and group so that the students can of responsibility to make their children do homework by discussing, sharing do homework. Coordination between their ideas, experience and knowledge. guardians and teachers help to gear up Introducing pair work and group work academic gains on the students. Effective can multiple students’ opportunities for teaching practices and guardians’ creative tasks and for practice. That makes involvement as well as appropriate them confidence to do homework. It is also environmental supports and contingencies good for teacher if the number of students are essential for homework dealing. If a is very big. It saves teacher’s time to check student does not do homework teacher out the homework. can ask guardians, what does he or she do As shown by the research data, most of at home? Why does not he or she do English the students do not seem interested in self subject homework? Teacher- guardians’ correction and peer correction techniques. coordination helps to know the causes of not Hence, it is recommended that to make doing homework. Homework should also the learners autonomous teachers should be manageable in terms of time. Teacher encourage all the students in self correction should know how much time the students and peer correction of their homework. have at their home, how much homework

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 55 has given in other subjects. Hence, there is the teacher’s own shoulders. If possible, the need of coordination among the teachers teacher should assign homework that can to avoid homework overload. For this, be checked quickly in class (Cross, 1992). there should be the provision of homework diary, kept by the students, so that teachers About the author Jagadish Paudel is a faculty at the Department of English can check the diary and assign homework Education, Dadeldhura Campus (T.U.), Dadeldhura. He has in proportion to other subjects. Homework M.Ed. and M. A. from Tribhuvan University. He has been associated in the field of teaching for six years. He has diary can be equally helpful for the parents published a couple of articles in ELT and literature. His to check whether the teachers have given professional interests include ELT, linguistics, and literature. homework or not. References Consistent schedule is also helpful to make Blazer, C. (2009). Literature Review: Homework. the students do homework. It helps them Office of Assessment, Research, and Data to be habituated to do homework. Sunday Analysis, Miami-Dade County Public Schools, for drawing, Monday for essay writing, Miami, Florida. Retrieved from http://drs. dadeschools.net/LiteratureReviews/Homework. Tuesday for handwriting, Wednesday for pdf. on December12, 2012 drawing, for example. Likewise, guardians Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of language learning should develop a consistent schedule and teaching. London: Prentice Hall. for homework time; ensure the space is Center for Public Education. (2007b). Research adequate for learning; and provide the Review: What research says about the value of necessary materials needed for homework. homework. Retrieved on December12, 2012 from http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org. Students often complain they cannot relate Cross, D. (1992). A practical handbook of language to assignments involving events that took teaching. New York: Prentice Hall. place in the distant past. Assignments Cooper, H. (1989). Homework. White Plains, NY: should be relevant and interesting to Longman. students and allow them to draw on Cooper, H., Robinson, J.C., & Patall, E.A. their family, cultural, and community (2006). Does homework improve academic experiences (Coutts, 2004). Contextualized achievement? A Synthesis of Research, 1987- and communicative homework play a 2003. Review of educational research, 76(1), 1-62. major part in English language teaching. Cooper, H. (1989). Synthesis of research on homework. Educational Leadership 47/3. Regarding homework dealing, there should Coutts, P.M. (2004). Meanings of homework and be provision of monitoring system by the implications for practice. Theory into practice, school administration. 43(3), 182-188. Doff, A. (1988).Teach English: a training course for Checking out all students’ homework in a teachers.CPU. big class is time consuming which seems Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language almost impracticable. So, the concerned teaching. London: Longman. schools and authority should reduce class Harmer, J. (2008). How to teach English. London: size, if possible. Moreover, teachers’ load Longman. should be reduced so that they can check Khati, A. (2010). Exploring common expectations out students’ homework in their leisure from students in large multilevel secondary level time. It should not put a heavy workload on English classes. Journal of NELTA, 15, 98-105.

56 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 Mendez, E. (2010). How to set up oral homework: Skaggs, A.M.N. (2007). Homework: A Nightly Ritual a case of limited technology. English teaching Beginning in the Elementary Grades. Paper forum 48 (3). submitted for the degree of Master of Science in North, S., and H. Pillay (2002). Homework: Education, Dominican University of California, Reexamining the routine. ELT Journal 56(2):137- San Rafael, CA. 45.Retrieved18,2012 from: http://biblioteca. Stirling, J. (2000). How can we make homework an uqroo.mx/hemeroteca/elt_journal/2002/ effective tool for language learning? Retrieved abril/560137.pdf. from http:/ /www.elgweb.net/hwk_article.html. Painter, L. (1999). Homework. English Teaching on December12, 2012 Professional 10. West Allegheny School District. (n.d.). Review of Painter, L. (2003). Homework: Resource books for Literature on Homework. Retrieved from http:// teachers. OUP. www.westallegheny.k12.pa.us/hmwk_resrch.pdf on December12, 2012.

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 57 Appendix I Survey questionnaire results from the student ‘A’ school (30 ‘B’ school(30 ‘C’ school(30 ‘D’ school(30 T S Questions Options O A % students) students) students) students) (120) 1. When do you a. when you do not a.9 a. 6 a.0 a. 7 a. 22 a. 18.33 feel English subject understand teach- homework difficult? er’s instruction b. when you do not know word meaning and grammar b. 20 b. 26 b. 33 b. 19 b. 98 b.81.66

2. How do you like a. by teacher cor- a. 28 a. 27 a. 30 a. 30 a.115 a.95.83 your English subject rection written homework should be checked? b. by peers cor- b. 0 b. 1 b. 0 b. 0 b.1 b.0.83 rection c. 2 c. 2 c. 0 c. 0 c.4 c.3.33 c. by self correction 3. How often do you a. always a.15 a.13 a.25 a. 10 a.63 a.52.5 do English subject b. sometimes homework? c. never b.15 b. 17 b. 5 b. 18 b.55 b.45.83 c. 0 c. 0 c. 0 c. 2 c.2 c.1.66 4. Why do you do a. it helps to prac- a.- 15 a. 17 a.- 18 a. 14 a.64 a.53.33 English subject tice language items homework? b. if you don’t do teacher becomes b. 2 b.3 b. 0 b. 0 b.5 b.4.16 angry with you c. teacher loves you if you do homework. c. 13 c. 10 c. 12 c. 16 c.51 c.42.5 a. parents a. 0 a. 2 a. 3 a. 1 a.6 a.5 5. Who does help you to do English b. brother b. 5 b. 8 b. 7 b. 5 b.25 b.20.5 subject homework c. sister c. 2 c. 3 c. 1 c. 1 c.7 c.5.83 at your home? d. tuition teacher d. 0 d. 0 d. 0 d. 0 d.0 d.0 e. no one e. 23 e. 17 e. 19 e. 23 e.82 e.68.33 6. Do your guard- a. yes a.25 a. 28 a. 29 a.19 a.101 a.84.16 ians encourage you to do English subject homework b. no b. 5 b. 2 b. 1 b. 11 b.19 b.15.83 at home? 7. Does your English a. yes a. 0 a. 0 a. 0 a. 0 a.0 a.0 teacher give reward (pen, copy) if you do English subject homework regularly and correctly? b. no b. 30 b. 30 b. 30 b. 30 b.120 b.100 8. Do you enjoy do- a. yes a. 4 a. 8 a. 7 a. 3 a.22 b.18.33 ing English subject homework? b. no b. 26 b. 22 b. 23 b. 27 b.98 b.81.66

58 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 9. Do you have a. yes a. 0 a. 0 a. 0 a. 0 a.0 a.0 homework dairy?

b. no b.30 b.30 b.30 b.30 b.120 b.100 10. Do you have a. you have both a. 4 a. 11 a. 25 a. 0 a.40 b.33.33 fair copy and rough rough copy and copy for English fair copy subject? b. 26 b. 19 b. 5 b. 30 b.80 b.66.66 b. you have only rough copy 11. Do you like Eng- a. yes a. 0 a. 1 a. 3 a. 0 a.4 a.3.33 lish homework out of the textbook? b. no b. 30 b. 29 b. 27 b. 30 b.116 b.96.66 12. Do you expect a. daily? a. 26 a. 23 a. 30 a. 22 a.101 a.84.16 your English subject b. twice a week? b. 4 b. 7 b. 0 b. 2 b.13 b.10.83 homework checked c. once a week? c. 0 c.0 c. 0 c. 6 c.6 c.5 13. Do you prefer a. yes a. 0 a. 0 a. 0 a. 0 a.0 a.0 lots of corrections and suggestions in your English subject written homework? b. no b. 30 b. 30 b. 30 b. 30 b.120 b.100 14. How much time a. less than thirty a. 23 a. 25 a. 22 a. 27 a. 97 a.80.83 do you pay for doing minutes English subject b. 7 b. 5 b. 8 b. 3 b. 23 b.19.16 homework at your b. thirty minutes to home? one hour c. more than one c. 0 c. 0 c. 0 c. 0 c. 0 c.0 hour 15. If you do not do a. your teacher says- a. 30 a. 30 a. 30 a. 30 a.120 a.100 homework do it and show me tomorrow b. he punishes you physically b.0 b.0 b.0 b.0 b.0 b.0 16. Does your Eng- a. yes a. 0 a. 0 a. 0 a. 0 a.0 a. 0 lish teacher assign spoken homework also? b. no b. 30 b. 30 b. 30 b. 30 b. 30 b. 30

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 59 Appendix II Survey questionnaire results from the teachers ‘A’ School’s ‘B’ School’s ‘C’ school’s ‘D’ school’s Questions Options teacher teacher teacher teacher 1. How do you check your students’ homework a. checking individual copy in classroom most often? b. taking copy to office c. making correction on the blackboard c c c c 2. Regarding homework, is there monitoring a. yes system by your school administration? b. no b b b b 3. To whom do you ask homework at first? a. to bright students b. to average students c. to weak students d. to the students who sit in the front e. to the students who sit at back d. randomly d d d d 4. Do you assign different types of homework to a. yes the different students? b. no b b b b

5. Do you assign homework in pairs and/ or a. yes group? b. no b. b. b. b.

English Tense and Aspect: EFL Problems That Chhulung Learners Have Ichchha Purna Rai Abstract The paper deals with English and Chhulung* tense and aspect systems. Tense and aspect are important components in grammar of any language. This paper focuses on the differences between English and Chhulung tense and aspect systems and analyzes the EFL problems of Chhulung learners of English in learning English tense and aspect. Key words: Tense, Aspect, Perfective, Perfect, Past, Non-past, Progressive

The comparison between English and Chhulung, tense is most often associated Chhulung tense and aspect with the verbal word and in most of the There are different languages in which tense isolating languages, tense is associated with and aspect are expressed differently. They the verbal phrases and tense is marked can be expressed morphologically, lexically lexically, morphologically and analytically. and analytically. In some languages, tense Following examples of Englis make it clear is paid more attention rather than aspect that English tense is marked lexically, because it plays a crutial role in meaning. morphologically and analytically. English is an example of this type. In some The Difference between English and languages, aspect is paid more attention Chhulung tense system rather than tense. Austronesian and African languages are examples of this type (Payne, In this section, English and Chhulung 2003 p. 234). In polysynthetic languages tense systems are described first and like Kirati languages of Nepal including then difficult area is discussed where the

* The Chhulung is pronounced as [tshɨlɨŋ] phonetically but unrounded /ɨ/ is not found in Nepali language so other people call them as saying either Chhulung or Chhiling. Chhulung is both linguistic and ethnic group inhabiting in Akhisalla VDC of Dhankuta, eastern part of Nepal. Chhulung is one of the members of the Kirati language which falls under Tibeto- Burman language family. It is a lesser-known language since there are not very much extensive works on the Chhulung language. Very few works such as Limbu (2007, 2009 and 2012) and Rai (2007) are examples of the works in the Chhulung language. Chhulung like other Kirati languages is SOV language with complex verbal morphology. It is a pronominalised language with puzzling morphemes in the verbs. The construction of tense and aspect in this language is more interesting and puzzling so these features fascinate the young and enthusiastic linguists. For Chhulung data, I am thankful to Lok Man Rai, Tham Maya Rai, Sleshma Rai, Padam Kumari Rai, Sabhya Rai, Sandesh Rai, Niran Rai and many more of Chhulung speakers during the time of field work (2007-2012).

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 61 Chhulung learnders find it difficult learn 6. I write a poem (non-past expressing English tense. present through unmarked).

English tense system 7. He writes a poem (non-past expressing present through morphologically). English tense is not very much complex construction which can be expressed 8. He goes to Kathmandu tomorrow (non- lexically, morphologically and analytically. past expressing future through adverb). The following examples make it clear. 9. He will go to Kathmandu (expressing future through pure model verb). 1. go > went = lexical (past). 10. He is going to go to Kathmandu 2. a. play > play-ed = morphological (expressing future through semi- (past). model verb). b. plays > play-s = morphological 11. He is moving to the UK this winter (present). (expressing future through present 3. write > will write = analytic (future). progressive) Three dimensions of time are expressed 12. The PM is about to come in Hile by two tenses in English, namely past (expressing future through ‘be about and non-past. They can be shown in a to+v’). formulaic way in the following figure. 13. You are to stay here until 12 o’clock (expressing future through ‘be to+v’). Chhulung tense system Like English, tense in Chhulung is also categorized into past and non-past. There is no future tense in Chhulung. Both past and non-past are expressed through the inflctions in the verbs but there are some differences between English and Chhulung tense system. In Chhulung, past tense refers to the past action or event which is Figure 1: English tense system expressed by some morpheme attaching In this way, past is expressed both in the verb root as suffix. Morphemes lexically and morphologically, present <-e/a/ and hẽ/> express the past tense in is expressed morphologically and Chhulung. The past tense suffix <-e> occurs future is expressed analytically. They with second person singular (kʰan), third can be illustrated by the following person singular (naŋ), dual (naŋkhachi) examples. and plural (naŋkha) in both transitive and 4. They played football (past through intransitive constructions (Limbu, 2012, morphologically). p. 25). The following examples illustrate it very clearly. 5. They went home yesterday (past through lexically). 14. a. kʰan cama tʰukte

62 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 h kʰan cama tʰukt-e k ani aimsihẽ 2SG rice 2-cook-PST 2PL 2-sleep-PL-PST You cooked rice. You (all) slept. Similarly, non-past exrpeses the present b. naŋ cithi achapte action and event which is expressed by naŋ cithi a-chapt-e several suffixes like<-yuk/k/nu>. The non-past morpheme <-yuk> occurs to the 3SG letter 2-write-PST verb if first person singular, dual, second He/she wrote a letter. person dual and third person dual appear as the subject. The following examples Similarly, another past tense marker <-a> demonstrate it clearly. in Chhulung occurs to the verb if the 17. a. anchi imyukchi h h first person dual (anc i/anc iŋa) second anchi ims-yuk-chi h h person dual (k anc i) and third person dual 2DU.INCL sleep-NPST-DU (naŋkhachi) with transitive and intransitive constructions. The following examples We (two) sleep. demonstrate it clearly. h h 15. a. anchi cama thuktache b. anc iŋa-a naŋ kitab piyukc uŋa h anchi cama thukt-a-ch-e anc i-ŋa-a naŋ kitab pid- h 1du rice cook-pst-du-pst yuk-c -u-ŋa We (two) cooked rice. 2DU-EXCL-ERG 3SG book give- NPST-DU-3P-EXCL b. khanchi aimsache We (two) give him a book. khanchi a-ims-a-che The other non-past tense morpeme <-k> 1du 2-sleep-pst-du-pst occurs in the verb if the first person plural You (two) slept. and second person plural appear as the Similarly, another past tense marker <- hẽ> subject. The following examples make it occurs to the verb if the first person singular clear. (ga), plural (ani / aniŋa) and second person plural (khani) are subjects in both transitive h and intransitive. The following examples 18. a. ani cama t uktiki demonstrate it clearly. ani cama thukt-i-k-i 16. a. khani cama a-thukt-i hẽ 2PL rice cook-PL-NPST-PL khani cam a-thukt-i hẽ We (all) cook rice. h 2PL rice 2-cook-PL-PST b. k ani aimsiki h You (all) cooked rice. k ani a-ims-i-k-i b. khani aimsihẽ 2PL 2-sleep-PL-NPST-PL

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 63 You (all) cook rice. only morphologically but there are many The other non-past tense morpheme morphemes which express the past and <-nu> occurs in the verb if the second present/future action. The morphemes person singular and third person singular like <-e>,<-a>,<- hẽ> express the past appear as the subject in both transitive and action and the morphemes like <-a>,<-k>, intransitive constructions. The following <-nu> express the present/future action. In examples make it clear. English, there are different constructions

h h to express the future action. For examples, 19. a. k an cama at uknu they are analytic construction [will] and h h k an cama a-t uk-nu other types of many constructions [e.g. be 2SG rice 2-cook-NPST going to, be about to, etc.] to express the You cook rice. future action whereas in Chhulung, there b. khan aimnu is the same construction to express the present and future action some particular khan a-ims-nu time adverbials which show the future are 2SG 2-sleep-NPST required to express the future action. You sleep. The difference between English and Chhulung Chhulung tense system is puzzling in the aspect sense that there are different morphemes In this section, aspect system found in both to express the past and non-past tense in English and Chhulung is described and different construction. They are shown in difficult areas for the Chhulung learners is the following figure. also discussed.

