Volume 10 – Issue 4 December 2020
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Timeline of Natural History
Timeline of natural history This timeline of natural history summarizes significant geological and Life timeline Ice Ages biological events from the formation of the 0 — Primates Quater nary Flowers ←Earliest apes Earth to the arrival of modern humans. P Birds h Mammals – Plants Dinosaurs Times are listed in millions of years, or Karo o a n ← Andean Tetrapoda megaanni (Ma). -50 0 — e Arthropods Molluscs r ←Cambrian explosion o ← Cryoge nian Ediacara biota – z ←Earliest animals o ←Earliest plants i Multicellular -1000 — c Contents life ←Sexual reproduction Dating of the Geologic record – P r The earliest Solar System -1500 — o t Precambrian Supereon – e r Eukaryotes Hadean Eon o -2000 — z o Archean Eon i Huron ian – c Eoarchean Era ←Oxygen crisis Paleoarchean Era -2500 — ←Atmospheric oxygen Mesoarchean Era – Photosynthesis Neoarchean Era Pong ola Proterozoic Eon -3000 — A r Paleoproterozoic Era c – h Siderian Period e a Rhyacian Period -3500 — n ←Earliest oxygen Orosirian Period Single-celled – life Statherian Period -4000 — ←Earliest life Mesoproterozoic Era H Calymmian Period a water – d e Ectasian Period a ←Earliest water Stenian Period -4500 — n ←Earth (−4540) (million years ago) Clickable Neoproterozoic Era ( Tonian Period Cryogenian Period Ediacaran Period Phanerozoic Eon Paleozoic Era Cambrian Period Ordovician Period Silurian Period Devonian Period Carboniferous Period Permian Period Mesozoic Era Triassic Period Jurassic Period Cretaceous Period Cenozoic Era Paleogene Period Neogene Period Quaternary Period Etymology of period names References See also External links Dating of the Geologic record The Geologic record is the strata (layers) of rock in the planet's crust and the science of geology is much concerned with the age and origin of all rocks to determine the history and formation of Earth and to understand the forces that have acted upon it. -
Koritnigite Zn(Aso3oh)•
Koritnigite Zn(AsO3OH) • H2O c 2001-2005 Mineral Data Publishing, version 1 Crystal Data: Triclinic, pseudomonoclinic. Point Group: 1. As imperfect platy crystals, to 5 mm, in aggregates. Physical Properties: Cleavage: {010}, perfect; cleavage traces k [001] and k [100], visible on {010}. Tenacity: Flexible. Hardness = 2 D(meas.) = 3.54 D(calc.) = 3.56 Optical Properties: Transparent. Color: Colorless, white, rose. Luster: Pearly on {010}. Optical Class: Biaxial (+). Orientation: X = b; Y ∧ a ' 28◦; Z ∧ c ' 22◦. α = 1.632(5) β = 1.652(3) γ = 1.693(3) 2V(meas.) = 70(5)◦ Cell Data: Space Group: P 1. a = 7.948(2) b = 15.829(5) c = 6.668(2) α =90.86(2)◦ β =96.56(2)◦ γ =90.05(2)◦ Z=8 X-ray Powder Pattern: Tsumeb, Namibia; very close to cobaltkoritnigite. 7.90 (10), 3.16 (9), 3.83 (7), 2.461 (6), 2.186 (5), 3.95 (4), 2.926 (4) Chemistry: (1) (2) (3) As2O5 51.75 54.67 51.46 FeO + Fe2O3 trace 0.05 CoO 4.54 NiO 2.44 ZnO 35.97 25.83 36.44 MgO trace H2O [12.3] [12.47] 12.10 Total [100.0] [100.00] 100.00 2− (1) Tsumeb, Namibia; by electron microprobe, (AsO3OH) confirmed by IR, H2O by difference. • (2) J´achymov, Czech Republic; H2O by difference. (3) Zn(AsO3OH) H2O. Occurrence: A secondary mineral of the lower oxidation zone in a dolostone-hosted polymetallic hydrothermal ore deposit (Tsumeb, Namibia). Association: Tennantite, cuprian adamite, stranskiite, lavendulan, k¨ottigite,tsumcorite, prosperite, o’danielite (Tsumeb, Namibia); erythrite, arsenolite, sphalerite (J´achymov, Czech Republic). -
