37? NQ fd Aiot 36^
TWENTIETH-CENTURY WORKS FOR TEXTLESS VOICE AND VARIOUS
WOODWINDS WITH THREE RECITALS OF SELECTED WORKS OF
STAMITZ, ROUSSEL, ALBINONI, WEBER, MILHAUD,
AND OTHERS.
DISSERTATION
Presented to the Graduate Council of the
University of North Texas in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
By
Nancy M. Gamso, B.S., M.M.
Denton, Texas
December, 1992 37? NQ fd Aiot 36^
TWENTIETH-CENTURY WORKS FOR TEXTLESS VOICE AND VARIOUS
WOODWINDS WITH THREE RECITALS OF SELECTED WORKS OF
STAMITZ, ROUSSEL, ALBINONI, WEBER, MILHAUD,
AND OTHERS.
DISSERTATION
Presented to the Graduate Council of the
University of North Texas in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
By
Nancy M. Gamso, B.S., M.M.
Denton, Texas
December, 1992 Gamso, Nancy M., Twentieth-Century Works for Textless
Voice and Various Woodwinds with Three Recitals of Selected
Works of Stamitz. Roussel. Albinoni. Weber. Milhaud. and
Others. Doctor of Musical Arts (Woodwinds Performance),
December 1992, 131 pp., 3 tables, 39 examples, 3 appendices, annotated bibliography of selected works, bibliography, 44 titles.
The purpose of this study is to explore the literature for textless voice and woodwind instruments. The primary focus concerns the timbral and ensemble possibilities exploited in three twentieth-century works in which the voice is treated as an instrument i.e., without the usual preoccupation with textual meaning. An historical overview of vocal works with obbligato woodwinds and concerted works for textless voice serves as an introductory chapter. The variables of voice and instrument acoustical makeup, vocal vowel formation and instrumental voicings, volume, vibrato, resultant tones, range, and extended techniques
(fluttertongue, special vibrato demands, non-vibrato, etc.) are the focus of the performance considerations for this study.
Over thirty twentieth-century textless works for voice and at least one woodwind instrument were located. The three, chosen for this study represent different periods in the century, and present contrasting styles and musical merit: Aria (1931) by Jacques Ibert, Three Vocalises (1958) by Ralph Vaughan Williams, and Duos I (1976) by Nancy Chance. A style and performance analysis of these works with pertinent research on the composers is presented. Appendices include an annotated bibliography of selected works for the medium, a written interview with Nancy Chance, and performance notes provided by the composer, concerning Duos I. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It is with sincere graditude that I acknowledge the following people for their assistance in this endeavor: my committee, John Scott, Deanna Bush, and James Gillespie for their editorial assistance; Marilyn Nims, Diana Gale, and Rose Marie Chisolm for their performance assistance; Nancy Chance for information in the Duos J; and my family and friends for their generous and loving support.
1X1 PREFACE
The purpose of this study is to explore the literature
for textless voice and woodwind instruments. The primary
focus concerns the timbral and ensemble possibilities
exploited in three twentieth-century works in which the voice is treated as an instrument, i.e., without the usual preoccupation with textual meaning. In texted compositions
(numerous works) for voice and obbligato woodwinds the text tends to affect the general character of the work and often
its overall structure. The programmatic association of the clarinet in Schubert's Der Hirt auf den Felsen (1828) is an obvious case. Similarly, John Banner's The Thrush, Edward
German's Bird of Blue, and Lawrence Willingham's Carol of
the Thrush, works for flute and voice, make overt programmatic use of the obbligato instrument here alluding to the sound of birds. Such narrow stereotyping certainly does not constitute the majority of works written for obbligato instruments. Yet, even in texted works of the highest merit, the roles of the singer and instrumentalist are inherently different.
In the absence of text, however, the composer is better able to concentrate on matters of blend, timbral
IV relationships and form without being constrained by structural or programmatic implications of a text. The variables of voice type and instrument acoustical makeup, vocal vowel formation and instrumental voicings, volume, vibrato, pitch, resultant tones, loudness, and special effects (fluttertongue, special vibrato demands, non- vibrato, etc.) become all-important without the distraction or aid of a literary focus.
Past studies have focused almost exclusively on texted literature for the voice and obbligato instrument and on concert vocalises for the solo voice. Little research has been done concerning the history, analysis, or performance practice of music for untexted voice and woodwinds. This study begins with an historical overview of texted works for voice and woodwind obbligato and works employing textless voice. In addition, this study brings together knowledge of the special acoustical properties of woodwind instruments and voice that should aid the performer and teacher alike.
The third chapter features a detailed analysis of the three works. The concluding chapter summarizes the contributions of the study. Appendices include an annotated bibliography of selected works for the medium, a written interview with
Nancy Chance concerning Duos I, and program notes on Duos I, provided by the composer. Three works were selected from the bibliography of works for their special problems encountered with the medium. Aria (1930) by Jacques Ibert, Three vocalises
(I960) by Ralph Vaughan Williams, and Duos I (1976) by Nancy
Chance. A style and performance analysis of each complete work to be performed and pertinent research on the composers are presented. Marilyn Nims and Diana Gale performed the vocal roles in these works. Their observations have aided in this research.
VI TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE iv
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF EXAMPLES ix
PROGRAMS OF RECITALS xi
Chapter
I. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 1 Historical Survey of Vocal Music with Woodwind Obbligato The Use of the Voice without Text
II. PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS 18 Introduction Timbre in Voice, Flute, Clarinet vibrato Pitch Loudness Special Techniques
III. ANALYSES AND PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS OF SELECTED WORKS 47 Introduction Aria (1931) by Jacques Ibert Three vocalises (1958) by Ralph Vaughan Williams Duos I (1976) by Nancy Chance
IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 90
APPENDIX A: Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works ....95
APPENDIX B: Written Interview with Nancy Chance 107
APPENDIX C: Program Notes for Duos 1 110
BIBLIOGRAPHY 112
VI1 LIST OF TABLES
1. Cubic and simple difference tones 39
2. Harmonic Material 3, Reduction to sounding intervals, mm. 18-24, Chance Duos 1 77
3. Form of Chance Duos 1 84
Vlll LIST OF EXAMPLES
1. Glottal "trill," Rosen Serenade 42
2. Fluttertonguing, Chance Duos 1 42
3. Syllables, McBride Vocalise 43
4. Syllables, Weigl Brief Encounters 44
5. Fluttertonguing,Chance Duos 1 44
6. Fluttertonguing, Rosen Serenade 45
7. Glissandi, McBride Vocalise 45
8. Key and Tongue Clicks, Rosen Serenade 45
9. Arrangements, Ibert Aria 50
10. Differences in editions, Ibert Aria 53
11. Differences in editions, Ibert Aria 54
12. Texture of opening, Ibert Aria 56
13. Dissonance between flute and piano, Ibert Aria 57
14. Thirds, Ibert Aria 59
15. Unisons, Prelude Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises... 63
16. Final measures, Prelude, Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises 64
17. Cross rhythms, Scherzo, Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises 65 18. Ending, Quasi Menuetto, Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises 67 19. Melodic Materials 1, Chance Duos 1 72
IX 20. MM 2, Chance Duos 1 7 3
21. MM 3, Chance Duos 1 7 3
22. MM 4, Chance Duos 1 74
23. MM 5, Chance Duos 1 74
24. MM 6, Chance Duos 1 75
25. MM 7, Chance Duos 1 75
26. MM 8, Chance Duos 1 7 6
27. Harmonic Materials 1, Chance Duos 1 77
28. HM 2, Chance Duos 1 77
29. HM 4, Chance Duos 1 78
30. HM 5, Chance Duos 1 7 8
31. Rhythmic Materials 1, Chance Duos 1 79
32. RM 2, Chance Duos 1 79
33. RM 3, Chance Duos 1 80
34. RM 4, Chance Duos 1 80
35. Principal Cadence, Chance Duos J 81
36. Transposition of principal cadence by a P4th, Chance Duos 1 81
37. Principal cadence with special effects and rhythmic augmentations, Chance Duos 1 82
38. Foreshadowing, Chance Duos 1 83
39. Extension of motive, Chance Duos 1 83 presents
Doctoral Solo Recital
Nancy Gamso, Woodwinds
with Sarah Staton, Piano
Joueurs de flute, Op. 27 Albert Roussel Pan T i tyre Krishna Mr de la Pejaudie
Premier Solo for Bassoon E. Bourdeau Intermission
Concerto in B flat Major for Clarinet Oohann Stamitz Allegro moderato Adagio Poco presto
Sonata for Clarinet and Piano, Op. 129 Allegro moderato Charles V. Stanford Caoine - Adagio (quasi Fantasia) Allegretto grazioso
Monday, March 6, 1989 8:00 p.m. Recital Hall
XI presents
Graduate Recital
NANCY GAMSO, clarinet and oboe
assisted by: Judy Fisher, piano Paul Rennick, percussion
Monday, June 25, 1990 6:15 p.m. Recital Hall
Concerto in D minor, Op. 9, No. 2 Tomaso Albinoni Allegro e non presto (1671-1750) Adagio Allegro
Solo de Concours, Op. 10 pour Clarinette Henri Rabaud in Sib avec accompanyement de Piano (1901) (1873-1949) Moderate - Largo - Allegro
- INTERMISSION -
Capriccio for Solo Clarinet Heinrich Sutermeister in A (1946) (b. 1910) i mtKoiml
Xll Sources III for Two Performers (clarinet David Burge and percussion) (1967) (b. 1930) I. i = ca, 60 II. J = 132 III. > = 40 IV. ) = ca. 46 (Cadenza I) V. Free Tempo (Cadenza II)
Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Music in Woodwinds
Xlll presents
A Graduate Recital
NANCY M. GAMSO, flute, clarinet, saxophone assisted by Philip Wilder, harpsichord Michael Kaprelian, ceilo Rose Marie Chisholm, piano
Monday, March 9, 1992 6:15 p.m. Recital Hall
Sonata No. 2 in d minor, "La Vibray" Michel Blavet Andante (1700-1768) Allemande - Allegro Gavotte (les Caquets) - Tranquillo Sarabande - Largo Finale - Allegro Philip Wilder, harpsichord Michael Kaprelian, cello
- short pause -
Concertino, Opus 26 Carl Maria von Weber (1786-1826)
Hillandale Waltzes Victor Babin Temp di Valse - Con garbo (1908-1972) I. Valse 4l4gante II. Valse passionie III. Valse sombre IV. Valse volante V. Valse triste VI. Valse de bonne humeur VII. Valse brillante et joyeuse VIII. Valse oubliie
xiv - short pause -
Scaramouche Darius Milhaud Vif (1892-1974) ModM Mouv' de Samba Rose Marie Chisholm, piano
Presented in partial rtilfiUment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts
xv (no n~l~ QJfi i ci. x^lWytvJ JVLUdli
presents
A Graduate Lecture Recital
NANCY M. GAMSO, flute and clarinet assisted by Marilyn Nims, soprano • Diana Gale, soprano Rose Marie Chisholm, piano
Monday, July 13, 1992 6:15 p.m. Recital Iiall
TWENTIETH-CENTURY WORKS FOR TEXTLESS VOICE AND VARIOUS WOODWINDS
Aria for Voice, Flute and Piano (1931) Jacques Ibert (1890-1962) Marilyn Nims, soprano
Three Vocalises for Soprano and Clarinet (1958) /. Prelude Ralph Vaughan Williams 11. Scherzo (1872-1958) ///. Quasi Minuetto Diana Gale, soprano
Duos I for Soprano, Flute and Finger Cymbals (1976) Nancy Chance (b. 1931) Marilyn Nims, soprano
Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts
xvi CHAPTER I
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Historical Survey of Vocal Music with Woodwind Obbliaato1
The concept of combining the lyrical qualities of the voice with the expressive and technical attributes of wind instruments is not a new one. Since the Medieval period and the songs of the trouveres and troubadours, singing has been accompanied and enhanced by various instruments. In the most elaborate accompanying situations in medieval song, wind instruments alternate with the voice in simple counterpoint. Flutes, recorders, and shawms were among the instruments employed for these occasions.2 Though the designation was far from specific, the practice of substituting available instruments for vocal parts in ballatas, virelais, frottolas, motets, and madrigals is thought to have been a common
xln the context of this discussion, the term "Obbligato" refers to "an independent part in concerted music, ranking in importance just below the principal melody and not to be omitted... The archetype of obbligato part is the instrumental solo which, with a basso continuo, constitutes the accompaniment of a vast number of late Baroque arias." Don Randall, The New Harvard Dictionary of Music (Cambridge, MA.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1986), 551. 2Denis Stevens, ed., A History of Song {New York: W.W. Norton, 1960), 19. occurance during the Medieval and Renaissance periods.3 In the Baroque period, this "theory of availability" in instrumentation was less flexible.4 Titles of works typically designated voice and one or two of several obbligato instruments, depending on the order of preference. These were inundated by such standard instructions as: "...per violino o flauto," "vorr viol (fluit, blokfluit, hobo)," or "pour violon ou flute allemande.5 The violin was the preferred instrument for obbligato accompaniment; woodwind instruments were used less frequently with the most popular being the flute, recorder, and oboe. An increase in the use of obbligato woodwinds followed structural improvements on these instruments by a group of Parisian craftsmen, namely those of the Hotteterre family in the early part of the Baroque period. This increase in obbligato woodwinds is demonstrated in works by composers such as A. Scarlatti, Telemann, Handel, and J.S. Bach who began using obbligato flute and oboe parts in their operatic and cantata arias.6 In the late Baroque, these arias were
3Maria K. Stolba, The Development of Western Music - A History (Debuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown, 1990), 148, 178.
4Ibid., 148. 5Ronald Wain, "Flute and Voice Ensembles," The Instrumentalist, XLV (January 1991), 13.
6Ibid., 9. standardized into a da capo form with the obbligato instrument participating in the opening ritornello, interludes, and postludes anticipating the vocal line, imitating melodic material, and otherwise unifying the structure. The clarinet first appeared during the mid-eighteenth century, initially in association with vocal works. The clarinet and its predecessor, the chalumeau, are found in a number of works, including a Mass by Antwerp organist, J. A. J. Faber in 1720, and in a Telemann Cantata for Whit Sunday (1721), calling for a soprano aria to be accompanied by "Flauto piccolo, Clarinetto et Quartett."7 In opera, the clarinet was employed in a growing number of works, first among them Handel's Tamerlano (1724) in which an aria calls for the accompaniment of two cornetti, later replaced by two clarinets. The clarinet first appears in French opera in Rameau1s Zoroastre of 1749.8 Toward the midpoint of the eighteenth century, the standardization of pairs of woodwinds in orchestral works contributed to an established use of these instruments in opera orchestrations. However, the contrapuntal passages for woodwind obbligato characteristic of the early Baroque were
7Oscar Kroll, The Clarinet (New York: Taplinger Pub. Co., 1968), 47.
8Sumrall, 11. replaced with less elaborate phrases by pairs of woodwinds.9 This followed the fashion in Italian arias in the 1750s and 1760s and continued throughout the Classical period. In his operatic works, Mozart followed this trend. Within this convention of short obbligato phrases, his works demonstrate the timbral possibilities of the woodwinds in an obbligato role. Mozart was fond of woodwind timbre and often used flutes, oboes, clarinets, and bassoons in homogeneous or heterogeneous pairs. Numerous passages are found in solo arias and duets, and smaller ensembles (trios, quartets, quintets, and sextets) in which the woodwinds appear in unison with the voices, in thirds and sixths and occasionally as obbligato instruments against the vocal parts.10 In La Clemenza di Tito (1791), for example, Mozart chose to use the Bb clarinet and the basset horn in F as true obbligato instruments in two arias, "Parto, parto" (No. 9), and , "Non piu di fiori" (No. 23). The role of the clarinet and basset horn can be described as generally idiomatic for the instruments, using arpeggiated passages that display both
9M. F. Robinson, "The Aria in Opera Seria, 1725-1780," Proceedings of the Royal Music Association, 88th Session (London, 1961-62), 38, cited in Sumrall, 9.