English aspect

In English, there are only two aspects, viz. perfect aspect and progressive aspect which are represented in the verbs. Two aspects are expressed through auxiliary verbs and the form of main verbs. The progressive aspect which represents ongoing action is structured with be+present participle (-ing) Figure 3: Chhulung tense system and the perfect aspect which represents

Similarities and differences between English and action that is complete is constructed Chhulung tenses. with have+past participle (-ed/-en). These two forms of aspect express the aspectual Though English and Chhulung have two meanings in English. Progressive and types of tenses, namely past and non-past, perfect aspects are combined to form there are some differences in constructions. perfect progressive aspect in English. All English tense is expressed lexically [e.g. of these aspects are combined with the go= went, put=put], morphologically [e.g. three dimensions of times viz. past, present <-ed>, <-s/-es>] and analytically [e.g. and future. They can be illustrated by the will] whereas Chhulung tense is expressed

64 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 following examples. time). 20. He is working (progressive aspect 31. He will work (tense expressing future expressing present time). time). 21. He was working (progressive aspect 32. He is working (progressive aspect expressing past time). expressing present time). 22. He will be wroking (progressive aspect 33. He was working (progressive aspect expressing future time). expressing past time). 23. He has worked/ he has broken a cup 34. He will be wroking (progressive aspect (perfect aspect expressing present expressing future time). time). 35. He has worked (perfect aspect 24. He had worked/he had broken a cup expressing present time). (perfect aspect expressing past time). 36. He had worked (perfect aspect 25. He will have worked/ he will have expressing past time). broken a cup (perfect aspect expressing 37. He will have worked (perfect aspect future time). expressing future time). 26. He has been working (perfect 38. He has been working (perfect progressive aspect expressing present progressive aspect expressing present time). time). 27. He had been working (perfect 39. He had been working (perfect progressive aspect expressing past progressive aspect expressing past time). time). 28.He will have been working (perfect 40. He will have been working (perfect progressive aspect expressing future progressive aspect expressing future time). time). In English, there are nine sub-types of Chhulung aspect aspect which plays an important role in Chhulung has two aspects which are English grammar and sometimes more perfect and progressive. They are described problematic for EFL students. as follows.

Intersection between tense and aspect: Twelve Perfect pseudo tenses: Perfect aspect is categorized into two types In traditonal grammar, intersection on the basis of time dimension which between tense and aspect is treated as tense are past perfect and present perfect. In which is also known as 12 tenses in English. Chhulung, past perfect is constructed But, they are pseudo tenses in reality which through complex structure. For past are as follows: perfective, the present perfect marker 29. He works (tense expressing present <-aŋs>, past tense marker <-a> and time). possessive marker <-ba> are suffixed to 30. He worked (tense expressing past the verb stem gradually and main verb

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 65 is followed by the past form of copula by tense and other markers. It is illustrated as shown in the following with the following examples. examples. 43. a. ga cuwa thuŋaktaŋhẽ 41. a. ga imsaŋsaba yuwakte ga cuwa thuŋ-akt-a-ŋ-hẽ ga ims-aŋs-a-ba yuwakte 1SG water drink-PROG-PST-1A- 1SG sleep-PRF-PST POSS PST BE.PST I was drinking water. I had slept. b. gaa cithi chaptaktaŋhẽ h h h b. khan c it i ac aptaŋsaba yuwakte ga-a cithi chapt-akt-a-ŋ-hẽ h h h khan c it i a-c ap-aŋs-a-ba 1SG-ERG letter writePROG-PST- yuwakte 1A-PST 2SG letter 2-wrte-PRF-PST POSS I was writing a letter. BE.PST Similarly, there are two suffixes <-ye> and You had written a letter. <-et> to represent the present progressive Similarly, present perfect aspect is aspect. The suffix <-ye> occurs with expressed by <-aŋs> morpheme which is intransitive and <-et> occurs with the suffixed to the verb stem. The morpheme transitive. The following examples make <-aŋs> is followed by the past tense marker them clear. <-hẽ > immediately. It can be illustrated by 44. a. ga imyeɁwa the following examples. ga ims-ye-Ɂwa 42. a. ga imsaŋshẽ 1SG sleep-PROG-1A ga ims-aŋs-hẽ I am sleeping. 1SG sleep-PRF-PST b. ga cithi chaptetuŋ I have slept. ga cithi chapt-et-u-ŋ b. naŋ habaŋse 1SG letter write-PROG-3P-1A naŋ hab-aŋs-e I am writing a letter. 3SG cry-PRF-PST Chhulung aspect is complex in construction He has cried. in comparison to English which can be Progressive aspect shown in the following figure clearly. Progressive aspect refers to the the an ongoing action of verb in Chhulung which can be categorized int two as past progressive and present progressive in terms of time dimension. They are described below. In Chhulung, the morpheme <-akt> refers to past progressive aspect which attachs to the verb stem immediately and it is followed Figure 4: Chhulung aspect

66 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 If we intersect both tense and aspect of but in both of languages, tense and aspect Chhulung, the following types can be are expressed through the verb inflections. found. There are some acquisitonal problems for 45. Tense expressing past time. Chhulung learners as EFL students. They are as follows: 46. Tense expressing present time. • 47. Perfect aspect expressing past time. There are differnt types of consturction of tense in English. They are 48. Perfect aspect expressing present time. lexical, morphological and analytic. 49. Progressive expressing past time. In Chhulung, there is only one 50. Progressive expressing present time. morphological construction to express Similarities and differences between English and the tense. Chhulung learners find it Chhulung aspect difficult to use of lexical construction In both languages, there are two types of such as go = went, is = was etc. aspect, namely perfect and progressive but Similarly, they find it difficult to use they are different in their constructions. non-past tense when they express the An auxiliary verb and a main verb come present action through present tense together to express an aspect in English. since some subjects such as [I, We, The progressive aspect which represents You, They] take a bare verb form in ongoing action is structured with which inflection is unmarked and be+present participle (-ing)and a copula some subjects such as [he, she, it] take BE verb plays a key role to express three inflected verbs ending with either <-s> dimensions of time. Similarly, the perfect or <-es>. So, they find it difficult to use aspect which represents an action that is the alternations of the verb inflections. complete is constructed with have+past Similarly, they find it difficult to use participle (-ed/-en) and an auxiliary the analytic constrution to express the verb [HAVE] plays a key role to express future action. So, these construction different three dimensions of time. On should be paid attention towards while the contrary, an aspect in Chhulung is teaching English tenses to Chhulung only morphologically marked except past learners. perfect. There are several morphemes to • In English, future tense is expressed express an aspect. The morphemes like [<- through many types of constructions akt>, <-ye>, <-et>] express the progressive like pure model verb ‘will’, ‘going aspect. Similarly, the morpheme like [<- to +v’, ‘be about to+v’ and ‘be to+v’. aŋs>] expresses non-past perfect aspect In Chhulung, there is no syntax or and the construction like [<-aŋs-a-ba inflection to express future tense yuwakte>] express the past perfect aspect. which is done by using some time adverbials in the present tense. So, Aquisition problems that Chhulung Chhulung learners of English find it learner as EFL students have difficult to express the future action The construction of the tense and aspect in by using correct syntax, verb forms Chhulung and English are totally different and verb inflections. For example,

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 67 pure modal verbs ‘will’ and ‘be going 6 structures to express the tense and to+v’ are used to express the future aspect. There are many structures used action or event but the former is used to express tenses and aspects in English to express just probable occurence in in comparison to Chhulung. So, future time and the latter is used to Chhulung learners find it difficult to express planned activity in future time. use the tense and aspect correctly. They In this way, Chhulung learners are not can face problems especially in the use able to make distinction between two of future and perfect progressive tenses concepts of expressing future action or which are not found in Chhulung. event in future time. Conclusion: some pedagogical • In Chhulung, tense and aspect can activities. intersect like in English but perfect and It is challenging to teach English to EFL progressive aspects do not intersect students. In Nepal, there are no required like they do in English. Consequently, materials and effective training for teachers Chhulung learners find it difficult to teach English as EFL. To overcome the to use the perfect progressive tense English tense and aspect system, some expressing past, present and future. pedagogical activities can be conducted as • In English, aspect is expressed described below. To develop the students’ through auxiliary verbs and the form proficiency in tenses and aspects in English, of main verbs. The structure of aspect some activities can be adopted. These is more complex in comparison to activities are based on Cowan (2009, p. 385- the structure of Chhulung aspect. In 387). First, students should be categorized English, perfect is constructed through into different levels like low intermediate, ‘have+past participle’ and progressive itermediate, high intermediate and is constructed through ‘be+present advance. The students are asked to describe participle’. In Chhulung, there are in simple present such as city or village some bound morphemes attached to life where they live or schools/compus the main verb which express the both where they study or eating habits or daily perfect and progressive aspect. These routines or their personal likes or dislikes. bound morphemes expressing perfect These activities can be done among low and progressive are influenced by only intermediate students. They are asked to person marker of subject. So, Chhulung describe the present situation of weather learners find the construction of aspect in present progressive like it’s raining, the difficult to use while acquiring the temperature is increasing etc. Similarly, they English aspect. are asked to tell a story using simple past • English has 12 tenses altogether such as story about themselves like where whereas Chhulung has only 6 tenses. were you born, where did you grow up, At least 12 structures are necessary in where did you go to high school or others. English to express the tense and aspect They are asked to perform interview such for past, present and future action or as where was your father working? What event but in Chhulung, there are only were you doing when the bomb exploded?

68 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 This type of interview helps to use past NPST = non-past progressive. Teachers can also ask them to SG = singular make distinction between sentences like I have lived here since 2005. vs. *I lived here P = patient since 2005. Why is the the former sentence PL = plural correct and not the latter one?. In this PRF = perfective way, students can be engaged in different acitivities such as dialogue, interview, role POSS = possessive play, deomonstration, etc. addressing the PROG = progressive English tenses and aspects system. PST = past About the author Ichchha Purna Rai is the National Chairperson of Indigenous References Linguistic Society of Nepal (ILSN) and a former executive Cowan, R. (2009). The teacher’s grammer of English: member of Linguistic Society of Nepal (LSN). He has a wide range of experiences of Endangered Language A course book and reference guide. India: Documentation. He has presented several papers in more Cambride University Press. than a dozen international conferences and has published Limbu, M. K. (2012). Verb morphology in Chhulung. some articles on the description of endangered languages in national and international journals. Currently, he is involved An unpublished M.A. thesis submitted to the in teaching graduate and post-graduate courses of English Central Department of Linguistics, T.U. Kirtipur. at Dhankuta Multiple Campus, Dhankuta under Tribhuvan ---. (2009). Pronominals in Chhulung and English. University. An unpublished M.Ed. thesis submitted to the Abbreviations Central Department of English Education, T.U. Kirtipur. 1 = first ---. (2007). An ethnolinguistic observation of 2 = second Chhulung Rai: A highly endangered language. A report submitted to the social inclusion research 3 = third fund secretariat (SIRF), SNV. Lalitpur. A = agent Payne, T. E. (2003). Describing morphosyntax: A guide for field linguist. The U.K.: du = dual Cambridge University Press. ERG = ergative Rai, I. P. (2007). Personal pronouns in English and Chhulung: A contrastive study. Journal of EXCL = exclusive NELTA, 12, 102-107. INCL = inclusive

Developing Students’ Writing Skill through Peer and Teacher Correction: An Action Research Ashok Sapkota Abstract Writing is a form of an art and integral part of language learning. The present study concerns with development of writing skills through peer and teacher correction technique. As an action research in nature, the research aimed to test the progress of the students while writing an essay. After the analysis of data collected through test items, it was seen improvement in students writing in post test than in pre-test. The students (Ss1-Ss10) were found using the words in an increased order and grammatically correct sentences in their writing in each test made and committed less grammatical errors in post test than in pre and progress test. Regarding mechanics of writing, their writing was found systematic in case of punctuation, proper use of paragraphs, in coherence and cohesion in writing. The peer correction and teacher correction technique was found productive in teaching writing through action research as a whole. Key words: Writing, Proficiency, Essay, Grammatical Units, Mechanics

Introduction control of variables simultaneously. At Writing is one of the most important skills the sentence level, these include control in learning a new language. It is a productive of contents, format, sentence structure, skill. Writing is the act of putting down the vocabulary, spelling and letter formation. graphic symbols that present a language in Beyond the sentence, the writer must be order to convey some meaning so that the able to structure and integrate information reader can grasp the information which into cohesive and coherent paragraph and the writer has tried to impart. Turk and text. Kirkman (1989, p.1 as cited in Brown, 1994) For Rivers (1968, p.243), writing refers to write, “… we start from the assumption that the expression of ideas in a systematic way thinking about writing can improve it, and to organize the graphic conventions of the that everyone can learn to write well. Most language; the ultimate aim of a writer at people, in reality can write successful letters this stage is to be able to express him in to their friends and effective complaints a polished literary form which requires about faulty goods”. the utilization of a special vocabulary and For Nunan (1989, p.36), writing is an certain refinement structure. extremely complex cognitive activity in Furthermore, Jordan (1999, p.41) takes which the writer is required to demonstrate writing as, “...the method of human inter- 70 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 communication by means of conventionally used in process writing as the following: visible marks”. Similarly, White and Arndt Generating ideas is a crucial part of the (1991, p. 3) take: “Writing is far from being writing process. Writing is primarily about a simple matter of transcribing language organizing information and communicating into written symbols: it is thinking process meaning. Generating ideas is particularly in its own right. It is a permanent record, as important as well as difficult to initiating as a form of expression and as a means of process. For this reason, we follow the communication. activities in the initial stages when we are From the above citations, writing could be attempting to discover a topic and identify perceived as a complex process that requires the purpose. Even in later stages, however, many skills like mental, psychological, idea generating continuously takes place. rhetorical and critical aspects. Writing So that, the techniques used to stimulate is the system of written symbols which ideas at an initial stage may prove useful. represents the sounds, syllables or words Focusing includes discovering main ideas, of language. Writing skill requires different considering purpose and so on. In this mechanisms as capitalization, spelling and topic, the focus is given on main idea of punctuation, word form and function. the text; purpose of the text is described. It helps to convey the meaning clearly. Structuring information entails various So, writing is an activity to improve our organization processes of grouping ideas understanding of any subject. Writing is together and deciding upon how to the ability not only to put ideas from mind sequence them. We rarely know exactly to paper but also to generate more meaning what we are going to write and how we and make ideas clear. Writing demands are going to present it until we actually conscious intellectual effort, which usually start writing. Although the writer starts has to be sustained over a considerable with a general organizational scheme, period of time. new ideas are constantly generated by the There are various processes in writing actual process of writing. In order words, skills. Process writing is one of the most organizing oral scheme or new ideas are important skills in writing. constantly generated by the actual process of writing. So, organization of the writing Writing as a process or ideas is a preliminary stage. Writing is essentially a thinking process Drafting is one of the important steps in and those thoughts are finally imprinted writing process. Many of the activities in a written form as writing. Not only it described in earlier section are often can help to reconstruct thinking into the classified as ‘pre-writing’. The main written form, it also supplies important concern of the writer in writing is that clues for improving the coherence of the how best to organize an idea for their text. It can give us a fornicating insight into reader. The writer now has to think of what goes on as we struggle to translate how to attract their audience, how to meaning into words. For White and Arndt continue appealing them, and how to (1991, pp.11-37), there are certain skills lead them through the text to conclusion.

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 71 Evaluating is essential to ensure that present world. The event can be historical the language is well comprehended or legendary occurrences, stories either and reasoning well maintained. It is the true or imaginary, programs, accidents assessment of the draft. In general, length and biographies of the well-known of the text, organization of the text, personalities. Normally, the story of mechanics of writing are the basic features a narrative essay develops according of evaluation. to chronological order but it does not mean that chronological order is a must. One essential part of the process remains On the other angle, descriptive essays are through, namely to ‘review’ the text, with a the accurate description of some places, new pair of eyes. Even at this stage, a new objects and things such as countries, look at what is on the page is quite likely islands, mountains, seas, rivers, aspects and to give rise to get more ideas and thoughts phenomena of nature, towns, buildings and which have to be worked into the original so on. So, these types of essays can be said to conception. be the accurate account of something which Process writing is way to structure our conveys the factual pieces of information to writing. When we structure it is beneficial the readers. The information to be included to consider the type essay writing which is in these kinds of essays is seen and what is briefly discussed below: heard by the writers. This is equally effective in works of fiction, nonfiction and poetry. Writing an essay and its types Statement of the problem in the One cannot write a complete essay in the context of Nepal first attempt. One starts with a simple sentence which is purposeful and moves If the learners take the English language to second one and third and fourth. These as an academic subject rather than a form a paragraph. Essays can be classified language, they will be concerned only with passing the exam for getting an academic on the basis of different criteria. On the degree. Among the different language basis of writing and organizing the events, skills, the students feel writing skill to be the essay can be of four common types: the most difficult in real practice and in narrative, descriptive, argumentative, and the examination. It is mostly assigned as persuasive essays. The present study is homework in teaching-learning activities concerned with writing skills where the and the answer made by the teacher is test items were concerned with narrative supposed to be final and correct. The and descriptive essay writing. Adapting students depend mostly on teacher’s notes; the ideas made by Awasthi, Bhattarai and guess papers, general books where very Khaniya (2009, pp. 6-11), narrative and few consult the reference resources. In descriptive essay writing can be briefly this context, the only solution lies in the discussed below: continuous pursuit of knowledge and skills. Narrative vs. Descriptive Essays If the learners have the skills and habit of Narrative essays are those that consist learning independently, they will be able of narration of some past event or from to face the challenges. Lack of the habit of

72 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 independent learning in students has been As a classroom investigation based a major problem of total education system research, it carried out to find out and solve of Nepal. So, the English language teaching the specific problems here and now in local needs to rethought both from the eyes of setting. It is a joint venture of language teachers and students. practitioner and researcher in a practical way. The main aim of the action research is The study context to improve the current state of affairs within The study is related with measures of the educational context in which research frequency and analysis of errors frequency is being carried out. Action research at word and sentence level in relation to ultimately solves the practical problems the mechanics of writing of FoE students of an academic context by bridging gap studying in B.Ed first year of a college in between theory and practice. It is a practical Lalitpur as an action research. As a branch process of identifying, recognizing and of applied linguistics, error analysis sets out solving the programs in the scientific way. to demonstrate that many learners’ errors It always orients towards the results change were not due to the learner’s mother tongue of certain phenomena, situation or issues. but are reflected as universal learning This research was based on the Nunan’s strategies. However, error is something (1992) steps of action research as. specific that results from incomplete a. Initiation: The researcher observed the knowledge and is distinguished from problem by asking them write a simple mistake, which is caused by the lack of essay. attention, fatigue, carelessness or some b. Preliminary Investigation: An attempt other aspect of performance. was made to collect the concrete As action research in nature, the main task information about what the problem is. in this research was to look the progressive c. Hypothesis: The researcher planned an changes of on writing skills in English. In activity to solve the problem of essay this regard it is worthy to talk about action writing and postulates a hypothesis research and its steps. that the errors can be reduced. Action research was propounded by Lewin d. Intervention and Treatment: The (1946 as cited in Cohen et al., 2010) for ongoing regular classroom activities the first time assuming to bridge the gap were interrupted and a new treatment between theoretical and applied research. was introduced. The main purpose was Similarly, the essential impetus of carrying to bring change in the organizing state out an action research also is to bring change of affairs. the system or assume to bring progress in e. Evaluation: The researcher evaluated the system. In Cohen and Manion’s (1985, the change brought by the new action p. 87 as cited in Cohen et al. 2010) view, introduced in preceding steps. action research is conducted aiming at the f. Dissemination: It is the post research improvement of the current affairs through activity of sharing the idea about the the processes of identifying and solving findings of the study. problem in a specific context.

