Journal of International Education and Leadership Volume 4 Issue 2 Fall 2014 http://www.jielusa.org/ ISSN: 2161-7252

Women in Computer Sciences in Romania: Success and Sacrifice

Kelly Ward Washington State University

Cornelia Dragne Independent Scholar

Angelina J Lucas Washington State University

The purpose of this article is to more fully understand the professional lives of women academics in computer sciences in six Romanian universities. The work is exploratory and relies on a qualitative framework to more fully understand what it means to be a woman academic in high-tech disciplines in a second world economy. We conducted in-depth, face-to-face interviews and reviewed a number of documents to create a context for the major social and political changes in Eastern Europe that affected the professional journeys of women academics in Romania. Results convey the ways in which gender, technology, and higher education are bound together by a multiplicity of conscious and unconscious inclusionary and exclusionary practices at universities. Findings also suggest that further research is needed on the theoretical underpinnings and practice of gender equality in Romanian higher education institutions. Women academics in computing face a complex interplay of discouraging factors, including severe financial austerity and the masculine domination of the disciplines, necessitating the establishment of structures and mechanisms to foster honest debate around the dilemma regarding equality of opportunity or equality of outcome. Keywords: Women in Computer Sciences; Women Academics; STEM; Romania

A growing body of literature on gender equality faculty in science, technology, engineering, and in science points to an imbalance in the number, mathematical (STEM) disciplines. seniority, and influence of women and men in Historically in Romania, as in other Eastern the scientific professions. Some fields are European countries, women’s participation in heavily staffed by women, while others seem the STEM professions has exceeded 30%, which less female-friendly. In the government sector of is considered by some to be the mark of a the European Union (EU-27), equivalent critical mass (Trauth, 2007). However, the lack numbers of women and men work in the of studies with a focus on women, combined humanities; yet only 27% of researchers are with the lack of a feminist movement in that women in Engineering and Technology, while country has left a gap in our understanding of women account for 59% of graduates, they only how increased participation has shaped one’s account for 18% of full professors (She Figures, experience. Moreover, for more than two 2009). These figures highlight the need to decades, the study of education has been identify the successes and sacrifices of female removed from universities, necessitating studies Women in Computer Science Ward, Dragne, & Lucas on academic life in ‘general and gender 2010). Academic departments follow a number relations’ within higher education in particular. of organizational practices based on gender The purpose of this study is to explore assumptions and beliefs that are culturally women’s participation and understand the embedded (Williams, 1995). For example, experiences in the fields of computer sciences in technology and engineering are generally Romanian universities. The experience of considered to be related to masculinity, due to women in these fields is of particular interest for perceptions about the stable image and culture of three reasons. First, the world of computer engineering, and because the male represents the science is traditionally dominated by male- stereotyped image of ‘an engineer and a centered perspectives and a masculine ethos, scientist’ in the work force (e.g., Carter and which contributes to the marginalization of Kirkup 1990; MciIlwee & Robinson 1992; women in these spheres (Harding, 1986, 1991; Mellström 1995; Faulkner 2000). Researchers Longino, 1990; Keller, 2001; Hubbard, 2001; argue that STEM fields are powerful institutions Hoonakker, Carayon, and Schoepke, 2006). The with reinforced levels of equity in the society second is that information technologies and (Fox, 1999). Therefore, women suffer computer sciences are deeply connected with a proportional discrepancies, in turn reinforcing nation’s economic and democratic aspirations. inequity in work experiences at all stages of Third, the critical mass of woman faculty in training and career development (Nolan, Romanian higher education in Computer Buckner, Marzabadi, & Kuck, 2008). Some Sciences makes for a fertile ground to study experiences related to differential treatment may gender in a historically male field. look meager at the start, but compound over time, creating large gaps between groups that Theoretical background lead to negative outcomes such as job dissatisfaction and higher turnover (Preston, Extant literature offers multiple perspectives 2006; Spector & Jex, 1998; Valian, 1999). on the causes of female under-representation in Women may also find that their opportunities STEM fields. Some of the widely studied factors are limited when they are treated as if they are include bias against female science students invisible, when their contributions are (Moss-Racusin, Dovidio, Brescoll, Graham & marginalized, or when they are detached from Handelsman, 2012; Etzkowitz, Kemelgor and the informal social networks of their laboratories Uzzi, 2000); beliefs about innate intelligence or departments (Becker, 1990; Committee on the (Dweck, 2006) and differences in how males Participation of Women, 2003; Etzkowitz et al., and females think (Ceci & Williams, 2007); 1992, 2000; Sonnert & Holton, 1995; Stage & accumulated disadvantage (Zuckerman, 1989); Maple, 1996). adverse effects of tokenism (Kanter, 1977); The literature also offers culture-based gender role stereotypes and schemas (AAUW, perspectives for under-representation of women 2010; Ceci &Williams, 2007; Valian, 2000); in STEM fields. For instance, past research gendered universities and the normalization of shows that women and men experience male working styles including “ideal worker” academic structures and cultures differently. norms (Currie, Thiele & Harris, 2002; Drago, Women are generally less satisfied with their 2007; Eisenhart & Finkel, 1998); implicit bias positions than their male colleagues, in terms of (AAUW, 2010); opinions that environments and the quality of colleague interactions and support cultures are unwelcoming to women (Fabio, (Bilimoria, Perry, Liang, Stoller, Higgins & Brandi & Frehill, 2008; Sonnert & Holton, Taylor, 2006; Trower, 2008) as well as 1995); choice/opting out (Diekman, Brown, departmental climate (Callister, 2006), culture, Johnston, & Clark, 2010); and the challenges of and fit in their departments (Trower, 2008). balancing both work and family (Ward & Wolf- Extant research also reveals a culture of bias Wendel, 2012). against females by both genders. For example, Research suggests that scientific excellence Moss-Racusin (2012) identified that male and is a social construction that is open to several female science faculty at research-intensive biases, including gender bias (Husu & Koskinen, universities perceive female students as less

