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imself
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GERMANY GERMANY
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world world
during during
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191
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of in in From Isolationism lo InlcncnLion 1155 \Var 1933- 19-15 1154 CHAPTER 26 The Second World
The nextyear, Mussolini law,ched Italy's reconquest ofEthio ia, a weak nation ineastern Africa that Italy had controlled until 1896. When the League ofNations b~d Mussolini
land ofisolationism, in which he called for international cooperation to "quar antine the aggressors" who were responsible for disturbing world pea~. But his appeal fell fl
THE AXIS ALLIANCE In 1937, Japan joined Germany and Italy in establishing the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo ''Axis'~ alliance. Hitler and Mussolini vowed to create a "new order in Europe:' while the Japanese imperialists pur- sued --their "divine right" to control all of east Asia by creating what they called the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.
ANSCHLUSS In March 1938, Hitler forced the Anschluss (union) of Austria with Germany. Hitler's triumphant return to his native country was Neutrality A 1938 cartoon shows U.S. foreign policy entangled by the serpent of isolationism. greeted by pro-German crowds waving Nazi flags and tossing flowers. Soon, "Jews not Wanted" signs appeared in Austrian cities. A month later, after arresting more than 70,000 opponents of the Nazis, German leaders announced that a remarkable 99.75 percent of Austrian vot American decision to enter World War I. Chaired by Senator Gerald P. Nye ers had "approved" the forced annexation. (In fact, some 400,000 Austrians, ; £North Dakota, the "Nye Committee" began hearings in 1934 that lasted until mostly liberals and Jews, were prevented from voting.) Again, no nation early 1936. The committee concluded that weapons makers and bankers (the stepped up to oppose Hitler, and soon the Nazi government in Austria began "merchants of death'') had spurred U.S. intervention in the European conflict arresting or murdering opponents and imprisoning or exiling Jews, including in 1917 and were continuing to "help frighten nations into military activity:' the famed psychiatrist Sigmund Freud.
U.S. NEUTRALITY 1~ 935, Christian Century magazine declared that THE MUNICH PACT (1938) Hitler then threatened to annex the ~ude "ninety-nine Americans out of a hundred would today regard as an imbecile ten territory (Sudetenland), a mountainous region in western Czechoslovakia anyone who might suggest that, in the event of another European war, the along the German borderwhere more than 3 million ethnic Germans lived. Brit United States should again participate in if' Such widespread isolationism led ish and French leaders repeatedly tried to "appease" Hitler, hoping that if they President Roosevelt to sign the first of several "neutrality laws" passed by agreed to his demands for the Sudeten territory hewould stop his aggressions. · Congress to help avoid the supposed mistakes that had led the nation into the On September 30, 1938, the British prime minister, Neville Chamberlain, First World War. The Neutrality Act of 1935 prohibited Americans from sell and the French prin1e minister, Edouard Daladier, joinedMus• and Hitler ing weapons or traveling on ships owned by nations at war. In 1936, Congress in signing the notorious Munich Pact, which transferred the Sudetenland to Ger revised the Neutrality Act by banning loans to warring nations. many. In Prague, the capital, the Czechs listened to the official announcement of Roosevelt, however, was not so sure that the United States could or should the Munich Pact witl1 the excruciating sadness of people too weak to preserve remain neutral. In October 1937, he delivered a speech in Chicago, the heart- their own independence. As pawns in tl1e chess game of European politics, the
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26 26
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CRErE CRErE
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ALGERIA ALGERIA
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r r
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help help
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s
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declared, declared,
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Congress Congress
s
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Fa first first
organize organize
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followed followed
NEUTRALITY NEUTRALITY
Brit
the the
26 26 ns ns yzed yzed
other other
of of
1940, 1940, l
Hitler Hitler ever ever
e
while while
to to
that that
" " d d
_ to to
gium. gium. the the
beaches beaches
G~ny G~ny
T
French French as as
l
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that that
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evacuation evacuation c
26, 26, crumbling crumbling
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vehicles, vehicles,
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Be
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infantry, infantry,
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THE THE
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signe
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28 vehicles) vehicles)
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May May
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th armies. armies.
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Countries-Belgium, Countries-Belgium,
with with
was was
back back
six six
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I I
n n
s s
H
CHAPTER CHAPTER
from from
IN IN
borne borne " n n
that that
few. few.
rs
a a
deliveran
i -
O
rly rly
While While hat hat
May May
e
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e
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uit. uit.
thi
uations;
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armored armored
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h
until until
Luxembourg Luxembourg the the
troop fell fell
t occupied occupied
mate mate WAR WAR
measure to to
1939, 1939,
equa
nations. nations. ity ity
Roosevelt Roosevelt REVISING REVISING 1160 1160 From Isolationism to Intervention 1163 -1945 1162 CHAPTER 26 The Second \,Vorlcl War 1933
so naked before outnumbering the RAF two to one. "Never has a nation been WAR As Hitler's armies conquered PREPARING AMERICA FOR its foes;' Churchill admitted. itself in no condition to wage war. After the stop Hitler. Europe, the United States found Churchill became the symbol of Britain's determination to was reduced_to a small force; by 1939_, i,t num gesture, he urged First World War, the 1:!,S. Army With his bulldog face, ever-present cigar, and "V for Victory" Germany had almost 5 million soldiers. In defiance bered only 175,00Q. .By contrast, the British citizenry to make the war "their finest hour." He breailied ' President Roosevelt in May 1940 called , laying mines, promoting "military preparedness; while preparing for a German invasion, building fortifications an1n7 and producing 50,000 combat planes in the population. for increasing the size of the digging trenches and fashioning tank traps, and mobilizing since Germany was producing only 15,000 ith "blood, toil, 1942, a seemingly outlandish goal, The British, he pledged, would confront Hitler's invaders w warplanes that y~a!:, tears, and sweat." TI1ey would "never surrender." Churchill's repeated requests for launched day Roosevelt also responded to Winston In July and August, 1940, the German air force (Luftwaffe) shipments to Great Britain and promising to heast England. assistance by increasing military and night bombing raids against military targets across sout Allies short ofwar." Churchill was focused on ), with the provide all possible "aid to the The pilots in the Royal Air Force (ilieir average age was twenty-three ince, coax, bluff, charm, seduce, or frighten the assault, ulti one strategic objective: to conv benefit of radar, a secret new technology, fended offthe German war. his bombers United States into entering the mately destroying 1,700 German warplanes. Hitler then ordered designed toter to target civilians and cities (especially London) in night raids Adding to Roosevelt's concerns was the September THE MANHATTAN PROJECT rorize British civilians. In what came to be called "the Blitz" during have a secret weapon. TI1e famous physicist Britain's major possibility tl1at Germany might and October of 1940, the Germans caused massive damage in n refugeeL m Nazism, had alerted Roosevelt "The last three Albert Ei1~ i_11.,_a Jewish Austria cities, destroying a million homes and killing 40,000 civilians. in the fall of 1939 that the-Gepnans were trying to creat<(atomic bombs. In June 1940, Roosevelt~ t up the National Defense Research Committee to coor dinate military research, including a top-secret effort to develop an atomic bomb-the Manhattan Project-before theGermansdid. Almost 200,000 peo- --ple worked on tl1e Manhattan Project, including Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer, who led the team ofdistinguished sci entists scattered among thirty-seven secret facilities in thirteen states.
THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN Hav ing conquered western Europe, Hitler began planning the invasion of Great Britain ("Operation Sea Lion"), sched uled for September 1940. The late summer brought the Battle of Britain, ill Prime Minister of set aflame by German bombing Winston Church as ilie Germans first sought to destroy The London "Blitz" A n aerial photograph of London Britain who led the nation during e~. "We shall never surrender." Great Britain's Royal Air Force (RAF). The raids in 1940. Winston Churchill respond the Second World War. Nazis deployed some 2,500 warplanes, From Isolationism to Intervention 1165 1164 CHAPTER 26 The Second \,Vorld War 1933-1945
the 1940 nights in London;' reported the U.S. ambassador to Great Britain on Septem ROOSEVELT'S THIRD TERM The isolationists sought to make was fall ber 10, "have been simply hell:' presidential campaign a debate about the war. In June, just as France a The Blitz, however, enraged rather than demoralized the British people. ing to Germany, the Republicans nominated Wendell L. Willkie ofIndiana, A London newspaper headline summarized the nation's courage and defiant plainspoken corporate lawyer and former Democrat who had voted for Roosevelt mood: "Is That the Best You Can Do, Adolf?" The British success in the air in 1932. "war proved decisive, for in October 1940, Hitler gave up his invasion plans. It was Once the campaign started, Willkie warned that Roosevelt was a war in April, the first battle he had lost, and it was Britain's finest hour. monger" and predicted that "ifyou re-elect him you may expect 194I:' Roosevelt responded that he had "said this before, but I shall say it again "ALL AID SHORT OF WAR" During 1940, Franklin Roosevelt began and again and again: Your boys are not going to be sent into any foreign wars:' a crucial campaign to convince Americans that isolationism was impractical In November 1940, Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term by 27 million 449 to 82, in and even dangerous. His phrase, all "aid short ofwar;' became the label for his votes to Willkie's 22 million and by an even more decisive margin, prayed efforts to help Great Britain. The president was especially concerned about a the electoral college. Winston Churchill wrote Roosevelt that he had " likely German invasion oftheBritish Isles. "Itis now most urgent;' Prime Min for your success and I am truly thankful for it." ister Churchill cabled Roosevelt, "that you let us have the destroyers" needed to stop such an invasion. "This is a thing to do now!" THE LEND-LEASE ACT Once reelected, Roosevelt found an ingenious To address the challenge, Roosevelt and Churchill, whose mother was an way to provide more military aid to Britain, whose cash was running out. The American, negotiated a trade on September 2, 1940, called the Destroyers for Bases Agreement, by which fifty old U.S. warships went to the British Royal Navy in return for allowing the United States to build military bases on British island colonies in the Caribbean. Two weeks later, on September 16, 1940, Roosevelt pushed through a reluctant Congress the first peacetime conscription (military draft) in Ameri can history. The Selective Training and Service Act required all 16 million men ages twenty-one to thirty-five to register for the draft at one of6,500 local draft boards. (The minimum ag~ was later reduced to eighteen.) L-----
A SAVAGE DEBATE The world crisis transformed Roosevelt. Having been stalemated for much ofhis second term by congressional opposition to the New Deal, he was revitalized by the need to stop Nazism. Yet his efforts to aid Great Britain and prepare America for war outraged isolationists. A prom inent Democrat remembered that the dispute between isolationists and so called interventionists was "the mostsavage politicai°debate during my lifetime." Isolationists, mostly midwestern and western Republicans, formed the America First Committee to oppose "military preparedness:' Charles Lind bergh, the first man to fly solo across the Atlantic ocean, led the isolationist Lend-lease Members of the isolationist "Mother's Crusade," urging defeat of the lend effort. To Lindbergh, Roosevelt's efforts to help Britain were driven primar lease program, kneel in prayer in front ofthe Capitol in Washington, D.C. They feared press, our radio, and our ily by Jews who owned "our motion pictures, our the program aiding America's allies would bring the United States into the wars in government:' Lindbergh assured Americans that Britain was doomed; they Europe and Asia. should join hands with Hitler. From lsolationism to Intervention 1167 1166 CHAPTER 26 The Second \1\/orld \,Var 1933-1945
the Soviet army, were captured. For four months, the Soviets retreated in the Lend-Lease Act, introduced in Congress on January 10, 1941, allowed the face ofthe German blitzkrieg. president to lend or lease military equipment to "any country whose defense Duringthesummer of1941, German forces surroundedLeningrad, nowcalled the President deems vital to the defense of the United States." It was a bold St. Petersburg, and began a siege ofthe city. As weeks passed, food and supplies challenge to the isolationists. As Senator HiramJohnson ofCaliforniaclaimed, became scarce. Hw1ger alone would kill 800,000 people. Desperate people ate "This bill is war:' cats, dogs, rats, and even sawdust. As the bitterly cold winter set in, corpses were Roosevelt responded to critics by arguing that "no nation can appease the in the snow.Still, the soldiers and civilians held out. Leningradbecame iger into a kitten by stroking if' The United States, left to freeze Nazis. No man can turn a t man armies had e known as the citythat refused to die. By December, 1941, other Ger he added, would provide everything the British needed while doing the sam suburbs ofMoscow, a thousand miles east ofBerlin. Japan, all in an effort to keep Americans from reached the for China in its war against ssia confirmed that ;' To American isolationists, Germany's invasion of Ru going to war themselves. "We must again be the great arsenal of democracy ould stay out of the war and let two dreadful dictatorships bleed shored up the president's efforts by announc America sh Roosevelt explained. Churchill the Soviet Union e each other to death. Roosevelt, however, insisted on including ing that Britain did not need American troops to defeat Hitler: "Give us th in the Lend-Lease agreement; he and Churchill were determined to keep the tools and we will finish the job:' In early March, 1941, Congress approved the Russians fighting Hitler so that Hitler could not concentrate on Great Britain. Lend-Lease Act. "Let not the dictators ofEurope or Asia doubt our unanimity Gradually, Stalin slowed the Nazi advance by forcing the Russian people to now;' Roosevelt declared. fight-or be killed by their own troops. During the Battle ofMoscow, Soviet Between 1941 and 1945, the Lend-Lease program would ship $50 billion defenders showed their pitiless resolve by executing 8,000 civilians charged worth ofsupplies to Great Britain, the Soviet Union, France, China, and other with "cowardice:' Allied nations. The Lend-Lease Act was Roosevelt's most emphatic effort to tl1e tide started to turn against tl1e Germans. By the winter of1941- ism to interventionism and it gave a huge boost Slowly, move America from isolation the Russians f 1942, Hitler's generals were learning the same bitter lesson that to Br1tish morale. Churchill called it the most generous "act in the history o had taught Napoleon and the French in 1812. Invading armies must contend any nation." not only with Russia's ferocious fighters and enormous population but also vast distances, deep snow, and subzero temperatures. GERMANY INVADES THE SOVIET UNION While Americans continued to debate Roosevelt's efforts to help Great Britain, the European THE ATLANTIC CHARTER By the late summer of1941, the United war expanded. In the spring of 1941,'-6-erman troops joined Italian soldiers States was nolonger a "neutral" nation. InAugust, Roosevelt and Churchilldrew in Libya, forcing the British army in North Africa to withdraw to Egypt. In up a joint statement of "common principles" known as the Atlantic Charter. April 1941, Nazi forces overwhelmed Yugoslavia and Greece. With Hungary, The agreement pledged that after the "final destruction of the Nazi tyranny;' Romania, and Bulgaria also part of the Axis, Hitler controlled nearly all of tl1e victors would promote certain common values: the self-determination of Europe. But his ambition was unbounded. all peoples, economic cooperation, freedom ofthe seas, and a new system of On June 22, 1941, without warning, Hitler launched "Operation Bar international securityto be calledthe United Nations. Within weeks, eleven anti barossa;' a shocking invasion of the Soviet Union, his supposed ally. Hitler's Axis nations, including the Soviet Union, had endorsed the Atlantic Charter. objective in turning on Stalin was his long-standing obsession to destroy the vast population of the Soviet Union, open up communism, enslave ned the Atlan l WAR IN THE ATLANTIC No so·oner had Roosevelt sig new lands for German settlement, and exploit Russia's considerable natura tic Charter than U.S. warships came under fire. On September 4, 1941, the resources. submarine ("U-boat") off the coast of Iceland moment ofthe European war. Greer was tracking a German Hitler's foolhardy decision was the defining . and sharing the information with British warplanes when it was attacked The 3 million German soldiers sent to the Soviet Union would eventually be Roosevelt seized the opportunity to tell Americans that the ship was the victim worn down and thrown back. At first, however, the invasion seemed a great suc of an unprovoked attack. In response, he essentially began an undeclared war cess, as the German armies raced across the vast plains ofUkraine and western in the Atlantic by ordering naval warships to provide protectionfor convoys all Russia. Entire Soviet armies and cities were surrounded and destroyed. During the way to Iceland, allowing them to "shoot on sight" any German submarines. the second halfof 1941, an estimated 3 million Soviet soldiers, 50 percent of 1168 CHAPTER 26 The Second World \.Va r 1933- 1945 from Isolationism to Intervention 1169
THE STORM IN THE PACIFIC WORLD WAR II MILITARY ALLIANCES, 1942 ... In 1940, Japan and the United States had begun a series of moves that pushed them closer to war. Convinced that they were Asia's "leading race;' the Japanese had forced the helpless Vichy Erench government, under German ~ntrol, to ~tthe construction of Japanese airfields in French-controlled Indochina (now Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam). The United States responded with the Expo----rt -Control Act of July 2, 1940, which authorized President Roosevelt to restrict the export of military supplies and other strategic materials crucial to Japan. Three weeks later, on July 26, Roosevelt ordered that all Japanese assets ATLANTIC in the United States be frozen and that oil shipments be stopped. OCEAN
THE TRIPARTITE PACT On September 27, 1940, the Imperial Japa nese government signed a Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, by which each pledged to declare war on any nation that attacked any of them. Roosevelt called the pact an "unholy alliance" designed to "dominate and enslave the entire human race:' Several weeks later, the United States expanded its trade embargo against Japan to include iron ore, copper, and brass, deliber ately leaving oil as the remaining bargaining chip. Without access to American prod ucts, Japan's expansionist plans stalled; more than half of its imports came from the United States. In July 1941,
□ Ax is Japan announced that it was taking l?Z) Axis-controlled complete control of French Indochina DAIiies 0 250 500 ...... I I ' I ' in its effort to expand the "Empire of □ Neutral o 250 500Kilometers the Rising Sun" and gain access to the ■ What was the Atlantic Charter? raw materials denied it by the United ■ Compare and contrast the political/military alliances in the First World War with States. Roosevelt responded by restrict those in the Second World War. ■ How were the German armies able to seize most of Europe so quickly? ing oil exports to Japan. He also closed the Panama Canal to Japanese shipping and merged the Filipino army with Six weeks later, on October 17, 1941, a German U-boat sank the American the U.S. Army. Time magazine claimed _warship Kearny. Eleven sailors were killed. "The shooting has started;' Roos that Roosevelt was "waging the first evelt reported, "and history has recorded who fired the first shot:' Two weeks great undeclared war in U.S. history:' later, the destroyer Reuben James was torpedoed and sunk while escorting a convoy near Iceland, with a loss of 115 seamen. THE ATTACK ON PEARL The sinkings spurred Congress to change the 1939 Neutrality Act by allowing HARBOR On October 16, 1941, Hideki Tojo Prime minister and war minister of Japan simultaneously merchant vessels to be armed and to enter combat zones and the ports ofnations Hideki Tojo became the Japanese until 1944, one year before Japan's at war ("belligerents"). Step by step, the United States had begun to engage in prime minister. Viewing war with the unconditional surrender. naval warfare against Nazi Germany. Still, Americans hoped to avoid all-out war. United States as inevitable, he ordered 1171 1170 CHAPTER 26 The Second World \,Var 1933- 1945 From I solationism to Intervention
JAPANESE EXPANSION BEFORE THE ATTACK ON PEARL HARBOR
KA~ CHATKA 'l' PEf/S,ULA ( ~SR) ... :, AKHALIN,'-· 905 .• ,,.,KURIL ISLANDS, ,.. 1875
D Territory under Japanese control, Dec. 7, 1941
., MARIANA :_ ISLANDS
□ GUAM (U.S.) MICRONES I A Occupied 1914, Mandated 1922 Explosion of the USS Shaw The destroyer exploded after being hit by Japanese MARSHALL warplanes at Pearl Harbor. The Shaw was repaired shortly thereafter and went on to CAROLINE ISLANDS ISLANDS L----- earn eleven battle stars in the Pacific campaign.