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 73 g. Follow up: Here, the findings of the study out in the field of literature and language are followed up by the practitioners. By teaching on writing skills. Such as: Karki’s this, the regular way of teaching and (1996) study on writing proficiency learning is changed and new one is between the students of privates and public adopted to introduce certain changes schools of grade ten in Lamjung district in the study. Addressing and solving found out that the students of private the practical problems of an academic schools were far better i.e., 65% than public context by bridging the gap between school i.e., 45%. Likewise, Poudyal’s (1999 the theory and practice is the ultimate as cited in Bhattarai 2005) study on writing purpose of an action research. proficiency in higher secondary school of Gulmi and Kathmandu district found that Research questions the students of Kathmandu district were Among different skills, writing covers the better i.e, 68% than the students of Gulmi most of the weightage in the assessment district i.e., 40% in writing proficiency. of FoE students studying in B.Ed first Bhattarai’s (2002) study on writing year. They were found quite weak in the proficiency of Bachelor’s level students writing skills in preliminary investigation. found that the students of institutes have In this situation, the researcher thought to greater proficiency in writing i.e., 60.23% be worthwhile to look over their writing then the students of faculties i.e., 57.37% abilities by providing progress tests through and the boys are ahead of girls’ i.e., 32.27%. teaching focusing on the major problems of writing. The research was conducted to Sa-ngiamwibool (2007) wrote an article seek answer the following questions: based on his research entitled enhancing structure and written expressions among • Are they really weak in their writing EFL Thai students through consciousness- ability? raising instructions and found that the • Are there any alternative ways of skill was effective to improve the reaching teaching to improve their writing of English to a higher level standard and skills? learners to become more independent • Will they really improve after using and improve their language skills. Basnet’s progressive tests? (2008) study on proficiency of the students • What could be their final result of in guided writing found that the guided writing in word, and sentence level and writing proficiency of the PCL first year the errors found in their writing? students of faculties of humanities and social sciences i.e., 62.08% was found better These are some of the questions raised than that of the students of faculties of beside my research. These questions are education i.e., 60.87%. Hasan and Akhand addressed in the analysis as well as in the (2010) wrote an article on approaches to finding section of this research. writing in ESL/EFL context: Balancing Review of related literature product and process in writing class at The researcher made an attempt to review tertiary level which aimed to examine the research reports and journal articles came effects of product and process approach

74 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 Table No. 2. Analysis of the Students’ Development on Writing Skills through Peer and Teacher Correction Strategies Mechanics of Writing Total No. of Sentential Arrangements Use of Punctuation Ss No.QS Paragraphs Coherence in Writing Cohesion in Writing Pre- Post- Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-Test Pre-test Post-Test test test Ss1 1 2 4 Unsystematic Unsystematic Unsystematic Systematic unsystematic Unsystematic 2 2 1 Unsystematic Unsystematic Unsystematic Systematic unsystematic Unsystematic Ss2 1 2 3 Systematic Systematic Systematic Systematic Systematic Systematic 2 1 1 Systematic Systematic Systematic Systematic Systematic Systematic Ss3 1 6 2 Systematic Systematic Systematic Systematic Systematic Systematic 2 1 1 Systematic Systematic Systematic Systematic Systematic Systematic Ss4 1 3 3 Haphazard Unsystematic Unsystematic Unsystematic Unsystematic Unsystematic 2 2 1 Haphazard Unsystematic Unsystematic Unsystematic Unsystematic Unsystematic Ss5 1 1 2 Systematic Unsystematic Haphazard Unsystematic Haphazard Unsystematic 2 1 1 Unsystematic Unsystematic Haphazard Unsystematic Haphazard Unsystematic Ss6 1 1 1 Haphazard Unsystematic Haphazard Unsystematic Haphazard Unsystematic 2 1 1 Haphazard Unsystematic Haphazard Unsystematic Haphazard Unsystematic Ss7 1 3 3 Haphazard Unsystematic Haphazard Unsystematic Haphazard Unsystematic 2 1 1 Haphazard Unsystematic Haphazar d Unsystematic Haphazard Unsystematic Ss8 1 2 4 Unsystematic Systematic Unsystematic Systematic Unsystematic Unsystematic 2 1 2 Unsystematic Systematic Unsystematic Systematic Unsystematic Systematic Ss9 1 5 4 Systematic Systematic Unsystematic Systematic Systematic Systematic 2 2 2 Unsystematic Systematic Unsystematic Systematic Systematic Unsystematic Ss10 1 2 2 Systematic Systematic Unsystematic Systematic Systematic Systematic 2 1 1 Systematic unsystematic Unsystematic Unsystematic Systematic Unsystematic to writing on learners’ performance and illustrating their proficiency in percentage found the advantages of using a product- or found that the teacher did not motivate process approach to gauging the effects them. They were mostly statistical in nature. of writing tasks were appraised. Similarly, They were unable to identify the areas Acharya’s (2010) research on “Activities where students really need to improve. used in teaching essays concluded that the This study focused on the developing teachers did not motivate as it is required, writing skills of FoE Students of B.Ed first large percentage of teacher (70%) translated year as action research with the frequency difficult words into mother-tongue. In of different grammatical levels of writing the same way, he found that the teachers essays descriptively and identify from were not comfortable in teaching essays where we need to begin teaching writing. because of poor linguistic background of the students in the English language. Objectives of the study The main objectives of the study was to find This research was different from those out whether there will be improvement reviewed researches in the sense that in students’ writing skills through the the researches above were conducted as strategies of peer correction followed by survey and experimental rather than action teacher correction and to forward some research. They found that the students pedagogical suggestions based on the were weak in their writing skills in general

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 75 findings of the research. no. of words, total no. of ungrammatical words, total no. of sentences, as to test Data collection tools and procedures grammatical units in their writing skills and The population for the study consists of to test their mechanics of writing; total no. of ten students from a B. Ed College. The paragraphs, use of punctuation, sentential College was selected purposively and the arrangements (cohesion and coherence) students were selected by using simple was used. The table no.1 provides a holistic random sampling procedure. Test items picture of frequency count of total no of were the main tool used for data collection words and ungrammatical words, total no as primary sources. The tools was used to of sentences and total no. of ungrammatical elicit the data involve pre-tests, progressive sentences total in writing skills made by the test and post-test. The test items consist of students in each test. two different questions related to writing skill as for pre test and post test. Table No. 1. Analysis of the Students’ Development on Writing Skills on The study was limited to a bachelor level Grammatical Units through Peer and Teacher Correction community college in Lalitpur district. Strategies The study was limited in the word level Use of Grammatical Units and sentence level at grammatical units, Total No. Total No. No. Total no. of Un- Total no of Ungram- number of paragraphs, punctuation and Ss. QS of Words grammati- Sentences matical cohesion and coherence as mechanics of cal Words Sentences writing of FoE students studying in B.Ed PRT POT PRT POT PRT POT PRT POT first year. There are only two techniques; Ss1 1 156 90 3 5 20 22 13 11 peer and teacher correction techniques 2 225 105 8 2 15 9 15 6 Ss2 1 272 258 1 1 18 23 4 4 used in the study. 2 232 297 0 2 32 31 15 3 Ss3 1 252 175 4 0 26 17 3 1 Analysis/results 2 297 203 4 1 26 22 8 4 This section deals with the data analysis Ss4 1 211 189 10 6 5 15 4 8 which was collected from pre-test, 2 175 170 4 3 4 12 4 10 Ss5 1 260 62 6 1 15 18 15 5 progressive test and post-tests from the 2 120 36 5 0 9 2 9 10 selected sample. In this section, data are Ss6 1 124 112 31 18 3 10 3 10 analyzed using descriptive approach and 2 26 79 3 13 18 9 18 9 statistical tool like measures of frequency Ss7 1 268 250 6 4 15 21 10 6 2 176 207 6 0 3 16 3 5 count is used to show it more vividly. Ss8 1 394 289 6 7 26 26 8 10 So, this section includes the analysis 2 284 69 3 9 14 9 4 5 and interpretation of data to fulfill the Ss9 1 208 254 4 1 15 21 1 0 objectives. 2 108 244 0 0 14 18 5 6 Ss10 1 114 148 1 1 13 20 8 4 As illustrated in the table, No.1, there were 2 80 83 0 2 8 9 5 9 ten students (Ss1-Ss10) involved in this (QS: questions, PRT: Pre-test, POT: Post action research. They were asked two free- test) writing questions in each test. The writing proficiency was tested on the basis of total It has been found that half of the students

76 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 (Ss6, Ss7, Ss8, Ss9, and Ss10) increased in thinking towards teaching. This types of the use of number of words in their writing teacher are mostly helpful, friendly with in post test than in pre-test as shown in table the students. Good teachers are those who no.1. Similarly, in case of ungrammatical always encourage students in the class, who words, the students (Ss1, Ss3, Ss5, Ss6, Ss7, allows discussion in the class. This type of Ss8, Ss9, and Ss10) made less error in the teachers encourage students to ask or raise post test than they had made in pre- test questions in the class….(Ss3: Post-test) and progressive test. Likewise, in using In the two examples if we compare the use total no. of sentences too, all the students of grammatical (word and sentence level) (Ss1-Ss10) wrote more sentences in post errors, we can find few words or sentences test to explain the given question (as in as erroneous words and sentences in the the appendix) than in pre-test. Regarding second example. the case of committing ungrammatical sentences, eight student’s (Ss1, Ss2, Ss3, Ss5, Regarding the mechanics of writing, in Ss7, Ss8, Ss9, and Ss10) less erroneous were paragraphs, all of the students changed in each; pre and post test in lesser degree the paragraphs on the basis of the need of respectively. For example: content in post- test than the need of length as in pre- and progressive test. Similarly, all (The question asked for the qualities of the learners were found using the proper good teacher as in appendix 1question no use of punctuation (mostly full stop and 1) Ss3 writing in the pre-test and post-test comma) in proper order in post- test in can compared as below: comparison to pre and progressive test. Teacher plays the vital role in the school. Similarly, the progress was also found in There are different types of teacher in the case of sentential arrangements as a whole. school. Some teachers are good and some Hence, the table No.2 shows that overall teachers are bad. Both of the teachers have writing mechanics of students was found so many qualities. Good teacher is that better in post-test than in pre and post test types of teacher who encourage the students respectively. in the class. who allows the discussion in After the identification of problems, in the class. This type of teacher learn all the the students’ writing in the pre-test (as students name. They gives more importants specifically described in table 2), a real for students views and openion…. (Ss-3, teaching was conducted for four weeks on Pre test writing) the problematic areas. The following writing shows the development in writing of the same student Discussion of findings (Ss3) on the post-test as following: After completion of the analysis and interpretation of the data, the following are I teach in a lower secondary school. In this the major findings of the study: field, we can find different types of teacher. Among them, some of them have good a) The overall performance of the qualities or bad qualities. Good teacher students in acquiring or developing is that type of teacher who has positive writing skill was found satisfactory

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 77 in almost all the test in an increasing unsystematic and the students (Ss8, order. All the students (Ss1-Ss10) Ss9, and Ss10) who used punctuation increased their level on using the words marks unsystematically improved in their writing in each test and made a level to systematic stage using less grammatical errors in post test in punctuation marks. comparison to pre test. Regarding the e) Similarly, in case of using sentential use of sentences, they were able to write arrangements, most of the students correct sentences at post test stage than (Ss1, Ss3, Ss8, Ss9, and Ss10) improved in pre-test. Regarding the mechanics their level of arranging their answers of writing, they increased the level of more cohesively and coherently in post progress on their writing in case of test as compared to pre test. punctuation, coherence in writing and f) As a whole , it was found that the in cohesion in each test from haphazard students were able to increase their level to systematic and gradually to the stage of proficiency in the use of grammatical of systematic. units and in using mechanics of writing b) Most of the students (Ss2, Ss3, Ss4, in post-test from their level in pre-test Ss7, Ss8 and Ss9) were found using and post-test. The use pair- correction grammatically appropriate vocabulary followed by teacher-correction was in their writing in the final post test found effective while dealing with the analysis than they used in pre-test. The problematic areas identified. It was sentences were found meaningful. The found an effective tool to improve the significant finding was seen in the use writing proficiency of the students. of vocabulary (word level) which was ranged from 172 words in pre test in an Conclusions and pedagogical implications increasing to 424 in the post test while writing an essay and the error that a. It is essential for the teachers to they had made in using the words only know the basic ground or level of the ranged from 1-6 as erroneous words. students’ in their levels of writing and c) Regarding the use of paragraphs, half then move into the course teaching. It of the students (Ss1, Ss2, Ss4, Ss8, is very essential to know the current and Ss9) were able to make proper level of learners before we go for the sentential organization in their essay real teaching. It is essential to provide writing. In case of using punctuation instructions as well as technique on marks, all the students improved the essay writing according to the interest, use of punctuation marks (mostly level and capacity of students. full stop, comma, semi-colon, and b. The research report strongly question) in their writing in post test recommends that the teaching of as compared to pre test. writing could be successful when we d) The students (Ss4, Ss5 and Ss6) teach using peer correction followed by who used the punctuation marks teacher correction. Teacher correction haphazardly improved their level to could be just used as a facilitation or

78 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 monitoring practices. References c. The different events like: essay Acharya, H. (2011). Activities used in teaching essays. competition, spelling contest, puzzle An unpublished Thesis of M.Ed, TU. practice could be used as the activities Awasthi, J. R., Bhattarai, G.R. and Khaniya, T.R .(2009) (eds). New generation English. Vidyarthi in teaching that facilitates the Prakashan Pvt. Ltd: Kathmandu organization of students writing. Bhattarai, P.D. (2002). A comparative study of the d. The access to reading and writing writing proficiency of bachelor’s Level students. An materials on essay in computer labs unpublished Thesis of M.Ed,TU., Kathmandu. and in the library, project work, self- Basnet, B. (2008). The proficiency of the students in study practice, etc. are other helpful guided writing. An unpublished Thesis of M.Ed, TU., Kathmandu. tools to improve students’ writing. Bhattarai G.R. (2005). A thematic analysis of research e. The teacher needs to focus students’ on reports, Kathmandu Ratna Pustak Bhandar. the organizing the word to sentence; Brown, H.D. (1994). Principles of language learning sentence to paragraph’ and paragraph and teaching. London: Prentice Hall Regents. to essay before teaching essay writing Cohen, L. Manion, L. and Morrison, K.(2010). as a whole. Research methods in education (6th edition). London: Routledge. Conclusion Jordan, R. R. (1999). Academic writing course. Many students feel weak in speaking London: Pearson education Limited Longman. in English but in the real sense they Karki, H. B. (1996). A comparative study of English are weaker in writing than they think. language writing proficiency in H.S.S of Gulmi Teachers assign writing as homework and Kathmandu district. An unpublished Thesis of M.Ed. Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu. giving it less preference and mostly focus Hasan, K.M. and Akhand, M.M. (2010) Approaches on transformations practices in the class to writing in EFL/ESL context: Balancing but the examination is highly based product and process in writing class at tertiary testing writing proficiency. In additional to level: Journal of NELTA. Vol-15, Kathmandu, washback effect, they perform weak in the NELTA examination and they could not achieve Nunan, D. (1989). Understanding language handsome marks. As a common problem, classroom. U.K: Prentice Hall. it is necessary focus on writing in the class Nunan, D. (1992). Research methods in language learning. Cambridge: CUP along with other skills as a form of action research. Rivers, W. (1968). Teaching foreign language skills. Chicago: Chicago University. About the author Sa-ngiamwibool, A. (2007) Enhancing structure Ashok Sapkota is a Teaching Assistant at Central Department and writing expression amon EFL thai students of English Educaton, Tribhuvan University. He has published through consciousness-raising instructions: articles and presented papers on English language teaching, Journal of NELTA. Vol-15, Kathmandu, NELTA applied linguistics and research methodology in international conferences. He has co-authored a book on applied linguistics Wallace, M. J. (2000). Action research for language (2011) and authored a book on Research Methodology teacher. Cambridge; Cambridge University in Language Education and Thesis Writing (2012). He is a Press. teacher trainer at British Council, ETTE project and NELTA, White, R. and Arndt, V. (1991). Process writing. an executive member of NELTA, a member of IATEFL, South Asia Teachers Association, ELTECs/U.K. He has also received London.: Longman. Hornby Regional Schools Training (2012) in Sri Lanka.

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 79 APPENDICES APPENDIX- I Test-items This test- item has been prepared to have the authentic data to achieve the objectives of the study entitled” Developing Students’ Writing Skill Through Peer and Teacher Correction: An Action Research”. I hope that your invaluable co-operation will be a great contribution in the accomplishment of my research work. Researcher

Personal Information Name:……………………………………………………………………………………… Gender: Male: ( ) Female: ( ) 1. Imagine that you are a teacher teaching in a lower secondary school. What could be the qualities of a good or bad teacher in your view point? Explain it in about 200 words.

...... 2. Write a ghost story that you have read or heard when you were a small child in about 120 words......

80 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 Appendix-II Sample Lesson Plan College: Adarsha Saula College Date: 2069-10-17 Level: FoE Graduates (B.Ed. First Year) Time: 45 minutes Teaching Items: Introduction of Essay. Subject: English

Specific Objectives On the completion of this topic, students will be able to: - define an essay and characteristics of an essay - use of punctuation while writing essay Instructional Materials - Usual materials - Sentence cards including the definition of essay. Teaching Learning Strategies Lead in Here the teacher simply reviews the topic that was discussed in the earlier class. Activities - As the teacher enter into the class, He will write a paragraph and ask the students to read silently and guess what can be the topic of the paragraph and observe the use of punctuation marks used. - Then, He will give the idea that it is an essay and introduce the present topic i.e., introduction of an essay. - He will show the definition of an essay in a sentence cards and writes in the board. He will take the idea from the students and with the help of students, He will discuss about the essay. - Then, He will ask students about the characteristics of an essay to write in their copy and exchange with each other so that they can more ideas. Furthermore, he use other examples and instruct them to use the punctuation marks (full stop, colon, question mark, comma) providing some of the examples on the board. After that with the help of students, He will describe the characteristics of an essay. Evaluation T will ask to write a paragraph in about 80 words describing their village.