10In a survey study done by this author, the majority of bel canto arias in Mozart's operas from Idomeneo to Die Zauberflote used the woodwind instruments in this capacity. instruments' extended range.11 The bassoon was omitted from the preceding discussion of the obbligato woodwind instruments because of its primary role as the bass line. In the Baroque period, there are, however, occasional instances of more active bassoon parts, usually exploiting the full bass range. Such parts are found in an aria in Traetta's Olipiade and in works by Steffani (1655-1729), Kapelmeister at Hanover, ca. 1689, where they were performed by fine French bassoonists.12 In Steffani's works, the bassoon is used as an obbligato instrument with the voice. Two interesting occurences of the use of five bassoons and continuo in the accompaniment of soprano arias by Schiitz and Reiser are to be noted. They appear in Heinrich Schiitz's Psalm 24 (Vol. XIII, No. I of his Sammtliche Werke) and in Reiser's Octavia (1706).13 In the secular cantata Durchlaucht'ster Leopold (?1718), Bach used the bassoon, "col violoncello," in the bass aria (No. 7).14
^Mozart wrote many of his clarinet works for his friend and fellow Mason, Anton Stadler, an excellent clarinetist and the performer of clarinets and basset horns with a lower extension of a major third. Mozart's inclusion of the two obbligati arias in La Clemenza di Tito were due in part to his friendship with Stadler.
12Lyndesay G. Langwill, The Bassoon and Contra-Bassoon (London: Ernest Benn, 1965), 75.
13Ibid., 73-80.
14Ibid., 84. Handel generally scored one or two bassoons in the accepted treatment of the bass line. One notable exception is the scene between Saul and the witch of Endor in the oratorio Saul (17 39), in which two bassoons soli accompany the ghostly voice over a sustained bass.15 Mozart's treatment of the woodwinds, as noted previously, also extends to the bassoon. A rarely performed aria, "Nehmt meinen Dank," K. 383 (1782) opens with a very lyrical bassoon, flute, and oboe obbligato and closes with an extended bassoon solo.16 Woodwind obbligato parts first appear in solo song literature in a limited capacity in late eighteenth-century Europe. The Breitkopf Thematic Catalog, a recognized record of published works of the eighteenth century, records only three chamber works for voice and woodwind obbligati; two for oboe and one including clarinet, though the clarinet work is not used in a true obbligato capacity.17 The genre, however, was most popular in eighteenth-century London where music for this medium was heard in numerous public performances at the Pleasure Gardens, Marylebone Gardens, Ranelagh Gardens, and Vauxhall Gardens. Although the majority of these works have not survived, the importance of the immense volume of vocal
15Ibid., 86.
16Ibid., 88.
17Sumrall, 23. music produced for these light entertaining events cannot be dismissed. Frank Kidson is quoted as saying: "If we eliminated from the published music of the time all that had its first public hearing at the public gardens, there would be very little to show what English music was like in the eighteenth century."18 An example of this type of song is
James Hook's "0 whither can my William stray" for soprano, clarinet, and piano, dating from the last quarter of the eighteenth century. The clarinet doubles the voice line throughout the work and finishes with an instrumental postlude for the last few measures. Two additional songs for soprano solo and accompaniment are representative of this genre composed for the Pleasure Gardens. They exploit the flute for its birdsong-like associations and include "Lo, here the gentle lark" by Henry Bishop and "The gypsy and the bird" by Sir Julius Benedict.19
A few surviving American songs dating from this period have been identified. A work entitled "Sweet echo" for voice, German flute, and violin was printed in the American
Musical Magazine (17 86); reference is made in the same
18Rosemary Hughes, "Solo Song," The New Oxford History of Music, edited by Egon Wellesz and Frederick Sternfeld (London: Oxford University Press, 1973), VII, 337 as cited in Sumrall, 16.
19Sumrall, 22. 8
journal to songs accompanied by piano and flute or oboe obbligato from 1784.20
In the nineteenth century, the increase in the size of
the orchestra and the general interest in orchestral music
contributed to a decline in interest in chamber music. What
is lacking in volume, however, is compensated for in quality as is evidenced by a handful of works including Schubert's famous Der Hirt auf dem Felsen for soprano, clarinet, and piano. Other early nineteenth-century songs with woodwind accompaniment include: Weber's Ein Entmutigter Liebende and
Ein Begluckter Liebender, both songs scored for voice, flute, cello, and piano; Meyerbeer's Des Schafers Lied for tenor and obbligato clarinet and Hirtenlied for clarinet, soprano, and piano; Spohr's Sechs Deutsche Lieder for voice, clarinet, and piano; A. Panseron's J'attends Romance for voice, oboe, and piano, A. Ch. Adam's Le Retour a la Montagne, Die Riiekkehr ins Gebirge, Tyrolienne for voice, oboe, and piano; and W.R.
Bexfield Song to Ellen, Op. 4 for voice, bassoon, and piano.
As this sampling of vocal chamber works indicates, the bassoon and oboe are rarely represented in the nineteenth century. After their enormous popularity in Baroque cantatas
20Sonneck, O.G., Early Concert Life in America (1731- 1800) (New York: Musurgia Pub., 1949), p. 415 as cited in Becker, 3. and operas, the double reed instruments are employed with some fregency in the chamber works of the twentieth century. In the opera and sacred vocal genres of the nineteeth century, woodwinds again assumed a position of importance in supporting the voice in an obbligato manner. This is evidenced in the clarinet obbligato of Schubert's "Romance" from the opera Die Verschworenen and the Erstes Offertorivm, Op. 46; in Spohr's opera Der Zweikampf mit der Geliebten in which an important clarinet obbligato is employed; in Donizetti's L'Blisir d'Amore, scoring a bassoon obbligato in "Una furtiva lagrima;" in Gounod's Faust in which two bassoons play an important role; in a Serenade in Act IV of Verdi's Requiem using a bassoon accompaniment in the "Quid sum miser;" and the flute obbligato in "II dolce suono mi colpi," the "Mad-Scene" in Act III of Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor.21
In the present century, vocal music with woodwind obbligato embraces a variety of styles found in all twentieth-century art music, from the most conservative neo- classical works, prominent among English music for voice and clarinet, (A. Cooke, Songs of Innocence, A. Bliss, Nursery- Rhymes, and G. Jacob Three Songs are only a few) to the most
21Langwill, 97. 1 0
radical experimentation with the voice in terms of the size and makeup of the ensemble, technique, use or absence of text and various other modifications. In the opinion of Ursula Greville, the twentieth century marks a point of no return in the relationship of the voice with "accompanying" instruments in chamber music. ...never has the voice consciously been allowed to merge into or mix with the texture of sounds with which it is thus environed, nor has the accompaniment dared, for a moment, openly to usurp the 'divine right' of the voice to dominate. The exception -- and there are not a few - - are the accidents, for not until today, or late yesterday, have there existed the idea of co-operation, the recognition of the social, democratic, and communal sympathies of the voice in the realm of sound.22
This change in treatment of the voice from that of soloist to an equal chamber partner has been embraced by many twentieth-century composers. In its new role, the voice functions as a new instrumental timbre and many twentieth- century works demonstrate this equality. Among the numerous of works for voice and various wind instruments composed at the beginning of the century, certainly one of the most influential is Schoenberg's Pierrot Lunaire (1912). This landmark composition was immediately followed by Maurice Ravel's Trois Po&mes de Stephane Mallarme
22Ursula Greville, "Voice and the Chamber Ensemble," Cobbett's Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music, 3 vols. Compiled and edited by Walter Willson Cobbet with supplementary material edited by Colin Mason. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963), 11:555. 11
(1913) for voice, piano, string quartet, two flutes, and two clarinets and Stravinsky's Pribaoutki (1914) for voice, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and string bass. These works were succeeded by Hans Eisler's Palmstom (1926) for speech song, flute (also piccolo), clarinet in A, violin (also viola), and cello; and Anton Webern's Six Songs (1917-21) for soprano, clarinet, bass clarinet, viola, and cello. All are indebted to Schoenberg's song cycle in their approach to instrumentation, serial techniques, and the use of Sprechstiime.23 Homogeneous groupings of accompanying instruments also were employed early in the century, as in Berceuse de Chat (1916) for voice and three clarinets by Stravinsky, Milhaud's Cocktail (1921) for the same combination, and Webern's Five Canons (1923-4) for voice, clarinet, and bass clarinet. Thirty years later, Dallapiccola scored the Goethe Lieder (1953) for three clarinets.
The numerous works for voice and small ensembles of various woodwinds demonstrate the willingness on the part of twentieth-century composers to experiment with different combinations of timbres. Perhaps the most common conservative combinations consist of voice with flute and piano, as in Arthur Benjamin's The Piper, Delibes' Le
23Becker, 8-9. 1 2
Rossignol, and Ibert's Aria (1931); and voice, clarinet, and piano as represented by such works as Argento's To be Sung Upon the Water and Rorem's Ariel. Other woodwinds are employed only rarely. In the case of the double reed instruments (oboe, bassoon and their family members) instrumentation often involves an ensemble of 3-11 instruments, thus lessening the impact of these instruments in a true obbligato role. William Richard Bexfiels's Song to Ellen, Op. 4 for voice, bassoon, and piano is an exception. Historically, the saxophone seems to have been used the least in combination with voice, having only been invented in the mid-nineteenth century. A few representative works have emerged which include Jean Absil's Nostalgia d'Arabella, Op. 22 and Phantasme, Op. 72 for alto, alto saxophone, percussion, and piano; and jazz inspired compositions by Boris Blacher Jazz-Koloraturen (1927) for soprano, alto saxophone, and bassoon and the Jerome Rosen Serenade (1964) for soprano and alto saxophone.24 The ensemble possibilities promise to be interesting, given the saxophone's dual role in both jazz and art music. Vocal works with woodwind obbligato have changed and developed throughout the history of music. The medium has followed the trends of each style period, from the obbligato,
24These works are reviewed in Appendix A. 13
contrapuntal nature of the Baroque, the restrained, employment in the Classical period, the programmatic, expressive character of the Romantic period to the equal partnership and the use of the voice and instruments in new methods of expression in the twentieth century. Because of the compatible nature of the voice and woodwinds, this partnership continues to be an significant medium in chamber music.
The Use of the Voice without Text The vocalise, a vocal composition without text, began as a technical exercise for the voice. In the mid-eighteenth and early nineteeth centuries collections of solfeggi and exercises for the voice with piano accompaniment were published. These included both newly-composed etudes or the melodic content of previous works, often provided with instructions for solving technical problems. Representative examples of the former include The Singer's Preceptor (1810) of Domenico Corri, Traite complet ce l'art du canto (1840) and of the latter, the supplement to L'art du chat (1755) of Jean-Baptiste Berard, with selected compositions by Lully, Rameau, and others.25
25Owen Jander, "Vocalise," New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie. (New York: Macmillan, 1980), 51. 14
It was not until the early twentieth century that composers began to utilize textless vocal parts in concert works in order to exploit the timbral potential of the voice.
The following list includes works that are among the best known compositions without text.
Gabriel Faure - Vocalise-etude (1907) Maurice Ravel - Vocalise en forme d'habanera (1907) Sergei Rachmaninov - Vocalise, op. 34, no. 14 (1912) N. K. Medtner - Sonata-Vocalise, Op. 41, No. 1 (71922-3) . - Suite Vocalise, Op. 41, No. 2 (71926) Aaron Copland - Vocalise (1927) Alfredo Casella - Three vocalizzi (1929) Fransesco Cilea - Vocalizzi da concerto (1932) Ottorino Respighi - Three vocalizzi (1933) Heitor Villa-Lobos - Vocalise-etudes (1929) . - Bachianas Brazilieras No. 5, Aria (Cantilena Introduction and Conclusion) (1938-45) Reinhold Gliere - Concerto for Coloratura Soprano and Orchestra, Op. 8 (1943)
In 1907, A.L. Hettich, a professor of voice at the Paris
Conservatoire, commissioned works to be used as vocal etudes for his students in the study of contemporary etudes.
Faure, Honneger, Ibert, Roussel, and Ravel responded to the
commission and their respective vocalises were published by
A. Leduc in A.L. Hettich1s Repertoire moderne de vocalises -
Etudes (1907). Interestingly, the Faur£ Vocalise-etude was first entitled Piece, was written for oboe solo.
In the Villa-Lobos Bachianas Brazilieras No. 5, the Aria movement entitled "Cantilena" with text by Ruth Correa, is framed with a vocalise in unison with the first celli. The
Rachmaninoff Vocalise has become quite popular in both its 15
vocalise and violin version. The work was dedicated to the coloratura soprano Antonina Nezhdanova who expressed disappointment at the absence of text. Speaking as a true
Romantic, Rachmaninoff is reported to have replied with a flattering tone, "What need is there of words, when you will be able to convey everything better and more expressively than anyone could with words by your voice and interpretation?"26 The work, originally scored for voice and piano, was later orchestrated by the composer and premiered by Koussevitzky in Moscow in January of 1916. This work was the inspiration for the concerted vocalise works to follow, namely the Medtner and the Glidre, ambitious attempts in creating multi-movement works for untexted voice that constitute the height of virtuosity in the vocalise application.27 The Copland Vocalise is dedicated to Ethyl
Luening, wife of composer and flutist Otto Luening. This performing duo has been the recipient of several dedications for vocal, flute works in the twentieth century, including
Robert McBride's Nonsense Syllables (1937) and Vocalise
(1952).
26Martyn, Barrie, Rachmaninoff: Composer, Pianist, Conductor (Aldershot, Hants, England. Brookfield, vt.: Gower Pub. Co., 1990), 240.
27Ibid., 241. Little historical information is available concerning Medtner's or Gli^re's vocalises. The Gliere has been recorded by Joan Sutherland and the London Symphony Orchestra (London 430006-2 LM). 16
As a timbral color in symphonic works, the vocalise technique has been used in a number of works, including
Vaughan Williams' Symphony No. 3, "The Pastoral," (1921),
Debussy's "Sirenes" from Nocturnes (1897-9), Hoist's The
Planets (1914-16), and Ravel's Daphnis and Chloi (1911-13).
Vaughan Williams' use of the vocalise is of interest to the present discussion. His biographer, Michael Kennedy, describes the entrance of the vocalise in the finale.
The impression is strong throughout the work of Vaughan Williams's 'vocal' use of instruments, but in his finale he calls in the human voice for the startling effect he achieves when, over a drumroll, [a] cantilena is sung off-stage. The result is unbearably poignant, like a lament for the flowers of the forest cut down in the 1914-18 war; yet the grief is somehow transcended and becomes more cosmic than personal without losing intensity.28
It is probable that Vaughan Williams was well aware of
Hoist's earlier use of the technique in the Planets. Ralph
Vaughan Williams and Gustave Hoist were close collegues and
Hoist considered the Pastorale Symphony among his favorite of
Vaughan Williams' works.