Ferrilotharmeyerite Ca(Fe3+,Zn,Cu)
3+ Ferrilotharmeyerite Ca(Fe , Zn, Cu)2(AsO4)2(OH, H2O)2 c 2001-2005 Mineral Data Publishing, version 1 Crystal Data: Monoclinic. Point Group: 2/m. As subhedral crystals, to 0.6 mm, tabular on {101}, slightly elongated along [010], wedge- or lozenge-shaped, terminated by {111}, composed of multiple crystallites. Physical Properties: Cleavage: Good on {001}. Fracture: Uneven. Tenacity: Brittle. Hardness = ∼3 D(meas.) = 4.25(5) D(calc.) = 4.21–4.38 Optical Properties: Transparent to translucent. Color: Yellow, brownish yellow, yellowish brown. Streak: Very pale yellow. Luster: Adamantine to greasy. Optical Class: Biaxial (+). Pleochroism: Strong; X = olive-green or orange; Y = pale green or yellow; Z = colorless. Orientation: X = b; Y ∧ c = ∼22◦. Dispersion: r> v,distinct, inclined. Absorption: X > Y Z. α = 1.83(1) β = [1.835] γ = 1.87(1) 2V(meas.) = 40◦ Cell Data: Space Group: C2/m. a = 8.997–9.010 b = 6.236–6.246 c = 7.387–7.391 β = 115.52−115.74◦ Z=2 X-ray Powder Pattern: Tsumeb, Namibia. 3.398 (100), 3.175 (100), 2.938 (100), 2.544 (100), 4.95 (70), 2.823 (70), 2.702 (70) Chemistry: (1) (2) As2O5 48.66 48.73 Al2O3 0.13 < 0.1 Fe2O3 13.96 15.68 CuO 5.75 < 0.1 ZnO 13.94 17.88 PbO 2.13 0.14 CaO 10.86 12.07 H2O 5.85 [5.80] Total 101.28 [100.30] (1) Tsumeb, Namibia; by electron microprobe, H2O by CHN analyzer; corresponds to (Ca0.92Pb0.05)Σ=0.97(Fe0.87Zn0.81Cu0.34Al0.01)Σ=2.03(AsO4)2(OH, H2O)2. -
Arsentsumebite Pb2cu(Aso4)(SO4)(OH) C 2001-2005 Mineral Data Publishing, Version 1
Arsentsumebite Pb2Cu(AsO4)(SO4)(OH) c 2001-2005 Mineral Data Publishing, version 1 Crystal Data: Monoclinic. Point Group: 2/m. As distorted crystals, to 2 mm, in aggregates and crusts. Twinning: Complex, observed. Physical Properties: Fracture: [Uneven] (by analogy to tsumebite). Tenacity: [Brittle.] Hardness = [3.5] D(meas.) = 6.46 D(calc.) = 6.39 Optical Properties: Semitransparent. Color: Grass-green to apple-green. Luster: [Vitreous.] Optical Class: Biaxial (–). Pleochroism: X = pale pistachio-green; Y = Z = bottle-green. α = 1.970 β = 1.992 γ = 2.011 2V(meas.) = 88◦ ◦ Cell Data: Space Group: P 21/m. a = 8.85 b = 5.92 c = 7.84 β = 112.6 Z=2 X-ray Powder Pattern: Tsumeb, Namibia; close to tsumebite. (ICDD 25-456). 3.25 (100), 4.80 (65), 2.76 (60), 3.64 (46), 2.96 (40), 3.01 (32), 2.094 (30) Chemistry: (1) (2) SO3 9.36 10.97 P2O5 0.55 As2O5 13.45 15.74 CuO 10.61 10.90 PbO 61.91 61.16 H2O 1.58 1.23 Total 97.46 100.00 (1) Tsumeb, Namibia; by electron microprobe, As2O5 originally given as As2O3, H2ObyCHN analyzer. (2) Pb2Cu(AsO4)(SO4)(OH). Mineral Group: Brackebuschite group. Occurrence: A rare mineral in the oxidized zone of a dolostone-hosted hydrothermal polymetallic ore deposit (Tsumeb, Namibia); in a hydrothermal polymetallic barite–fluorite deposit (Clara mine, Germany). Association: Malachite, cerussite, azurite, smithsonite, mimetite, bayldonite, conichalcite, duftite, quartz, iron oxide (Tsumeb, Namibia). Distribution: From Tsumeb, Namibia. In the Clara mine, near Oberwolfach, Black Forest, Germany. At Moldava, 20 km northwest of Teplice, Czech Republic. -
Mineralogy and Environmental Stability of Slags from the Tsumeb Smelter, Namibia