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 81 Appendix-III Marking Scheme for Mechanics of Writing

• Systematic (3 or 75-100%) Good User: The students can produce clear, well structured detailed text showing control of organization of paragraphs and cohesive devices. They produce variety of sentence structures. Their writing is meaningful and contains appropriate transitions. They use precise, varied and descriptive vocabulary and their writing contains virtually no grammatical and punctuation error. They have their own voice (i.e. what they want to say). • Unsystematic (2 or 30- 60%) Modest User: Their writing does not contain variety of sentence structures. Range of vocabulary is rather low. Their writing is somehow meaningful though it contains a few errors in the use of transitional words. It contains considerable degree of redundancy. The number of sentences containing grammatical errors overweighs the correct ones and there are many errors in the use of spelling and punctuation as well. • Haphazard (2 or below 30%) Beginner User: Students may write single word or word combinations. The level of language is too low and it is very difficult to understand the intended meaning. They can communicate minimally. Students may leave the page blank or the answer may be totally irrelevant.

How Communicative is the Communicative Approach? – The German Teacher’s Experience Pratiti Shirin Abstract This study mainly focused on exploring the efficacy of applying the communicative approach to teaching German at the Goethe Institute in Bangladesh. A qualitative approach was used to collect data by using journal writing by the teacher as well as informal feedback from students. The students comprised 11 schoolteachers from a number of Bangladeshi English-medium schools. Since emphasis was given on testing reading and writing rather than on evaluation of all four skills, applying CLT was tailored to teaching reading and writing rather than speaking and listening with the effect that students at the end of the course had elementary knowledge of reading and writing but poor knowledge of speaking and listening. The question that follows is how communicative is the communicative approach if testing clashes with pedagogy? This article explores the limitations of applying CLT to the German language class and the dilemma that comes with it as to which approach is the best approach to teach a foreign language. Key words: CLT in German, Best Approach, Teaching Dilemma, Evaluation

Introduction number of school teachers who were adults After 7 years of studying in English out and who possessed already an excellent of which the entire last year was devoted command of Bangla and English. The to becoming an ELT teacher, I find my classes went on for 12 weeks at the end of career has started not as an ELT but as a which they were supposed to sit for a four- GLT (German Language Teacher ). I spent part communicative test. This in reality, was some years of my childhood in Germany. never implemented. Instead, the students So, it is perhaps all but natural that I took a multiple-choice-question test testing should think of teaching English as well mainly students’ knowledge of grammar. as German. After all, the approach is the This article explores the limitations of same- kommunicativ is what each of the CLT in the German language class and the eight lessons in the book I teach, have as dilemma that comes with it as to which the dominant approach. But I wonder if the approach is the best approach to teach a teachers handling this book really know foreign language. The implications for this the meaning of this word as these teachers in the context of developing countries like themselves were taught German in the Nepal and Bangladesh is that teachers will “non- communicative” mode. The group become more conscious educators and I was supposed to teach consisted of a improve their pedagogy while learning to

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 83 teach a foreign language like English. knowledge and experiential knowledge” (p.182). Theoretical framework Nichollos (2001) believes that the expertise The theoretical framework used in writing and competency teachers display in this article is based on one of the three their teaching, can be termed “teaching models of teacher education discussed professionalism”. To promote teaching in Wallace (1991).Wallace (ibid) explains professionalism, it is essential to combine the teacher education model of reflective received knowledge with experiential teaching in details. According to Akhter knowledge. Received knowledge refers (2006),‘Reflection is a process where the to the “facts, data, theories” which the teacher evaluates his or her ideas and teacher derives from books, lectures and practices, makes specific plans, implements other external sources (Wallace, 1992, them and again reflects on the results’ p.52).Experiential knowledge is derived (p.182). Loughran (1996) considers from practice and observation of practice. reflection as ‘the purposeful, deliberate act Being adequately prepared with received of inquiry into one’s thoughts and actions knowledge, I set out to gain experiential through which a perceived problem is knowledge from what McMillan and Joyce examined […]’ (p.21).The idea of reflective (2011) call ‘learner-learner interaction’ thinking is not new and it can be traced (p.71) and of course, also from student- back to the work of educational thinkers teacher interaction. My aim was to enhance such as Dewey (1933). Khan (2008) my teaching professionalism. mentions Schoen’s (1983) work on the “reflected practitioner” has been a major For Bartlett (1990), reflective teaching is a guide in developing teachers and process. He talks about certain components of the reflective teaching process. They are making them perform better’(p.170). mapping, informing, contesting, appraising Goodson (2001) echoes Schoen and says and acting. These five elements form a ‘reflection is at the heart of what it means continuous cycle in the reflective teaching to be professional; and teacher education, process. Mapping involves reflecting on supervision and development should ‘what do I do as a teacher?’. The emphasis in be constructed in ways that make such this phase is on our individual observation explicit reflection more feasible and more which can be recorded by keeping a diary thorough’ (p.185). Khan(2008) mentions or journal. Informing involves reflecting that Continuous Professional Development on ‘what is the meaning of my teaching? / (CPD), Professional Development(PD) what did I intend?’ .In the informing phase, and Teacher Development(TD) are all the teacher distinguishes between teaching synonymous terms (p.170).In order to routines and conscious teaching actions carry out one or/and all three, reflective and unmasks the principles behind them teaching is essential. According to (p. 211).Contesting involves reflecting Akhter (2006) ‘Reflective teaching is a on ‘how did I come to be this way? / how systematic approach to second language was it possible for my present view of teacher education that integrates received teaching (with reasons) to have emerged?’.

84 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 Contesting may best be achieved by sharing professional development. It has to be with our collegues (including teachers, mentioned here that according to an article students, parents (ibid).Appraisal involves published on eHow, the learning journal is asking the question ‘how might I teach something which even students differently?’. According to Bartlett (1990) can maintain in order to ensure more ‘A handy way of appraising is to ask the effective learning. In order to practice question “What would be the consequences journal writing, teachers record their to learning if I changed…?”’(p.213).Acting experiences of the classroom in a journal. involves thinking about ‘what and how The recording could be carried on at the shall I now teach?’. Bartlett (ibid) states end of each class of the course the teacher ‘reflection without action is verbalism: has chosen to reflect on. Alternately, action without reflection is activism-doing journal writing could also be carried on, on things for their own sake’. There needs to a weekly basis. According to Smith (2006), be a continuous dialectical relationship starting to write among the preceding phases and the idea of acting out our new ideas about teaching. a learning journal requires a framework consisting of four basic elements. They are: Strategies for reflection: • Description of the situation, encounter, According to Akhter (2006, p.183), the experience and feelings. following are the strategies for reflection: • Additional material - information that Keeping track of the teaching-learning come to our notice or into our minds process in a journal by the teacher after the event. Bartlett (1990), has made the following • Reflection - going back to the suggestions on what to write. experiences, attending to feelings and Our writing will be about our routine evaluating experience (Boud et. al. and conscious actions in the classroom; 1985, p. 26-31). conversations with pupils; critical incidents • Things to do - the process of reflection in a lesson; our personal lives as teachers; may well lead to the need to look again our beliefs about teaching; events outside at a situation or to explore some further the classroom that we think influence our area. It may highlight the need to take teaching; our views about teaching and some concrete actions. In this ‘section’ learning.(pp.209-10) of the entry we can make notes to pick- up later. Journal writing can be carried out individually or collaboratively where two Smith (2006) also mentions a few benefits or more colleagues share their journals and of writing the journal .Firstly, it helps us regularly discuss them (Akhter, 2006, p. to remember something lateron. Secondly, 184). irrespective of the content, the act of writing itself engages our brain. Thirdly, journal For my class, I chose to carry out individual writing helps us to look at ourselves, our journal writing. Journal writing in teaching feelings and actions in a different way. is a means of ensuring continuous

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 85 Fourthly, journal writing helps us to clear language]’ (p.71).Therefore, my attention our minds. As Mary Louise Holly (1989, in gaining feedback was specially focused p. 9) puts it, ‘The journal offers a way to on these lower-proficiency learners. sort out the multitude of demands and interactions and to highlight the most Classroom observation important ones’. Last, and certainly not The research context least, making journal writing part of our Participants routine means that we do actually take time The group I was supposed to teach consisted out to reflect on what might be happening of a number of adult school teachers . in our practice and in our lives generally (Rainer, 2004). The real benefits of learning Their native language was Bangla but and other journals flow from their sustained they possessed an excellent command of use over a period of time. This was the English. These school teachers had come reason I started to maintain a journal for to learn German at the Goethe Institute in the course I taught. I thought that recording Dhaka, Bangladesh where this study was the insights I gained from teaching my very conducted. As part of a German government first class would improve my pedagogy in funded project called the PASCH whose the future and most importantly, help me aim was to foster cultural understanding to grow as a teacher the benefits of which between Germany and Bangladesh by would ultimately be gained by my students. signing memorandums of agreements between the German government and a Feedback from students number of Bangladeshi English-medium This can take the form of surveys and schools, the teachers of those respective questionnaires. These are most useful schools were sent to the Goethe Institute to when we want to collect information learn German so that the teachers in turn, on ‘ affective dimensions of teaching could teach German to their own students and learning, such as beliefs, attitudes, at school. It is an ongoing project and the motivation, and preferences’ (Richards and Institute now sends its language teachers to Lockhart, 1996, p. 10).Feedback can also be English-medium schools to teach German obtained by talking to students individually to their teachers. The number of schools or as a group. For my purpose, I chose to embracing the PASCH project is on the obtain feedback from students while taking rise. classes. Time and again, I asked them if my instructions were clear, if I should go at a Class duration slower pace and that they should ask me The classes went on for 12 weeks. The cost to repeat information if students did not of participation and teaching materials understand. This is in line with McMillan was free. The lessons were intensive and Joyce (2011)’s proposition that ‘…lower- weekend classes whose duration was proficiency learners working alongside from 9 a. m. to 2 p.m., with a break of 15 highly proficient classmates in MACs minutes each after every one and a half [mixed ability classes] may feel insecure hour. The lessons consisted of goals such about their abilities in the TL [target as going to the market and buying things,

86 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 exchanging information, making guesses, the students instead of letting the students filling out forms and so on. Activities all discuss among themselves their problems. followed the implications of CLT proposed Also, there was little group or pair work. in Mcdonough and Shaw (1993, p.21). Method of data collection and analysis I consider myself to be lucky because my very first batch was a group of highly The method of data collection used was educated adults whose strength in English journal writing which I started to use from gave them an advantage with learning the beginning of my very first class. At the German, I think. One of them had learned end of each class, I would record student’s French for a year so that for him, German problems, my own problems regarding was a fourth language (his analytical skills pedagogy followed by suggestions as to how in German were excellent and needless to to overcome those problems. Therefore, it say, he was an excellent student as well). was a qualitative method of data analysis I This is not definitely the case with every used. Classroom observation can be carried batch that comes to learn German. out in two ways. Either, one novice teacher can observe the class of an experienced Classroom interaction and teaching teacher or, peer observation where teachers methodology can observe each others’ classes and discuss For my very first class, I wrote the the collected information. alphabet on board and taught students the In my class, towards the middle of the pronunciation. My goals were, to teach semester, a teacher trainer came in order reading and pronunciation. Lateron, my to observe the first one and a half hours colleagues told me that this would not of a class. Before she did so, she gave me work if it were taught in the very first a questionaire to fill out. She asked me to class. But for my students, it worked. From identify certain problems, provide my own about the third class, despite having a lot solutions to them and then left a blank of pronunciation mistakes, the majority space in which after observing my class, was able to read fairly correctly. But she herself would make suggestions to my gradually, the mistakes reduced in number. problems as well as make comments on At the end, there were no more reading improvement. The teacher trainer followed mistakes at all. The attendance was another principles for carrying out action research thing. For my very first class, there were (AR). According to Kemmis and McTaggart 11 students. By the end of the month, (1988), AR is a teacher initiated classroom attendance had fallen to 6. These six were research. It aims at increasing the teacher’s more or less my students for the rest of understanding of classroom teaching and the trimester until I lost another 1 and learning, and bringing about change in eventually 5 students took the model test. the classroom practice. It is carried out At first, I interpreted all the instructions in the teacher’s classroom, usually by the in book in Bangla. Students even did not teacher herself with the purpose to finding know the page numbers. I exercised tight solutions to particular problems. Needless teacher control even over speaking classes to say, AR is intricately linked to reflective because I explained everything myself to

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 87 teaching practices. can be covered for any lesson if they are to Accordingly, I chose to carry out a be covered properly. I could not properly combination of all three strategies of cover the book due to time constraints so reflection mentioned above in order to that I covered the double (6 pages) of the practice reflective teaching in class. book per lesson. Too many activities per chapter Problems faced Time constraint was another problem.. Time management First of all, there were too many activities Among other things, I asked the teacher per chapter to be covered in a lesson. trainer on the questionnaire as to how to Maybe ,there were not too many activities make more effective use of time. While themselves but teaching was made observing my classes, this was one major complicated by the fact that after every issue which bothered me and which I had two or three activities in the coursebook, written down in my reflective journal. The there were accompanying activities in the trainer told me to be more comfortable with workbook at the back of the book. These pair and group work. After this, I changed were excercises which students were my strategy. I told my students to buy supposed to solve after they understood dictionaries and from the very next class the rules and completed the activities in the onwards, I made my students sit with the coursebook. Also, the workbook activities dictionary and go for group work for most were a type of further practice for students of the time. They discussed their problems on what they already learned. Students with each other, corrected each other and if could do the workbook excercises at home someone had not understood something, I but I never took the risk except for a very asked someone else who had, to explain. In few times. I knew these working adults my last month of the trimester, the students would never find the time and also because even did not bother to ask me what they had there was a separate practice book out of not understood because they knew I was which I always gave homework which the not going to tell. I would tell them to ask more serious students always practiced and a partner or more frequently, look it up in which I always collected for checking at the dictionary .So, students automatically regular intervals. This was easy for me to would turn to each other for help in the last do because I had a very small class. month because looking up each and every Now, the problem was that the coursebook word in the dictionary was too strenuous. activities were often so much demanding They also did one more thing. In pair work, that little time would be left for the one partner would look up a stretch of workbook activities. I tried to strike a sentences in the dictionary for any activity balance and started to omit activities in (say, for fill in the blanks) whereas the other the course book itself. For each topic in the partner would look up the other sentences. lessons, there were too many activities. My . It has to be told here that four-and-a-half problem was not unique. Other teachers hours sound to be a lot of time, but for raw (Siddique, 2004; Sinha, 2005-6) teaching beginners of any language, at most 3 pages

88 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 in the communicative mode in the country of them. First, I made my students write have also complained about this. By time dialogues in pairs and then I made them constraints, I mean, if I had to cover each practice them. I thought, making students and every activity, I would have needed speak without writing it first would be too double the time instead of that which was difficult for them. allotted to me. That would be six months. So, it came to the fact that I spent most of the I found lateron that my colleagues did time on teaching reading and vocabulary not do the workbook activities. Instead, , concentrating on teaching writing only they focused on teaching the course book for a few times. The latter was made more activities. difficult because in Lesson 4, students were Practicing speaking and listening asked to write a short story with some I also found that practicing speaking and sentence constructions which were given. listening took up at least one-and-a-half This was far too difficult for them and I hour if they were to be done properly. gave it to them as homework only to find Listening could not be practiced for 2 to 3 out later they could not do it. My colleagues classes because either the CDs or the recorder told me they did the same. was out of order. This is also a problem- Negative washback on teaching most often at the school and college level- which practitioners like Sinha (2005-6) and By this time, I had come to know that my Siddique (2004) have mentioned. When students would be sitting for a multiple- eventually it was practiced, I found it was choice-question test so I started to too time consuming. Each activity had to concentrate more on grammar and less on be played for at least three times. However, writing and speaking. So, there was what as the lessons progressed, students took Hughes (2003, p.53-57) calls a negative less time to analyse the listening activities washback on teaching. This was at the not because they were understanding beginning of the third month. Now, why more of what was being said but because would there be a multiple-choice-question they were making more use of contextual test only? My boss did not tell me but I clues. For instance, in matching which could guess. It was because students would picture belonged to which listening text, fail the listening and speaking tests. The fact students made use of the sound of cars to that testing these would lead to a positive match an outdoor picture to the correct feedback effect is not new and a number of listening text. Keeping in mind, which leading practitioners in the country (Sinha, metacognitive strategies students employed 2005-2006; Siddique, 2004 ) have raised to understand a text, I asked the students their voice about it. about the strategies they employed. This is Use of L1 how I found out. By this time, I had finished the numbers If speaking activities were not of two lines long ago. One problem which I was not only, they continued to take up as much aware of and which the teacher trainer time as before. Still, I did practice some mentioned in her feedback sheet to me,