Hoist, Debussy, and Ravel all chose to use the vocalise in ethereal settings. Hoist used a six-part chorus of female voices in the last movement of the Suite, "Neptune, the
28Kennedy, 171. 17
Mystic." The chorus, placed offstage, is given a sustained, chordal line throughout. In "Sir&nes," Debussy uses the voices to portray the water spirits. Eight sopranos and eight mezzo-sopranos add to the tonal texture with sustained notes, rhythmic undulating figures and occasional imitations of melodic motives in the winds and strings. The indicatation, "a bouche fermee," is used on occasion. Ravel employs the vocal timbre of sopranos, contraltos, tenors and basses who participate in the stage action in Daphnis and Chlo6. An "A," indicating the syllable "ah," is placed at the beginning and alternated with passages for "Bouches ouvertes." For performances without the chorus, Ravel has included alternate parts, rewriting for winds the choral parts for a large ensemble comprised of woodwinds: piccolo, flute, alto flute, oboe, English horn, clarinet, bass clarinet, bassoon; and muted brass, especially horns and bass trombone.
The technique of vocalise has had a selective application in concert music for voice. Initially a vehicle for vocal virtuosity, the vocalise has been used increasingly by twentieth-century composers to explore the timbral possibilities of the voice. This new-found use of the voice as an instrument promises to be an inportant avenue for the future development of the twentieth-century chamber music with its rich and varied tonal palette. CHAPTER II
PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS
Introduction
The performance considerations noted in this chapter combine information in the areas of timbre, vibrato, vocal, and instrumental technique with observations of the performers for this study/performance. The purpose is to aid in the analysis and performance of the works selected for this study.
A few similarities in all the instruments studied can be noted. The voice, flute, and clarinet all show an increase in harmonic partials in louder dynamic situations and subsequently, a weakening in upper harmonics in softer dynamic levels. The upper regions of their respective ranges demonstrate a lack of upper partials with the flute and voice both approaching a sine wave (pure tone).
The differences in voice type and make of instrument contribute to the timbral blend of the performing instruments. A particular voice type is characterized by the relative strength of the upper partials of a given tone as well as the singer's range. The same tone sung by a mezzo- soprano, a lyric soprano, and coloratura soprano will display
1 8 1 9
different variations of partial intensities that will be perceived aurally as being relatively "brighter," "darker," "rounder," or "with more edge". Similarly, certain makes of clarinets, mouthpieces, reeds, flutes, and flute headjoints will elicit the same perceptions.
Timbre in Voice. Flute, and Clarinet
To achieve a compatible ensemble, a fundamental understanding of the acoustical properties of vocal and instrumental timbres is necessary. Such knowledge is essential in ascertaining those timbral aspects of a given composition that are potentially problematic. This study does not offer an indepth scientific explanation of the passages under consideration; rather it summarizes the most current and authoritative research in more general terms and applies the information to various performance situations that arise in the works being analyzed.
In the three works chosen, the distinct combination of instruments, intervals, musical figures, etc., provides a challenge to the performers' execution of the various timbres. Certain situations seem to require that the instruments approximate a similar timbre while others may be enhanced by a distinct difference. For example, the inclusion of the piano in the Ibert Aria complicates the texture requiring the vocal line to be more distinct from the flute. In the Chance Duos I, however, a similarity of timbre 20
emphasizes the instrumental quality of the voice and enhances the dissonant character of the work. In the Vaughan Williams
Three Vocalises, the register of the clarinet is a major determining factor if timbral similarities are preferred.
The relative inflexibility of the clarinet tone limits that ensemble member's range of timbral flexibility. Each of the works requires a different musical character that is partially expressed in the timbral aspects of the ensemble.
Vocal Timbre
The vocalise technique emphasizes the vowels of words almost exclusively.1 The most common vowel formations used by singers of Western European and American art music for sustained tone are generally restricted to "ah" as in hst or father; "ee" as in £ve or each, "oh" as in own and "oo" as in ooze or moon. Composers of works for textless vocal parts
invariably ask for an "ah" vowel when specified at all. The
"ah" syllable is the most resonant vowel syllable for most of
the soprano range. However, other vowel formations can also
enhance the timbre of the tone in various registers and in
conjunction with other instruments.
The vocal tract functions somewhat like a cylindrical tube closed at one end (at the larynx). The first two, and
J-Melodies set to texts comprised of "nonsense" syllables are the exception. 21
to some extend the third, standing wave patterns of the spectrum envelope of this tube are the most important in vocal acoustics. These correspond to a node-antinode pattern in a tube. The manipulation of vowels creates a distinctive intensification at specific frequencies at these node- antinode points in the tube and allow recognition of the vowel. This unique set of frequencies (or pitches) is referred to as formants. The first formant has a frequency- ranging over a few hundred hertz on either side of 500 Hz, the second the same range around 1500 Hz, and the third, around 2500 Hz.2 The female vocal tract is on average 17% shorter than the male's, thus, the formant pattern of the same vowel sound in females is about three semitones higher, and the child's formant pattern is a semitone higher still. The brain's recognition process of the vowel makes an allowance for such variations. The exact set of formants is not fixed. Each vowel resonates at its own frequency, approximately at a stable set of formants, regardless of the pitch being sung. The resonant frequency will rise under the two conditions: the reduction of the diameter of the tube at a pressure antinofle and with the expansion of the diameter at a pressure node. In general, the "ah" vowel raises the first
2Murray Campbell, The Musician's Guide to Acoustics {New York: Schirmer, 1988), 480. 22
formant frequency by lowering the jaw and expanding the diameter at the first formant pressure node. Both "ee" and
"oo" vowels produce a low frequency first formant. The second formant is enhanced by the "ee" sound while the "ah" vowel has an overall fall in the second formant frequency.
The "ee" vowel's second formant is around 2000 Hz, 500 Hz, or approximately a perfect fourth higher than the cylindrical model. The "oo" vowel results in a further drop in the second formant frequency of below 700 Hz.
In summary, each vowel sound has its own timbral characteristics that are a result of these combinations of formant frequencies. Researchers concerned with tone color have borrowed terminology from the field of phonetics to describe the timbral characteristics or "sound color" of a given vowel.3 These descriptive terms include: Openness
(relative to the size of the oral cavity), Acuteness
(brightness), Laxness (the distinction between long and short vowels), and Smallness, (the dimensions of the acoustic tube or the overall size of other sorts of resonators).4 The "ah"
3Wayne Slawson, Sound Color (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985). The author's choice of terminology for timbre or tone color.
4Ibid., 57. This aspect has an indirect relation to timbre due to the physical tendency of relatively large or long objects to resonate at low frequencies and small or short objects to resonate at high frequencies. 23
vowel exhibits a high content of openness throughout much of the middle to high range of the soprano voice. Acuteness, or the bright quality of timbre, is the result of an increase in frequency of the second formant as is the case in the "ee" vowel. The laxness of a vowel corresponds to the relative relaxed state of the muscles. Short vowel sounds such as "a" as in apple and "ah" have a medium laxness, while the long vowels, "ee" and "oo" have a low laxness. The idea of smallness does not have any correlation to features in vowels. It does, however, contribute to the overall timbre because of this tendency of resonating objects, as noted. The vowel "oo" has a medium-low smallness (meaning a larger diameter and lower frequency), "ah," a medium smallness quality, and "ee," a medium-high smallness, indicating a smaller diameter and higher frequency.
In preparing the works in this study, the performers determined the kind of character of each musical phrase through experimentation. Various syllables or colors were chosen depending upon the context. For example, each note could be altered to add more openess or more acuteness. A long "oh," vowel (adding openness) creates a darker timbre while syllables with smallness produced a brighter tone. In addition to affecting timbre, the singer can manipulate the vocal formants to intensify the amplitude of pitches. As an example, the first formant of the vowels, 24
"oo" or "ee" resonates at a frequency around that of the pitch E4 SO that the first formant of these vowels matches this pitch as it is vocalized. By opening her mouth progressively wider, the soprano can keep this first formant in tune with the sounding note up to 932.3 Hz or approximately the pitch A#5. Similarly the vowel "ah," resonating at a higher frequency of around 7 00 Hz, can resonate with pitches between E4 and G4 at their second partials; with a rise in pitch, however, the first partials of tones corresponding to the "ah" first formant frequency -- approximately from the pitch F5 -- are tuned to this formant.
This phenomenon of "formant tuning" has been systematically categorized and used in vocal training and by a number of vocal pedagogues, among them Berton Coffin.5
Using the International Phonetic Alphabet, he has carefully charted the vowel formations corresponding to the tuned formant for each syllable in four languages over the entire vocal range. Coffin has developed the method based on his understanding of vocal tone development and cultivation.
Such a thorough application of this technique further demonstrates the extent to which acoustical study has been applied to vocal pedagogy. Although scientific application does not ensure a greater musical product, understanding how
5Berton Coffin, Overtones of Bel Canto (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow, 1980) 25
a mechanism works is beneficial to the performer interested in applying those acoustical principles in new performance situations. The voice is an extremely flexible instrument capable of creating a much broader palette of timbre than instruments. The singer who is willing to experiment with timbre can contribute tremendously to the blend and contrast of an ensemble setting.
Flute Timbre
In comparison to the other orchestral wind instruments the flute is possibly the closest in tone quality to the human soprano voice. Its flexibility, comparable tessitura, and vocal-like vibrato contribute to its compatibility as an ensemble partner. Like the voice, the flute, in its low and middle registers, displays strong harmonic overtones. In the third register the timbre approaches a sinusoidal wave pattern, displaying a nearly pure tone with very little upper harmonics, similar to the lack of upper partials in the extreme range of the voice. As in singing, the flutist can change the shape of the formants by manipulating the shape of the airstream in the flute tone, though to a lesser degree. Many flute teachers profess the merits of modifying the oral cavity to enhance timbral quality and variety. Nevertheless, with the exception of the extreme range (around 1000 Hz, C6) , the general conclusion of acoustical researchers is that such 26 changes in the size of the oral cavity have very little effect on timbre. Any perceived change in tone quality is attributed to a change in the focusing of the air jet.6 This focusing of the air jet is manipulated by the flute embouchure and determines the pitch as well as tone. Variations in embouchure shape, the relative relaxation of the lips, the direction of the air stream, and the amount of lower lip covering the embouchure plate all contribute to a wide variety of tone color and pitch flexibility. A flutist at the artist level is able to use these various tone qualities to adapt to many performance demands. In Kincaidiana, John Krell recounts William Kincaid's views on flute tone.
Flutists should emulate [the violinist's] tonal options and try to approximate them. For example, the flute can produce a finger-board flautando (lots of loose air across the mouth hole) or a bristly bridge tone {pressure of tight air directed more into the flute) together with all the intermediate intensities. ...Flute tone, then, is an extremely complex phenomenon capable of great variations and modulations. The flutist should be able to change the color of his tone to suggest perfumes, to indicate textures of light and darkness, to reflect emotions of rage, repose, etc. Tone is one of the most central means of musical communication. Since music has many different kinds of things to say, the flutist should be capable of producing a variety of tonal qualities.7
6Campbell, 287.
7John Krell, Kincadiana; a Flute Player's Notebook (Culver City, CA: Trio Assoc., 1973), 9-13. 27
Although rather poetic, this statement illustrates the expressive breadth of timbre demanded of the flute. Regardless of the acoustical limitations of a fixed tube with which the vocalist is not encumbered, the flute is among the most timbrally expressive of the woodwinds. As alluded to previously, flutes and flute headjoints vary in relative strength of the harmonics displayed throughout the scale. This is aurally perceived in qualities expressed by terms as "brilliance," "warmth," "edge," "lightness/ heaviness," "intensity," etc. Competitive manufacturers are continually developing flute design variations that will deliver an ideal flute tone. This ideal is difficult to define, considering the variety and abundance of professional flutists in this country alone. However, in questioning the application of blend with voice, similar perceived qualities are to be considered. While the singer is capable of producing remarkably flute-like tones, the flutist is limited in imitating the variety of vocal timbres. However, the flutist can strive to adopt the singer's timbral flexibility and contribute to the timbral palette of the ensemble in this way.
Clarinet Timbre The clarinet performs acoustically as a cylindrical tube, and with the action of the reed, acts as a closed pipe. 28
The fundamental register of the clarinet is identified by a near absence of even-numbered partials and an exaggeration of the odd-numbered harmonics, displaying five distinct peaks in the spectrum envelope. In the second and third registers fewer harmonics are present and the even partials are more significant. Conflicting studies report the ability of the oral cavity to function as a resonating chamber in clarinet tone production. According to some studies, variations in the size and shape of the oral cavity proved to effect little change in the harmonic spectrum while others supported a significant change.8 There is evidence to suggest that the tongue placement, while changing oral cavity volume, actually acts to manipulate the air pressure and flow.9 This affects the tone quality, especially in the higher registers. Embouchure variations, i.e., placement and pressure placement of the lips upon the mouthpiece, create an important variance
8Charles E. Lawson, "An Investigation to Determine if the Oral Cavity Acoustically Influences the Radiated Wave Form of the Clarinet" (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms, 1974) . Geoffrey Rendall, The Clarinet: Some Notes upon its History and Construction (London: Ernest Benn, 1971). Fredrick Thurston, Clarinet Technique (London: Oxford University Press, 197 3).
9Lawson, 79. 29
upon tone quality. A difference of .0065 inches in lip placement can make a noticable difference in quality.10 The affect of the mouthpiece and reed combination upon timbre is also significant. Considerable research in mouthpiece design has resulted in an abundance of timbral choices. Various makes and models of instruments, custom barrels, reeds, and ligatures all make claims of offering various degrees of refinement in tone qualities. As with the flute, careful analysis of tone qualities should be considered. The clarinet is acoustically more limited than the flute in the variety of timbres possible. Fortunately, the rich harmonic spectrum of the clarinet tone blends with the voice without necessitating close similarities of tone color. Other attributes of the clarinet, such as the expressive dynamic control and the legato playing style, compensate for the lack of timbral variety.
Conclusions and Applications of Timbre Study Through study of the acoustical basis for timbre of these instruments, it must be kept in mind that perception of timbre and timbre combinations often belies physical fact. The area of interest in this study focuses upon what is perceived in an instrument1s timbre in performance
10Ibid. 30
situations. With this in mind, a few applications of this knowledge may support perceived experiences. 1) The timbres of the human voice, flute, and clarinet can vary considerably according to individual voice and instrument type and technical training. This allows for numerous variables in timbral combinations beyond the gross physical characteristics of their timbral acoustical spectrums.
2) The timbre of the voice can be manipulated with more variety than the instruments, but characteristic vocal tone quality may be sacrificed in the attempt. 3) Adjustments in embouchure shape and pressure, as well as direction of the air stream, are possible in wind instruments to approach timbral blend with the voice. 4) Considerable unconscious adjustment takes place between artists as a matter of course in extended ensemble experience. The ability of the ear to make subtle adjustments in timbre cannot be underestimated. 5) Other factors that contribute to timbre characteristics in a performance setting include: dynamics, vibrato, combination of instruments and the texture of the musical context. These factors all must be considered in making tone color decisions. 31
vibrato vibrato is produced by several different methods: the Thoraco-Abdominal (known as diaphramatic vibrato), the Laryngeal (throat vibrato), a synergetic combination of the two, and the Jaw vibrato. The various types of vibrato generally produce a fluctuation in both the amplitude (loudness) or frequency (pitch) with a more significant fluctuation of amplitude in the case of the diaphramatic and of frequency in the others.