before the United States would lift its embargo. The Japanese then ordered a fleet ofwarships to begin steaming toward Hawaii. By this time, political and military leaders on both sides considered war inevitable. Yet Hull continued ■ Why did the Japanese want to control French Indochina and the Dutch East to meet with Japanese diplomats in Washington, privately dismissing them as Indies? ■ Why did Japan sign the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy? being as "crooked as a barrel offish hooks:' In late November, Roosevelt told his "war cabinet" that the United States or Great Britain was "hkely to be attacked,_perhaps next Mondai' He and others a powerful fleet of Japanese warships to prepare for a secret attack on the U.S. expected the Japanese to attack Singapore or the Philippines. The U.S. Navy bases in Hawaii. The Japanese naval commander, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, Department sent an urgent message to its commanders in the Pacific: "Negoti knew that his country could not defeat the United States in a long war; its only ations with Japan .... have ceased, and an aggressive move by Japan is expected hope was "to decide the fate of the war on the very first day" by launching a within the next few days:' "fatal attack" on the U.S. Navy. Roosevelt staked his desperate hope for a peaceful solution on a last-minute On November 5, 1941, the Japanese asked the Roosevelt administration to message to Japan's Emperor Hirohito. "Both of us:' Roosevelt said, "have end its embargo or "face conflict:' The American secretary ofstate, Cordell Hull, a sacred duty to restore traditional amity [cooperation] and prevent further responded on November 26 that Japan must remove its troops from China death and destruction in the world:' 1172 CHAPTER 26 The Second World \".far 1933-1945 Arsenal of Democracy 1173
By the time Roosevelt's message arrived, Japanese warplanes were already agencies and create new ones, regulate business and industry, and even censor headed for U.S. bases in Hawaii. In the early mornJ_ng ofS~nday, December Z, mail and other forms of communication. With the declaration of war, men 1941, Japanese lanes began bombing the unsuspecting U.S. fleet at Pearl Har between the ages ofeighteen and forty-five were drafted. bor. Of the eight American battleships, all were sunk or disabled, along with Some 16 million 1nen and several hundred thousand women served in the eleve~ other ships. Japanese bombers also destroyed 180 American warplanes. military during the war. The average American soldier or sailor in the Sec The raid, which lasted less than two hours, killed more than 2,400 American ond World War was twenty-six years old, stood five feet eight, and weighed servicemen (mostly sailors) and civilians, and wounded nearly 1,200 more. 144 pounds, an inch taller and eight pounds heavier than the typical recruit in At the same time that the Japanese were attacking Pearl Harbor, they were the First World War. Only one in ten had attended college and only one in four assaulting U.S. military facilities in the Philippines and on Guam and Wake had graduated from Mgh school. islands in-the Pacific, as well as British bases in Singapore, Hong Kong, and In 1940, Adolf Hitler had scoffed at the idea that the United States could Malaya. produce 50,000 warplanes a year, claiming that America was nothing but The surprise attack actually fell short of military success in two import "beauty queens, millionaires, and Hollywood:' His ignorance of America's ant ways. First, the bombers ignored the maintenance facilities and oil stor industrial potential proved fatal. By the end of 1942, U.S. war production had age tanks that supported the U.S. fleet, without which the surviving ships already exceeded the combined output of Germany, Japan, and Italy. At an might have been forced back to the West Coast. Second, the Japanese missed Allied planning conference in Iran in 1943, Josef Stalin raised a glass to toast the U.S. aircraft carriers that had left port a few days earlier. In the naval war to "American productiorn, without which come, aircraft carriers, not battleships, would prove to be decisive. this war would have b,een lost." In a larger sense, the attack on Pearl Harbor was a spectacular miscalcula The War Production Board, cre tion, for it brought the American isolationist movement to an abrupt end. Even ated by Roosevelt in 1942, directed the the Japanese admiral who planned the attack had misgivings amid his officers' conversion of industries to war pro celebrations: "I fear that we have only succeeded in awakening a sleeping tigd' duction. In 1941, more than 3 million At half past noon on December 8, President Roosevelt·------delivered his war., automobiles were manufactured in message to Congress: "Yesterday, December 7, 1941-a date which will live in the United States; only 139 were built infamy-the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked during the next four years, as automo by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan." He asked Congress to declare bile plants began making huge nwnbers a "state of war:' The Senate approved the resolution twenty-five minutes after of tanks, jeeps, trucks,, and warplanes. Roosevelt finished speaking; the House followed immediately thereafter. ..J "Something is happening that Hitler Three days later, on December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on doesn't understand:' announced Time what Hitler called the "halfJudaized and the other halfNegrified" United States. magazine in 1942. "It is tl1e Miracle of After learning ofthe attack on Pearl Harbor, Hitler shouted that "it is impossible production:' for us to lose the war:' The separate wars in Asia, Europe, and Africa had now In making the United States the become one global conflict. Roosevelt told the American people in a radio address "great arsenal of democracy:' the Roo that "it will not only be a long war. It will be a hard wal' Yet he assured everyone sevelt administration transformed ·that "we are going to win, and we are going to win the peace that follows:' the nation's economy into the world's most efficient military machine. By War Production Board This 1942 poster 1945, the year the war ended, the features caricatures of Mussolini, ARSENAL OF DEMOCRACY United States would be manufactur Hitler, and Tojo, who-according to ing half of the goods produced in the t he poster-will fall on their "axis" if Waging war against Germany and Japan required all of America's immense Americans continued their relentless industrial capacity. On December 18, 1941, Congress passed the War Powers world. American factories, many run production of military equipment. Act, which gave the president far-reaching authority to reorganize government ning twenty-four hours a day, seven Arsenal of Democracy 1175 1174 CHAPTER 26 The Second World War 1933-1945
about the wage and price con days a week, produced 300,000 warplanes, 89,000 tanlcs, 3 million machine Businesses and workers often grumbled ion the government seized industries threatened by strikes. guns, and 7 million rifles. trols, and on occas Despite these problems, the effort to stabilize wages andprices succeeded. By the had risen about 31 percent, far better than the rise FINANCING THE WAR To cover the war's huge cost (more than $3 end ofthe war, conswnerprices War. trillion in today's values), Congress passed the Revenue Act of 1942 (also of62 percent during the First World called the Victory Tax). Whereas in 1939 only about 4 million people (about For all ofthe patriotism inspired by 5 percent ofthe workforce) filed tax returns, the new act made most workers A CONSERVATIVE BACKLASH government actions s uch as rationing increased taxpayers. By the end of the war, 90 percent of workers were paying income the war effort, criticism of the 1942 congressional elections, Republicans tax. Tax revenues covered about 45 percent of military costs from 1939 to with each passing year. In House and nine in the Senate. During the 1940s, 1946; the government borrowed the rest, mostly through a massive promo gained forty-six seats in the parties dismantled "nonessential" New tional campaign that sold $185 billion worth ofgovernment war bonds, which a coalition ofconservatives from both Administration (originally the Works paid interest to purchasers. By the end of the war, the national debt was six Deal agencies such as the Work Projects the National Youth Administration, and the Civil times what it had been at the start. Progress Administration), The size of the federal government soared during the war. More than a ian Conservation Corps. ns in membership and power dozen new federal agencies were created, and the number of civilian federal Organized labor, despite substantial gai conservative trend. In the spring of1943, workers quadrupled from 1 million to 4 million. Jobs were suddenly plenti during the war, felt the impact ofthe demanding a $2-a-daywage increase, ful as millions quit work to join the military. The nation's unemployment rate when400,000 coal miners went on strike passed, over Roosevelt's veto, the Smith-Connally plummeted from 14 percent in 1940 to 2 percent in 1943. conservatives in Congress authorized the government to seize plants and People who had long lived on the margins ofthe economic system, espe War Labor Disputes Act, which ifworkers went on strike. cially women, were nowbroughtinto the labor force. Srubborn pockets ofpov mines and keep them operating erty did not disappear, but for most civilians, especially those who had lost war spelled a better life. Some their jobs and homes in the Depression, the THE WAR AT HOME 24 million Americans moved during the war to take advantage of new job sformed life at home as it was being fought abroad. opportunities. Many headed to the West Coast, where shipyards and airplane The Second World ·war tran es went to work as welders and riveters, and farmers joined indus factories were hiring nonstop. Housewiv trial unions. Some 3.5 million rural folk from the South left farms for cities. paid for a national day-care program for young chil ECONOMIC CONTROLS The need for the United States not only to The federal government mothers to work full-time. The dramatic changes required equip and feed its own military forces but also provide massive amounts of dren to enable their unexpected changes in many areas of social life, the food, clothing, and weapons to its allies created shortages ofvirtually all con by the war also caused last long after tl1e war's end. sumer goods that caused sharp price increases. In 1942, Congress responded impact ofwhich would byauthorizing the Office ofPrice Administration to set price ceilings. With prices The war marked a watershed in the status of frozen, basic goods had to be allocated through rationing, with coupons doled WOMEN IN THE WAR 350,000 women served in the Women's Army out for limited amounts ofsugar, coffee, gasoline, automobile tires, and meat. women. During the war, nearly 's equivalent, Women Accepted for VolunteerEmergency The government promoted patriotic conservation by urging every family Corps (WAC), the navy the Marine Corps, the Coast Guard, and the Army Air Force. to become a "fighting unit on the homefront:' Posters featured slogans such as Service (WAVES), going into military service, the demand for civil "Save Your Stuff to Make Us Tough;' "Use it up, wear it out, make it do, or do With millions of men up old prej udices about gender roles. Sidney Hillman, without;' and "Save Your Scraps to Beat the Japs:' People collected scrap metal ian workers shook find workers for defense plants, announced that and tin foil, rubber, and cardboard for military use. Households were even appointed by Roosevelt to the women of America for production skills:' More tl1an encouraged to save cooking fat, from which glycerin could be extracted to "war is calling on women entered the civilian workforce. To help recruit women for make explosives. 8 million - 1945 nal of Democracy 1177 1176 CHAPTER 26 The Second World War .1933 Arse
broad while tolerat ofworkers, argued that America could not fight racism a into the once-male ing it at home, and championed the mass influx ofwomen work force during the war. South fo r better More than a half million African Americans left the blacks nation opportunities during the war years, and more than a million Lured by jobs and wide joined the industrial workforce for the first time. n Americans from higher wages in military-related plants and factories, Africa , where the dramatic Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Louisiana headed west the region's popu expansion of defense-related jobs had significant effects on rose sharply in lation. During the war years, the number ofAfrican Americans western cities such as Seattle, Portland, and Los Angeles. textile mills by At the same time, the war provided a boon to southern obs led thousands of requiring millions ofmilitary uniforms. Manufacturing j
A ircraft Co~ny in Long Beach, Women·ot the workforce, 1942 At the Douglas n of a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress California, three women assemble the tail sectio bomber.