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 89 was the use of Bangla. What happened in taking up half of the total duration of the the class she observed was that I started the entire class time of that day. class with German and went on using it for about the first twenty minutes after which I Findings had gone to using Bangla because students Eventually, my students took the model test were to slow to understand my instructions and all passed. The model test was given at in German and I thought I needed to the back of the book. It consisted of short progress with the lesson. After being made reading texts. There were listening texts as aware of the too frequent use of Bangla, I well but I chose not to practice them because started to make more use of German in a the placement test would not test them. way in which students would understand Eventually, although students complained me .I spoke less, slower and curtailed my that the placement test was more difficult sentences. My students started to be able to than the model test, all, except one, passed follow very simple instructions ( open the the actual placement test as well. book on page … ) in German , understood There is a twist to this article. After the me if I spoke slowly in small German placement tests were done, three or four sentences ( not at a stretch though ) using days were spent by my colleagues, to take gestures and to my extreme happiness, what were called ‘preparatory courses’. These were even able to express elementary things were courses which prepared students to in German ( “how are you?”, “what is its take those actual communicative tests called price?” etc. ). Start Deutsch (SD) 1.SD1 was also the model To avoid monotony, I even made the use of test at the back of the book I taught. Taking rap songs in class. They were given at the the SD 1 test is a requirement for getting end of each lesson in the book and formed a visa for Germany. Students pay extra fee for kind of revision unit of things learned in the preparatory courses as well as a test fee for previous lesson. Due to time constraints, I taking SD 1. This is further evidence of the chose to practice only one rap song. Firstly, failure of communicative tests. Otherwise, a CD recording of the rap song was played why would teachers and students spend several times. Then, students were divided extra time and money on practicing them into pairs and made to practice the song when they have had entire three months as it was sung on the CD. They were given of the so called communicative method about twenty minutes for practice. After behind them? this, each pair was asked to perform its rap Conclusion song in front of the class. I told students they could add footsteps and hand as well This article has explored the use of CLT as body movements to it. Eventually, each in the German language classroom in pair came up with its unique version and a Bangladeshi context and has tried to performance of the same song followed by identify a so-called “best approach” of huge rounds of applauses by the audience. language teaching. Why have I recorded In the end, we all sang the song together. my first time teaching experience in the But this was a huge time-consuming task, classroom? It has to do with notions of

90 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 reflective teaching (RT) and continuous trainstation, tomorrow 9 p.m.). professional development (CPD) as propounded by Wallace (1991), Khan About the author Pratiti Shirin is a Lecturer, Dept. of English, Dhaka University, (2008) etc. Reflective teaching is important Bangladesh. She completed her M.A. from the same for a number of reasons. Among the most department in 2010. Her area of specialization is Applied Linguistics and English Language Teaching (ELT). She is a important reasons, one is that RT can help fluent speaker of German due to her having spent a part of teachers to make professional judgments her childhood in Germany. She used to teach German at the and to question the goals, values and Goethe Institut Bangladesh. Her areas of interests are varied and they include phonetics and phonology, gender studies outcomes of their action. Also, RT can and history. While she was still a student, a paper of hers generate a cycle of research and reflection. titled “The Position of Women in Kautilya’s Arthashastra” was published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh The action generated can bridge the gap in 2009.Her latest work in ELT includes “The Representation of between theory and practice. How to Women in English for Today (EFT) for Classes IX-X” published bridge the gap between theory and practice in The Dhaka University Studies. , has been the subject matter of this article. References RT is needed to clarify our thinking and to Akhter, N. (2006).Reflective teaching: Professional change the nature of our own work, among development through self-inquiry. Spectrum: others. RT in turn, is linked to CPD. CPD Journal of the Department of English, 4, 181-189. gives us a sense of direction and helps us to Bartlett, L. (1990). Teacher development through be on the right track, as Khan (2008) says. reflective teaching. In J.C. Richards & D. Nunan (Eds.), Second Language Teacher Education (pp. At the beginning of this article, I wanted 202-214). New York: Cambridge University to find a solution as to identifying the Press. best approach to teach a foreign language. Boud, D. et al (Eds.). (1985). Reflection. Turning Truth is, there is none. Whatever works experience into learning. London: Kogan Page. best, should be applied. For my part, I used Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of a combination of the communicative as the relation of reflective thinking to the educative well as our traditional grammar translation process. New York: D.C. Heath and Company. method which is the most widely used Ellis, R. (1996). How culturally appropriate is the method of the precommunicative era. Ellis communicative approach? ELT Journal ,50(3). (1996) identifies a number of problems of Goodson, I. (2001). The principled professional. Prospects, XXX (2), 181-188. applying the communicative approach in Holly, Mary Louise. (1989). Writing to grow. Keeping Asian countries. But in addition, I would a personal-professional journal, Portsmouth, also like to add all the points mentioned New Hampshire: Heinemann. time and again by Sinha, and Siddique Hughes, A. (1989). Testing for language teachers. as they are applicable to the German Cambridge: Cambridge University Press language class as well. Ending this article Kemmis, S. & McTaggart, R. (Eds.).(1988).The on a note of anecdote: a very famous joke action research planner. Victoria, Australia: that passes around in our teachers’ room, Deakin University Press. will summarise the effectivity of the Khan, R.(2008). Developing professionally. The communicative approach . A says to B : ich Dhaka University Journal Of Linguistics, 1(2), 69-180. Bahnhof , du Bahnhof, wir Bahnhof,morgen Loughran, J. J. (1996). Developing reflective practice: 21 Uhr. (I trainstation, you trainstation, we Learning about teaching and learning through

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 91 modelling (pp. 25-39). London: Falmer Press. Schoen, D. A.(1983). The reflective practitioner: Mcdonough, J. & Shaw, C. (1993).Materials and How professionals think in action. New York: methods in elt: A teacher’s guide. Basil : Blackwell. Basic Books. McMillan, B. & Joyce, P. (2011). Teacher perspectives Sinha, B. S. (2005-6). Communicative language on student placement in university efl programs. teaching (clt), and english for today (eft): Our Journal of NELTA, 16 (1-2), 70-80. dream vs. reality. The Arts Faculty Journal, 53- 60. Nichollos, G. (2001). Professional development in higher education: New dimensions and directions. Smith, Mark. (2006). Keeping a learning journal. London: Kogan Page. The Encyclopedia of Informal Education. Pickett, Theresa.Journal writing for students. Retrieved on 2 December, 2012 from www.infed. Retrieved on 29 November, 2012 from http:// org/research/keeping_a_journal.htm www.ehow.com/about_6608216_journal- Wallace, M.J. (1991). Training foreign language writing-students.html teachers: A reflective approach. Cambridge: Rainer, Tristine (1978, 2004) The new diary. How Cambridge University Press. to use a journal for self-guidance and extended creativity, Los Angeles: J. P. Tarcher Inc. Richards, J. C. & Lockhart, C. (1996).Reflective teaching in second language classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University.

Teaching Short Story through Critical Thinking (CT) Strategies Mukti Prakash Thapaliya Abstract This paper is an attempt to reveal the effectiveness of Critical Thinking (CT) strategies in teaching English literature in general and short stories in particular. Critiquing against the conventional teacher dominated practices in English Language Teaching (ELT) in Nepal, this also offers a set of critical thinking strategies in order to make it more participatory and effective. This heavily draws on my experience of exploiting those techniques while teaching short stories in EFL/ESL classroom in Nepal. Key words: Critical Thinking (CT) Strategies, English as a Foreign Language, Short Story, Anticipation Phase, Building Knowledge Phase, Consolidation Phase (ABC)

Introduction importance and recognition. The importance of teaching of literature In language classroom, short stories are in teaching a language can hardly be used as a means to develop communicative exaggerated. In the course of teaching competence (Adhikari, 2006). The study different language skills, various genres of short stories makes the short stories of literature are exploited in order to themselves the content or subject of the make language teaching more realistic, course whereas the use of the short stories interesting and effective. Literature is all as a resource draws on short stories as one about human experiences and human source among many different kinds of reactions to different situations around and texts for promoting interesting language students find literary texts more motivating activities (Lazar, 1993). For our classrooms than non-literary ones. Literature is also tend to be usually large-sized, it is not as the storehouse of human experiences, ideas effective to teach poetry and drama as and emotions which both educate and stories. The poem contains different figures entertain readers. Among various genres of speech which take more time for them of literature, however it is stories which are to grasp. Similarly, teaching drama also more captivating than others. It is because needs acting which is almost impossible stories are everywhere. Everyone has his in the classroom due to classroom setting- or her stories to tell. Stories hypnotize furniture arrangement, number of students readers developing their curiosities about and poor physical infrastructures. Thus, ‘what happens next. They have their own it is easy to teach the short story in our

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 93 classroom for it has well specified and method (usually lecture or paraphrasing) single plot, a small number of characters were the general practices in classroom and an ordinary setting. Several English delivery. Similarly, CERID’s (2002) study Language Teaching (ELT) researches had pointed out about 88% of the teachers reveal that teaching the short story creates (out of 153 observed classes) resorted to enjoyment in the language classroom if the the traditional methods of teaching. Singh, teacher teaches it with appropriate teaching Gurung & Koirala (2010) mention that strategies. our classroom teaching learning is mainly Teaching short story has four advantages focused on content delivery from the in the ELT classroom (Pardede, 2011). textbook. Content delivered by the teachers is either by lecturing or paraphrasing. For • Using short stories are practical as paraphrasing either the teacher reads their length is ideally suitable to cover the textbook (few teachers do so) or entirely in one or two class sessions. students are made to read paragraphs • Short stories are not complicated for from the textbook. Our education system students to work with on their own. is producing two types of groups, Karkai • Short stories have a variety of choices (2012) stated, one is the teacher who to different interests and tastes. should give the knowledge, but not • Short stories can be used with all levels learning new things, and the second is the of English proficiency, all ages and student who should take the knowledge but shifts. not being creative, active and critical. The above views show the pathetic condition However, teaching of stories demand some of the teaching learning situations in our special techniques to be used in classroom. classroom teaching. Unfortunately, observations of trends in teaching in general and English language The teachers of English in Nepal carry teaching in particular reveal teacher out their teaching activities focusing on dominated practices. In the following contents or information only because section, I would like to briefly discuss our their main focus is to facilitate learners to conventional practices. become proficient in English, rather than developing higher order of thinking in them Teaching trends in Nepal (Rana, 2011). Moreover, neither teacher use Studies related to classroom practices have student-centered methods nor they make mainly found classroom delivery to have the students more active in the classroom. been teacher dominated with an emphasis Mostly, teachers use the Grammar on rote memorization of the content Translation Method (GTM), Lecture (CERID, 2004). The dominant approaches Method and Paraphrasing Technique used are lecturing, paraphrasing, drill, inside the classroom while teaching reading and repeating from textbook, English language. Crowded classrooms, and memorizing questions and answers. lack of teaching materials, subject teachers, In other words, single language, single and poor infrastructures are the major session, same materials (if used), same problems in the public schools and private

94 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 schools in Nepal.The only way associated inferences, evaluate arguments and solve with the teaching of literature so far is the problems. Whereas Mayer & Goodchild Lecture method which is teacher controlled (1990) describe critical thinking as an presentation (Dhakal, 2002). Thus, it can active, systematic process of understanding be inferred that there is something lacking and evaluating arguments, Sternberg (1986) in our teaching learning activities, which, takes it as comprising the mental processes, in turn, induce us to pine for a novel and strategies and representations people use to innovative technique. solve problems, make decisions, and learn The present day world demands us to be new concepts. Scriven, & Paul, (2012) gives critical and analytical. Thus, it is imperative a very comprehensive interpretation of the to rethink about our age old classroom term and according to him, critical thinking teaching learning practices. In this paper, is the intellectually disciplined process I argue that teaching through Critical of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, Thinking (CT) strategy can be an alternative applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/ to fill up this void we have just felt. In the or evaluating information gathered from, sections that follow, I discuss how critical or generated by observation, experience, thinking strategies can be the alternative reflection, reasoning, or communication ways to teach literature in general and short as a guide to belief and action. Similarly, stories in particular. Ennis (1989) defines critical thinking as a reasonable, reflective thinking that is Critical thinking and its importance focused on deciding what to believe or do. Critical Thinking (CT) has been interpreted Critical thinking means ability to judge in a number of ways. The commonest anything from different angles. For Lohani, element of critical thinking is that it does Adhikari & Subedi (1998) critical thinking not take anything as a blind faith. From the refers to consciously observing, analyzing, time of Socrates to contemporary, concerns reasoning, and evaluating, according to about the need for an educated citizenry proven standards. It can be understood in and quality work-force, the ability to think terms of six cognitive skills: interpretation, critically and to reason well has been analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation regarded as an important and necessary and self-regulation (Facione, 2007). outcome of education (Reed, 1998). John To sum up the above viewpoints, we can say Dewey (1933) pointed out that learning to that critical thinking is a process of actively think is the central purpose of education. and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, Schafersman, (1998) defines criticaland evaluating arguments which does not thinking as logical, analytical, reasonable, take anything for granted. higher-order, reflective, and scientific The advantages of critical thinking in thinking as well as reasoning skills. teaching are many. Critical Thinking Similarly, Chance (1986) understands encourages teachers to facilitate students critical thinking as the ability to analyze to create knowledge by questioning, facts, generate and organize ideas, defend examining, analyzing, and evaluating opinions, make comparisons, draw rather than by memorization. It allows

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 95 students to develop their potentials by critical thinking in teaching, I would like letting them learn at their own pace. to discuss the critical thinking phases that According to Crawford, Saul, Mathews and a teacher can divide his/her instructional Makinster (2005), teachers should support activities into. In fact these are the steps to reading and writing for critical thinking be followed by the teachers while making in classroom. They should challenge their lesson in order to develop critical thinking students not just to memorize but to strategies. Crawford, Saul, Mathews & question, examine, create, solve, interpret Makinster (2005) have mentioned that CT and debate the material in their courses. lesson has three phases namely anticipation, Moreover, its different instructionalbuilding knowledge and Consolidation. methods help students to be more reflective, Anticipation phase: creative, and analytical. In the anticipation phase, students are The importance of critical thinking can directed to think and ask questions about be seen in its role in promoting effective the topic they are about to study. It serves to planning, reflection, action and learning. call up the knowledge that students already Crawford, Saul, Mathews & Makinster have learned. Moreover, it sets purposes (2005) have mentioned the importance of for learning and provides a context for Critical Thinking (CT) which are: understanding new ideas which is similar • Critical Thinking helps us interpret to Pre- teaching stage. Some strategies information such as the ability used in this phase are: What do we know?, to critically analyze, recognize structured overview, brainstorming, misinformation and become active paired-brainstorming, semantic- map, citizens. predictions from terms, think-pair-share • It assists us in making better decisions (T/P/S), mix/freeze/pair, pens in the about our actions. middle, walk around-talk around , spider web and so on. • it encourages us to think about our own prejudices. Building knowledge phase: • it challenges prevailing social, political, The building knowledge phase serves to cultural and technical ways of thinking. compare expectations with what is being • it encourages us to go beyond learned. In this stage, student identifies rationality, using our creativity to the main points and makes the personal go outside the traditional boxes of connections to the lesson which is similar knowledge and understanding. to while teaching stage. Pair-reading, • it helps us criticize, reject or adapt pair-summarizing, so what?, what do we tools and methods which makes us want to learn?, brainstorming, paired- more responsible this towards our brainstorming, directed reading activity classroom. (DRA), directed reading thinking activity (DRTA), reading with text coding, pens in Critically thinking phases the middle, reciprocal teaching, one stay/ Having established the importance of three stray, directed listening-thinking

96 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 activity etc. are some of the strategies used short stories. For instance, in this phase. Teacher begins by naming the topic, and The consolidation phase: asking students to think of what they already This phase occurs toward the end of the know about it which helps to have students lesson in which teachers expect students list their ideas, and to share their ideas with to reflect on what they learned, ask what it a partner before they answer. After that, the means to them, reflect on how it changes teacher draws/makes a K-W-L chart on the what they thought, and ponder over how white board or on the chart paper like this. they can use it, which is similar to Post What do we Want What do we Know? What did we Learn? teaching stage. In this phase, we can use the to Know? strategies such as, what did we learn?, value line, quick-write, now-what?, character- Then, he/she asks the students to call out map, think-pair-share (T/P/S), jgsaw, pens what they know about the topic and he/she in the middle, walk around- talk around, writes their ideas in What do we know? debates etc. column. After that, he/she asks the students to think of questions they have about Critically thinking strategies in the topic. They may begin by reviewing teaching short stories what they know, and finding where their There are various Critical Thinking knowledge is incomplete and write their strategies applied in teaching in different questions on the What do we Want to situations and contexts. Teacher can employ Know? column. They should read the story/ various critical thinking strategies in order passage/text and they are reminded to look to make students think critically. According for answers to their questions. What they to Crawford, Saul, Mathews & Makinster, learned from the text can be written in the 2005, Critical Thinking Strategies are: What did We Learn? column. Know/want to know/ learn (K-W-L) Directed reading activity (DRA) The K-W-L activity can be used to structure DRA strategy is designed to support a whole lesson. It asks students to think of students’ reading comprehension by guiding what they already know about the topic them to key points in the text and providing of the lesson, raise questions about it, and opportunities to discuss its meaning with find answers to those questions. We can their classmates. Before implementing use this strategy in any class comprising to DRA, the teacher should chunk the text by 6-60 students. We should select the topic dividing it into manageable pieces for the and create a K-W-L chart on the chalk students to read silently. Then, the teacher board or on the chart. It can be used to ask should prepare one or two comprehension- about what student already know about the level questions for each chunk to be read by story/topic/title. In the similar way, we can the students. In this strategy, students may use it to ask questions and confirm their Think-Pair and Share their ideas with the knowledge. It can be useful in any phase in group or whole class. This strategy is useful while teaching any literary text including for teaching narrative texts.