Vocal vibrato is expected and applied in trained singers except in specified cases such as early music or for special effects. The vast majority of trained concert singers use a laryngeal vibrato exclusively. This results in a fluctuation in frequency primarily and to a lesser extent in amplitude. In flute vibrato, manipulation of the thoraco-abdominal muscles results in a fluctuation in amplitude. Some variation in frequency also occurs with the natural tendency of the flute to sound at higher frequencies with an increase in amplitude. The use of laryngeal vibrato is used less commonly, inspite of arguments advanced in support of its relative merit and applications. Controversy has arisen over its misapplication, referred to by the French as the bleating of a nanny-goat or Chevrotement, because this type of vibrato 32
results in a more significant frequency fluctuation.11 This is not to imply that these methods of vibrato are unrelated phenomena. Certainly some sympathetic movement in the larynx occurs in the application of diaphramatic vibrato. The purpose of this study, however, is to determine the aural results of each type of vibrato rather than their physical origins.
Traditionally, the use of vibrato in clarinet performance has been shunned in the United States for two reasons. First, American clarinetists have adopted characteristics of both the French and German styles of playing, in regard to vibrato, the tendency has been to favor the German consistency of tone over the use of vibrato, characteristic of the French style. Secondly, the use of vibrato, which has been closely associated with the jazz idiom, further alienated its usage on the concert stage.
With the last generation of professional clarinetists, however, vibrato is gaining acceptance in this country.
Clarinet vibrato is usually activated by movements in the tongue and jaw with a small minority of players using the abdominal or laryngeal methods. In the case of the "jaw" vibrato, the fluctuation is more prominent in frequency
i:LJochen Gartner, The Vibrato with Particular Consideration given to the Situation of the Flutist {Regensburg: Gustav Bosse Verlang, 1981), 76. 33
rather than amplitude. Applications of vibrato in clarinet playing tend to be conservative in comparison to flute vibrato, activated at the ends of held notes or in selected passages. Some opinions regarding instrumental vibrato not necessarily supported by scientific fact are of value and should be included because they reflect a tendency in aural perception. These include the related statements that the flute needs vibrato because of its "pure tone" and relative lack of upper partials; conversely the clarinet does not require vibrato because of its rich harmonic palette. Neither of these statements are scientifically accountable but do represent widely accepted views among a sizable portion of the professional community and therefore should be noted. The fluctuation of frequency has been reported to be greater among singers than instrumentalists by as much as a difference of a quarter tone. The rate of pulsations per second for both voice and instruments is at a range of 5.6 to 8 per second.12 In this author's experience of using a tuning device, singers register a vibrato oscillation averaging 10- 20 cents above the pitch. The same perceived depth and speed
12Carl E. Seashore, ed., University of Iowa Studies in the Psychology of Music (Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1932), vol. 1, Vibrato, 164. 34
of vibrato by a flutist registers an average of 5 cents below to 15 cents above the pitch while the clarinetist under the same conditions registers an oscillation averaging of 10 - 20 cents below the pitch center. The pitch difference between the singer and clarinetist both using a wide vibrato can therefore be as much as 40 cents. For this reason alone, the use of clarinet vibrato should be questioned.
In the case of the clarinet, players are divided in their preferences for a "pure tone" or the judicious use of vibrato as the situation merits. In light of the evidence stated above, the use of a very prominent vibrato by the between the singer and clarinetist would result in an unusually large pitch center. Some players are known to use a fast, shallow "shimmering" vibrato. This kind of vibrato is not aurally perceived as a large fluctuation in pitch and has been proven to be effective in ensembles with voice. Since the use of vibrato in clarinet playing is such a highly charged issue, the judicious use of it is generally suggested. Some twentieth-century composers have used vibrato as a compositional device. In the Duos I, for example, Nancy Chance uses a normal vibrato, a smorzato vibrato, and no vibrato as structural elements in variations of the recurring main theme. In other compositions surveyed, the technique is used as a melodic enhancement. In Stanley Walden's Coronach; 35
A Kaddish, the soprano and English horn parts have recurring sections in which a quarter tone, non-synchronized alteration in pitch is notated. The voice part fluctuates the pitch in the manner of a vibrato while the English horn is instructed to use a key manipulated pitch alteration ("half-close B key").13 This mechanical type of pitch alteration produces a change in timbre as well as pitch. The Vocalise for soprano, flute, and piano by Henry Cowell realizes a tone color vibrato in a different manner. A series of quarter notes is notated with an alternating accent and harmonic symbol. A note explains the harmonic symbol as an unaccented tone and the accents to be stressed by "sudden thrusts of the diaphram." Since the tempo marking is quite fast, the effect is that of a heavy vibrato.
Pitch
In equal temperament tuning all semitones equal 100 cents, allowing complete freedom in modulation of keys. The major drawback to this system is the mistuned major third which is too large an interval by 14 cents and the minor third, too small by 16 cents. In performance of instruments in which the pitch can be instantly regulated, this
13Stanley Walden, Coronach; A Kaddish (Bryn Mawr, PA: T. Presser Co., 1989), 6. 36
adjustment can be made to tune to an aurally perceived
correct interval.
Various studies have determined the following phenomena
in tuning difficulties.14
1) The greater the dynamic contrast, the more difficult the
pitch-matching task.
2) Certain tone quality combinations present pitch-matching
difficulties not found with other combinations.
Findings by A. W. Blatter shed further light on the
difficulty to correct tuning in a performance situation. By
using electronically produced sine waves and complex
waveforms, Blatter tested both men and women instrumentalists
and pianists for their abilities to match various
combinations of electronically created timbres. The results
of Blatter's research pertinent to this study are summarized.
1) When matching harmonically complex timbres to harmonically simpler timbres the tuning is usually flat.
2) When matching harmonically simpler timbres to harmonically complex timbres, the tuning is usually sharp.
3) Harmonically similar timbres are easier to tune than
dissimilar ones, while more complex timbres are more
accurately tuned in the majority of situations.
14Studies, cited in Blatter, "The Effect of Timbre on Pitch-Matching Judgements" (Doctoral diss., University of Illinois, 1974). Murray Campbell, The Musician's Guide to Acoustics (New York: Schirmer, 1988). 37
4) Frequencies in higher ranges are easier to tune, with females reaching their maximum accuracy at 800 Hz (G5) and nearly as accurate above. Males improved up to 1800 Hz (A/A#g) and decreased in accuracy at 3800 Hz (A#/B7).
5) The instrument performed by the test subject did not make a significant difference in results.15
Although these findings only apply to unison pitch- matching, significance to this study is apparent in a number of situations in the works under consideration. In preparing the Duos I, for example, unisons between the voice and flute are more accurately tuned when the voice and flute use a similar timbre. Conversely, difficulty in matching unisons between the voice and clarinet arise when the timbres differ significantly. The timbre of the voice in the low register compared to that of the flute in the opening of the Ibert Aria must be carefully adjusted for the passing unisons to sound in tune.
Contrasting dynamics between the flute and voice occur in both the Ibert Aria and the Chance Duos I. This causes difficulties in tuning intervals. In addition to these tuning problems, the phenomenon of difference tones plays a significant role in the combination of voice and flute or clarinet. When two pitches are
15Blatter, Alfred, w., "The Effect of Timbre on Pitch- Matching Judgements" (Doctoral Thesis, University of Illinois, 1974). 38
simultaneously sounded in intervals of a perfect fifth or
smaller, difference and summation tones are created. Simple
difference and summation tones are the difference between two
frequencies (f2 - fx in which f2 represents the higher
frequency) or the sum of two frequencies (f2 + fj . The
summation tone has not proved to be aurally significant in
musical contexts. The difference tone is quite audible
between tones of high frequencies and at a loud dynamic
because the difference of the two frequencies may lie several
octaves below. The "cubic" difference tone is even more
16 audible and is derived from fx minus f2 (2fx - f2) . This
results in a different set of difference tones, as
illustrated in table 1. Cubic difference tones are more
audible at quieter dynamic levels than simple difference
tones.
16"The name is an historical accident, arising from a mistaken idea about the origin of the cubic difference tone." Campbell, 65, 169. 39
Notes performed: I B g- -g-
Cubic difference tones: <1? C ZZ3I
Simple r\\ difference tones: —
Table 1: Cubic and simple difference tones.
The difference tones become an additional voice in
situations in which the voice and instrument fulfill the
above criteria. Certain composers, including Nancy Chance in
Duos I, use these tones to enhance the dissonant quality of
the work.
Both Marilyn Nims and Diana Gale, the singers for this
performance study, noted that in performance situations
without a reference instrument, i.e., piano, the tendency is
to place the pitch sharp, attempting to brighten the tone
quality. Instrumentalists performing with singers should be
prepared to perform 10 - 20 cents sharp as needed. The
ability to perceive a correct interval is more difficult if
the dynamic of the flute or clarinet is quieter than the
voice or the timbre is less rich. In works requiring the
vocalist to attack notes in a more instrumental fashion, 40
(correctly placing the pitch at the attack of the note) pitch accuracy is one of the most difficult challenges. Singers tend to approach a tone with a certain variability in pitch center while instruments tend to be more accurate from the beginning of the tone.
Loudness
Although loudness has been mentioned previously in the
context of fonnant tuning and vibrato, a summary of the physical characteristics of loudness perception would be helpful in performance situations.
1) The richness of the timbral harmonic spectrum for the voice, flute, and clarinet are all dependent on the dynamic at which the tone is performed. The louder the tone the more
enhanced the upper harmonic spectrum.
2) Certain vowels are perceived louder or more intense because of an enhancement of upper formants. The "ah" vowel, for instance, will sound more present than "oo" at the same
intensity.
3) Certain instrumental equipment, i.e. mouthpieces, head joints, reeds, will produce a louder intensity level than others.
4) The use of vibrato enhances perceived loudness.
5) Although low tones have a minimum threshold of audibility of more decibels than higher notes, lower notes require a 41
relatively smaller change in decibels to affect the full gamut of musical dynamics. 6) There is a greater decrease in loudness of low pitches than high pitches with an increase in distance from the sound source. 7) Difference tones are aurally more noticable at a louder dynamic.
Extended Techniques In several of the works for an ensemble of textless voice and woodwinds, the fluttertongue (flatterzunge) technique is used for both the instrument and voice. The technique is produced by a rolling "R" sound in the voice and flute. In the reed instruments, the effect is more difficult to execute because of the intrusion of the mouthpiece into the oral cavity. The same effect can be produced on reed instruments with a throat growl. In the Finale of Jerome Rosen's Serenade for soprano voice and alto saxophone, a note specifies: "Flutter tongue for saxophone, analogous sound (tongue or glottal "trill") for voice," as illustrated in example 1. In this movement the fluttertongue technique is alternated with rapid, slurred techical passages and key and tongue clicks. 42
Voice E£
Sax.
Example 1: Glottal "trill." Finale of Rosen Serenade Reprinted by Permission of American Composers Alliance, NY.
Since Duos I was intended as a study in dissonance, the fluttertonguing adds an agitated quality to the selected passages. The technique is difficult to execute at quieter dynamic levels since the rolling "R" motion is facilitated by the air stream. Both the voice and the flute are required to either add the fluttertongue to a normal tone (a: m. 27,
Soprano part) or move from the fluttertongue to a normal tone without a break (b: m. 42, Flute part), demonstrated in example 2. •ftifrt.
)opr P! TP
Example 2: Fluttertonguing. a: m. 27 of Soprano part, b.: m. 42 of Flute part, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured. 43
The fluttertongue technique is used as one of the timbral variations of the main theme and is used frequently throughout the work.
Most of the special techniques in the works surveyed are recognized instrumental techniques, i.e., fluttertonguing, variations of vibrato, timbre trills, etc. The Nancy Chance
Duos I and the Jerome Rosen Serenade are among the most demanding for the singer and instrumentalist. The key and tongue clicks in the Rosen work is an unusual technique.
Stems without note heads indicate the technique and the saxophone key clicks are alternated with vocal clicks ("tch" or "1' s") .17
Surveying various vocal and instrumental techniques used by twentieth-century composers for textless voice and various woodwinds, the following techniques and notational indications were found and are illustrated in examples 3-8.
1) Various syllables:
t?rVcjf irtsinyiui
V*HA-DL£-A-DA WHA-3N.6.-A-DA WHA DA-DA-DA-DAj
Example 3: Syllables. McBride Vocalise. Reprinted by Permission of American Composers Alliance, NY
17Jerome Rosen, Serenade for Soprano Voice and Alto Saxophone (New York: American Composers Alliance, 1964). 44
Soprano
Clarinet i=w
PermLIim oflSrican SpLersllSanReprintea **
2)Fluttertongue:
Permission of Seesaw°Sic9CorSrationU°H J' Reprinte<3 by P "76. *1 rights reserved. S?eSui„arcopmsS? SoSei. 45
Voice m 1 V N * Tt L' 'h — Sax. —4 p= J j^\ 11 r r *
Example 6: Fluttertonguing. Rosen Serenade. Reprinted by Permission of American Composers Alliance, NY.
3) Glissandi and Fall off. Indicated with upward or downward sweeping lines:
&LL Sop. r i W: f Poo- Atf
Example 7: Glissandi. McBride Vocalise. Reprinted by Permission of American Composers Alliance, NY.
4) Key and Tongue Clicks:
K, -St " Voice fc== / ' ^ ^-L U LJ / t—— 1 Sax. I , 1 li) LJ ' [J > ; ^ =-—t
Example 8: Rosen Serenade. Reprinted by Permission of the American Composers Alliance, NY. 46
In the avant garde twentieth-century works, demands are often made on the voice that are considered strenuous. There is a general consensus among most singers who feel that, in making the conscious decision to perform the often non- idiomatic demands of many twentieth-century works, one may sacrifice permanently the delicate control and tonal beauty required for works of a more vocal character. Of the works chosen for this study, the Nancy Chance Duos I treats the voice in this manner. In an interview with the composer, Chance stated that although she has done some singing, she did not have vocal technique in mind when composing the work but treated the voice as an instrument. CHAPTER III
ANALYSES AMD PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS OF SELECTED WORKS
Introduction
The output of twentieth-century works for textless voice with a woodwind chamber ensemble is small. However, the works found pose a variety of performance challenges to the singer and the instrumentalist alike. The vocal parts of some of the more avant garde works contain voice parts with non-idiomatic melodic lines, rapid technical passages, difficult combinations of intervals, and extended articulated or strongly accented passages. These technical obstacles are combined with another challenge to the singer: the absence of the interpretative nature of the poetry found in texted music. For the instrumentalist, performing works with a singer is notably different than with other instrumentalists.
Although the more experimental works provide technical problems that require special preparation (fluttertonguing, smorzato vibrato, jazz style, etc.), the most difficult challenge is adjusting to the singer's concept of pitch, vibrato, rhythm, attack, articulation, and phrasing. All of
47 48
these elements of music are approached with a noticable difference by singers than instrumentalists and both performers must make some compromises.
The three works chosen for this study represent a wide range of styles and techniques that demonstrate some of the traditional as well as more experimental uses of this medium in the twentieth century. Each work provides both artistic and idiomatic challenges to the performers. Ibert's Aria for soprano, flute, and piano allows the performers to explore tone color and ensemble within the stylistic confines of song form. The Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises for soprano and clarinet provides an opportunity for the performers to find a balance between contrast and blend of the two diverse tone colors. Nancy Chance's Duos I for soprano, flute, and finger cymbals is structured around dissonance and extended techniques. The challenges to the performers range from the small structural details such as rhythmic and pitch accuracy to the larger ideas of timbre, interpretation, and phrasing.