Applied Geochemistry 24 (2009) 1–15 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Applied Geochemistry journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apgeochem Mineralogy and environmental stability of slags from the Tsumeb smelter, Namibia Vojteˇch Ettler a,*, Zdenek Johan b, Bohdan Krˇíbek c, Ondrˇej Šebek d, Martin Mihaljevicˇ a a Institute of Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Mineral Resources, Charles University, Albertov 6, 128 43 Prague 2, Czech Republic b Bureau des Recherches Géologiques et Minières (BRGM), av. Claude Guillemin, 45060 Orléans, cedex 2, France c Czech Geological Survey, Geologická 6, 152 00 Prague 5, Czech Republic d Laboratories of the Geological Institutes, Charles University, Albertov 6, 128 43 Prague 2, Czech Republic article info abstract Article history: Three types of smelting slags originating from historically different smelting technologies in the Tsumeb Received 27 June 2008 area (Namibia) were studied: (i) slags from processing of carbonate/oxide ore in a Cu–Pb smelter (1907– Accepted 22 October 2008 1948), (ii) slags from Cu and Pb smelting of sulphide ores (1963–1970) and (iii) granulated Cu smelting Available online 30 October 2008 slags (1980–2000). Bulk chemical analyses of slags were combined with detailed mineralogical investi- gation using X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM/EDS) and electron Editorial handling by R. Fuge microprobe (EPMA). The slags are significantly enriched in metals and metalloids: Pb (0.97–18.4 wt.%), Cu (0.49–12.2 wt.%), Zn (2.82–12.09 wt.%), Cd (12–6940 mg/kg), As (930–75,870 mg/kg) and Sb (67– 2175 mg/kg). Slags from the oldest technology are composed of primary Ca- and Pb-bearing feldspars, spinels, complex Cu–Fe and Cu–Cr oxides, delafossite–mcconnellite phases and Ca–Pb arsenates. -
On the Symmetry of Tsumcorite Group Minerals Based on the New Species Rappoldite and Zincgartrellite
Mineralogical Magazine, December 2000, Vol. 64(6), pp. 1109-1126 On the symmetry of tsumcorite group minerals based on the new species rappoldite and zincgartrellite H. EFFENBERGERI,*, W. KRAUSE2, H.-J. BERNHARDT3 AND M. MARTIN4 I Institut fUr Mineralogie und Kristallographie, Universitat Wien, Althanstra~e 14, A-I090 Vienna, Austria 2 Henriette-Lott-Weg 8, 0-50354 Hiirth, Gennany 3 Ruhr-Universitat Bochum, Institut fUr Mineralogie, Universitatsstraf.le 150, 0-44780 Bochum, Germany 4 Heinrich-Zille-Weg 8, 0-09599 Freiberg, Germany ABSTRACT Rappoldite, the Co-analogue of helmutwinklerite, and zincgartrellite, the Zn-dominant analogue of gartrellite, are two new members of the tsumcorite group. Both minerals are triclinic, their structures are closely related to the parent structure, i.e. the 'tsumcorite type' (C2/m, Z = 2). The lower symmetry is caused by two different crysta,l-ch~mical requirements. Order :Bhenomen~+ o.f the hydrogen bonds cause the 'helmutwmklente type (PI, Z = 4), ordenng of Cu and Fe' IS responsible for the 'gartrellite type' (PI, Z = I). Rappoldite was found on samples from the Rappold mine near Schneeberg, Saxony, Gennany. The new species fonns red to red-brown prismatic and tabular crystals up to I mm long. Deale. = 5.28 g/cm3. 2Vz = 85(5r, nx = 1.85 (calc.), ny = 1.87(2) and nz = 1.90(2); dispersion is distinct with r > v; orientation is Y -II [120] and X - c. The empirical fonnula derived from electron microprobe analyses II is (Pb 1.01Cao.ol h: 1.02(COO99Nio 62ZnO.35FeO.02h:1.9S[(As04)199(S04)001h:2.00[(OH)0.02(H20) I 98h:2.00 or Pb(Co,Nih(As04h.2H20. -
PPM Bi-Annual Report 2017 & 2018