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 97 Think-Pair-Share (T/P/S) and move/walk in the classroom when he/ Think-Pair-Share is a strategy for having she says freeze they should stop and make students think of individual answers to a pair with the person who is close to them. It question posed by the teacher, and then is used in the anticipation phase to arouse share their answers with a partner. Later, students’ curiosity towards the lesson. the teacher calls on two or three pairs to What? So what? Now what? share their answers with the whole class. It can be used in the anticipation, building In this strategy, the teacher selects the topic knowledge and consolidation phase. which students know then he/she discusses with it among the students. After that he/ Structured Overview she divides the whole lesson into three sub- Ausubel (1968) developed structured topics such as: overview. A brief lecture is given to arouse What? So What? Now What? students’ curiosity at the beginning of a Anticipation Building knowledge Consolidation lesson in structured overview. After that, In What? Column, the teacher asks the teacher will make a list of vocabularies, students to summarize the most important maps, or bring real objects which arouse ideas they have just discussed about the students’ interest. Then, teacher will make topic. In So what? Column, students write short talk with students that will reflect the the important idea they have just listed. At key points. It is used in the beginning of last, in Now What? Column, the teacher the class which helps to motivate students asks what they can do about the problem towards the lesson. It is used in the they have been discussing. Moreover, it anticipation phase. is similar with ABC phases. We can use Pair –Reading and Pair-Summarizing (PR-PS) it while teaching stories. Particularly, The teacher chooses a text of reasonable while teaching supernatural stories, this length which should have short paragraphs. technique can be very effective. After that, read a passage aloud and give a 8. Semantic Map: In this strategy, summary of it. In PR-PS, one student reads the teacher makes a semantic map on the the text, next one summarizes it. If he/ blackboard that helps to teach difficult she cannot understand the text, the reader vocabulary, show relation between different explains and tries to make it clear. PR/PS characters and and many other things. For is used in the building knowledge phase example, which can be used especially while teaching short stories and essays. Mix/Freeze/Pair: In this strategy, the teacher gives instructions in the classroom and students follow it which is very good to develop social skills, Prediction from terms: work cooperatively and make them more alert. The teacher gives them signal to stop In this strategy, the teacher selects five or six words or phrases from the text and

98 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 writes these on the blackboard. After that, symbol for each kind. In close reading with the teacher tells them to write/ compose a text coding strategy, the teacher thinks story or poem or song or essay or picture or four or five kinds of information which drama by using these words. Such as, students can locate in a text. After that, he/ compose a poem or story or drama or song she explains to the students the kinds of by using the following words in your own information which you want them to look words. Old man, soldier, detention centre, for as they read the text. He/she tells the Aswi, Moist etc. students to begin reading the assigned text and to mark each piece of information of Pens in the middle: each type. ‘Pens in the Middle’ strategy is intended to Value line ensure that all students have the opportunity It is a cooperative learning activity that to participate in learning group, and is recommended for evoking students’ provide the teacher with a stimulus for opinions on issues to which there can be asking students about their contributions. varied responses. In other words, it is an When students begin to share ideas in the activity that requires students to take a typical learning group of 3-7 members, position on an issue and to support it with each student marks his or her contribution reasons. The teacher begins by posing a by placing a pen on the table in the middle polarizing questions such as, is war good of the group. It can be used in ABC phases for human being? It is useful for students to especially while teaching short stories and stand up for their beliefs even when friends writing skill i.e. free and guided writing. disagree. It can be very effective while Cooperative learning: teaching supernatural stories. It may work more efficiently if students are Using Critical Thinking (CT) Strategies assigned certain roles within the groups. while teaching “I Heard Cock Crow” The roles may rotate among the group members, though, so each student will have I endeavored to apply Critical Thinking plenty of opportunities to practise each (CT) strategies while teaching English role. It is basically intended to give each language and literature after I first did student a clearly understood contribution a course on Critical Thinking in 2009. I to make to the success of the group; and have been using most of the techniques to teach each student, over time, the skills discussed above and they have been and attitudes that make a cooperative and extremely motivating and effective too. productive group member. It is used in the I think we need to teach our students building knowledge phase while teaching that reading involves not simply gaining literary text. information, but actively seeking a deep understanding of the meaning, applications Close Reading with Text Coding of that information. Particularly, short It refers to the act of having students look for stories have a unique potential to stimulate certain things in a text, then mark the text thought, generate emotions and spark the when those things are found with a simple imagination. However, a worker always

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 99 needs tools, even when dealing with the war, Aswi, Martin, old boatman, ethnic best of materials, and this holds true when riot, delegation, young man & woman? I working with a short story. found students were enthusiastic about this While I taught a story “I Heard Cock Crow” last question as they always are when asked from the textbook ‘New Generation English’ to guess. Using their imagination, they prescribed for B. Ed. First year students, it supplied various answers. is true that I spent more time planning my I divided the story into the five sections lesson(Please see lesson plan in appendix), where I used DRA strategy. Students read arranging the sitting plan i.e. bench, than the text and answered the questions I had conventional teaching because I wanted to set. The students took part actively in the make students more responsible and active discussion. If there was any confusion, I for learning in the classroom. I changed made it clear for them. I also introduced pair- the conventional classroom sitting into “U” reading and Pair-Summarizing strategies shape so that students can easily take part which made the class more interesting and in learning activities. Then I talked about lively. I used value line and quick-write war and its effects which aroused students’ strategies in the consolidation phase. I curiosity and their attention could be found students participated actively in the focused on the present story. After that, I value line strategy. I put various thought wrote six words from the story such as, war, provoking questions beyond the reading Aswi, Martin, old boatman, ethnic riot, text and they shared their own perspectives. delegation, young man & woman. I asked Finally, when I asked: “How is the today’s them to use the above words and compose class?” most of the students said that it was anything as they like such as a poem, a really interesting class because they could story, an essay and so on. Then, I divided remember things. Besides the fun activities, the students into pair. I gave them 2-3 the students said they enjoyed because minutes to share their creations with their the activities demanded them to be active pair. I asked two pairs of the classroom to and think on issues instead of depending share their answer with the classroom. I upon teachers for answers while taught in asked them, “Can you guess what chapter conventional ways. Even the students who we are going to read, today?” Students had never taken part in any activities take answered that I Heard Cock Crow. After part in the classroom activities. This success that, I wrote the title of the story “I Heard has reshaped my teaching of language and Cock Crow” on the board and pasted a literature considerably. chart on the wall which contained three columns such as Know-Want to Know Conclusion – Want to Learn. After that I wrote the Teaching English language helps students title and author’s name on the board and to communicate and write fluently in questions on the chart paper such as, Do the target language. There are different you notice anything unusual about the title classroom techniques that teachers use. of the story?, Can you guess what the story Among them, critical thinking (CT) is about, based on the following key words: strategy is comparatively a new one

100 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 in Nepal but it has been employed in About the author twenty nine countries including United Mukti Prakash Thapaliya holds Master’s Degree in English Education from Tribhuvan University. He has been teaching States, Canada, the United Kingdom and English Language and Literature at Bachelor’s and Master’s Australia (Crawford, Saul, Mathews & levels at Gramin Adarsha Multiple Campus, Nepaltar, Balaju, Makinster, 2005) which can make students Kathmandu, Nepal, for last seven years. He has presented papers on Language Teaching and Critical more creative, active, innovative, critical, Thinking (CT) Strategies in different seminars and trainings, analytical and constructive because its’ and has also published his articles in different journals. He is a life member of Nepal Language English Teachers’ Association strategies are based on student-centered (NELTA) and Master Trainer of Critical Thinking (CT) Strategies. which enhance active learning. It does His areas of interest include English Language teaching and not mean that all CT strategies are Inclusive Education. appropriate in our context. The geography, References economic status of institutions, physical Adhikari, B.(2006). Teaching Short Stories. Journal infrastructures such as, not having well of NELTA, 11, 1-2, Pp. 108-110. ventilated classroom, sufficient furniture, Bhandari & Gyawali, (2000). Teaching English library etc, cause difficult in using the Literature. Kathmandu:Ashish Pustak Bhandar. different critical thinking strategies.CERID. (2002). Effective Classroom Teaching Likewise, school administration has been Learning (Phase 1: Classroom Delivery). a big stumbling block in giving teachers Kathmandu: CERID autonomy. They are found to compel CERID. (2004). Access of Muslim Children to Education (Phase II). FRP for BPEP, Kathmandu: teachers to use conventional techniques CERID. in their classroom instead of using latest CERID. (2005). Access of Disadvantaged Children methods and strategies in their classroom to Education. FRP for BPEP, Kathmandu: FRP teaching which are likely to pose some for BPEP. Kathmandu: CERID. problems from administration and Chance, P. (1986). Thinking in the classroom: A management point of views. Most ELT survey of programs. New York: Teachers College, practices are teacher dominated because Columbia University. they have still been using Grammar Crawford, A., Saul, E.W., Mathews, S. and Makinster, Translation and Audio-lingual methods J. (2005).Teaching and Learning Strategies for the Thinking Classroom. Kathmandu: Alliance for of language teachings. It is high time we Social Dialogue. practiced critical thinking strategies in Dhakal, D.N. ,(2002). The Techniques of Teaching ELT to make it more student centered. Literature. Journal of NELTA, 7, 1-2. , Pp. 90-95. Experiences have revealed that teaching of Karkai, B. ,(2012). Where is lacking our Learning? literature in general and teaching of short The Kantipur Daily: Kathmandu. stories in particular can be made immensely Lazar, G.(1993). Literature and language teaching. effective if CT strategies are used. However, Cambridge: CUP. the selection of the CT strategies should Lohini, S., Adhikar, R. & Subedi, A. (1996). The be done according to the course objective, magic of words. Kathmandu: M.K. Distributor. students proficiency level and teaching Mayer, R. E., & Goodchild, F. M. (1990). The critical thinker: thinking and learning strategies learning material. for psychology students. Dubuque, IA: WM.C. Brown. Pardede, P. (2011). Using short stories to teach

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 101 language skills. Journal of English Teaching, 1, 1, Sharma, H.M. (2006). Ways of Effective Language Pp. 15-27. Teaching in Heterogeneous Class. Journal of Reed, J.(1998). Effect of a model for critical thinking on NELTA, 11, 1-2, pp. 115-119. student achievement in primary source document Singh, G., Gurung, I. and Koirala, S. (2010). Baseline analysis and interpretation, argumentative study on existing classroom teaching learning reasoning, critical thinking dispositions, and practices in Nepal. Kathmandu: Alliance for history content in a community college history Social Dialogue. course. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Sternberg, R. J. (1986). Critical thinking: Its nature, University of South Florida, USA measurement, and improvement. Washington Schafersman, S. D.(2012). Critical thinking and its DC: National Institute of Education. relation to science and humanism. Retrieved in Tully, M. M. (2009). Mind mirror projects: a tool 2012, July, from:http://cybercomputing.com/ for integrating critical thinking into the English freeinquiry/files/critical-notes.html. language classroom. English Teaching Forum. 47, Scriven M., & Paul, R.(2012). Defining critical 1, pp. 10-17. thinking. The critical thinking community: Zabeli, N. and Saqipi, B.(2008). Interactive teaching Foundation for critical thinking. Retrieved in strategies reduce inappropriate student Behavior 2012, July,fromhttp://www.criticalddnking.org/ in Kosovo. Journal of Thinking Classroom, 9, 1, aboutCT/ define_criticat_thinking.cfm. (2007). Pp. 6-10.

102 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 Appendix Lesson Plan based on CT strategies

Subject: Com. English Class: B.Ed. 1st year College: GAMC Time: 50 Min. Date: 10th May, 2011

Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, students will be able to : • summarize the four paragraphs of the story in their own words • argue how wars have brought destruction and sufferings in Nepal • write an argumentative essay on ‘war is never good’ in 150 words Teaching Materials Daily use materials, Chart Paper, Masking tape, markers, New Generation English Page no. 107 ‘I heard cock crow’ – Amod Bhattarai Teaching Learning Activities Stages Anticipation Phase (10 Minutes) • change the classroom sitting into U shape Strategies : Structured overview, • gives short introduction of war and its effect Predicting from Terms, T/P/S, K-W-L • divides the class into different groups, pair and individual • select 5- 8 vocabulary from the text that point to key concepts from the text such as war, Aswi, Martin, old boatman, ethnic riot, delegation, young man, woman • paste the chart paper which contains Know/Want to Know/ Learn (K-W-L) • asks students write the story with the help of the above given words • invites a few pairs to share their imagined stories • requests them to listen carefully to what the teacher is about to tell and see how it compares with what they imagined • writes the title of the story on the white board and explains it Building Knowledge Phase (30 -35Min- • makes /gives a short introduction about the story, writer utes) • asks students to read the first 5 lines of the story silently and summarize it Strategies: • asks and writes the question on the board such as “Do you think the setting of the story is Nepal? How can you prove DRA that? & what is your summary? Paired reading & summarizing • asks some pairs and groups to share their answer and suggests to guess what will happen next • asks to read the 6 – 11 lines and answer the question such as “Peace is essential element of development.” Justify and what is your summary? • asks some pairs and groups to share their answer and suggests to guess what will happen next • asks to read the 11-20 lines and answer the question such as “What is the purpose of their visit to the detention centre? and what is your summary? • asks some pairs and groups to share their answer and suggests to guess what will happen next • tells the main points or summary of the 1-20 lines of the story orally • teacher writes questions and answers on the chart paper/ white board Consolidation Phase (10-15 Minutes) • each group works on 1-20 lines of the story and extract all war related vocabulary Strategies: T/P/S, value line, Quick- • read aloud the list of the war related vocabulary in group reading and Quick- writing • make their own sentence by using those words • teacher writes those words on the white board • divides students into three groups such as war is good (Group A), war is never good (Group B) and neutral (Group C) • each group justifies their views to attract the neutral group members to come in their group • assigns students to write an essay on harms caused by war in Nepal. • assigns students to argue for or against the motion ‘war is never good’.

The impact of reflective writing paper on non-English major learners’ autonomy in the context of Vietnam Phan Thi Tuyet Van Abstract The article aims to investigate the impact of the reflective writing paper on non- English major learners’ learning autonomy in a Vietnamese context. The data was collected by means of questionnaire, competence tests and interviews. The participants did two reflective writing papers as an intervention during the research. The research results show the possibilities for teachers to modify their teaching methods through analysis of feedback from the subjects. The findings showed that most participants appreciated the role of the reflective writing paper and they were aware of the significance of learning autonomy in their study process. Key words: Learning Methods, Reflective Writing paper, Learning Autonomy, Self-learning, Non-English Major Learners, Teaching Methods.

Introduction of English usually fail to use it for their work Being able to use at least one foreign even when they have learned this subject language (or many languages) has become for years from early secondary school to an extremely important requirement in the higher education. context of Vietnam’s accession to the market The reality of English teaching for non- economy along with being a member of majors at Vinh Long Community College ASEAN and World Trade Organization. In reveals that students have positive attitudes fact, English has become one of the most about the importance of this language but important subjects in the Vietnamese most of them feel it is difficult and boring. educational curriculum in recent years The goals of learning English well have (Le & Barnard, 2009). Most Vietnamese become unreachable to many students. In students believe that English is “in fashion” another way, the learners cannot find or and that they may easily find a good job if understand the reasons why they are unable they are proficient in English (Le, 1999). to acquire the language. For that reason, a Although English plays an important role positive learning attitude is disregarded in the current situation of the Vietnamese and the learning process is not successful. labor market, the training quality is not From the above factors, the activity of high enough. Most non-majored students writing a reflective paper can be designed

104 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 to ask students about what they have gained the major of English. Moreover, students from every lesson and what have missed in have been provided with a limited English class. Then, the teacher encourages learners speaking environment (Le, 1999). That to engage in self-study to improve their leads to the bad results in learners’ language learning and solve the current problems. competence, especially in listening and This study entitled “The impact of speaking skills. reflective writing paper on non- English In addition, most students are passive or major learners’ autonomy in the context do not dare to present their ideas or pose of Vietnam” aims to investigate the questions about lessons because they are improvements of learners’ autonomy afraid of losing “face”. Under the influence through using the tool of the reflective of Confucianism, learners just keep silent writing paper. and do not feel confident with most activities (Le, 1999). The similar situations Literature review are shown by Hui (1997) and Lin (1998) The characteristics of non-English major for the learners of English in the contexts learners in the context of higher education in of China and Taiwan. In other words, the Vietnam cultural factors affect the learners’ capacity English has become one of the major courses in participating in classroom activities and for non-majored students at Vietnamese these also limit the chances for teachers to colleges or universities since the second evaluate the real abilities of their students. th half of the 20 century (Hoang, 2008). Another considerable issue from cultural Non-majored English students are the ones aspects is that the learning autonomy of who do not major in English. Those are Asian students in general and Vietnamese the students who have enrolled in higher students in particular is not strong education with mixed levels of English. (Palfreyman, 2004). The study of Littlewood According to Hoang’s (2008) surveys in Ha (1999, cited in Trinh, 2010) also shows Noi National University, 62.48% learners two main barriers that prevent learners studied English since high school, 27.7% from their learning autonomy as (1) the learned the language from secondary level, collectivism and (2) the high constant and the rest learned English intensively. powerful distance in the relationship The results of Hoang’s study are compatible among teachers and students. This result with the findings of Doan (2008). It proved actually has produced several outcomes that English classroom for non-English by a number of researchers (Vygotsky, majors have learners from different levels 1978; Ho and Crookall, 1995; and Little, from beginner to upper intermediate. This 2000). The basis of collectivism is believed reality leads to the unlimited difficulties to contribute the most in the cooperative for teachers in classroom management, activities and teachers’ roles as facilitators teaching, and learning activities. can design appropriate activities to help Currently, English is not considered the learners learn better. main course in most higher education In short, the above characteristics of programs, except for some universities with

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 105 students at higher education in Vietnam definitions and the scale of this research, have shown the reasons that they are not the author comes into a specific explanation able to learn English well. In this study, the for the term as follows: researcher believed that the attitudes and Learning autonomy is an expectation from the learning autonomy play a special role the learners’ self-evaluating abilities on in the learners’ success. It helps the learners the acquisition levels in class. It requires gain knowledge naturally by practicing and the learners to have awareness and self-learning and be more confident in class responsibilities for their learning. From activities. that, they must find solutions and develop To clarify this point, it is important to the appropriate learning methods for define the terms of learning autonomy and themselves. its roles for non-English majors who are The role of learning autonomy students of English. Learning autonomy plays an important Learning autonomy role in learners’ learning process, especially The term learning autonomy was first the ones in higher educational levels. In used by Holec (1981). Then, many fact, several mismatches in the learning scholars and educational researchers methods between learners at colleges and at have defined this term from different high schools are that high- school students aspects (Littlewood, 1991; Benson, only need to master the knowledge gaining 2001; Cotterall, 1995; Dam, 1995; Ho from the teachers. Then, the learners & Benson, 1996; Le, 20l00; Chan, 2001; are continuously tested, evaluated with Vanijdee, 2003; and Trịnh, 2010). Learning measurable assigned exercises (Phan, 2009). autonomy which was defined by Holec On the contrary, learning autonomy can be (1981) is the ability of being self-responsible understood as a compulsory requirement for one’s own learning. Trịnh (2010) also for any learners at higher educational levels. has similar definition with more details. In fact, the learners must refine their skills, Learning autonomy is concerning the right widen their knowledge through in-class ways in identifying the learning motivation, acquisition, and do research from different the self-management for own study to have valuable sources … At higher educational positive learning attitudes, and making levels, learners should play vital roles in fine adjustments in all learning activities deciding their learning results and their and assessment activities for one’s own success. In this scenario, the teachers education. Trinh states that the learners’ will be the guider and the facilitator for ability in learning autonomy may help their learners’ learning and researching. them be able to work independently and However, the teachers have undeniable cooperate with their classmates. Littlewood big roles in developing the learning (1991) believes that learning autonomy is autonomy awareness for learners in the an essential issue which is related to the teaching process. Many researchers have psychology relationship of the learners investigated the usages of some methods in their learning process. From the above and tools so that teachers can build up and