The three works provide unique settings for the ensemble of untexted voice with a woodwind instrument.
ARIA (1931) BY JACQUES IBERT (1890-1962) Although the place of his birth and death are both Paris, Jacques Ibert's music is colored with sounds he encountered in his travels, especially in Italy, Spain, and 49
Tunisia. A major portion of his career was spent as director of the Academie de France in Rome (1937-60). Ibert's musical style is difficult to categorize because of the many diverse influences which he openly embraced; he believed "all systems are valid, provided that one derives music from them." Early study in drama served to connect music with the other arts and reflected his philosophy that musical expression was one part of a total creative expression in response to human experiences.1
Ibert's apparent affection for the various woodwind timbres is evident in a number of small chamber works and the three Concerti: the Flute Concerto (1934), the Concertino da camera for alto saxophone (1935), and the Symphonie
Concertante for Oboe (1948-9). There is certainly sufficient evidence to indicate that Ibert felt a deep admiration for the flute as an instrument capable of enormous expressive variety and technical prowess. The Flute Concerto (1934) has become one of the most brilliant examples a of twentieth- century work for the instrument, exploiting the flute's full range and providing a rich palette of expressive opportunities.
Ibert's vocal compositions including opera, cantatas and a number of songs date from the period of 1910 to 1951, the
^•David Cox, "Jacques Ibert," The New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (New York: Macmillian, 1980), 1. 50
most productive span of his career. The opera Angeligue is
considered one of his most successful works. The
programmatic character of his songs are well adapted to his
view of music as an "interior adventure."2 Many of them are
orchestrated and those from the film score of Don Quichotte
(1932) were gathered into an orchestral song cycle. The
flute was exploited as an obbligato instrument previous to
the Aria, in the songs Deux stales orientees (1925) for voice
and flute.
According to the score, the Aria (1931) originally
appeared in the Hettich collection, Repertoire moderne de
vocalises-etudes (1907). The work was arranged (and
subsequently published in 1931 and 1932) for a variety of
vocal and instrumental combinations which are listed on the
cover of the piano score and illustrated in example 9.
VOCALISE (collection HETTICH) .. ALTO rr PIANO VIOLONCELLE HT PIANO FLUTE, VIOLON ET PIANO FLUTE Hautl»U). CLAMNKTTE XT PIANO. CLARINBTTK EM LA XT PIANO PLOTS ET PIANO CHANT, FLUTE ET PIANO SAXOPHONE ALTO MI > OU SASSON DEUX VOIX MT PIANO
Example 9: J. Ibert Aria, cover page, piano score. Reprinted with permission of Theodore Presser for A. Leduc.
2Ibid. 51
From the above list it is obvious that the number of parts varies in the different arrangements. Six versions imply two instruments: the alto (viola) and piano, 'cello and piano, clarinet in A and piano, and the flute and piano.
Four indicate three instruments: the flute, violin, and piano; flute or oboe, clarinet, and piano; voice, flute, and piano; and two voices and piano. From studying the edition for alto (viola) and piano, it is apparent that the second part of the three-part arrangements is derived from the accompaniment.
The arrangement chosen for this study/performance contains the following footnote. La partie de Piano est celle de la transcription pour Flute et Violon (dont seule la reparation instrumentale est modifiee). "The piano part is that (of the transcription for flute and violin of which only the instrumenatal part(s) are modified)."3 This note raises two issues. First, that the flute, violin, and piano version preceded the voice, flute, piano arrangement and that in the transcription for flute, violin, and piano, the flute corresponds to the part of the voice and the violin to that of the flute. Such a supposition is supported by evidence in the piano score with instances of violin markings in the flute line such as a mute indication ("Sourdine"), bowings
3Appears on the instrumental and piano parts, Ibert Aria for Soprano, Flute, and Piano, Leduc, 1931. 52
and harmonic symbols. It is most probable that this evidence does not constitute a preference of one transcription over another but merely demonstrates an example of Ibert1s attempt to control printing costs.
The second issue concerns the modification of the instrumental parts, as noted. This distribution of melodic material differs in the two versions. The passages in question occur at mm. 13-19 (Example 10, a. and b.) and mm.
30-39 (Example 11, a. and b.). 53
Voice
3.. Voice
Violin b.
Violin
Example 10: Differences in editions. J. Ibert Aria mm. 13- 19 of the Voice/Flute/Piano (a.)f and Flute/Violin/Piano (b.) versions. Reprinted by permission of Theodore Presser for A. Leduc. Tempo 54 Voice
a.
Flute
Voice
Flute
Tempo
H Tempo
Violin=
Flute
Viol in
Poco rlt. . // Tempo
Violin
Example 11: Differences in editions. J. Ibert Aria mm. 31- 39 of the Voice/Flute/Piano (a.), and Flute/Violin/Piano (b.) versions. Reprinted by permission of Theodore Presser for A. Leduc. 55
These passages in the flute, violin arrangement transform the work from a song without words in the voice, flute version, to a chamber work. In the second passage, mm. 30-39, Ex. 10, of the voice, flute version, the voice is imitated by the flute in canon, an octave higher. In the flute, violin version, however, the violin part leads the melodic line with the flute imitating in canon an octave lower. These two factors, the octave displacement and the instrument leading the melodic canon, also determine the ensemble focus of the work.
In mm. 32-33, melodic lines extend higher in the flute, violin version than the voice, flute arrangement. When applied to the voice, flute version, the range is difficult for the singer but can be managed. Adapting the flute, violin arrangement for flute and voice is quite effective, distributing the melodic interest more equally between the two instruments.
The Aria is set in a slow tempo (Larghetto quarter note
=48) in 4/4 time with the principal tonality in F Major.
The style is cantabile, reminiscent of the Rachmaninoff
Vocalise (1912). The range of the voice is relatively low, from C4 to Bb5( lying primarly in a lower tessitura. Traditional notation is used and no extended techniques are required for any of the instruments. 56
The melodic interest is primarily in the vocal line with the exception of the return of the A section in which both solo instruments share the melodic interest. The piano part provides a rhythmic and harmonic accompaniment and color throughout.
The form of the Aria is A B A1 Coda. The texture is homophonic for the first two sections and polyphonic in the
A' section. The voice, performing the aria melody, is accompanied by the flute and the piano in a five-note scale in contrary motion (see example 12).
FLl'TE 1 r f,' -
Larghetto U=4s)
ft —"""" A 4 - - ~ y yinr • PIANO PP 1 -< t- ! . ill'1 L "" O « — "~"U' - 1
Example 12: Texture of opening, mm. 1-3, Ibert Aria. Reprinted by permission of Theodore Presser for A. Leduc.
It is curious that the arrangements of the Aria involve two or three instruments. In example 13, the nature of the piano part is at odds with the flute line with passing dissonances. 57
FLUTE
P=-~ — —-r i i' i 1 —
PIANO ! =a> J j j ft* J tr J * ~
Example 13: Dissonance between flute and piano parts, mm. 7 8, Ibert Aria. Reprinted by permission of Theodore Presser for A. Leduc.
Since the flute part of this study/performance plays a supporting role throughout the work, it is conceivable to perform this edition without the piano. The work stands on its own and is effective in performance as a duo.
Performance with the piano part is also effective, though the texture is more contrapuntal.
Performance Considerations
In this work, vibrato is a major performance consideration. In the voice and flute, the difference in depth, speed, and application of vibrato is most apparent.
Flute vibrato is generally not used during moving technical passages and is shallower and faster than the voice. This is 58
especially the case in the high register of the flute. Both performers can adjust these vibrato attributes, depth, speed, and application, to affect a closer match.
In terms of the experimentation with timbre, the performers found that the low register of the flute, as in
the opening, produced a rather bright and resonant timbre
compared to the voice in the same register. A darker tone on
the flute, combined with a brighter, more intense "oo" vowel by the singer, seemed to offer a better blend. In the
imitative section (mm. 30-39), the flute line, in a
relatively bright register for the instrument, tends to overshadow the voice in a less resonant register. The passage demands careful attention to dynamic balance and timbral blend. The addition of the piano requires the other performers to play with a more projected tone to clarify the parts in the thick texture.
In several instances the voice and flute share some dissonant suspensions. These offer an opportunity for the performers to use their timbral and vibrato blending skills to enhance these dissonance-consonance situations.
Difference tones are produced by some consonant
intervals of these intervals and can enhance the aural richness. However, these are masked when the piano part is present. 59
The tuning of the major and minor thirds is critical in the Aria. The closing six measures alone, in example 14, contain nine thirds to adjust.
k im m
Example 14: Thirds in last six measures, mm. 40-45, Ibert Aria. Reprinted by permission of Theodore Presser for A. Leduc.
THREE VOCALISES (1958) BY RALPH VAUGHAN WILLIAMS (1872-1958) Ralph Vaughan Williams is credited with "re-creating an English musical vernacular and establishing the symphony as a form of central significance for the English revival."4 From an early period of his life, he collected folksongs and adapted these in his own works as well as for The English Hymnal (1906). He became an authority in the collection of folksongs, especially those of Sussex, Norfolk, and Essex and
4Hugh Ottaway, "Ralph Vaughan Williams," The New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (New York: Macmillian, 1980), 577 60
collected over 800 in all. His music is decidedly English in
style and character and is compared to Bartok and Kodaly who
elevated folk music in Hungary.5 In the last decade of his
life, Ralph Vaughan Williams was active in London's performance series, the Cheltenham Festival, and the Three
Choirs Festival as well as various London concerts; in spite of deafness and poor health, he continued to compose. His last works include the last three symphonies, the morality play The Pilgrim's Progress (1949) and a number of songs and cantatas. The Three Blake Songs (1957) for voice and oboe were written for the film The Vision of William Blake. This work is for tenor or soprano, and the oboe part may be transposed for Bb clarinet as suggested by the composer.6
The Three Vocalises were written in March of 1958 before the premiere of the Ninth Symphony. His long-time friend and singer, Margaret (Mabel) Ritchie (1903-1969) was its dedicatee. Her career in opera was highlighted by the roles of Pamina in Mozart's Die Zauberflote, Lucia in the first
Glyndebourne production of Britten's Rape of Lucretia, and
Miss Wordsworth in Britten's Albert Herring. Her voice has been described as small, clearly produced, and of a pure quality. She is reported to have "an unfailing sense of
5Ibid., 569.
6Michael Kennedy, The Works of Ralph Vaughan Williams (London: Oxford University Press, 1964), 640. 61
style and showed unusual flexibility in the execution of florid passages."7
In his biography of the composer, Kennedy notes that the work was published after the composer's death from the manuscript housed in the British Museum (50481). He notes:
"It is probable that the composer would have added more dynamic indications had he been able to revise the work before publication. No dynamics other than those which appear in the manuscript have been added."8 This statement also appears on the published score. The premiere of the
Three Vocalises occured at the Free Trade Hall in Manchester on October 8th, 1958, six weeks after the composer's death.
The performers were Margart Ritchie and Keith Puddy. The first London performance was for the B.B.C. Home Service, on
December 22th of 1958 with Margaret Ritchie and Gervase de
Peyer performing.
The movements of the Three Vocalises are entitled I.
PRELUDE. Moderato; II. SCHERZO. Allegro moderato; III.
QUASI MENUETTO. Moderato. The duration of the work is approximately five minutes and is of a medium difficulty.
The vocal range is from a C3 to C5 but is generally contained
7Desmond Shaw-Taylor, "Margaret (Mabel) Ritchie," The New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (New York: Macmillian, 1980), 57.
8Kennedy, 640. 62
within the staff. Like the Ibert Aria, no special effects
are indicated for the voice or clarinet. Standard notation
is used.9
The first movement, the PRELUDE, is in an ABA' form.
The key signature contains one flat and begins with an
opening section marked senza misura. The pitch of the movement is in D. The voice makes an opening statement and
the clarinet imitates, rising to a brief unison with the voice on an F natural. This leads to a contrary motion pattern of triplet and duplet groups of eighth notes opposed
in the vocal line, contributing to the senza misura style.
The voice and clarinet exchange melodic and accompanying roles for the remainder of the opening section.
In the opening of this first movement, several unisons occur that are especially problematic to tune because of the higher placement of pitch center used in vocal tone production.
In m. 1, the soprano has only the initial D in the clarinet part as a point of reference before settling on the
F. The clarinet must rise to the F held by in the soprano part and match the pitch. A similar passage occurs in m. 5.
In this case, the A in the clarinet part implies the fifth of
9There is an editorial error between the concert pitch clarinet line and the transposed line, involving the lack of a slur marking in mm. 19-22 of the Prelude movement in the Bb part. 63 the chord and is less problematic for pitch matching. Both of these instances are illustrated in example 15.
SOPRANO VOICE
colla parte CLARINET (concert pitch) senza mtsura
Sopr. Ir
Oir. (C)
Example 15: Unisons, mm. 1-2, 5, Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises. Reprinted by remission of Oxford University Press, copyright 1960.
A measured central section in 3/4 (mm. 9-22) is notated with a quarter note = quarter note tempo marking. The style is lyrical in the voice part and is imitated in canon by the clarinet. A modulation to F minor occurs in this section at the climax of the melodic material and descends in range and implied dynamics, to the D minor tonality.
The strict imitative style of this section is an ideal context for comparing the differences between the voice and clarinet in terms of timbre and vibrato. A detailed 64 discussion of the performer's decisions about such matters follows this analysis.
The abbreviated return features a truncated restatement of the opening material. A rapidly rising scale passage to the upper range of both the voice and clarinet suggests a climactic ending. The reiteration of a consonant-dissonant figure in the voice sounding below a held D in the clarinet adds to this impression (example 16).
J* y 4fr J' u .
XX fi Cl«r. (C> ^rrr.
Example 16: Final measures, mm. 24-27, Prelude to Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises. Reprinted by Permission of Oxford University Press, copyright 1960.
The second movement, entitled SCHERZO, is in the style of a duple metered folk dance. Formally, the movement could be diagrammed as A - A - B - A1. The tonality of Bb Major modulates to Eb minor in the B section.
The Soprano part alone introduces the melodic material, marked piano, with one brief interjection from the clarinet.
The theme is then reiterated in the clarinet while the voice creates a syncopated accompanying figure.
Texturally, the B section (mm. 17-29) is very active in a contrapuntal exchange of thematic motives featuring 65 staccato eighth-note duplets against triplets. A short passage of both instruments performing sixteenth notes in contrary motion marks a return to the Bb Major tonality and the end of this section.
Marked pianissimo, the movement ends with a short reference to the staccato eighth-note idea of the opening and cadences on a perfect fifth, the voice above the clarinet.
This highly contrapuntal movement requires exact rhythmic execution. Syncopation and cross rhythms throughout the movement complicate the texture, as demonstrated in example 17. A Sopr. J I TJ JZI r
Clar. (C)
Example 17: Cross rhythms, mm. 22-24, Scherzo, Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises. Reprinted by Permission of Oxford University Press, copyright 1960.
The spirit of the movement implies a quick tempo. The ability of the singer to perform rapid sixteenth-note passages without the aid of consonant syllables limits the tempo of the movement.