l campaign traditionally male jobs, the government launched a promotiona Rosina Bonavita, featuring the story of "Rosie the Riveter;' a woman named who excelled as a riveter at an airplane factory. male jobs. Many men opposed the surge of women taking traditionally household A disgruntled male legislator asked who would handle traditional the washing, tasks if women flocked to factories: "Who will do the cooking, woman has devoted the mending, the humble homey tasks to which every however, were herself; who will rear and nurture the children?" Many women, earn good wages. eager to escape the grinding routines of domestic life and the first time I had a A female welder remembered that her wartime job "was make a few bucks. chance to get out ofthe kitchen and work in industry and ' This was something I had never dreamed would happen:
onmilitary While PresidentRooseveltfocused nothing when a AFRICAN AMERICANS During the Detroit Riots of 1943, police officers do home front. She insisted Bi~otry at home strategy, his wife Eleanor focused on organizing the white thug hits a black man. not neglect the needs that the government's wartime partnership with business
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are loaded onto a Los Angeles County Off to court Latinos dressed in zoo! suits 1943. Sheriff's bus for a court appearance in June
language made it impossible for the s Navajo code talkers The complex Navajo d through Los JyJ,geles, assaulting Hi relays by hundreds of local whites, rampage American messages. Here, a code talker to be Germans and Japanese to decode Filipinos. The weeldong violence came Bougainville in t he South Pacific in 1943. panics, African Americans, and messages for U.S. marines in the Battle of called the "Zoot Suit Riots:'
MILITARY Indians supported the NATIVE AMERICANS IN THE JAPANESE AMERICANS The attack Almost a third of DISCRIMINATION AGAINST more fully than any other group in American society. the nisei-people of war effort Harbor ignited a hw1ger for vengeance against armed forces. Many others worked in on Pearl eligible Native American men served in the States. Many Americans saw no difference as nurses Japanese descent living in the United ries, and thousands ofIndian women volunteered As defense-related indust who attacked Pearl Harbor and Japanese Americans. Americans, Indians benefited between the Japanese orjoined the WAVES. As was the case with African to the Jap problem would be to a Idaho's governor declared, "A good solution ded by the war by gaining vocational skills and from the experiences affor back to Japan, then sink the island." society. send them all awareness ofhow to succeed within mainstream sponsored one of greater Such hysteria helps explain why the U.S. government Native Americans fight for a nation that had stripped hen more Why did so many ofcivil liberties during the twentieth century, w Some felt that they had no the worst violations them of their land and ravaged their heritage? from their homes and transported to s that than 120,000 nisei were forcibly removed tion for the war effort ended many New Deal program at great choice. Mobiliza cation camps." Forced to sell their fa rms and businesses time, many viewed the Nazis and ten "war relo had provided Indians with jobs. At the same bring with them onlywhat they could loss within fo rty-eight hours, ordered to eats to their own homeland. Whatever their motiva enclosed Japanese warlords as thr were sent by train and bus to ten barbed-wire military. Unlike their African carry, the internees tions, Indians distinguished themselves in the areas in the western states. They uni~,s internment camps scattered across remote Indian servicemen were integrated into regular American counterparts, ost not only their property but also their liberty. role was serving as "code talkers : l with whites. Perhaps their most distinctive relocation when he issued Executive and deci President Roosevelt initiated the branch used Indians, especially Navajos, to encode removal of all every military on February 19, 1942, authorizing the forcible to the Germans and Japanese. Order 9066 pher messages using Indian languages unknown The All ied Drive towa rd Berlin 1183 The Second World War 1933-19~5 1182 CHAPTER 26
it granted those nisei still living $20,000 each in compensation, a tiny amount thnic Japanese living on the Pacific coast. It was perhaps his worst decision e relative to what they had lost during four years ofconfinement. as president. Roosevelt called his action a "military necessity" although not _a single incident of espionage involving Japanese Americans w~~ proved. As it turned out, more than 70 percent ofthose affected were U.S. c1t1zens. . ALLIED DRIVE TOWARD BERLIN On Evacuation Day, Burt Wilson, a white schoolboy in Sacramento, Cali- THE en out ofhis school: fornia, was baffled as soldiers ushered the nisei childr By mid-1942, the "home front" was hearing good news from Europe. U.S. naval German U-boats off We wondered what had happened. 'foey took somebody out ofeighth forces had been increasingly successful at destroying hlll1dreds of grade, a boy named Sammy, who drew wonderful cartoons. He was my the Atlantic coast. Up to tl1at point, German submarines had sunk submarine attacks was friend, and one day he was there and the next day he was gone. And Allied cargo vessels, killing 2,500 sailors. Stopping the the United States, and that was very difficult for us to understand because we didn't see Sam important because the Grand Alliance-Great Britain, Defeating the Japanesi'I my or any Japanese American-at least I didn't- as the enemy. the Soviet Union-called for tl1e ~feat ofGermany.first. _0llilclw.ilit. Few ifany nisei were disloyal. In fact, 39,000 Japanese A.n1ericans served in the armed forces during the war, and others worked as interpreters and translators. But all were victims of fear and racial prejudice. Not until 1983 did the gov WAR AIMS AND STRATEGY ernment acknowledge the injustice of the internment policy. Five years later, A major consideration for Allied military strategy was the fighting on the vast Eastern Front in the Soviet Union. During 1941-1942, the Nazis and Soviets waged colossal battles. 111e Soviet population-by far-bore the brunt of the war against the Nazis, leading Josef Stalin to insist that ilie Americans and British relieve the p ressure on his troops by attacking the Germans in western Europe, thereby forcing Hitler to pull units away from the Russian Front. Meanwhile, with most ofthe German army deployed on the Russian Front, the British and American air forces, flying from bases in England, would bomb military and industrial targets in German-occupied western Europe, and espe cially in Germany itself, while American and British generals prepared plans to attack Nazi troops in Nortl1 Africa, Italy, and France. Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill agreed that they needed to cre ate a second front in western Europe, butthey could not agree on the ttmingor location of an invasion. U.S. military planners wanted to attack the Germans in France before the end of 1942. The British, however, were wary of moving too fast. An Allied defeat on the French coast, Churchill warned, was "the only way in which we could possibly lose this war:' Finally, Roosevelt decided to accept Churchill's compromise proposal for a joint Anglo-American invasion ofNortl1 Africa, which was occupied by German and Italian armies not nearly as strong as those in Europe.