106 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 enhance the learners’ learning autonomy students (75%) had studied English for 7 (Cotterall, 1995; Johnson, et al., 1998; years; eleven students (21.2%) had learned Yang, 1998; Nunan, 2000; Chan, 2001; English for 3 years, and the other of 3.8% Trinh, 2005; Phan, 2009; Trinh, 2010). The with different programs. Moreover, most mentioned methods and teaching tools are students were from remote areas in Vinh recognized as (1) making the assurance of Long and nearby provinces in the Mekong “learning must be activated by practicing”, Delta. (2) changing the teaching contents and Fifteen students in other first-year course methods, (3) altering the traditional role of business administration, who were of a teacher, (4) equipping the learners believed to share similar levels of English with the useful learning tips, (5) providing knowledge and learning autonomy level, competing conditions for learners to learn helped pilot the research tools. and cooperate to solve the problems. To resolve the problems in the Within the scope of this study, besides using aforementioned teaching scenario, this some teaching practices mentioned above research focuses on answering two research in creating the learners’ ability of learning questions. autonomy, the learners were required to write reflective papers about what they 1. Does the tool of the reflective have learned and done during and after the writing paper affect the learners’ ability to lessons. learn autonomously in the case of non- English majors? Reflective writing paper 2. What have the learners evaluated The reflective writing paper was designed about themselves from this self-evaluation to be simple and appropriate to the tool? research context as a tool to intervene into the learners’ learning process. However, To answer the posed questions, the study it consisted of the basic characteristics of was conducted using both qualitative the reflective writing genre in general, and and quantitative methods. The researcher not necessarily an academic one. For that used the questionnaire before and after reason, the learners are more convinced the intervention time to measure the and be confident to share their ideas and participants’ ability of learning autonomy, thoughts related to them and their learning. the interview questions to gain the insight of the learners about the intervention tool. Research methods The collected data was then inputted and The study was conducted on fifty two analyzed by Microsoft Excel and SPSS 14 non- English major college learners from programs. a first-year food processing course. They shared the common age range from 18 to Results 20 and were recent high school graduates. The learners’ ability of learning autonomy However, the learners’ language levels The research questionnaire of 12 questions differed from each other. Thirty nine (see appendix 1) was delivered to fifty

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 107 two participants at before and after the two points of measurements. The results intervention of writing reflective papers to also illustrate that their learning autonomy seek for data about their learning autonomy. ability increased (Mean Post>Mean Pre). Those participants were explained about In order to identify the learners’ autonomy, the purposes of the study and guided how the questionnaire was designed to focus on to do the survey. Each had to tick on the three clusters of (1) the frequency of using appropriate box for their grading on each the ways to study English better, (2) ways question which scaled from “Always” to to deal with problems with lessons in class, “Never”. These data was then coded from 1 and (3) the awareness towards reviewing for “Never” to 5 for “Always” in the Likert the lessons and self-studying. Each cluster scale. The results from the questionnaire will be analyzed using Descriptive Statistic were subjected to the SPSS for the data Test and One Sample T- Test for the outputs. analysis. The Scale Test was run to check the reliability of the questionnaire. The results Cluster 1 - The frequency of using the showed that the reliability coefficient of the ways to study English better questionnaire was (α= .782) for the first The Descriptive Statistic Test was done to delivery and (α= .812) for the second one. check whether the learners have used the The learners’ learning autonomy level from different ways of bettering their English the collected data was analyzed all by the or not. Then, the data at the two points Descriptive Statistic Test in SPSS and its of measurement will be compared and its results were displayed below in Table 1 results are shown in the Table 2 below.

Table 1. The mean score of the learners’ ability of learning Table 2. Mean scores of the first cluster autonomy N Min. Max. Mean SD. N Min. Max. Mean SD. MeanCl1 52 1.60 4.60 3.09 .68 MeanPre 52 2.33 4.67 3.45 .58 MeanCl1p 52 1.80 4.80 3.39 .67 MeanPost 52 2.42 4.83 3.61 .61 Valid N (listwise) ValidN (listwise) 52 The results illustrated the mean score of As shown in Table 1, the descriptive the first cluster in the questionnaire both statistic test described the mean score of before and after the study were all higher the learners’ ability in learning autonomy than the average mean score (M = 3.0) before the intervention and the standard of the five scales (M Pre = 3.09 and M derivation (M= 3.45, SD= .58). This figure Post = 3.39). This statistical data shows is significantly higher than the mean score that the learners have used several ways (M= 3.0) of the five scales t( = 5.627, df= 51, to improve their English learning. Their p=.00). Similarly, the mean score collected methods to improve their learning after the from the questionnaire at the end of the intervention are slightly higher than that of study (M= 3.61, SD= .61) is simultaneously the first measurement. The analysis from higher than the average mean score of the the One Sample T- Test which can be found scale (t= 7.179, df= 51, p= .00). This result in appendix 5 will clarify this specifically. leads a conclusion that the participants have potential awareness and slightly above The results fromOne Sample T- Test average levels of learner autonomy at the proved that the learners have used different 108 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 ways to learn better at the average level. before and after the study M pre= 3.58 and However, their ability before the study is M post = 3.61 were considerably higher not significantly different from the average than the average scale of 3.0 (t= 5.4 and 5.1, mean score of the five scales (t= 1.017, df= df= 51, p= .00). 51, p= .3). Cluster 3 - The awareness about reviewing At the second time of measurement, the the lessons and self-studying. difference is significant (t= 4.187, df= The Descriptive Statistic Test showed the 51, p=.00). This result proves that the results as in Table 4 below. intervention of reflective writing paper is effective to the learners in the ways leading Table 4: The mean scores of Cluster 3 them to useful learning methods. The N Min. Max. Mean SD. special point is that they have tried and got MeanCl3 52 3.00 5.00 3.89 .60 MeanCl3p 52 3.00 5.00 4.00 .61 successes. Valid N (listwise) Cluster 2 – The ways to deal with problems Similarly to Clusters 1 and 2, the statistic with lessons in class data with the Descriptive Statistic Test Similar to the first cluster, the Descriptive and One Sample T-Test (see appendix 5) Statistic Test and One Sample T- Test explained that the learners have somewhat provides the following results: the awareness on reviewing their lessons in class and at home at both times of Table 3. Mean scores of the second cluster at the two points of measurement. In some particular cases, measurement the mean scores (M Pre = 3.89 and M Post N Min. Max. Mean SD. = 4.00) were relatively higher than the MeanCl2 52 1.75 4.75 3.58 .77 MeanCl2p 52 1.75 3.61 .84 comparative mean score (3.0) of the five Valid N (listwise) 5.00 scale (t= 10.7 and 11.6, df= 51, p= .00). The results demonstrate that the learners were The scores shown in Table 3 after 2 times affected by the reflective writing papers of measurements demonstrated that the in their learning autonomy. However, the learners have awareness about their learning data reveals that learners are still under the through focusing in solving the problems. impact of some learning regulations of in- Those problems are the knowledge that has class testing and examination. missed in class (Mean Pre = 3.58 and Mean In short, the above analyzed clusters provide Post = 3.61). evidences that the learners have learning The results from One Sample T-Test (see autonomy awareness. The reflective writing appendix 5) showed that the mean scores at paper has a certain role in improving the two points of measurement are significantly learners’ ability in this research issue though different from that of the five scale (M=3.0). there are some different outcomes among This level is the acceptable average which the clusters. The next part will be about the showed the learners’ ability in learning impact of reflective writing paper on the autonomy by taking into action ways of learners’ awareness in learning autonomy. solving problems in class. The mean scores

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 109 Table 5. Participants’ feedback on their real actions about their learning autonomy Find solutions from Enroll to study at a Do nothing Review the lessons Do homework Ask teacher or friends Others different sources language center Pre test 0% 69% 17% 46% 71% 25% 19% Post test 1,96% 64,71% 19,61% 17,65% 54,90% 0% 72,55%

The learners’ awareness in learning between the two points of data collection, autonomy through reflective writing a significant difference was found at paper the second intervention can be inferred The data collected at the two points of from the type of question. In the first measurement are displayed as in the Table intervention, the questions included closed 5. Those activities were mentioned by and open-ended questions. However, in students in answering the open questions. the post one test, the paper had only the The figures shown in table 5 demonstrate open-ended items (see appendix 3). The the huge differences in the learners’ questions A and B in both questionnaire awareness and actions through several pretest and posttest are only the hooking named specific activities between the two questions to see the learners’ reflection times of measurement. The differences on their understanding levels in class can be found from the actions of “doing which can help the teacher modifies the in homework”, “ask teacher or friend”; “enroll appropriate teaching activities later. to study at a language center” and “others”. The design of open-ended questions at the In this research aspect, the item “others” is second time has a real meaning in collecting actually an open-ended question to call for data about the learning autonomy activities the learner’s real experiences and actions in which the participants have done. Actually, their learning which help them understand the ways the learners answer the research the lessons and study better. questionnaire go from intensive selections Though the question contents in the with provided options about self-studied reflective writing paper are not different activities to the awareness and response

Table 6. The conceptions about the awareness of learning autonomy used by the learners in the item “others” At the first At the Differences in The conceptions used by the learners time second time number of ideas Re-take the exercises at home and review the lessons learned before 0 8 8

Use the dictionary or ask friends 3 8 5 Search for information by reading book, practice more, read more references and re-read the lesson 3 10 7 Surf the Internet or Google 2 6 4 Study the lessons, the formula, ways to write sentences…study harder, write words, sentences into the notes 2 5 3 and tick them to the place where I can study, watch English movies, listen to English… Learn vocabulary 1 7 6 Study and discuss in groups 0 3 3 Ask friends, check the parts that I still have questions or problems, discuss and study with friends about them 0 3 3 Try harder 0 1 1 Preview the lessons 0 1 1

110 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 to what they have done. They individually Table 7. Learners’ English competence wrote responses to the activities that they Mean score First test Second test Mean difference have used for improving their learning. Mean 0.978 1.135 MD=0.16 The item “others” at the second time of From the above comparison, it could be measurement indicates that the learners seen that the learners’ English competence improved their ability in learning autonomy. increased about eight percent. Although It increased from 19% at the first time to the mean score was slight above the average 72.55% after that. Table 6 above presents score of 1.0 (Mean =1.135), the learners’ some learning activities through the item English competence was influenced “others”. slightly during the intervention and Data from Table 6 demonstrated that the improved positively. This result has a high learning autonomy activities at the second compatibility with the data gaining from point of measurement are diversified and the questionnaire about their learning higher in quantity in comparison to that autonomy. It proves that when learners of at the first point. Particularly, many change their learning attitude, they have activities which have been used are not awareness and develop learning habits, mentioned at the first time but named at causing learning autonomy to be increased the second time. From that result, though thereby, helping learners improve their just the learning autonomy activities may English competence. not make big progress in the learners’ After analyzing the quantitative data ability, the study shows the evidences that from the questionnaire and tests, fifteen the learners have changed their mind and participants were invited to join an interview had awareness about their learning and to evaluate their insights into the learners’ tried to find more appropriate ways for learning autonomy and the effectiveness of learning better. the intervention of reflective writing paper. To ensure the role of the activity of writing The effectiveness of reflective writing reflective paper as analyzed above, the paper on learners’ learning autonomy next part will focus on the results from The interview questions (see appendix 2) the competence tests of English during the included three items focusing on (1) the experimental study. learners’ demands when learning English, The learners’ English competence (2) ways of learning autonomy, and (3) English competence was simultaneously the effectiveness of the research tool for conducted by the questionnaire to measure intervention. the changes in the learners’ ability. These (1) The learners’ demands when learning tests were assumed similarly at difficult English levels of reliability (see appendix 4). The All interviewers showed that they wanted test results can be found at appendix 6 with to study English better in general and the the mean score at the first measurement skills in particular. Among four English is 0.978 and 1.135 out of 2.0 at the second skills, twelve items at 80% were about time. speaking skills. Nine items at 60% were for

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 111 listening skills and 13.3% represented the by passive learning techniques. rest of the English language skills. Their (3) The effectiveness of the research tool reasons for improving their English were to for intervention meet the social needs, find a job easily, and to be able to communicate with foreigners. All subjects said that the reflective writing This result shows that learners were aware papers were useful for them. Their of the importance of learning the language explanation and reasons could be divided skills for their competence. into two main categories. First, thanks to reflective writing paper, (2) Ways of learning autonomy the teacher could easily understand each To learn English better, the participants learner’s English competence and abilities. provided several solutions which they used The teacher could find the learning during the learning process. Besides some problems from students to improve the common autonomous ways such as “asking lessons or activities. In other words, the friends”, “reviewing lessons at home”, and reflective writing paper assisted teachers to “paying attention in class”, learners also understand learners’ understanding better showed some creative ways of learning to modify teaching methods. as “using all senses to learn”, “combining both writing and speaking”, and “listening Second, the reflective writing paper to radio and cassette regularly”. This data provided learners a chance to look back illustrates that the learners actually want to at their learning methods and results, study English and have the thoughts about evaluate their abilities, and improve their their competence. competence and skills. From that, they can find solutions to help themselves and However, the interview also showed that consolidate knowledge. 77.8% of the learners only care about their grammar and vocabulary and 22.3% for In conclusion, the ideas extracted from other language skills. This result is explained the interviews focused on the important by the reality of the impact of testing and roles of the reflective writing paper. It research. When the tests are mostly based on helped learners strengthen the awareness grammar and reading, learners’ attention to about positive learning and has led each certain skills are highly different from what participant to their goal of learning English they are required to study. Furthermore, better. learners still have negative thoughts about learning with 26.6% of the learners wanting to learn for the exam. Conclusions and Implications In short, the learners present their ability to The research results showed that the learning autonomy through the activities reflective writing paper played an important that they have changed for their learning role in enhancing the participants’ learning process. However, most of the concentration autonomy. The learners were aware of the is still on language knowledge not the skills significance of learning autonomy and and learning methods which are influenced appreciated the role of the reflective writing

112 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 paper towards their own language learning About the author process. Phan Thi Tuyet Van is a lecturer at Vinh Long Community College, Mekong Delta. She is interested in doing research The learners’ self-learning capacity and teaching English as a foreign language in this context of Vietnam. This article is a piece of work that remarks her before and after the intervention changed professional development. From her teaching situations, she positively. In other words, the learners were is also conducting different studies about learners’ autonomy, innovative language teaching tools, and English for special self-aware of their learning and desired to purposes. find the most suitable learning techniques for themselves. These findings were References compatible with the research of Benson Benson, P. (2001). Teaching and researching (2001) and Wendi (2002). autonomy in language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. However, the results also indicated Chan, V. (2001). Readiness for learner autonomy: that learners didn’t recognize the close What do our learners tell us? Teaching in Higher relationship between all four skills of a Education, 6(4), 505-518. language; therefore, their learning focus Cotterall, S. (1995). Readiness for autonomy: was still on grammar and vocabulary. Investigating learner beliefs. System, 23(2), 195- 206. From aforementioned findings, it is Dam, L. (2000). Why focus on learning rather than suggested that the EFL teachers create teaching. Dublin: Authentik. opportunities for their students to express Doan, H. N. (2008). Vì sao sinh viên ra trường không ideas about what they have learned and nói được tiếng Anh? [Translated title: Why aren’t what they are not able to acquire or follow students to speak English after graduation?] Retrieved on June 16, 2012 from http://tuoitre. after every class. From this, teachers can vn/Giao-duc/291136/Vi-sao-sinh-vien-ra- adjust their teaching methods to satisfy a truong-khong-noi-duoc-tieng-Anh.html. variety of learning styles. Hoang, V. V. (2008). Những yếu tố ảnh hưởng đến In addition, not only teachers but also chất lượng đào tạo tiếng Anh không chuyên tại trường Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội. [Translated administrators need to recognize that title: Factors affecting the quality of English improving learning autonomy for students education at Vietnam National University, Ha is as important as increasing training Noi]. Tạp chí Khoa học ĐHQGHN, Ngoại ngữ quality for the institute. As a result, it is 24(2008)22-37. necessary to encourage learners in general Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy and Foreign Language and EFL learners in particular, that self- Learning. Oxford: Pergamon. learning and self- researching are especially Ho, J. & Crookall, D. (1995). Breaking the Chinese cultural traditions: Learner autonomy in important in changing traditional learning language teaching. System, 23, 235-243. habits. Hui, L. (1997). New bottles, old wine: Communicative Moreover, it should be determined that Language Teaching in China. English Teaching learning is not just for testing purposes, Forum, 1997- exchanges.state.gov. but a philosophy, and a passion that exists Johnson, D. W., et al. (1998). Active learning: Cooperation in the college classroom. Edina, MN: during one’s life. Interaction Book Company. Le, V.C. (1999). Language and Vietnamese pedagogical contexts. The fourth International

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 113 Conference on Language and Development. across cultures. Great Britain: Antony Rowe Retrieved on June 15, 2012 from http://www. Ltd, Chippenham and Eastbourne. languages.ait.ac.th/hanoi_poceedings/canh. Phan, B. N. (2009). Tổ chức tốt việc tự học cho htm. sinh viên nhằm nâng cao chất lượng đào tạo Le, P. L. (2000). Lý luận dạy học. [Translated title: của các trường đại học theo hình thức tín chỉ Teaching theories]. Đại học Cần Thơ. Vietnam. hiện nay. [Translated title: Organize the learning Lin, H.J (1998). Different attitudes among non- autonomy for students well to improve the English major EFL Students. Retrieved on June training qualities on current credit system at 15, 2012 from http://iteslj.org/Articles/Warden- Vietnamese Universities] Tạp chí Khoa học Difference/ ĐHQGHN, Ngoại ngữ 25(2009) 160-164. Le, V.C. &Barnard, R. (2009). Curricular innovation Trinh, Q. L. (2005). Stimulating learner autonomy behind closed classroom doors: A Vietnamese in English language education: A curiculum case study. Teachers Editions, 13, pp. 36-42. innovation study in a Vietnamese context. Unpublished Ph.D disertation: University of Little, D. (2000). Learner autonomy: Why?: Amsterdam. Multilingual Matters. Trinh, Q. L. (2010). Phát triển năng lực tự học Littlewood, W. (1999). Defining and developing trong hoàn cảnh Việt Nam. [Translated title: learner autonomy in East Asian contexts. Enhancing the learning autonomy in the context Applied Linguistics, 20 (1), 71-94. of Vietnam]. Retrieved June 14, 2012 from: Nunan, D. (2000, November). Autonomy in http://www.khoavanhoc-ngonngu.edu.vn/home/ language learning. Paper presented at index.php?option=com_content&view=artic ASOCOPI, Cartagena, Colombia. le&id=1064%3Aphat-trin-nng-lc-t-hc-trong- Palfreyman, D. (2004). Introduction. In D. hoan-cnh-vit-nam&catid=109%3Ai-mi-ct-a- Palfreyman & R. C. Smith, Learner autonomy pp-ging-dy-vn-hc&Itemid=105&lang=vi.