Both the second and third movements have extended staccato passages for the soprano and clarinet. Performance 66 problems associated with this articulation are discussed at the end of the analysis. The third moveanent, QUASI MENUETTO, has a piano marking indicated at the opening and no other dynamic markings. The form can be described as A B A1 Coda with a tonality in Ab Major in the A { mm. 1-23), A' (mm. 32-35) and Coda (mm. 36- 39) sections with the B section (mm. 24-31) in A minor. The quasi menuetto is implied through the use of triple meter and the melodic reiteration of a strong and sustained downbeat. The melody of the A section is in a long, lyrical style, while the B section is staccato throughout. The movement opens with a one-measure figure in the clarinet followed by the statement of the main theme in the voice part. As in the second movement, the voice is alone, this time for only a portion of the theme after which it is joined by the clarinet in counterpoint. The melodic interest is shared and exchanged by the instruments in a polyphonic texture. The second statement of the theme is in a homophonic texture with the voice performing the melody, accompanied by a staccato arpeggiated figure in the clarinet. A brief two-measure return of the counterpoint leads to a contrasting section in A minor. The staccato melody in the voice is accompanied by an A drone in the clarinet. This is followed by the clarinet, restating the staccato melody. The voice accompanies, 67 emphasizing an E with sixteenth-note ornaments. Briefly, the style of the first section returns with the Ab tonality. In a one-measure cadenza-like bar, marked free tempo, the voice is required to perform a very rapid group of thirty-second notes in contrary motion to a similar figure for the clarinet. This measure has three melodic figures. The first two are identical and the third is an extension of the idea. The third, extended figure then leads directly into the closing material. The free tempo marking raises questions about the interpretation of this passage (example 18). The performance tempo would depend partially on the flexibility of the singer.
(free temt>n)
Clar.
Example 18: Ending of Quasi Menuetto, m. 36-37, Vaughan Williams Three Vocalises. Reprinted by Permission of Oxford University Press, copyright 1960.
The ending of the movement features staccato eighth notes in the highest notes of both instruments' tessituras Once again the Ab Major tonality is confirmed by a tonic dyad. 68
Performance Considerations The performance for this study features the combination of a clarinet and a lyric soprano. Although the acoustical structure of timbre in the voice and clarinet are less alike than that in the voice and flute, the tone colors are still compatible. The disparity in timbre of a relatively "dark" clarinet tone and a bright soprano voice is somewhat mediated by the following solutions. The clarinetist used a brighter barrel and softer reed and the soprano created a longer resonating space by raising the soft palate and lowering the larynx.
In respect to the question of vibrato, the consensus of the performers was that the clarinetist should use a shimmering effect vibrato and only on held chords that had been determined to call for it. The singer greatly subdued her normal vibrato, beginning unison intervals and ending the work with a straight tone. This was felt to resolve the difference in vibrato usage without creating an enormous disparity in pitch between the voice and clarinet.
The next most important ensemble concern is the staccato passages for both instruments in the second and third movements. The quality of staccato needs to match in attack, length, and release. In this situation, the soprano has a very clear and crisp staccato. In order to imitate the effect, some clarinetists might find a tongue- stopped 69 staccato to be the most similar although this author has found a breath-stopped articulation to be more effective in some passages.
DUOS I BY NANCY CHANCE (b. 1931)10
Nancy Laird Chance was born in Cincinnati, Ohio on March
19, 1931. She studied composition with Vladimir Ussachevsky,
Otto Luening, and Chou Wen-Chung at Columbia University and piano under Lilias MacKinnon and William R. Smith. Chance is the only composer to have won the ASCAP's Rudolph Nissim
Competition for Orchestral Composition on two occasions, in
1982 for Liturgy, a chamber work for harp, 5 percussion players and strings and in 1984 for Odysseus, written for solo voice and orchestra. She has been the recipient of numerous awards and honors including two National Endowment of the Arts Composer's Fellowship/Grants in 1981 and 1983, the Norlin/MacDowell Fellow Award (1982), given annually in honor of Aaron Copland, the Sundance Institute Composer
Fellowship at Sundance Film Composer's Laboratory, and is a member of the Artist's Fellowships Music Composition Panel for the New York Foundation For The Arts.
Chance's works have been premiered by numerous American orchestras and professionial chamber groups, among them, the
10Several printing errors occur that the composer has confirmed to the author. These will be noted in the Appendix. 70
Cleveland Chamber Symphony, the Manhattan Percussion
Ensemble, St. Louis Symphony Orchestra, the Jupiter Symphony and Da Capo Chamber Players. Her works are primarily for
chamber ensembles, employing a variety of instrumental and vocal combinations. Her most recent works, however, have been orchestral works, film scores and movements from the
requiem mass. Chance now lives in rural New York where she
continues to compose.11
The Duos I (1976) is scored for soprano, flute, and two pairs of finger cymbals, played by the soprano. When asked
if the work was a commission or a dedication, the composer
replied that it was neither. When the composer was asked if her study with Otto Luening, who wrote and was the dedicatee
of several flute and untexted voice works, had inspired Duos
I she responded that it had not.12 The sole intent of the work was, in her words: to "reverse the usual process of dissonance resolving to consonance, and to see if the ear
could be conditioned, within the confines of a short work to accept a particular reiterated sharp dissonance as a point of
rest, a proper and satisfying cadence."13
1J-Unpublished biography provided by the composer.
12Written interview with the composer. See Appendix B.
13Taken from program notes, provided upon request from the composer. 71
The work combines a number of extended techniques such as fluttertonguing, "smorzato vibrato," no vibrato, extremes in dynamics and extended trilled passages to enhance this experimentation with consonance and dissonance. In most cases, the dissonance is approached by a consonant interval, major or minor third, moving in contrary motion to a dissonance of a minor second. The resolution of the third to a minor second is the principal idea of the work. The aural perception of this dissonance as a cadence point is not only confirmed through repetition but through dynamic and rhythmic resolve.
Chance is very articulate in her intentions to explore the possibilites of using the voice as an instrument.
She states that "by omitting the text and treating the voice instrumentally, it was also possible to explore certain acoustic phenomena associated with close dissonance, in particular the production of audible beats in forte passages, which lends a certain aural exitement to the work."
She indicates that the "instruments" should attempt to match tone quality and vibrato, etc. The forte passages should be emphasized to produce "audible beats," presumably difference tones and conflicting frequency beats.14
14Program notes. 72
The work is built structurally upon melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic materials. These materials are used to form a series of phrases which are grouped into the large divisions that give rise to the work's form. In order to comprehend the large formal character of the work, the structural details must first be identified. The following is a categorization of the melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic materials of the work.
Melodic Materials (MM):
The minor second is the kernel of nearly all the melodic material. With the exception of MM3 in Example 21, all other melodic materials relate to this interval. Selected melodic materials are given in Examples 19-26.
Selected Examples (MM)
Slow J = ^fO MJ. V. -4) « r\ f g i -"TlI LJJ.. ,I tZ \ normal j V i b ra+"o mp mj mp
Example 19: MM1 - Descending minor 2nd (m2nd). m. 1, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured. 73
to 3 mofio.' *f4=- ZEZ ¥- Fl. 1
SroJ-x-^ mp
Example 20: MM2 - Expansion of the descending half-step to whole-step. Ascending m2nd, descending M2nd. m. 3, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.
broade n
£ troo-den - —
Example 21: MM3 - Use of the Tritone, Perfect 4th and Perfect 5th, in various combinations, m. 11, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured. 74
3>J+r norm. +r "M
2 ,
^ allanp _ - - . 9 _
Example 22: MM4 - Extended trilled passage of m2nd M2nd melodxc intervals. mm. i8-23, Change Dufs 1. Repknted by a?? °- Se6SaW MUSic CorPoration, New York, Copyright . All rights reserved. International copyright secured.
C.YGS.C. .
Example 23: MM5 - Scale passage, series of whole and half- steps: A pentachord, E tetrachord. m. 30, Chance Duo
In MM6, Example 24, the excerpt is a reordered chromatic cell and an expansion of the major second kernel. 75
Example 24: MM6 - Reordered chromatic cell, expansion of M2nd idea (MM2) to include m3rd and M2nd. m. 36., Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 197 6. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.
In MM7, Example 25, the resting points of the melodic line create a descending pattern with half step characteristics and an octave displacement.
iiii & i;
Example 25: MM7 - Descending pattern with half-step characteristics with an octave displacement, mm. 42-43, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured. 76
In MM8, Example 26, the arrangement of minor 2nds are projected melodically and contrapuntally between the flute and voice lines. m
S: 4
Example 26: MM8 - New arrangement of m2nd, M2nd melodic intervals, projected melodically and contrapuntally between flute and soprano parts, mm. 51-52, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.
Harmonic Materials (HM)
The harmonic materials found in Duos I also revolve around the kernel of a minor 2nd. The extensions of the
interval are much more elaborate than those of the melodic materials. Since they occur in some form or another in every measure, only a representative selection is presented. In conjunction with the minor 2nd, the major 2nd, and the tritone interval occur with some frequency. The harmonic materials are given in Examples 27-30 and in Table 2. 77
Selected Examples (HM)
novmal V i fc rat"o mp mp
normal yMb^aTo
Example 27: HM1 - minor 2nd kernel harmonic material, mm. l- 2, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.
*
Example 28: HM2 - m3rd preparation for m2nd resolution, m. 5, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.
Wi4okt- TH.iLi.Sl
Wt-towg iRiixt :
Table 2: HM3 - whole-step trilled passage. Alternation of m3rd, M2nd, m2nd (reduction to sounding intervals). mm. 18- 24, Chance Duos I. 78
FI-IH t i
3
p? m f
Example 29: HM4 - Movement from consonant interval to unison to dissonance (M2nd) . mm. 40, Chance Duos J. Reprinted by- Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.
ft. TP"
Example 30: HM5 - Sustained tones on: Tritone moving to a M2nd above to a M2nd below, m. 51, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.
Rhythmic Materials (RM)
The basic pulse at quarter-note =40, is divided into two to nine notes to the beat. Rhythms seldom begin on down beats and ties over the beat extend the vagueness of the pulse. Rhythmic materials are demonstrated in Examples 31-
35. 79
Selected Examples (RM)
3 ft* > •> I ^ V 4- f- -#• &' moif-o Vt bra "tap rr.- .-rrr >r i s$i. Sf" Iff 3 pp
Example 31: RM1 - Triplet figure, often with rests occuring in one of the divisions or in hocket. mm. 44-45, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 197 6. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.
m
Example 32: RM2 - Avoidance of downbeats through use of ties, mm. 39-40, Chance Duos J. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 197 6. All rights reserved. International copyright secured. 80
n -s:£ &
m p Or esc.. _ _ - -pi+i r
Soon •II^O1 I • i
Example 33: RM3 - Entrances on up beats, m. 41, Chance Duos J. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.
PP 6: *>r
Example 34: RM4 - Note patterns in odd metric divisions, m. 46, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 197 6. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.
Application of Structural Materials
Chance uses these structural materials in various ways.
For instance, in several places the principal cadence of the work, an interval of a minor third moving to a minor second, is recalled. This motive is quoted in transposition a major third higher and a tritone lower. It also appears twice in 81
the recapitulation with extended techniques and rhythmic augmentations. These passages are noted in Exairples 37-39.
Fl- s jpp no Vi br. f
Sopr
pp v« br.
m m T
Example 35: Principal cadence, m. 5, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.
no. a Vitr. fl—|C^ Fl Fl, * pp— p p no vi br v?br •*» 3 Sop^ >o pr. mmmi PP
Example 36: Transposition of principal cadence by a M3rd higher and tritone lower. m. 17, 33, Chance Duos J. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured. 82
m jfeEEf i pp 3 fit* _ -
— pp
Example 37: Principal cadence with special effects and rhythmic augmentations, m. 64, 66-67, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 197 6. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.
Some structural materials are used to foreshadow an extended developments of a particular motive. Such is the case with the melodic motives of mm. 29 and 32 in the flute part, which appear in an extended passage in mm. 50-54. It is demonstrated here in Example 38-39. 83
h=f-pf-T==«
Example 38: Foreshadowing. Flute part, mm. 29, 32, Chance Duos I. Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured.
* h fl. S-H
R.
Example 39: Extension of motive. Chance Duos I, mm. 50-54 Reprinted by Permission of Seesaw Music Corporation, New York, Copyright, 1976. All rights reserved. International copyright secured. 84
Formal Aspects of Duos I
In Duos I, the melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic materials form the structural basis of the work in the flute and voice parts. The finger cymbals add a timbral quality as well as percussive voice. They serve to introduce or conclude phrases or to provide rhythmic accent.
The series of phrases ebb and flow in their level of intensity. This intensity is expressed through dissonance, dynamics, or extended techniques. Silence defines the form of the work. Groups of phrases, divided by rests, combine to create major divisions in the form. The form is diagrammed in Table 3.
A B
Phrases: 1 la 2 3 4 mm: 1-5 6-9 10-12 13-24 25-31
Transition
5 5b 6 3a/4a (mm. 32-34) 35-45 46-48 49-54 55-59
Recapitulation
(mm. 60-69)
Table 3: Form of Chance Duos I 85
The opening phrase of each major division is presented by the flute. The major divisions are made apparent by one or a combination of three methods: a lengthy rest, as in the division between sections A and B; an abrupt change in character, as in the change from A to B and B to the
Transition; and new material, used between A and B, and between B and C. The recapituation is obvious through an exact recollection of the opening four measures.
In the formal diagram in Table 3, note the indication of phrases 3a/4a in section C. These are abbreviated ideas, recalling the whole-step trill passage from section A and the
Ab pentachord/E tetrachord scale passage from section B. The truncated restatement of such material immediately preceding the recapitulation, creates a certain symmetry in the piece.
In this work, it becomes the performer's responsibility to interpret the intent of the composer through the character of their instruments. For the flutist, the role can be characterized as the instigator. It is the first instrument to be heard and initiates nearly every phrase of the work.
The flute part is the most technically active and remains in a higher range than the voice throughout most of the work.
However, the flute is not to be considered the most important character in the work. The voice, used as an instrument, is of equal importance to the flute. The voice adds the dissonance and reacts to the initiations of the flute. The 86
finger cymbals add a third component to the texture. Since the pitches of the cymbals (in this study/performance approximately an F and G) lie above the range of the voice and most of the flute, they are aurally striking in their contrasting pitches. Their primary role, as mentioned previously, is to introduce or conclude the phrases. The clash of both sets of cymbals accents the loud, agitato passages of the work. The cymbals also end the work playing a two-measures solo.
Performance Considerations
Because of the rhythmic complexity, Duos I requires a tremendous degree of individual rhythmic accuracy. The pulse is not outwardly apparent and must be internalized for ensemble.
The second major performance problem involves the accuracy of pitches. Many passages require the performers to produce consonant as well as dissonant intervals. The most common interval of the piece is the minor second. The tendency to pull a minor second up to a unison is very strong in the human voice and this frequently sustained interval is difficult to adapt to. The higher pitch center of the soprano presents a challenge to the flutist, especially in the frequent quiet passages in which the flute has a tendency 87
to sound flat. Because of its atonal nature, the work requires a vocalist with strong relative or perfect pitch.
Various experiments with timbres were made. For some dissonant intervals, the singer for this study used a timbre produced with lips slightly parted. The effect is very similar to the flute in the same register and the quality of the vocal timbre seems to enhance the dissonance. In many passages, the singer used a vowel with more "oh" than the traditional "ah." Under the circumstances of this performance, that timbre blends best with the flute. The flutist found that a brighter, clearer tone is effective in this piece. This timbre seemed to be the most functional for the various extended techniques required and fit the character of the work. Duos I requires the flutist to perform with a good tone at the extremes of dynamics and range while maintaining an accurate pitch center.
Vibrato (when specified as normal vibrato) between the performers was found to be increasingly compatible as rehearsal time progressed. As in the Ibert Aria, matching the depth and speed of the vibrato applies here as well.