A farewell to civil rights American troops escorted Japanese Americans by gunpoint to remote internment camps, some of which were horse- racing tracks, whose st ables THE NORTH AFRICA CAMPAIGN On November 8, 1942, British served as housing. and American forces landed in Morocco_and Alge1ia on the North African The Allied Drive toward Berli n 1185 ar 1933- 19-tS 1184 CHAPTER 26 The Second World W
handled. We had enough the .troops "fought like veterans. They were well were led by an untested, little-lrnown U.S. gen y.s c_g~st COperation Torch"). They ything meshed perfectly, and the end was inevita pushing the Ger of what we needed. Ever Dwight D. Eisenhower. Farther east, British armies were armies:' But, he added, eral, ble. . .. Tunisia has been a good warm-up field for our Libya. mans--;;d Italians back across was yet to come." however, Eisen "the worst The Americans lost badly in early battles. In early 1943, audacious field com wer, soon known by his nickname, "Ike;' found an months earlier, in Janu ho THE CASABLANCA CONFERENCE Five Patton, who said he loved war "more than mylife:' mander in General George rchill, and the Anglo-American military chiefs met at Patton showed ary 1943, Roosevelt, Chu with ivory-handled pistols andbrimming with bravado, French Morocco. It was a Armed a seaside resort near Casablanca, the largest city in war of speed and daring. Corporal Morris American troops how to fight a president had ever flown abroad while in office, and from North historic occasion. No ~ .S. a soldier fighting under Patton, wrote his mother Soviet Union, but he Zimmerman, ne had ever visited Africa. .Stalin chose to stay in the the land ofArabs and wine, sticky flies no Africa, "This is your son reporting from the Allies to invade Nazi-controlled western the sent a message which again urged always wanted to cross an ocean to see what was on and red sand. I have Europe to relieve the pressure on the Russians. darned ifI didn't." that other side and Casablanca conference, the British convinced the Americans to retreat, some 250,000 Germans At the Hammered from all sides and unable victory in North Africa with an assault in Allied they should follow up the anticipated surrendered on May 12, 1943, leaving all ofNorth Africa Roosevelt and Chur and Italians on the ItalianjslaE_d ofSicily before attacking Italy itself. had been redeemed;' said Winston Churchill. Ernie control. The "continent step up the bombing of Germany and to increase ship army, reported that chill also decided to a war correspondent embedded with the American the Nationalist Chinese Pyle, ments of military supplies to the Soviet Union and forces fighting the Japanese. announced, with Before leaving the Casablanca conference, Roosevelt th the "unconditional sur Churchill's blessing, that the war would end only wi to quiet Soviet suspi render" ofail enemy nations. Tilis decision was designed separately with Hitler to cions that the Americans and British might negotiate also reflected Roosevelt's end the war in western Europe. The announcement d realize that this time determination that "every person in Germany shoul Soviet morale or enemy Germany is a defeated nation." Whatever its impact on surrender ensured resistance, however, the decision to require unconditional te power vacuums along the destruction ofGermany and Japan thatwould crea the western and eastern borders ofthe Soviet Un ion.
fighting raged in North THE BATTLE OF THE ATLANTIC While Great Britain desperately Africa, the Battle of the Atlantic reached its climax. States, but German needed more food and military supplies from the United were sinking the Brit submarines operating in groups called "wolfpacks" British shipyards could ish vessels transporting American goods faster than -occupied France until replace them. There could be no invasion of German 230 Allied ships and the U-boat menace was defeated. By July 1942, some "The only thing that ever almost 5 million tons ofwar supplies had been lost. U-boat peril." the U.S. invasion of Sicily, the during the war;' recalled Churchill, "was the Major General George 5. Patton Patton commanded frightened me point. He believed that war "brings out British and Americans had discovered largest amphibious action in the war up to that By the end of 1942, however, the the German naval radio all that is best in men." '~to defeat the U-boats. British experts cracked 1186 CHAPTER 26 T he Second World Wa r 1933-1945 The Allied Drive toward Berlin 1187 codes, enabling Allied convoys to steer clear ofU-boats or to hunt them down leaders agreed to create an international organization-the United Nations with long-range warplanes (called "subchasers") and anti-submarine weap to maintain peace after the war. Upon arriving back in the United States, Roo ons deployed on warships. New technology also helped, as sonar and radar sevelt confided to Churchill his distrust of Stalin, saying that it was a "ticklish" allowed Allied ships to track submarines. Yet the best tactic against U-boats business keeping the "Russians cozy with us" because ofthe tension between was to group cargo vessels into tightly bunched convoys so that warships could S£!!!munism and ~apjtalism. As General Eisenhower stressed, however, the protect them more effectively. In May 1943, the Allies destroyed forty-one fate ofBritain and the United States depended on the Soviets' survival as an ally. U-boats. Thereafter, the U-boats were on the defensive, and Allied shipping "The prize we seek;' he said in 1942, "is to keep 8 million Russians [soldiers] in losses fell significantly. the war:'
SICILY AND ITALY On July 10, 1943, following the Allied victory in THE STRATEGIC BOMBING OF EUROPE Months ofpreparation North Africa, about 250,000 British and American troops landed on the coast went into the long-anticipated Allied invasion of German-occupied France. of Sicily. General Eisenhower called it the "first page of the liberation of the While waiting for D-day (the day the invasion would begin), the U.S. Army European continent." The island was in Allied hands by August 17, bringing to Air Force tried to pound Germany into submission with an air campaign an end Benito Mussolini's twenty years offascist rule in Italy. that dropped thousands of bombs and l<.illed some 350,000 civilians. Yet the On July 25, 1943, the Italian king had dismissed Mussolini as prime minis air offensive failed to shatter either German morale or war-related produc ~ r and had him arrested. The new Italian government startled the Allies when tion. Many bombs missed their targets because of thick clouds, high winds, it offered not only to surrender but also to switch sides. To prevent them from and inaccurate navigational systems, and many Allied planes were shot down. doing so, Hitler sent German armies into Italy. / The bombing campaign, however, did force the Germans to commit precious TI1e Italian campaign thereafter became a series of stalemated gattle~ that resources to air-raid defense and eventually wore down their air force. With left people wondering if it had been worth the cost. Winter came early to Allied air supremacy assured by 1944, the much-anticipated invasion of Hit southern Italy, malting life even more miserable for the soldiers. TI1e Germans ler's "Fortress Europe" could move forward. positioned themselves behind formidable defenses and rugged terrain that enabled them to slow the Allied advance to a crawl. "Italy was one hill after PLANNING AN I NVASION In early 1944, Dwight D. Eisenhower another:' said a U.S. soldier, "and when it was wet, you were either going up arrived in London with a new title: Supreme Commander ofthe Allied Expe too slow or down too fast, but always the mud. And every hill had a German ditionary Force (AEF) that would invade Nazi-controlled western Europe. [machine] gun on if' Allied casualties soared as the stalemate continued. Eisenhower faced enormous challenges, ranging from creating an effective By February 1944, the two sides were, in the words of U.S. commander command structure to handling disagreements between President Roosevelt Mark W Clark, like "two boxers in the ring, both about to collapse:' Mussolini, and Prime Minister Churchill. plucked from prison by a daring German airborne commando. raid, became Eisenhower also faced the daunting task of-planning Operation Overlord, head of a puppet fascist government in northern Italy as Allied forces finally _!he daring_.assault on Hitler's ''.Atlantic Wall;' a formidable arra of fortifica took control of the rest of the country. On June 4, 1944, the U.S. Fifth Army tions, mines, machine un_!,, b~rb~d wire, and ·5!gged beach obstacles alo~ 1e entered Rome, just two days before D-day on the coast of France. "We were ~ ch c~ ine_}.n attack by sea against heavily fortified defenders was the woken by trucks moving through the street:' one overjoyed Italian remem- toughest of military operations. The planned invasion gave Churchill night . bered. "At first I thought it was the Germans, but then I heard American mares: "When I think ofthe beaches . .. choked with the flower of American accents. .. . By dawn people were lining tl1e streets. I cried:' and British youth ... I see the tides running red with their blood. I have my doubts. I have my doubts:' THE TEHRAN CONFERENCE Late in the fall of1943, in Tehran, Iran, For months, Eisenhower, neither an experienced strategist nor a combat Churchill and Roo~evelt had their first joint meeting with Josef Stalin. Their commander, dedicated himself to planning the risky invasion and manag discussions focused on the planned invasion of Nazi-controlled France and ing the complex political and military rivalries among the Allied leaders. Well a simultaneous Russian offensive westward across eastern Europe. TI1e three organized and efficient, he was a high-energy perfectionist, impatient and 1188 CHAPTER 26 The Second World War 1933-1945 Th e Allied Drive toward Berlin 1189