PPM Bi-Annual Report 2017 & 2018 The Bi-Annual Report for the PPM Research Centre DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG The Bi-annual Report of the PPM Research Centre for the two years 2017 and 2018, compiled by Jan Kramers. Layout and design by UJ Graphic Studio Special thanks/Acknowledgements We wish to extend a special word of thanks to all our corporate and governmental financial and logistical supporters (in alphabetical order): African Rainbow Minerals Anglo American Anglo Coal Anglo Gold Ashanti Anglo Platinum Anglo Research Assmang Assore Coaltech Council of Geoscience Cradle of Humankind Trust of Gauteng De Beers Consolidated Mines Department of Science and Technology (DST) Deutsche Akademische Austauschdienst (DAAD) Golder Associates Impala Platinum Kumba Iron Ore Lonmin National Research Foundation (NRF) Nkomati Joint Venture Rand Uranium (Gold One) Sibanye Stillwater South 32 Two Rivers Platinum Mine Vale Vedanta Resources Please direct all enquiries and proposals for research to: Dr Bertus Smith, Prof. Jan Kramers or Prof. Fanus Viljoen or PPM, Department of Geology University of Johannesburg Auckland Park Kingsway Campus PO Box 524, Auckland Park 2006 Johannesburg, South Africa E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] or [email protected] Tel: +27(0)11 559 4701 Fax: +27(0)11 559 4702 Cover photo: Product being poured at the ferrochrome smelter near Machadodorp. Photo B. Cairncross Header photo: The landscape at Aggeneys, Northern Cape. Photo: Trishya Owen-Smith Footer photo: Stalagmite Phalanx at Cango Caves. Photo: Trishya Owen-Smith Both footer and header photos were taken on the Honours field trip, September 2018. -
An Overview of the Type Mineralogy of Africa Florias Mees Geology
An overview of the type mineralogy of Africa Florias Mees Geology Department, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren Summary Out of the ca. 5500 valid mineral species that are currently known, about 400 have been initially described for localities in Africa. The first new mineral descriptions for this continent date from the late 18th century, but significant numbers have only been reached from the early 20th century onward. Up to now, the largest numbers of new species have been described for Namibia, the DR Congo, and South Africa, with a considerable lead over all other countries. In this overview of the type mineralogy of Africa, regional variations and the history of new mineral descriptions are covered, combined with a discussion of some general aspects of mineral species validity and mineral nomenclature, based on examples from Africa. Samenvatting – Een overzicht van de type mineralogie van Afrika Van de ca. 5500 geldige mineraalsoorten die momenteel gekend zijn, werden er ongeveer 400 voor het eerst beschreven voor vindplaatsen in Afrika. De eerste beschrijvingen van nieuwe mineralen voor dit continent dateren van het einde van de 18e eeuw, maar significante aantallen werden pas bereikt vanaf het begin van de 20e eeuw. Tot op heden werden de grootste aantallen nieuwe soorten beschreven voor Namibië, de DR Congo, en Zuid-Afrika, met aanzienlijke voorsprong op alle andere landen. In dit overzicht van de type mineralogie van Afrika worden regionale verschillen en de geschiedenis van de beschrijving van nieuwe mineralen overlopen, samen met een bespreking van enkele algemene aspecten van de geldigheid van mineraalsoorten en van de naamgeving van mineralen, aan de hand van voorbeelden uit Afrika. -
The Bushveld Igneous Complex