The various types of attacks specified in this work included tenuto, smfz, meaning a sforzando attack at a mezz- forte level, accents, flutter tongue, accented staccato, and an sffz marking, meaning a sforzando at a fortissimo level. 88
Each of these require careful rehearsal to match the quality of each type between the voice and flute.
The dynamics used are equally extreme: rapid crescendos to forte followed by a subito mezzo-piano, long crescendos over six bars to a fortissimo, subito pianissimos, fortissimo decrescendo to pianissimo over one bar, pianissimo in the extreme range of the flute, etc. Balance is an inportant issue with these dynamic demands. Care must be taken in the extremes of the voice and flute dynamic range.
The extended techniques required include: smorzato vibrato ("a particularly slow and heavy vibrato"), no vibrato, flutter-tongue, and extended whole-step trilled passages. The composer requested that the smorzato vibrato be unmeasured, gradually becoming slower and syncronized between the performers. The initial speed of this type of vibrato was difficult for both instruments to perform rapidly so that the effect diminishes from approximately 5 to 2 pulses per second. The gradual slowing is difficult to perform and to syncronize between the players while maintaining the steady pulse. An equivalent speed of the simultaneous trills required attention and rehearsal to achieve. The fluttertongued passages were complicated by the low dynamic level, since the rolled "R" action by the tongue requires a strong air stream. 89
For the flutist, the most difficult challenge is to maintain a pitch center and pleasing tone while affecting the
extended techniques required. For the soprano, the greatest
challenge is to perform a part that involves attacking and maintaining pitches in close intervals. This is complicated by the additional task of playing the finger cymbals. The
trills and fluttertonguing are quite difficult for both players because these effects seldom occur with such extended application.
Duos I is a highly effective composition and will be perceived as such only if the performers are able to produce a technically accurate and musically appealing performance. CHAPTER IV
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This study has attempted to identify and resolve the performance challenges of three twentieth-century works that employ the voice without text in combination with various woodwind instruments. The premise of the thesis is that, after a lengthy history of texted works with woodwind obbligato, as outlined in Chapter I, a set of conventions evolved defining inherently different roles for the singer and instrumentalist. The instrumentalist's may be subordinate to the vocalist's or it may be a more equal partner, presenting stereotypical programmatic gestures by way of depicting the text; at the other end of the spectrum, the instrumentalist emerges as the dominant partner, overwhelming the singer's verbal utterances through the prominence of its purely musical utterances. Regardless of what point an instrumentalist's part lies on this spectrum, it is undeniable that the roles of the singer and instrumentalist are different in texted works. In compositions without a text, however, the voice is no longer
90 91 the purveyor of the word, of explicit meaning. As an "instrument," it assumes an implicit character found in the realm of instrumental music.1 Here, the voice, like the instrument, is dependent upon attributes other than words to convey musical meaning. Without the physical requirements and poetically explicit implications of words, the singer (and the composer) are afforded a new expressive dimension of a richly varied palette of tone color. Nevertheless, when a singer is present, the audience expects words. Many composers of this century have exploited just this sense of unresolved tension in experimental works for untexted voice and instruments.
As was shown in Chapter III, performances of works with non-texted vocal parts presented unique performance practice problems. In the Ibert Aria, the ensemble problems centered on the use of vibrato and timbre in achieving balance. In addition to blending two diverse tone colors, the Vaughan Williams Vocalises presented a problem of matching styles of articulation. The most serious problems of balance were encountered in the most experimental work of the group, the Chance Duos I: the approximation of similar timbre, vibrato, etc., in the context of frequent dissonance, extended techniques, and a complex rhythmic structure.
J-Edward T. Cone, The Composer's Voice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), Ch. 2-3. 92
An analysis of scientific findings pertaining to the acoustical phenomena affecting our perceptions of timbre, vibrato, pitch, articulation and other factors, was explored in Chapter II. The information in this chapter provided supporting scientific evidence for the thesis that certain works for the medium require a close blend or match in aural attributes such as timbre, vibrato, and articulation. For example, the atonal nature and extensive use of dissonance in the Nancy Chance Duos I present many problematic acoustical situations. To highlight the structural role of the distinctive cadential gesture of the piece, the performers opted for very similar and specific timbres. The other two works, the Ibert Aria and the Vaughan Williams Three vocalises, presented different types of challenges in a tonal context. In the Ibert, it was noted that the contrapuntal nature of the work created balance problems that were further complicated when the flute was in a higher tessitura than the voice. Some adjustment of timbre and vibrato provided the solution of this work's problems of balance. Likewise, the disparity of timbre between the soprano and clarinet required some acoustical adjustment in the Vaughan Williams.
Another issue explored in Chapter II centered on pitch placement, which is problematic in all the works discussed in this study. Factors influencing pitch placement, such as interval, difference tones, timbre, vibrato, dynamics, range, 93
and extended techniques were discussed in connection with
representative passages from each of the three works.
Although the solutions to the particular performance problems were not intended to be conclusive, they represent viable
solutions that were arrived at through extensive
experimentation and can thus serve as a general guide for
others who wish to perform these works.
The analytical chapter of this thesis demonstrated that
compositions without words require an organizational
structure very different from that found in texted music.
Very simply, composers writing for this medium cannot rely on
established structural models that evolved in relation to
specific poetic structures. Considering this, it is
understandable that composers are tentative in their efforts
to explore this medium, as is evidenced by the brevity and paucity of works. The analyses of the three chosen works for
this medium involved historical, structural, formal, and performance perspectives. However, the main thrust of the
analytical chapter dealt with the Chance Duos I which is both
the most complex structurally and the most demanding in terms
of performance requirements of the three works under
consideration.
The appendices provide an annotated bibliography of
selected works for textless voice and at least one woodwind
instrument (Appendix A) and performance information on the 94
Chance Duos I (Appendices B and C). The majority of works for this medium consist of short chamber pieces of a light, entertaining character. They are roughly divided in half between those using some tonal system with standard performance techniques and those employing atonal systems and extended techniques. Most of the works were written in the last forty years by American composers.
Works for textless voice with woodwind instruments prove to be an interesting and viable medium. The successful performance of this medium is dependent upon resolution of certain technical challenges, as addressed in this study. By addressing and resolving these challenges, it is hoped that performers will be encouraged to experiment with the medium and composers will be persuaded to attempt larger works for textless voice and woodwinds to demonstrate, on a greater scale, the potential of this combination. APPENDIX A
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SELECTED WORKS
95 96
The works listed in this appendix include all known published works for a small ensemble (two to six performers) consisting of a minimum of one voice part that is a least partially untexted and a minimum of one woodwind instrument. These works were primarily extracted from Richard LeSueur's Art Songs with Obligato Instruments, an unpublished expansion of a previous publication by the same author. His listing is a compilation of works found in all international publishing house catalogs and various additional sources. He has been recognized as an authority in this type of cataloguing and is associated with the Library of Congress in this capacity. Some works were found in bibliographies of works as cited in the bibliography.
Blacher, Boris Jazz Koloraturen (1927) Germany: Bote and Bock
Instrumentation: Soprano, Alto Saxophone, Bassoon Dedication or Commission: None indicated Vocal Range: F#4 - D6 Degree of Difficulty: Medium Difficulty Notation/Special Effects: Standard notation, 3 stave score, 3 copies
I.: Slowfox II.: Allegro molto (Charleston tempo) Soprano part is indicated "Kolratur auf 'Ah'" at the beginning of the first movement. No other syllabic indication is given. Some variation in attack must take place since no consonant articulation is specified, in consideration of the various accents and articulations. No altissimo is required for the saxophone. The length is approximately seven minutes. The bassoon line functions as a walking, and at times, chromatic bass line. The soprano and saxophone share in the idiomatic jazz melodic material. The tonality is in a C blues for the first movement and in a very 97 chromatic and rambling second movement with a "tonal" center around C. The mood of the entire work is of a jazz solo transcription. The jazz idiom requires performers familiar with the style. Vocalists may feel very restricted with the "ah" syllable in a situation in which jazz scat syllables would be more appropriate.
Carillo, Julian. Preludio a Cristobal Colon (1944) Bryn Mawr, PA: New Music
Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute, Violin, Guitar, Harp, Octavina Dedication or Commission: None Vocal Range: not applicable (16th tones) Degree of Difficulty: Very difficult Notation/Extended Techniques: graphic system of numbers to accommodate 96 intervals per octave (16th tones)
Poco lento. The composer claims to have written the first composition in the world in 16th tones. Carillo's notation uses numbers from 0 - 96 to indicate the particular pitch. The work is limited to one octave, presumably in demonstration of the notational system. The work is divided by fermatas into phrases that employ various combinations of the instruments. Most of the sequences of pitches vary within a half or quarter step. The work is brief and lento throughout.
Chance, Nancy. Duos I (197 6) New York: Seesaw/American Composers Alliance
Instrumentation: Soprano, Finger Cymbals - played by the Sop., Flute Dedication or Commission: None Vocal Range: B3 - G5 Degree of Difficulty: Very Difficult Notation/Special Effects: Standard, hand calligraphy on velum, two copies of score; fluttertonguing, smorzato vibrato, no vibrato. Confirmed copying errors: m. 57, flute scale should be slurred, m. 38, 2nd note should be an 8th note, m. 52 and m. 62 in the finger cymbals part should have a "let ring" indicating slur marking. (See analysis in body of paper.) 98
Cowell, Henry. Toccanta / Symphonic Set (Orchestral version) (1960) Boosey and Hawkes (presently out of print)
Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute, Cello, Piano Dedication or Commission: Vocal Range: F4 - A5 Degree of Difficulty: Medium difficulty Notation/Extended Techniques: Standard notation, no extended techniques I. Allegro quasi Andante II. Interlude III. Moderato pomposo ma vivo IV. Interlude V. Allegro. The following note appears for the singer: "The Soprano is to be like a Vocalise, to blend instrumentally rather than to be a solo always. The vowel "ah" may be used or at the wish of the singer, other vowels may be chosen." The three solo instruments share in the melodic interest with the piano accompanying. Movements feature various contrasting styles. The Toccanta is one of the largest works for this medium.
Vocalise (1964) New York: C.F. Peters Edition, 1964.
Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute, Piano Dedication or Commission: None indicated b Vocal Range: F4 - B 5 Degree of Difficulty: Medium difficulty, duration 8 min. Notation/Special Effects: Standard notation, full score; indication for piano: "press the piano strings next to the bridge, damping their tone throughout the whole work;" a vocal effect of the same note alternatingly sung soft and loud is indicated with a harmonic (°) and an accent (>) . Quasi Andante with rhythmical freedom, tempo rubato. Allegro L'istesso tempo. These three tempo markings represent the three sections that are presented in a form of A B C A B C A B C A. The circular character of the form is emphasized by the static nature of each section. This work approaches a pre-Minimalist style with the ostinato texture and form.
Crumb, George. Lux Aeterna. New York: C.F. Peters Edition. Instrumentation: Soprano, Bass Flute (Soprano Recorder), Sitar, Percussion (2) 99
Dedication or Commission: "For the Children of the Night." Commissioned by the Philadelphia Composer's Forum. Vocal Range: G3 - B5 Degree of Difficulty: Very difficult Notation/Special Effects: Spatial notation; vocal vowels are indicated in vocalise section; piece requires certain theatrical effects, i.e., performers should wear special clothing, seating indicated; includes detailed performance instructions. Very slow, with a sense of meditative time; pregnant with mystery. This work uses the vocalise technique for a special effect only in the open entrance of the voice. After the voice intones the Lux Aeterna text. The vowels are used deliberately to correspond to a timbre change and a glissandi to a higher note. Although it does not constitute a true vocalise work, it is included for this unusual example of the technique.
Ibert, Jacques. Aria (1931) Paris: Leduc.
Instrumentation: Mezzo-Soprano, Flute, Piano. Other transcriptions, see Chapter III. Dedication or Commission: none indicated Vocal Range: C4 - Abs Degree of Difficulty: Medium difficulty Notation/Special Effects: Standard notation, 2 copies for flute and voice, l piano score.
(See analysis in body of paper.)
McBride, Robert. Nonsense Syllables A Vocalise for Soprano with Flute (1952) New York: American Composers Alliance
Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute Dedication or Commission: For Ethel and Otto Luening Vocal Range: E4 - Dg Degree of Difficulty: Medium Difficulty Notation/Special Effects: Standard notation, hand calligraphy on velum; syllables indicated for vocal part. This jazz style work features triple rhythms, indicating a swing feel, as well as an alternation of triplet with 100
sixteenth-note passages. The high range of flute (to G6) is used occasionally. This piece has a light, encore nature and is relatively brief (7 0 measures in length).
Vocalise (1952) New York: American Composers Alliance
Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute Dedication or Commission: For Ethel and Otto Luening Vocal Range: Db4 - D6 Degree of Difficulty: Medium difficulty Notation/Special Effects: Standard notation, hand calligraphy on velum. Score and separate part for flute. Vocal and flute glissandi. Allegretto Commodo ben Ritmatico. Syncopated rhythmic, articulated passages are alternated with short lyrical, slurred passages. Rhythmic patterns are repetitive and should not present a major problem in ensemble. Familiarity with jazz style is helpful but not necessary. Scat syllables are carefully specified including phonetic markings. Vocalist is required to do glissandi over wide intervals. Extreme range of the flute is covered with extended, rapid staccato passages.
Reif, Paul. Encounters (197 8) New York: Seesaw Music
Instrumentation: Voice, Clarinet Dedication or Commission: None indicated b Vocal Range: A3 - A 5 Degree of Difficulty: Medium Difficult Notation/Special Effects: Some spatial notation, hand calligraphy/optional stage directions, timbre trills, vibrato, breath attacks, timbre trills for clarinet. As in the Crumb, Reif uses the untexted voice in the introduction only. Opening untexted introduction is marked "Very Free" and features the effects noted above. The vocalise does not use any extended techniques. The introcuction is followed by the texted portion, using Shakespeare's Sonnett LXXIII. The introduction is staged with directions such as "walks slowly on stage," "sliding," and "watches singer intently." The texted portion notes: "They meet in centerstage. During the aria, player stands behind singer." 101
Riegger, Wallingford. Duo (1950) Hackensack, NJ: Mobart instrumentation: High Voice, Flute Dedication or Commission: none indicated Vocal Range: D#4 - C6 Degree of Difficulty: Medium Difficulty Notation/Special Effects: Standard notation, voice part is noted "Oboe or Flute may be substituted," short glissandi in the vocal part. Lento. Vivace. Tempo I. The ABA form indicated by the tempo markings is in fact a short slow introduction and conclusion to a very staccato, spritely center section. Most of the melodic interest lies in the flute line with the vocalist often accompanying. The extreme high range of the flute is exploited throughout (to A#g) .