On the blustery evening of °June 5, 1944, Eisenhower visited some of the 16,000 American paratroopers preparing to drop behind the German lines in France. The soldiers, their faces blackened by burnt cork and heads shaved to resemble Indian warriors, noticed Eisenhower's concern and tried to lift his spirits. "Now quit worrying, General;' one ofthem said, "we'll take care ofthis thing for you:' A sergeant said, "We ain't worried. It's Hitler's turn to worry:' After the planes took off, Eisenhower returned to his car with tears in his eyes. He later confided to an aide: "I hope to God I know what I'm doing." As he got into bed that night, Winston Churchill, with tears running down his cheeks, asked his wife: "Do you know that by the time you wake up in the morning, 20,000 men may have been killed?" As the planes carrying the paratroopers arrived over France, thick clouds and German anti-aircraft fire disrupted the formations. Some soldiers were dropped miles from their landing sites, some were dropped far out at sea, and some were dropped so low that their parachutes never opened. Yet the U.S. 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions outfought three German divi sions during the chaotic night and prepared the way for the main invasion by destroying bridges and capturing artillery positions and key road junctions. General Dwight D. Eisenhower Eisenhower visiting with U.S. paratroopers before they Donald Burgett, a nineteen-year-old paratrooper in the 101st Airborne began the D-day assault in Operation Overlord. / Division, recalled dropping into France in the dark of night and being alone: "My throat went dry and I swallowed, but nothing went down. My heart pounded, sending blood throbbing through my temples and causing a weak often short-tempered with his staff. He attended to every detail, including the feeling in the pit of my stomach:' But he had no time for fear. As he stum amassing of 5 million tons of military equipment and munitions and thou bled upon others who had survived the landing, they soon found tl1emselves sands ofwarplanes and ships. embroiled in combat. As D-day approached, Eisenhower's chief of staff predicted only a fifty fifty chance of success. The seaborne invasion was the greatest gamble and TH E NORMANDY LANDINGS As the gray, misty light of dawn most complex military operation in history. "I am very uneasy about the whole broke on D-day, June 6, 1944, the biggest invasion fleet in history- some 5,300 operation;' admitted Sir Alan Brooke, head of British forces. "It may well be Allied ships carrying 370,000 soldiers and sailors- filled the horizon off the the most ghastly disaster of the whole war:' Eisenhower was so concerned that Normandy coast. Sleepy German soldiers guarding the beaches awoke to see he carried in his wallet a note to be circulated if the Allies failed. It read: "If the breatl1taking array ofships. "I saw an armada like a plague oflocusts:' said any blame or fault attaches to the attempt, it is mine alone:' a German officer. "The number of ships was uncountable:' Major battles often depend on luck. (When asked what kind of generals D-DAY AND AFTER Operation O~erlord succeeded in part because it he preferred, Napoleon said "lucky ones.") Eisenhower was lucky on D-day, surprised the Germans. The Allies made elaborate efforts- including the posi for the Germans misinterpreted the Normandy landings as a diversion for the tioning of British decoy troops and making misleading public statements-to "real" attack at Pas-de-Calais. It helped that the German commander, Field fool the Nazis into believing that the invasion would come at Pas-de-Calais, on Marshal Erwin Rommel, assuming that the weather was too rough for an inva the French-Belgian border, where the English Channel was narrowest. Instead, sion, had gone home to Germany to celebrate his wife's June 6 birthday. "How the landings would occur along fifty miles ofshoreline in northern Normandy, stupid of me;' Rommel said when he heard the news. "How stupid of me!" By a French coastal region almost 200 miles south. one in the afternoon, he was racing back to France. The Allied Drive to11·ard Berlin 1191 1190 CHAPTER 26 The Second World \Va r 1933-19-15
ing cries for help. "As our boat touched sand and the ramp went down;' Private Harry Parley remembered, "I became a visitor to Hell" as German gunners fired on the attacking soldiers. The first U.S. units ashore at Omaha Beach, beneath 130-foot-tall cliffs defended by German machine guns and mortars, lost more than 90 percent of their men. In one company, 197 of the 205 men were killed or wounded within ten minutes. Officers struggled to rally the exhausted, bewildered troops pinned down on the beach. "Two kinds of men are staying on this beach;' shouted cigar-smoking Colonel George Taylor on Omaha Beach. "The dead and those who are going to die. Get up! Move in! Goddammit! Move in and die! Get the hell out ofhere!" He then began to run forward and his men followed, stumbling across the deadly beach into the dunes. Inch by inch, backed by waves ofreinforcements, the U.S. soldiers pushed across the beach and up the cliffs. By nightfall, 170,000 Allied soldiers-57,000 ofthem Americans-were scattered across fifty miles ofwindswept Normandy tline. So too were t he bodies o f some 10,724 dead or wounded Allied The landing at Normandy D-Day, June 6, 1944. Before they could huddle under a coas seawall and begin to dislodge the Nazi defenders, U.S. soldiers on Omaha Be.fch had soldiers. to cross a fifty-yard stretch that exposed them to machine guns housed in concrete On June 13, a week after the Normandy landings, Erwin Rommel, the Ger bunkers. man commander, told his wife that the "battle is not going at all well for us:' Within three weeks, the Allies had landed more than 1 million troops, 566,000 "Whether the enemycan still be stopped When Hitler learned of the Allied landings, he boasted that "the news tons ofsupplies, and 171,000 vehicles. near Paris warned Hitler. couldn't be better. As long as they [the Allied armies] were in Britain, we at this point is questionable;' German headquarters c and smothers almost every one of our couldn't get at them. Now we have them where we can destroy them:' In the "The enemy air superiority is terrifi en and equipment are extraordinary:• United States, word that the long-anticipated liberation of Nazi Europe had movements. . . . Losses in m greatest seaborne invasion in the annals of begun captured the nation's attention. Businesses closed, church bells tolled, Operation Overlord was the when compared with the offensive launched by the and traffic was stopped so that people could pray in the streets. Stalin cabled to warfare, but it was small s later. Bet~een June and August 1944, the Churchill and Roosevelt that the news brought "joy to us air' Soviet army in Russia a few week captured more German soldiers (350,000) than Resilience and creativity are crucial virtues amid the confusion ofgreat bat Soviets killed, wounded, or pe. tles (the "fog of war"), which rarely go according to plan. Despite Eisenhower's were stationed in all ofwestern Euro point in the war. With the meticulous preparations, the huge operation almost failed. During the first day, Still, the Normandy invasion was a turning knew that victory was just a matter of foul weather and rough seas caused injuries and n ausea and capsized dozens of beachhead secured, the Allied leaders the Soviets advancing from the landing craft. More than 1,000 men, weighed down by seventy pounds ofequip ti.me, as Hitler's armies were caught between west. "What a plan!" Churchillexclaimed to _ment, drowned as they stepped offlanding craft into water up to their necks. east and the Allied forces from the Stalin applauded the invasion's "vast conception Some ofthe boxy, flat-bottomed landing craft delivered their often seasick the British Parliament. Even troops to the wrong locations. "We have landed in the wrong place;' shouted and masterly execution:' wever, Eisenhower privately struggled with fifty-six-year-old Brigadier General Theodore Roosevelt Jr. (son ofthe former For all ofthe Allied success, ho I wish this cruel business of war could be president), who would receive the Medal of Honor fo r his courage that day. the daily casualty reports. "How y;' he wrote his wife. "War demands real toughness offiber "But we will start the war from here." completed quickl but in the homes that must sacri The noise was deafening as shells exploded across the beach and in the not only in the soldiers [who] must endure, best." surf. The bodies of the killed, wounded, and drowned piled up amid wrench- fice their 1192 CHAPTER 26 The Second \IVorld War 1933-1945 The Allied Drive toward Berlin 1193
THE LIBERATION OF PARIS It would take seven more weeks and German resistance collapsed after only ten weeks offerocious fighting. On 37,000 more lives for the Allied troops to gain control ofNormandy; the Ger D-day, one German unit, the 21st Panzer Division, boasted 12,000 men and 127 tanks; ten weeks later, having retreated across France, it had 300 men and mans lost more than twice that many, and some 19,000 French civilians were just 10 tanks. A division of the Free French Resistance, aided by American killed. Then, on July 25, 1944, American armies brokie out from Normandy and headed east toward Paris. On August 15, a joint American-French inva units, had the honor ofliberating Paris on August 25. As U.S. soldiers marched sion force landed on the Mediterranean coast and raced up the Rhone Valley through the cheering crowds, areporter said that he had never "seen in any in eastern France. place such joy as radiated from the people of Paris this morning:' By mid-September, most ofFrance and Belgium had been cleared ofGerman troops. Meanwhile, the Soviet army moved relentlessly westward along a 1,200- mile front, pushing the Germans out ofRussia. Between D-day and the end of WORLD WAR II IN EUROPE AND AFRICA, 1942-194 the war in Europe a year later, 1.2 million Germans were killed and wounded.
ROOSEVELT'S FOURTH TERM In 1944, amid the largest war in his tory, the calendar required another presidential election. The Republicans --, • ATLANTIC · , A '0 nominated New York governor Thomas E. Dewey, who argued that it was time OCEAN j NO WE for a younger man to replace the "tired" Democratic leader. Voters, however, 0 N1~~R ORTH r- • preferred the seasoned Franklin Roosevelt. On November 7, 1944, the presi REPi/lC ,.,,---,,_,,, JP dent was elected for a fourth term, this time by a popular vote of 25.6 million IRlf!AND ~f/ to 22 million and an electoral vote of432 to 99. *~~~~:,:~rck :f1 English ,9';! Chan"::o THE RACE TO BERLIN By the time Franklin Roosevelt was reelected, ~ • , ~~; ~ ,~ IJ Allied armies were approaching the German border from the east and west. Chur ~ ~~ n chill, worried that ifthe Soviets arrived first in Berlin, the German capital, Stalin i •,' ~ ... -,ur-.--~~.,.,..._ ,' 0 would control the postwar map ofEurope, urged Eisenhower to beat the Soviets to .:~t RANCE .! ·,.- • ••• -..,, : • .ACK SEA Berlin. Eisenhower, however, decided it was not worth the estimated 100,000
SPAIN /. CORSICA Americans who would be killed or wounded in such an operation . ••/ (French) ......