The Bushveld Igneous Complex THE GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA’S PLATINUM RESOURCES By C. A. Cousins, MSC. Johannesburg Consolidated Investment Company Limited A vast composite body of plutonic and volcanic rock in the central part of the Transvaal, the Bushveld igneous complex includes the platinum reef worked by Rustenburg Platinum Mines Limited and constituting the world’s greatest reserve of the platinum metals. This article describes the geological and economic aspects of this unusually interesting formation. In South Africa platinum occurs chiefly in square miles. Two of these areas lie at the the Merensky Reef, which itself forms part of eastern and western ends of the Bushveld and the Bushveld igneous complex, an irregular form wide curved belts, trending parallel to oval area of some 15,000 square miles occupy- the sedimentary rocks which they overlie, and ing a roughly central position in the province dipping inwards towards the centre of the of the Transvaal. A geological map of the Bushveld at similar angles. The western belt area, which provides the largest known has a flat sheet-like extension reaching the example of this interesting type of formation, western boundary of the Transvaal. The is shown on the facing page. third area extends northwards and cuts out- The complex rests upon a floor of sedi- side the sedimentary basin. Its exact relation- mentary rocks of the Transvaal System. This ship to the other outcrops within the basin floor is structurally in the form of an immense has not as yet been solved. oval basin, three hundred miles long and a As the eastern and western belts contain hundred miles broad. -
Mawbyite Pbfe2 (Aso4)2(OH)2 C 2001-2005 Mineral Data Publishing, Version 1 Crystal Data: Monoclinic
3+ Mawbyite PbFe2 (AsO4)2(OH)2 c 2001-2005 Mineral Data Publishing, version 1 Crystal Data: Monoclinic. Point Group: 2/m. Crystals, to 0.2 mm, show {101}, {110}, {001}, “dogtooth” to prismatic k [001]; typically in hemispherical, cylindrical, and spongy sheaflike aggregates, druses, and crusts. Twinning: “V”-shaped, about {100}, common. Physical Properties: Cleavage: On {001}, good. Fracture: Conchoidal. Hardness = ∼4 D(meas.) = n.d. D(calc.) = 5.365 Optical Properties: Transparent to translucent. Color: Pale orange, orange-brown to reddish brown. Streak: Yellow-orange. Luster: Adamantine. Optical Class: Biaxial (–). Pleochroism: Faint; brown to reddish brown. Orientation: Y = b; X ' c. α = 1.94(2) β = 2.00(2) γ = 2.04(2) 2V(meas.) = 80(5)◦ Cell Data: Space Group: C2/m. a = 9.066(4) b = 6.286(3) c = 7.564(3) β = 114.857(5)◦ Z=2 X-ray Powder Pattern: Broken Hill, Australia. 4.647 (100), 3.245 (100), 2.724 (70), 2.546 (50), 2.860 (40), 4.458 (30), 3.136 (30) Chemistry: (1) (2) (1) (2) P2O5 0.23 ZnO 0.82 As2O5 34.90 36.44 PbO 37.91 35.38 Al2O3 0.02 H2O [2.46] 2.85 Fe2O3 23.66 25.33 Total [100.00] 100.00 (1) Broken Hill, Australia; by electron microprobe, total Fe as Fe2O3, H2Oby difference; corresponds to Pb1.11(Fe1.94Zn0.07)Σ=2.01[(As0.99P0.01)Σ=1.00O4]2(OH)1.79. (2) PbFe2(AsO4)2(OH)2. Polymorphism & Series: Dimorphous with carminite. Mineral Group: Tsumcorite group. Occurrence: In an arsenic-rich reaction halo in fractures and cavities in a spessartine-quartz rock in the oxidization zone of a metamorphosed stratiform Pb–Zn orebody (Broken Hill, Australia); in the oxidization zone of Ag–Pb–Cu–Bi mineralization in fluorite–barite–quartz veins (Moldava, Czech Republic). -
The Uranium Potential of the Bushveld Igneous Complex