114 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 Appendix-I QUESTIONNAIRE (This questionnaire aims to collect the data towards the students’ learning autonomy before and after taking the reflective writing papers) A. Please provide your personal information: please tick (√) to the appropriate box 1. What your name? (optional): …………………………………… □ Male □ Female 2. You are from: □ A rural area □ An urban area 3. You studied English at high school for: □ Seven years □ Three years □ Other 4. Which level of English are you in? □ Elementary □ Low-intermediate □ Intermediate □ Other 5. English is necessary for you in some ways □ Yes □ No 6. Which skill(s) of English do you like best? (You can tick on more than one box) □ Listening □ Speaking □ Reading □ Writing 7. Your e-mail address (optional): ………………………………………. B. Please read the statements carefully and indicate your response with a tick in one of the boxes on the right

No Items Always Sometimes Average Rarely Never

1 The way(s) you have used to study English well 1a. Learn English words by heart 1b. Take English classes from a Center of Foreign Languages 1c. Read English books or magazines 1d. Surf the Internet for information

1e. Review on the lessons studied in the class 1g. Other(s), please specify: 2 When you haven’t understood any points of English, you will 2a. Ask for help from teachers or friends 2b. Try to find the answers from different sources 2c. Study together to solve the problems 2d. Do nothing 2e. Other(s), please specify: 3 You will review the lessons whenever 3a. The teacher asks you to recite the lessons every class 3b. You finish every class 3c. You take a test or an exam 3d. Other(s), please specify:

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 115 Appendix II

THE INTERVIEW

1. Do you really want to study English well? Please specify the skill(s) you want to be good at?

2. Please tell about your own ways of studying English? Do you review the lessons after every English class? (If yes, what do you do with any points which you didn’t understand in class? If no, when will you review the English lessons?)

3. Do you think the reflections that you took after classes were useful for you in some ways? Please specify?

116 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 Appendix III REFLECTIVE WRITING 1

A. Which part(s) of the current unit do you like best? Why? ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………

B. Which content(s) don’t you understand? Why? ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… C. What will you do when you don’t understand any contents of the unit? 1. Do nothing 2. Review the lessons 3. Try to find out solutions from some sources 4. Do homework 5. Ask for help from teacher(s) or friend(s) 6. Take an English course 7. Others: (Please specify) ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… D. Describing about what you have done to solve the problems you faced in the last class? …………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 117 REFLECTIVE WRITING 2

A. What have you learned from the current unit? ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………….. B. Which part(s) of this unit do you like best? Why? ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………...... C. Which content(s) don’t you understand? What will you do to improve? ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………... D. What have you done to solve the problems you faced in the last class? ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………...

118 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 Appendix IV English Competence Pre-Test Time allotted: 60’

I. VOCABULARY: Fill in the blanks with given suitable words or phrases (0.5 m)

ties train degree learn fail messages positive pass hard Internet negative market

1. Many workers want to go back to school to ………………for a new career. 2. Sorry, I can’t send you ……………. because I am busy with my project. 3. He likes to wear shirts with ……………. for the whole week. 4. She got a ……………….. in France and from Cantho University and now works as a teacher. 5. You can buy things and finds information on the ……………… 6. How did you …………….. to swim or scuba dive? 7. Goods in the supermarket are more expensive than in the ……………… 8. Tom has a ………… attitude towards life. He is an optimistic person. 9. They have to take the exam again because they didn’t ………… the first exam. 10. Don’t press that button so …………… unless you’ll break the camera.

II. GRAMMAR A. Circle the correct answers (0.5 m) 1. We didn’t arrive until seven o’clock ……………. the traffic was terrible. a. to b. because c. because of d. none is correct 2. Jane has already eaten her lunch, but I’m saving ………… until late a. my b. mine c. I d. me 3. I want you to open the door ……………. a. careful b. carefully c. the most careful d. care 4. It isn’t my dog. It’s …………… a. him b. he c. himself d. his 5. Don’t tell that story ……………. his parents. a. to b. for c. by d. with 6. He hopes …………… a job offered from this company. a. getting b. for get c. to get d. get

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 119 7. Dennis …………… to the English Speaking Club every week. a. is going b. goes c. go d. are going 8. There was ……….. food for everyone at the party a. too b. really c. enough d. pretty 9. Ellen enjoys ………….. shopping with her friends. a. going b. to go c. go d. goes 10. ………………… has stolen my sandals. a. Anyone b. Someone c. Something d. Nowhere B. Give the correct forms of the verbs in brackets (0.25 m) 1. My cell phone is such good quality that I ……………….. (have) the same phone for years. 2. Trees …………. (lose) their leaves in autumn. 3. Eric ……………. (wear) a new shirt today. 4. Tokyo ……………. (be) the capital of Japan. 5. Did you add flour,pour in the milk, and then ...... (add) the eggs? C. Make complete sentences (0.25 m) 1. Let’s/ write/ letter/ John/ California. ………………………………………………… 2. What/you/free time? ………………………………………………… 3. Mary/not finish/homework/yet. ………………………………………………… 4. Tom and I/go/fly/kite/last week. ………………………………………………… 5. A lazy person/not like/work hard. …………………………………………………

III. READING (0.5m) Student services As a full-time student at Blue Sky College, you will have your own counselor. He or she helps you plan your study, deal with your home-stay issues or your personal problems. Your counselor can guide you through your studies and discuss any study problems arising. On Orientation Day you will learn who is your counselor and can arrange a meeting after this. Besides, you can get help from other staff members if you need to improve your writing, oral and numeracy skills for the successful completion of your college course. Help with basic skills is also available. Note that you may always ask for assistance at the reception

120 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 desk at any time.

Write True (T) or False (F) for each of the sentences below: 1……. Student at Blue Sky College have their own counselors. 2……. A counselor can support students in solving their individual problems. 3……. Students can meet their counselors on Orientation Day. 4……. Students find out their counselors’ names from the reception desk. 5……. Counselors can help students improve their writing skill. 6……. Students can get the staff’s support in presenting information. 7……. Students need the skill of handling numbers while studying at Blue Sky College. 8……. Staff members can support students in achieving basic skills. 9……. It is important for students to ask for help at the reception desk. 10……Writing skill is necessary for a student to successfully complete the course.

English Competence Post-Test Time allotted: 60’ I. VOCABULARY: Fill in the blanks with given suitable words or phrases (0.5m) journalist get here character playing get a taxi bills mechanic medicine keep up with disappointed hard look

1. You ……………. unhappy. What’s the matter? 2. That film is very exciting. My favorite actor plays the ……………… of a doctor. 3. Dolores is studying ……………. because she wants to be a doctor. 4. Many adults take classes to ……………...... the changes in their field. 5. A ……………. is a person who writes for newspapers and magazines. 6. They try to work …………… to earn a lot of money. 7. I was ………………when I saw that film. I didn’t like it at all 8. I didn’t know you were here. What time did you ……………….? 9. Every month, he has the responsibility for paying ………….. for the whole family. 10. The children love …………………... in the park.

II. GRAMMAR A. Circle the correct answers (0.5m) 1. I didn’t eat …………….. because I wasn’t hungry.

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 121 a. someone b. anyone c. something d. anything 2. My room is bigger than ……………. a. her b. she c. hers d. herself 3. He plays the guitar ……………. a. more terrible b. terrible c. terribly d. none is correct 4. What’s wrong? “There’s ……………. in my eye.” a. something b. someone c. somewhere d. anything 5. Can we use your washing machine. ………… is broken a. We b. Our c. We’re d. Ours 6. I do the same thing every day. My job is very …………… a. bored b. boring c. bore d. none is correct 7. That book…………. interesting. a. look b. looks c. is looking d. looking 8. It’s not …………….. that you failed the exam. You never did any work. a. surprising b. surprise c. surprised d. surprises 9. Kyoko doesn’t like ………………...out the garbage. a. take b. taking c. takes d. to take 10. I’m studying English …………. I’m going to be a pilot a. to b. because c. of d. in order to B. Give the correct forms of the verbs in brackets (0.35m) 1. He …………….. (be) in the library now. 2. John went to Venezuela last year, but he ……………...... (never been) to Colombia 3. Kathy ………………. (attend) the English class three times a weeks 4. Susan! You look worried. What ………… you …………… (think) about? 5. Jane ………………… (already eat) her lunch, but I’m saving mine until late. 6. She usually…………. (wear) a dress, but now she ………………(wear) jeans.

C. Make complete sentences (0.25m) 1. Alice/enjoy/go shopping/her friends/weekends. ………………………………………………… 2. Vietnam/become/150th member of the WTO/2007. ………………………………………………… 3. What/you/do/the last summer? ………………………………………………… 4. A stubborn person/not like/change his plans.

122 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 ………………………………………………… 5. I/send/some flowers/Mary/two days ago. …………………………………………………

III. READING (0.4m) Student services The University of Iowa’s main campus is in Iowa City, bordered by Park Road to the north and Dubuque and Gilbert Streets roughly to the east. The Iowa River flows through the campus dividing it into west and east sides. At the center of the University of Iowa campus is the Pentacrest, which is sometimes referred to as the “center of academic life at the University”, especially for Liberal Arts students. It consists of five buildings; the Old Capitol and four lecture halls, Schaeffer, Macbride, MacLean, and Jessup. A variety of classes are held in these four buildings, mostly relating to the Liberal Arts. Macbride Hall and the Old Capital also contain museums of natural history and Iowa state history, respectively. Write True (T) or False (F) for each of the sentences below: 1 ……. Park Road and Dubuque are in the north of Iowa City. 2 ……. The border between the east and the west side of the campus is a river. 3 ……. The Pentacrest is the center of the campus. 4 ……. There are five buildings in the Pentacrest. 5 ……. Liberal Arts students have lectures in the buildings of the Pentacrest. 6 ……. The Old Capitol is one of the lecture halls of the Pentacrest. 7 ……. Only Liberal Arts classes are held in the four buildings. 8 ……. Macbride Hall contains the museum of Iowa state history.

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 123 Appendix V The output data of Questionnaire 1. The Reliability of the questionnaire Reliability Statistics

Cronbach’s Alpha Cronbach’s Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items

.782 .788 12 Summary Item Statistics Mean Minimum Maximum Range Maximum / Variance N of Items Minimum Item Means 3.460 2.269 4.404 2.135 1.941 .321 12 Item-Total Statistics

Scale Mean if Item Scale Variance if Item Corrected Item-Total Squared Multiple Cronbach’s Alpha if

Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Item Deleted

Q1a 37.7500 42.426 .562 .536 .755 Q1b 38.6731 37.283 .602 .491 .744 Q1c 39.2500 42.113 .511 .390 .758 Q1d 38.5769 47.739 .080 .243 .800 Q1e 37.8654 42.315 .537 .323 .757 Q2a 37.8846 40.810 .592 .456 .749 Q2b 38.2115 39.307 .666 .593 .740 Q2c 38.1346 40.354 .589 .394 .749 Q2d 37.5000 47.431 .064 .175 .807 Q3a 37.8846 47.398 .097 .305 .799 Q3b 37.8654 42.942 .448 .488 .765 Q3c 37.1154 44.222 .468 .398 .765 Reliability Statistics

Cronbach’s Alpha Cronbach’s Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items

.812 .819 12 Summary Item Statistics Maximum/ Mean Minimum Maximum Range Variance N of Items Minimum Item Means 3.617 3.000 4.327 1.327 1.442 .124 12 Item-Total Statistics

Scale Mean if Item Scale Variance if Item Corrected Item-Total Squared Multiple Cronbach’s Alpha if

Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Item Deleted

P1a 39.5192 47.117 .597 .733 .788 P1b 40.1731 45.205 .569 .484 .787 P1c 40.4038 45.932 .524 .398 .792

124 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 P1d 40.1731 48.891 .317 .478 .811 P1e 39.7885 49.111 .337 .283 .808 P2a 39.7308 44.710 .615 .494 .783 P2b 39.8846 44.614 .624 .567 .782 P2c 39.8269 44.146 .674 .523 .778 P2d 39.7308 48.867 .226 .319 .826 P3a 39.5769 51.465 .203 .387 .818 P3b 39.5577 46.722 .602 .570 .787 P3c 39.0769 50.425 .367 .278 .805 2. The Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation MeanPre 52 2.33 4.67 3.4599 .58937 MeanPost 52 2.42 4.83 3.6170 .61972 Valid N (listwise) 52

3. The One Sample T- Test One-Sample Statistics

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

MeanPre 52 3.4599 .58937 .08173 MeanPost 52 3.6170 .61972 .08594 One-Sample Test

Test Value = 3 95% Confidence Interval of the t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Difference Lower Upper

MeanPre 5.627 51 .000 .45994 .2959 .6240 MeanPost 7.179 51 .000 .61699 .4445 .7895

4. The Descriptive statistical tests for each cluster at the two points of measurements Descriptive Statistics Std. N Range Minimum Maximum Sum Mean Variance Deviation MeanCl1 52 3.00 1.60 4.60 161.00 3.0962 .68197 .465 MeanCl2 52 3.00 1.75 4.75 186.50 3.5865 .77156 .595 MeanCl3 52 2.00 3.00 5.00 202.67 3.8974 .60333 .364 MeanCl1p 52 3.00 1.80 4.80 176.40 3.3923 .67558 .456 MeanCl2p 52 3.25 1.75 5.00 187.75 3.6106 .84947 .722

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 125 MeanCl3p 52 2.00 3.00 5.00 208.00 4.0000 .61923 .383 Valid N (listwise) 52 5. The One Sample T-Test for Cluster 1 One-Sample Statistics N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean MeanCl1 52 3.0962 .68197 .09457 MeanCl1p 52 3.3923 .67558 .09369 One-Sample Test Test Value = 3 95% Confidence Interval of the t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Difference Lower Upper MeanCl1 1.017 51 .314 .09615 -.0937 .2860 MeanCl1p 4.187 51 .000 .39231 .2042 .5804

6. The One Sample T-Test for Cluster 2 One-Sample Statistics N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean MeanCl2 52 3.5865 .77156 .10700 MeanCl2p 52 3.6106 .84947 .11780 One-Sample Test Test Value = 3 95% Confidence Interval of the t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Difference Lower Upper MeanCl2 5.482 51 .000 .58654 .3717 .8013 MeanCl2p 5.183 51 .000 .61058 .3741 .8471

7. The One Sample T-Test for Cluster 3 One-Sample Statistics N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean MeanCl3 52 3.8974 .60333 .08367 MeanCl3p 52 4.0000 .61923 .08587 One-Sample Test Test Value = 3 95% Confidence Interval of the t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Difference Lower Upper MeanCl3 10.726 51 .000 .89744 .7295 1.0654 MeanCl3p 11.645 51 .000 1.00000 .8276 1.1724

126 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 Appendix VI English Competence Test Scores (Max=2) Index No Pre Test Post Test Differences 1 0.6 0.85 0.25 2 0.95 0.7 -0.25 3 1.3 1.5 0.2 4 0.95 1 0.05 5 1.25 1.4 0.15 6 0.9 1.05 0.15 7 0.75 1.45 0.7 8 0.65 0.75 0.1 9 1.15 1.2 0.05 10 0.9 0.9 0 11 0.7 1.35 0.65 12 1.3 1.5 0.2 13 1.15 1.3 0.15 14 1.2 1.2 0 15 0.7 1.05 0.35 16 1.15 1.4 0.25 17 1.05 1.3 0.25 18 1.05 1.05 0 19 0.6 1.3 0.7 20 1.1 1 -0.1 21 1.2 1.3 0.1 22 1.05 1 -0.05 23 1.05 0.75 -0.3 24 0.45 1 0.55 25 0.5 0.55 0.05 26 1 0.95 -0.05 27 0.95 0.95 0 28 1.1 1.2 0.1 29 0.55 0.95 0.4 30 1.2 1.55 0.35 31 0.95 1.25 0.3 32 1.3 1.6 0.3 33 1.25 1.35 0.1 34 1.05 1 -0.05 35 0.95 0.9 -0.05 36 1.05 1.25 0.2 37 1.2 1.45 0.25 38 0.95 0.9 -0.05 39 0.6 1.05 0.45 40 0.95 0.75 -0.2 41 0.95 1.25 0.3 42 1.2 1.3 0.1 43 0.65 0.75 0.1 44 0.45 0.45 0 45 1.3 1.4 0.1 46 1.25 1.35 0.1 47 0.8 1.3 0.5

Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012 127 48 1.05 1.4 0.35 49 0.95 1.05 0.1 50 1 1.4 0.4 51 1.35 1.2 -0.15 52 1.25 1.2 -0.05 Mean 0.978846 1.134615 0.155769

128 Journal of NELTA, Vol. 17 No. 1-2, December 2012