* Majorbattle l: "' .--"""',:/'. (B . Americans and British would control western Germany. Berlin, the German D Axis Powers at outbreak of the war D Maximum extent of Axis military power capital within the Soviet zone, would be subject to joint occupation. The - Allied offensives Americans and British later created a fourth occupation zone in Germany for - -► Heaviest Allied aerial bombing 250 500 Miles EG Y PT •...... Inside limit of German U-boat operations the French to administer. 0 2S0 500 KIiometers \ Stalin's goals at Yalta were to retrieve former Russian territory transferred ■ What was the Allied strategy in North Africa, and why was it important for t he to Poland after the First World War and to impose Soviet control over the invasion of Italy? countries of eastern and central Europe. Roosevelt, exhausted and in failing ■ Why did Eisenhower's D-day plan succeed? health, agreed to Stalin's proposals because he needed the Soviets to support ■ What was the role of strategic bombing in the war? Was it effective? the creation of a new international peacekeeping organization, the United 1194 CHAPTER 26 The Second World War 1933~19-+ 5 The Allied Drive toward Berli n 1195
Nations, and to help defeat Japan. Military analysts estimated that Japan could was good;' Roosevelt said after returning from the Yalta Conference. "I said it hold out for eighteen months after the defeat of Germany unless the Soviets was the best I could do:' joined the war in the Pacific. Stalin agreed to do so but the price was high: he demanded territories from Japan and China. DEATH OF A PRESIDENT By early 1945, Nazi Germany was on the Roosevelt and Churchill got Stalin to sign the Yalta Declaration of Liber verge of defeat, but sixty-three-year-old Franklin Roosevelt would not live to ated Europe, which called for free and open elections in the liberated nations of join the victory celebrations. In the spring of1945, he went to the "Little White eastern Europe. Nevertheless, the wily Stalin would fail to live up to his prom House" in Warm Springs, Georgia, to rest up for the conference that would ises. When the Red Army "liberated" Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Czecho create the United Nations. On the morning of April 12, 1945, he complained slovakia, Poland, and eastern Germany, it plundered and sent back to Russia of a headache but seemed to be in good spirits. It was nearly lunchtime when anything ofeconomic value, dismantling thousands of factories and mills and he said to an artist painting his portrait, "Now we've got just about 15 min rebuilding them in the Soviet Union. To ensure control over eastern Europe, utes more to work:' TI1en, as she watched him reading some documents, he the Soviets shipped off to prison anyone who questioned the new Communist groaned, saying that he had "terrific pain" in the back ofhis head. Suddenly he governments they created. slumped over and fell into a coma. He died two hours later. Roosevelt viewed the Yalta meeting as a test of whether the wartime alli On hand to witness the president's death was Lucy Mercer Rutherford, ance between the United States and the Soviet Union would survive once the the woman with whom Roosevelt had an affair thirty years before. Eleanor conflict ended. He staked his hopes for postwar cooperation on ~reation of Roosevelt was in Washington, D.C., when Franklin died, unaware of the pres the United Nations (UN). ident's guest. Although Franklin had promised in 1918 to end all communica At Yalta, the "Big Three" agreed to tions with Mercer, he had in fact secretly stayed in touch, even enabling her to hold organizational meetings for the attend his presidential inauguration in 1933. UN beginning on April 25, 1945. Like Roosevelt's death shocked and saddened the world, in part because few Woodrow Wilson, Roosevelt was deter people were aware that he was sick. Even his sharpest critics were devastated. mined to replace America's "outdated" Ohio senator Robert Taft, known as "Mr. Republican;' called Roosevelt's isolationism with an engaged interna death one of the worst tragedies in the nation's history. "The President's death tionalism. But to get Stalin's approval removes the greatest figure of our time at the very climax of his career. . . . of the UN, Roosevelt gave in to his He dies a hero of the war, for he literally worked himself to death in the demands for territory held by Japan in service of the American people." By contrast, Hitler viewed Roosevelt's death northeast Asia. as a "great miracle:' "TI1e war is not lost;' he told an aide. "Read it. Roosevelt Republicans later savagely attacked is dead!" Roosevelt for "giving" eastern Europe A U.S. soldier was on a warship in the Pacific when he heard the news of over to Soviet domination. Some blamed Roosevelt's death. "I felt a great sense ofloss;' he said, for Roosevelt had been his behavior on his declining health. president almost all his life. "He was our leader, but he was also, in some way, (He would die in a few weeks.) But our friend." In the short term, he worried about the military implications of even a robust Roosevelt could not have Roosevelt's death. "How will we go on fighting the war when our Commander dislodged the Soviet army from its in Chief is dead?" control of eastern Europe. TI1e course The Yalta Conference Churchill, ofthe war shaped the outcome atYalta, THE COLLAPSE OF NAZISM Adolf Hitler's shrinking Nazi empire Roosevelt, and Stalin (with their not Roosevelt's failed diplomacy. The collapsed less than a month later. In Berlin on April 28, as Soviet troops pre respective foreign ministers behind United States had no real leverage. As pared to enter the city, Hitler married his mistress, Eva Braun, in an under them) confer on plans for the postwar grow1d bunker. That same day, Italian freedom fighters captured Mussolini world in February 1945. a U.S. diplomat admitted, "Stalin held all the cards." "I didn't say the result and his mistress. Despite his plea to "Let me live, and I will give you an empire;' 1196 CHAPTER 26 The Second World Vilar 1933-1945 T he Allied Drive toward Berlin 1197
had appeared as early as 1942, but the gruesome stories seemed beyond belief until the Allied armies liberated the hundred or so "death camps" where the Germans had imposed their shocking "Final Solution": the wholesale extermi nation ofsome 6 million Jews, along with more than 1 million other captured peoples. At the Auschwitz-Birkenau camp in Poland, 865,000 were killed as soon as they arrived, and up to 6,000 were gassed in a single day. The Allied troops were appalled by what they discovered in the huge exter mination camps. Bodies were piled as high as buildings; survivors were living skeletons. General Eisenhower reported to his wife that the evidence of "star vation, cruelty, and bestiality were so overpowering as to leave me a bit sick:' American officials, even some Jewish leaders, had dragged their feet in acknowledging the Holocaust during the war for fear that relief efforts for Jew ish refugees might stir up anti-Semitism at home. Under pressure, President Roosevelt had set up a War Refugee Board early in 1944. It managed to res cue about 200,000 European Jews and some 20,000 others. But the president refused appeals to bomb the concentration camp at Auschwitz, arguing that
May 8, 1945 The celebration in New York City's Times Square on V-E day. the Nazis would simply build another one. Overall, the Allied response to the
Mussolini and his mistress were shot and hung by their heels from a girder above a Milan gas station. On April 30, Hitler and his wife retired to their underground bedroom, where she poisoned herself and he put a bullet in his head. Their bodies were taken outside, doused with gasoline, and burned. On May 2, Berlin fell. Axis forces in Italy surrendered the same day. Five days later, on May 7, the chief of staff of the German armed forces agreed to unconditional surrender. So ended Nazi domination ofEurope, little more than twelve years after Hitler had come to power proclaiming his "Thousand-Year Reich:' On May 8, V-E day ("Victory in Europe") generated massive celebrations. In Paris, an American bomber pilot flew his plane through the Eiffel Tower. In New York City, 500,000 people celebrated in the streets. But the elation was tempered by the ongoing war against Japan and the immense challenges of helping Europe rebuild. The German economy had to be revived, a new demo . cratic government had to be formed, and millions ofdisplaced Europeans had to be clothed, housed, and fed.
THE HOLOCAUST The end of the war in Europe revealed the horrific extent of the Holocaust, Hitler's systematic effort to destroy the Jews and Holocaust survivors American troops liberate survivors oft he Mauthausen co ncentration camp in May 1945. The Nazis tattooed the prisoners with identification other racial, political, sexual, and religious "undesirables;' including Com numbers on their wrists or chests, as seen on the ma n at left. munists and prostitutes. Reports of the Nazis' methodical slaughter of Jews
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BATTLES IN THE CENTRAL PACIFIC On June 15, 1944, just days after the D-day invasion, U.S. forces liberated Tinian, Guam, and Saipan, three Japanese-controlled islands. Saipan was strategically important because .. it allowed the new American B-- 29 "Superfortress" bombers to strike Japan __. Major Allied naval offensives itself. The struggle for the island lasted three weeks. Some 20,000 Japanese · - ➔ Major Allied air offensives were killed compared to 3,500 Americans. But 7,000 more Japanese soldiers __. Japanese advances AUSTRALIA I D 500 1,000 Miles committed suicide upon the order of their commanding general, who killed ········· Limit of Japanese control I I I I I O 500 1,000 Kdometers himself with his sword. * Major battle General MacArthur's forces invaded the Japanese-held Philippines on ■ What was MacArthur's "leapfrogging" strategy? Why were the battles in the October 20. The Japanese, knowing that the loss of the Philippines would cut Marianas a major turning point in the war? them off from essential raw materials, brought in warships from three direc ■ What was the significance ofthe Battle of Leyte Gulf? tions to battle the U.S. fleet. ■ How did the battle at Okinawa affect both Japanese and American military TI1e four battles fought in the Philippine Sea from October 23 to Octo strategists thereafter? ber 26, 1944, came to be known collectively as the Battle ofLeyte Gulf, the larg est naval engagement in history and the worst Japanese defeat ofthe war. Some 216 U.S. warships converged to engage 64 Japanese ships. By the end ofthe first "Kamikazes just poured at us, again and again;• a sailor remembered. "It scared day, 36 Japanese warships, including 4 aircraft carriers, had been destroyed. the shit out of us:' The Battle of Leyte Gulf included the first Japanese kamikaze ("divine As MacArthur waded ashore with the U.S. troops liberating the Philippines, wind") attacks, in which young suicide pilots deliberately crashed their bomb he reminded reporters ofhis 1942 pledge- "! shall return"- when he was evacu laden planes into American warships. From the fall of 1944 to the war's end ated from the islands in the face of the Japanese invasion. Now he announced in the summer of 1945, an estimated 4,000 kamikaze pilots died on suicide with great fanfare: "People of the Philippines, I have returned! The hour of missions. One in seven hit an American ship, thirty-four of which were sunk. your redemption is here.... Rally to me:' 1202 CHAPTER 2 6 The Second World \,Va r 1933- 19 -+ 5 The Pacific War 1203