Rosen, Jerome. Serenade (1964) New York: American Composers Alliance. Instrumentation: Soprano Voice and Alto Saxophone Dedication or Commission: Pat and Art Woodbury Vocal Range: Db4 - A5 Degree of Difficulty: Very Difficult Notation/Special Effects: Some standard notation, unmeasured sections and aleatoric instructions with minimal notation for two improvisation movements, shape notations for a chance music style; hand calligraphy on velum; fluttertongue for both instruments, key clicks and clicking noise with voice, altissimo for saxophone (written G#). I. Prelude Molto Allegro; Improvisation I; III. Nocturne Quietly; Improvisation II; V. Finale. The avant garde character of this piece is evident. The prelude is unmeasured with technical passagework for the saxophone and long, lento expressivo notes for the voice. The two improvisation movements can be considered chance music. In "Improvisation I" the voice and saxophone are given "source material" on a one line staff and a set of instructions such as "Either part may start. The first part invents an opening phrase in the manner suggested above. The second part answers in its manner." The "Nocturne" is in standard, metered notation style in a less dissonant dialogue. "Improvisation II" uses shapes (oval for voice, rectangle for saxophone) over a single line staff. Arrows and single notes indicate a direction of movement. This movement uses a great deal of contrary motion and dynamic extremes. The "Finale" employs the extended techniques of fluttertonguing, and key 102 and tongue clicks. This movement is also unmeasured with rests indicated by single line and double line cesuras. The work ends with key and tongue clicks. Serenade requires performers with substantial technical prowess and the ability to make a highly improvised piece effective.
Stock, David. Scat (1971) New York: American Composers Alliance Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute, Bass clarinet, Violin, Cello Dedication or Commission: Commissioned by Richard Pittman conductor, for the Boston Musica Viva Vocal Range: Ab2 to D5 Degree of Difficulty: Very Difficult Notation/Special Effects: Standard notation, two scores, four parts; scat syllables indicated for each note, glissandi, fluttertongue, fall offs Premiere: Cambridge, MA, 1971, Elsa Charlston, soprano (written with soprano Phyllis Bryn-Julson in mind who performed it subsequently) Composer comments: "The voice is treated instrumentally, as a slightly-more-than-equal partner to the instruments." All movements are connected, with no break except tempo and style change. Fast, Swinging is indicated at opening with scat syllables indicated in the voice. A slow second section, marked Slow, relaxed, opens with instrumental interlude, the voice joining after. The last movement is marked Very Fast -- Imaginary and is quite sparce and pointillistic, gradually becoming more dense in texture. All parts are very demanding, requiring rapid leaps of over two octaves in some instances and in the extreme ranges of all the instruments. The work is in a quasi-jazz style although swing rhythms are specified in the notation but not used throughout.
Stravinsky, Igor. Pastorale (1923) London: Schott. Instrumentation: Soprano, Clarinet, Oboe, English Horn, Bassoon Dedication or Commission: None indicated Vocal Range: C#4-F#5 Degree of Difficulty: Medium Difficulty Notation/Special Effects: Standard; none 103
Largetto. In this one movement, relatively short work, the bassoon and clarinet provide the arpeggiated harmonic accompaniment while the oboe and english horn share an obbligato countermelody beneath the vocalise. The counter melody is in extremely awkward keys for the instruments(F# Major for oboe, D*5 Major for English horn), requiring rapid alternate fingerings, especially for the English horn. Otherwise, the work is not difficult and in a pleasant pastorale style. Vowels are indicated in Russian and French (A-y, A-ou) and presumably an English equivalent is acceptable.
Vaughan Williams, Ralph. Three Vocalises (1958) London: Boosey and Hawkes, 1960. Instrumentation: Soprano, clarinet Dedication or Commission: Margaret (Mabel) Ritchie Vocal Range:C4~C6 Degree of Difficulty: Medium Difficulty Notation/Special Effects: Standard; none (See analysis in body of paper.)
Walden, Stanley. Coronach; A Kaddish (1989) Bryn Mawr, PA: Theodore Presser instrumentation: Mezzo-soprano, Chanter, and English Horn Dedication or Commission: Jan DeGaetani and Philip West Vocal Range: F#3 - A5 Degree of Difficulty: Medium Difficulty Notation/Special Effects: Standard, some unmeasured sections; quarter tone alterations in voice and E.H. The vocalise technique is alternated with the Jewish prayer (Kaddish), intoned by the Chanter. The Coronach is a Scottish and Irish lamentation for the dead. During the chant (in Aramaic, not in Hebrew) the voice and English horn accompany with microtonal alterations in pitch and vowels. No vowels are indicated otherwise. The composer notes: "The Mezzo-soprano part purposely lacks syllabic notation (except where indicated). The choice of syllables is left to the discretion of the singer, to best realize her musical and emotional intentions."
Weigl, Vally. Brief Encounters New York: American Composers Alliance 104
Instrumentation: Mezzo-soprano, Wind duo, or Wind trio (Clarinet, Oboe, or English Horn, and Horn, Mvt. VI requires Bassoon) Dedication or Commission: None indicated Vocal Range: F#3-Gs Degree of Difficulty: Not Difficult Notation/Special Effects: Standard, hand calligraphy on velum; no special effects.
I. Lament Moderato; II. Intermezzo Allegro vivace; III. Evocation Moderato mosso; IV. Alia Dansa Vivace ma non troppo; V. Arioso Adagio; VI. Rondelette Allegro; VII. Old Time Divertimento Vivace. The voice is included in movements I, III, IV and VI only. Clarinet or oboe are indicated alternatives for the voice with an alternate clarinet part included. An "Ah" vowel is indicated at the beginning and throughout the movements with the exception of Mvt. VI in which "La" is indicated. The style is fairly contrapuntal and imitative. The seventh movement, marked optional, is scored for trumpet (or clarinet), horn, and bassoon. The piece is not technically or musically demanding and could be performed by student groups.
Other works not available for review
Brant, Henry. Encephalograms (1955) New York: Composer's Facsimile Edition
Devoto, Mark. Fever Dream Vocalise. Publisher unknown.
Instrumentation: Sop, Fl, Cello, Piano, Percussion
Dresden, Sem. Four Vocalises. Amsterdam: Donemus
Instrumentation: Mezzo-Soprano, Bassoon, Clarinet, Flute, Piano, Viola, Violin
Freeman, Harry. Two Vocalise. Ottowa: Canadian Music Center.
Instrumentation: High voice, Clarinet, Piano
Knussen, Oliver, vocalise with Songs of Winnie the Pooh. (Publisher unknown) 105
Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute, English Horn, Clarinet, Cello, Piano Kolinski, Mieczyslaw. Concertino (1974) Berandol
Instrumentation: Soprano, Clarinet, Piano
Kurimoto, Yoko. June End Songs Japan Federation.
Instrumentation: Voice, Alto Recorder, Guitar
Luening, Otto. Suite for Voice and Flute (1936-37) New York: American Composers Alliance/Galaxy.
Mortari, Virgilio. Canzone Italy: DeSante.
Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute
Peck, Russell. Automobile New York: Carl Fischer
Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute, Double Bass, Percussion
Sandstrom, Sven David. Just a Bit Stockholm: Nordiska Instrumentation: Sop, Bassoon, Harp, Violin
Schaffer, Boguslaw. Bergoniana Ahn and Simrock
Instrumentation: Soprano, Flute, Horn, Double Bass, or Cello
Sharvil, Uri. Divertissement Jerusalam: Israeli Music
Instrumentation: Medium Voice, Flute, Bassoon, Arabic Drum, Piano
Sueyoshi, Yasuo. Musique pour la voix vocalise Tokyo: Ongaku No Tomo Sha Corp. Instrumentation: Soprano, 2 Flutes, 3 Percussion 106
Szczeniewski, Boleslaw. Songs without Words Ottowa: Canadian Music Center
Instrumentation: Low Voice, violin, Flute, Cello APPENDIX B:
WRITTEN INTERVIEW WITH NANCY CHANCE
107 108
MAY, 1992
General:
1) What is it that interests you in the use of voice in the small ensemble?
"It is the most expressive of all the instruments -- such a great shame if one did not make use of it."
2) I'm assuming from various dedications, that Otto and Ethyl Luening performed voice and flute works together. Did your work with Otto Luening at Columbia influence any of your works? "One of the reasons Otto was such a wonderful teacher is that he made no effort to impose his ideas or style on his students, but strove to bring out and shape the student's sense of what music should be."
3) Have you written any other works using the vocalise technique or are there plans for such in the future?
"No."
Duos I Background:
1) Is the work dedicated to anyone?
"No."
2) Under what conditions was the work composed?
"Truly can't remember."
3) Was there any preparation required, as in special vocal study, that helped make performance decisions as pertaining to the special techniques required or was the voice conceived primarily as an instrumental color?" "See 'Program Notes.' Also, I have been a singer myself." 109
4) In analyzing the work, I've noted the recurring and expanded melodic, harmonic, rhythmic motives, technical devices and over all form that give the work cohesion. Is there a compositional plan or method involved that you worked from?
"See 'Program Notes'."
Performance Questions:
1) Regarding the "smorzato vibrato" which are measured by the small notes above the staff, is it your intention that they divide the assigned beats evenly, indicating an exact number and implied rhythm of pulsations or that they be used as an approximat i on?
"The small notes are spaced to indicate gradual slowing down or speeding up of pulses -- pulses should be entirely free of metric beat."
2) In the scale passage in the flute part, m. 57, should the passage be slurred as in the previous instance or articulated as indicated?
"Slurred -- (copying error)."
3) In m. 38, the flute part contains an extra eighth note value. I have assumed that the second note, Eb, should be an eighth note rather than a quarter. Is this correct?
"Yes"
4) In m. 52 and m. 62 there are notes for the finger cymbals that indicate a stopped note rather than the slur used previously, indicating "let ring". Should they be stopped notes or allowed to ring?
"Ring -- (copying error)" APPENDIX C
PROGRAM NOTES FOR DUOS I BY NANCY CHANCE
PROVIDED BY THE COMPOSER.
110 111
It was my intent in this work to reverse the usual process of dissonance resolving to consonance, and to see if the ear could be conditioned, within the confines of a short work, to accept a particular reiterated sharp dissonance as a point of rest, a proper and satisfying cadence. By omitting text and treating the voice instrumentally, it was also possible to explore certain acoustic phenomena associated with close dossonance, in particular the production of audible beats in forte passages, which lends a certain aural excitement to the work.
The two "instruments" should strive to produce sounds as similar as possible, re: vibrato, tone quality, etc. Forte passages should be loud enough to actually produce audible
"beats" in the particular performing space which you use -- these can be very interesting and exciting. Keep in mind that the sharpest dissonances are at usual cadence points, and try to convey a sense of repose and rest with the dissonances at these points --an interesting exercise in psychology of music. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Backus, John. The Acoustical Foundations of Music. New York: W.W. Norton, 1969. Becker, Jeral Blaine. "Published American Works for Solo Voice and Small Instrumental Ensemble: 1920-1940." Ph.D. diss., Washington University, 1975.
Benade, Arthur H., Johan Sundberg, "Acoustics," The New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie. New York: Macmillan, 1980. 1:77-87. Benade, Arthur H. Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics. London: Oxford University Press, 1976. Bersano, James R. "Formalized Aspect Analysis of Sound Texture." Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1979. Blatter, Alfred Wayne. "The Effect of Timbre on Pitch- Matching Judgements." Doctoral Thesis, Univeristy of Illinois, 1974. Campbell, Murray. The Musician's Guide to Acoustics. New York: Schirmer, 1988. Coffin, Berton. Overtones of Bel Canto. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow, 1980. Cohen, Aaron. "Nancy Laird Chance," International Encyclopedia of Women Composers, Second Edition, 2 vols. New York: Books and Music USA, 1987. I: 144. Cone,Edward T. The Composer's Voice. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974. Cox, David. "Jacques Ibert," The New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie. New York: Macmillan, 1980. IX: 1-2. Dunlap, Kay, Barbara Winchester. Vocal Chamber Music: A Performer's Guide. New York: Garland Publishing, 1985.
112 113
Francois, Jean-Charles. "Fixed Timbre, Dynamic Timbre," Perspectives in New Music, XXVIII:2 (Summer, 1990), 112- 18. Gartner, Jochen. The vibrato with Particular Consideration given to the Situation of the Flutist. English translation by Einar w. Anderson. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse Verlang, 1981.
Gillespie, James. "Works for Soprano and Clarinet," Instrumentalist, XXXI:6-7 (December 197 6, January 1977): 63-65; 47-50.
Greville, Ursula. "Voice and the Chamber Ensemble," Cobbett's Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music, 3 vols. Compiled and edited by Walter willson Cobbett with supplementary material edited by Colin Mason. London: Oxford University Press, 1963. II: 555-57.
Hall, Donald E. Musical Acoustics: An Introduction.. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1980.
Jander, Owen. "Vocalise," The New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie. New York: Macmillan, 1980. XX:51. Kroll, Oskar. The Clarinet. Revised and with a repertory by Diethard Riehm. Translated by jHilda Norris. Translation edited by Anthony Baines. New York: Taplinger Pub. Co., 1968.
Langwill, Lyndesay G. The Bassoon and Contra-bassoon. London: Ernest Benn, 1965.
Lawson, Charles E. "An Investigation to Determine if the Oral Cavity Acoustically Influences the Radiated Wave Form of the Clarinet." D.M.A. diss., University of Iowa, 1974.
LeSueur, Richard. Art Songs with Obligato instruments (ensembles of five or less). (working copy), Ann Arbor: Vocal Arts Information Services, 1990.
Levarie, Siegmund and Ernst Levy. Tone: A Study in Musical Acoustics. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1968. Lust, P., comp. American Vocal Chamber Music 1945-1980: An Annotated Bibliography. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1985. 114
Martyn, Barrie. Rachmaninoff: Composer, Pianist, Conductor. Aldershot, Hants, England. Brookfield, vt.: Gower Pub. Co., 1990. Miller, Jan Roger. "A Spectrum Analysis of Clarinet Tones." Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1956. Noske, Fritz. French Song from Berlioz to DuParc, translated by Rita Benton. New York: Dover, 197 0. "Obbligato," The New Harvard Dictionary of Music, ed. by Don M. Randell. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1986, 553.
Orenstein, Arbie. Ravel Man and Musician. New York: Columbia University Press, 1975. Ottaway, Hugh. Ralph Vaughan Williams. London: Oxford, 1964. . "Ralph Vaughan Williams," The New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie. New York: Macmillan, 1980. XIX: 569-580. Pierce, John R. The Science of Musical Sound. New York: Scientific American Library, 1983. Rendall, Geoffrey F. The Clarinet; Some Notes upon its History and Construction. 3rd ed. Revised and with some additional material by Philip Bate. London: Ernest Benn, Ltd., 1971. Seashore, Carl E., ed. University of Iowa Studies in the Psychology of Music. Vol. 1, Vibrato. Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1932. Shaw-Taylor, Desmond. "Margaret (Mabel) Ritchie," The New Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vols., ed. Stanley Sadie. New York: Macmillan, 1980. XVI: 57. Silsbee, Robert H. "Acoustics," The New Harvard Dictionary of Music, ed. by Don M. Randell. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1986, 7-13. Slawson, Wayne. Sound Color. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985. Stevens, Denis, ed. A History of Song. New York: W.W. Norton, 1960. Stolba, K. Marie. The Development of Western Music - A History. Debuque, IA: Wm.C. Brown, 1990. 115
Sumrall, John N., Jr. "The Literature for Clarinet and Voice and Its Historical Antecedents." D.M.A. diss., University of Illinois, 1974. Thurston, Frederick. Clarinet Technique. London: Oxford University Press, 197 3. Vaughan Williams, Ursula. Ralph vaughan Williams, a Biography. London: Oxford, 1988. wain, Ronald L. "Chairiber Music for Solo Voice, Flute, and Keyboard or Continuo, Including an Annotated Bibliography of Selected Literature." Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1971. . "Flute and Voice Ensembles," The Instrumentalist, XLV (January 1991): 38. Wilson, Sir Stewart, M. Dawney. "The Vocal Music of Ralph Vaughan Williams," Musical Opinion, CXII (July 1989): 234-5.