(GEA748| June 1987 THE URANIUM POTENTIAL OF THE BUSHVELD IGNEOUS COMPLEX A CRITICAL REAPPRAISAL Investigators: MAG Andreoli R J Hart H J Brynard F A G M Camisani-Calzolari ATOMIC ENERGY CORPORATION OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED PRETORIA THIS DOCUMENT MAY NOT BE COPIED IN ANY WAY WHATSOEVER PER 158 GEA 748 ATOMIC ENERGY CORPORATION/UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA WORKING GROUP ON URANIUM IN THE BUSHVELD COMPLEX Progress Report No. 4 THE URANIUM POTENTIAL OF THE BUSHVELD IGNEOUS COMPLEX A CRITICAL REAPPRAISAL Investigators: MAG Andreoli R J Hart H J Beynard F A G M Camisani-Calzolari POSTAL ADDRESS: Department of Geotechnology P 0 Box 582 PELINDABA PRETORIA June 1987 0001 ISBN 0 86960 848 7 PER-158 GEA-748 ATOMIC ENERGY CORPORATION/UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA WORKING GROUP ON URANIUM IN THE BUSHVELD COMPLEX Progress Report No. 4 THE URANIUM POTENTIAL OF THE BUSHVELD IGNEOUS COMPLEX A CRITICAL REAPPRAISAL Investigators: MAG Andreoli R J Hart H J Brynard F A G M Camisani-Calzolari DEPARTMENT OF GEOTECHNOLOGY ATOMIC ENERGY CORPORATION OF SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED P 0 BOX 582, PRETORIA (0001) June 1987 ISBN 086960 848 7 PER-158- i - CONTENTS Page Samevatting/Abstract vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ii-iii LIST OF TABLES iv LIST OF FIGURES v 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 ON THE POSSIBILITY OF A GIANT OLYMPIC DAM-TYPE DEPOSIT JN THE BUSHVELD COMPLEX 3 3 THE WATERBERG COVER: A TARGET FOR UNCOMFORMITY-TYPE DEPOSITS? 19 4 ADDITIONAL TARGETS FOR URANIUM EXPLORATION 25 5 DISCUSSION & RECOMMENDATIONS 27 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 30 7 REFERENCES 30 LIST OP IBBEKVIAÏIOIIS All allanite amp amphibole -
Abstract Booklet
DSI-NRF CIMERA Annual COLLOQUIUM 26-27 NOVEMBER 2020 ABSTRACT BOOKLET Image: Transvaal Supergroup, banded iron formation, Kuruman Kop, Northern Cape. 26-27 November 2020 ONLINE & IN PERSON School of Tourism and Hospitality (STH) University of Johannesburg Auckland Park Bunting Road Campus 2 Dear All, Dear All, We would like to extend a warm welcome to the annual DSI-NRF CIMERA Colloquium, hosted by the University of We would like to extend a warm welcome to the annual DSI-NRF CIMERA Colloquium, hosted by the University of Johannesburg. Johannesburg. DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence (CoE) for Integrated Mineral and Energy Resource Analysis (CIMERA) is hosted by the Department DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence (CoE) for Integrated Mineral and Energy Resource Analysis (CIMERA) is hosted by the Department of Geology at the University of Johannesburg (UJ), and co-hosted by the School of Geosciences at the University of the of Geology at the University of Johannesburg (UJ), and co-hosted by the School of Geosciences at the University of the DearWitwatersrand All, (Wits). DSI-NRF CIMERA is a virtual centre of research that concentrates existing research excellence, capacity Witwatersrand (Wits). DSI-NRF CIMERA is a virtual centre of research that concentrates existing research excellence, capacity Weand extend resources a warm welcome to enable to the researchersannual DSI-NRF toCIMERA collaborate Colloquium, across hosted disciplinesby the University and of Johannesburg. institutions on long-term projects of economic and/ or and resources to enable researchersThe to Colloquiumcollaborate will acrossrun as a hybriddisciplines event this and year, institutions triggered by the on COVID-19 long-term pandemic projects lockdown of economic situation and and/ or societal benefit in geology, that are locally relevant and internationally competitive.