A WAR TO THE DEATH 1hecloser the Allied forces got toJapan, the fiercer the resistance they encountered. While fighting continued in the Philippines, 30,000 U.S. Marines landed on lwo Jima, a volcanic atoll 760 miles from Tokyo. The Americans thought lwo Jima was needed as a base for fighter planes to escort bombers over Japan. 1he Japanese fought with suicidal intensity, and it took nearly six weeks to secure the tiny island at a cost of nearly 7,000 Amer ican lives-and 21,000 of the 22,000 Japanese soldiers. In the end, the furious battle was fought for an air base that never materialized. 1he assault on the Japanese island of Okinawa, which began on Easter Sunday, April 1, was even bloodier. Only 360 miles from the main Japanese islands, Okinawa was strategically important because it would serve as the staging area for the planned Allied invasion of Japan. The conquest of Oki nawa was the largest amphibious operation of the Pacific war, involving some 300,000 troops and requiring almost three months of brutal fighting. More than 150,000 Japanese were killed; the remaining 7,871 were either captured or surrendered. A third of U.S. pilots and a quarter of submariners lost their lives at Okinawa. As the fighting raged on Okinawa, Allied commanders bega~lanning Operation Downfall- the invasion of Japan itself. To weaken tne Japanese defenses, destroy their war-related industries, and erode civilian morale, the The aftermath of Little Boy This image shows the wasteland that remained after the Allied command began bombing raids in the summer of 1944. In early 1945, atomic bomb "Little Boy" decimated Hiroshima, Japan, on August 6, 1945. General Curtis Lemay, head ofthe U.S. Bomber Command, ordered devastat ing "firebomb" raids upon Japanese cities: "Bomb and burn 'em till they quit:' On March 9, some 300 B-29 bombers dropped napalm bombs on Tokyo. radiation poisoning, ordered that the atomic bomb be used if Japan did not 1h e attack incinerated sixteen square miles ofthe city and killed some 100,000 surrender before August 3. people while rendering a million homeless. By then, American military lead Although an intense debate emerged over the decision to drop the bomb ers had lost all moral qualms about targeting civilians. The kamikaze attacks, spurred by Truman's chief of staff, Admiral William D. Leahy, who argued that the Japanese s~vagery toward prisoners of war, the burning of Manila that the "Japanese were already defeated and ready to surrender"- Truman said that killed 100,000 civilians, and the "rape" of China had eroded almost all sym he "never had any doubt that it should be used:' He later recalled that "we faced pathy for the island nation. By August 1945, si.xty-six Japanese cities had been half a million casualties trying to take Japan by land. It was either that or the atom firebombed. Secretary ofWar Henry Stimson called the lack of public outcry bomb, and I didn't hesitate a minute, and I've never lost any sleep over it since:' in the United States over the raids "appalling." To Truman and others, the use ofatomic bombs seemed a logical next step to end the war. As it turned out, scientists greatly underestin1ated the physi THE ATOMIC BOMB Still, the Japanese leaders showed no willingness cal effects of the bomb. Their prediction that 20,000 people would be killed to surrender. In early 1945, new U.S. president Harry S. Truman learned ofthe proved much too low. first successful test ofan atomic bomb in New Mexico. Now that military plan In mid-July 1945, the Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany, near Berlin. ners knew the bomb would work, they selected two Japanese cities as targets. There they issued the Potsdam Declaration. In addition to outlawing Nazism, The first was Hiroshima, a port city and army headquarters in southern Japan. it demanded that Japan surrender by August 3 or face "prompt and utter On July 25, 1945, Truman, who knew nothing about the devastating effects of destruction:' Truman left Potsdam optimistic about postwar relations with the
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tall tall 1204 1204 1206 CHAPTER 26 The Second World War 1933- 19 --1 5 J\ N ew Age ls Born 1207
WHY DID THE ALLIES WIN? Many factors contributed to the Allied powerful nation, perhaps, in all history." But the Soviet Union, despite its pro victory. Roosevelt and Churchill were better at coordinating military efforts found human losses and physical destruction, had gained much new territory, and maintaining national morale than were Hitler, Mussolini, and the Japa built massive armed fo rces, and enhanced its international influence, malting nese emperor, Hirohito. By 1944, Hitler had grown increasingly unstable and it the greatest power in Eurasia. A little over a century after Frenchman Alexis unpredictable and more withdrawn from the German people, especially after de Tocqueville had predicted that Europe would eventually be overshadowed a failed attempt by high-ranking officers to assassinate him that July. by the United States and Russia, his prophecy had come to pass. In the end, however, what turned the tide was the awesome productivity of American industry and the ability of the Soviet Union to absorb the massive German invasion and then push back all the way to Berlin. By the end of the war, Japan had run out of food and Germany had run out of fuel. By contrast, the United States was churning out more of everything. As early as 1942, just a few weeks after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Fritz Todt, a Nazi engineer, told Hitler that the war against the United States was already lost because ofAmer ica's ability to out-produce all the other warring nations combined.
A TRANSFORMATIONAL WAR Like the First World War, the Sec ond World War had far-reaching effects. It shattered the old world order and created a new international system, and nations such as France, German~ reat Britain, and Japan were left devastated or impoverished. Henry Luce, tne pow erful publisher of Time magazine, said that the war had demonstrated ·the "moral and practical bankruptcy of all fo rms of Isolationism:• International ism was now the dominant outlook, as most Americans acknowledged that the United States had profound responsibilities for global stability and security. It had emerged from the war with the most powerful military in the world-and as the only nation with atomic weapons. The expam;ion ofthe federal government spurred by the war effort contin ued after 1945, and presidential authority increased enormously at the expense of congressional and state power. The war also ended the Great Depression and launched a long period of unprecedented prosperity and global economic domination. B.ig businesses grew into gigantic corporations as a result ofhuge government contracts for military weapons and supplies. New technologies and products developed for military purposes-radar, computers, electron ics, plastics and synthetics, jet engines, rockets, atomic energy-transformed the private sector, as did new consumer products generated from war-related innovations. And the opportunities created by the war fo r women as well as for African Americans, Mexican Americans, and other minorities set in motion major social changes that would culminate in the civil rights movement of the 1960s and the :feminist movement of the 1970s. In August 1945, President Truman announced that the United States had "emerged from this war the most powerful nation in this world-the most economy. The opportunities for women and minorities during the war also increased their aspirations and would contribute to the emergence of the civil rights and feminist movements. SUMMARY • Fascism and the Start ofthe War In Italy, Benito Mussolini assumed control CHRONOLOGY by promising law and order. Adolf Hitler rearmed Germany in defiance of the Treaty of Versailles. By March 1939, Nazi Germany had annexed Austria and 1933 Adolf Hitler becomes chancellor ofGermany seized Czechoslovakia. Hitler then invaded Poland with the blitzkrieg strategy in 1937 War between China and Japan begins September 1939, after signing a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union. The 1939 Non-Aggression pact between Germany and the Soviet Union British and French governments declared war. September 1939 German troops invade Poland • America Goes Ito War The United States issued "neutrality laws" to avoid being 1940 Battle of Britain drawn into wars in Europe and Asia, but with the fall ofFrance, Roosevelt accelerated June 1941 Germany invades Soviet Union military aid to Great Britain through the Lend-Lease Act. In 1941, the United States and August 1941 United States and Great Britain sign the Atlantic Charter Great Britain signed the Atlantic Charter, announcing their aims in the war. After Japan December 7, 1941 Japanese launch surprise attack at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii joined with Germany and Italy to form the '¼xis" alliance, President Roosevelt froze June 1942 Battle ofMidway Japanese assets in the United States and restricted oil exports to Japan, which frustrated the Japanese, who decided to launch a surprise attack at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. January 1943 Roosevelt and Churchill meet at Casablanca November 1943 Roosevelt and Churchill meet Stalin in Tehran • The Second World War and American Society The war h ad profound social June 6, 1944 D-day effects. Americans-white, black, and brown-migrated west to take jobs in / defense industry factories; unemployment was soon a thing of the past. Farmers February 1945 Yalta Conference recovered, supported by Mexican labor through the bracero program. The federal April 1945 Roosevelt dies; Hitler commits suicide government, through agencies such as the War Production Board, took control of May 8, 1945 Nazi Germany surrenders; V-E day managing the economy. Many women took nontraditional jobs. About 1 million August 1945 Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki African Americans served in the military in segregated units. More than 100,000 September 2, 1945 Japan surrenders; V-J day Japanese Americans were forcibly interned in "war relocation camps." • Road to Allied Victory in Europe By 1943, the Allies had defeated the German K EY TERMS and Italian armies occupying North Africa. From there, they launched attacks on fascism p. 1152 Tuskegee Airmen p. 1179 Sicily and then the mainland ofltaly. Stalin, meanwhile, demanded a full-scale Allied attack on the Atlantic coast ofFrance to ease pressure on the Russian Front, "neutrality laws" p. 1156 bracero program p. 1179 but Operation Overlord was delayed until June 6, 1944. German resistance slowly "Axis" alliance p. 1157 "war relocation camps" p. 1181 crumbled. The "Big Three" Allied leaders- Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin- met Lend-Lease Act (1941) p. 1166 Operation Overlord p. 1187 at the Yalta Conference in February 1945, where they decided that a conquered Atlantic Charter (1941) p. 1167 Yalta Conference (1945) p. 1193 Germany would be divided into four occupation zones. In May, Soviet forces captured Berlin, and Germany surrendered. After the war, Allied forces discovered Pearl Harbor p. 1172 Holocaust p. 1196 the extent ofth,e Holocaust- the Nazis' systematic effort to exterminate the Jews. War Production Board p. 1173 Battle ofMidway p. 1199 • The.Pacific Wa.r The Japanese advance across the Pacific was halted in June 1942 Women's Army Corps (WAC) p. 1175 Hiroshima p. 1202 with the Battle ,of Midway. Fierce Japanese resistance at Iwo Jima and Okinawa and Japan's refusal to surrender after the firebombing of Tokyo led the new president, Harry S. Truman, to order the use of atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and & NQUIZITIVE Nagasaki. Go to lnQuizitive to see what you've learned-and learn what you've • Postwar World. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged from the war missed-with personalized feedback along the way. as global superpowers, with the United States possessing the world's strongest
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