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Women in Computer Science Ward, Dragne, & Lucas competent and less worthy of being hired as Feminist Critique of Science and Technology laboratory managers than identical males. They and the Glass Ceiling Theory also found that male and female faculty offer A feminist critique of science and female employees a lower starting salary and technology breaks from Western philosophical less career mentoring. Ecklund, Lincoln, and traditions by including non-white and non-male Tansey (2012) showed that gender voices. It posits that science and technology still discrimination is a decisive factor of a woman constitute both a masculine kingdom and an either to not pursue careers in science at all or instrument of domination and with such choose biology over physics. Regardless of their perspectives tend to exclude women (Keller, own gender, scientists “used gender reasoning 1982). A comprehensive review of the literature that stressed innate differences between men and on women in academia in computer sciences women as well as personal choices to explain revealed two salient, interconnected themes: that the gender composition differences” (p. 710) in women constitute a minority (under- biology and physics. representation), and that the disciplinary culture Research also suggests that national cultures is masculine. The feminist critique of can affect the cultures of academic departments information technologies contends that one of (e.g., Hofstede, 1991). Organizations function in the main reasons for women’s low participation a national context, and are guided by theories of in computer sciences is that the field is imbued the nation's scientists or dominant minds with cultural views, attitudes, and norms that do (Hofstede, 1994). Hence, in an academic setting, not appeal to girl’s cognitive development STEM departments are susceptible to the (Miller, 2005; Rosser, 2005). When women influence exerted by national culture because enter such careers such as computer sciences they operate in the same context. Hofstede found they find themselves needing to make extra that the differences in national culture rest on effort to acculturate themselves to its masculine four dimensions: power distance, uncertainty ethos in order to succeed. avoidance, individualism, and masculinity. Underlying much of the work on the culture Among Hofstede’s (1994) cultural of computing is a theoretical point of view that dimensions, masculinity pertains to the values women do not participate either because they associated with the role of men in almost all reject the culture or because they feel rejected by societies. The values of masculinity include it (Beyer & Haller, 2006; Major, Davis, assertiveness, competitiveness, performance, Sanchez-Hucles, Downey, & Germano, 2007). and success. These values are more important Another thesis contends that women do not than the values that society associates with the pursue careers in computer sciences due to early role of women. National cultures that score high and ongoing social influences that maintain a on the cultural dimension of masculinity allow gender-segregated society, steering women away men to work on more complex tasks than from it and men towards it. As girls begin to women. Therefore, the role of women in such develop their gender identities, they are societies are typically associated with tender influenced by cultural norms and begin to view a values such as quality of life, service, sustaining technological profession as non-feminine. warm personal relationships, caring for the Cultural definitions of femininity place weak, and solidarity (Hofstede, 1994). A information technologies outside the boundary nation’s degree of masculinity may have an of ‘feminine’ texture and can be exclusive of effect on the status of women faculty in STEM women (Trauth, 2007). The steering of people in disciplines. Romania scores lower on and out of computing may occur through the masculinity than that of the U.S. (Hofstede & combination and interplay of socialization, Hofstede, 2005), which may partly explain the stereotypes, social networks, or discrimination. higher participation of women in STEM In this view, women’s participation is a cultural disciplines. product, and can be influenced through social structures (Barker & Aspray, 2006; Barker, Snow, Garvin-Doxas, & Weston, 2006).

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The attrition of women in computer sciences abilities. Their study acknowledges that women is usually expressed in the literature through the are not a homogenous mass, and that these ‘leaking pipeline’ metaphor. The pipeline differences may play an important role in how analogy suggests that women enter the world of they move towards a career in computer education and progress through its various sciences. Furthermore, the study found evidence stages towards a doctorate degree. The ‘leaking for substantial gender differences on social pipeline’ means women leave the discipline at psychological variables, such as values and various stages in their academic and career computer self-efficacy. In many respects, female trajectory, including during graduate school and majors in computer sciences have been found to in the transition to careers (Blickenstaff, 2005). be more similar to male majors than to female There is particular concern about women leaving non-majors. Also, research has found no gender academic computer sciences given departure out differences in terms of quantitative ability, of the computer sciences pipeline at the doctoral stereotypes and knowledge of computer stage and when entering academic positions, sciences, and interest in computer sciences and, in particular, tenure track positions. In a (Beyer, Rynes, Perrault, Hay, & Haller, 2003). book dedicated to the issues faced daily by Despite a long history of exclusion, women women scientists and engineers in the academic have made great advances in participating in workplace, Rosser (2004) found that more higher education. However, success is not women than men leave science at every level of proportional with participation, and women are the pipeline and that balancing work with family still under-represented at the highest tiers of responsibilities stands out as the major issue for faculty and administrative positions (Bain & women from all STEM fields; in particular, Cummings, 2000; Toren, 2000; Rosser, 2004; juggling an academic career with raising young National Research Council, 2006). In a children creates a constant struggle (Ward & comprehensive study comprising ten higher Wolf-Wendel, 2012; Wolfinger, Mason & education systems worldwide, Bain and Goulden, 2008). Among the most significant Cummings (2000) found that women constitute issues facing women computer scientists is the one-third of all academics, but only one-tenth of decrease in the number of women entering the full professors. The glass ceiling theory posits field, leading to feelings of isolation, lack of that a ‘ceiling’ of unstated norms and distorted peer group support, lack of role models, and lack expectations hinders women from reaching the of mentoring. Rosser’s (2004) study raises the top of academe. The greater the progression dual-career issue, as most female scientists and along the academic ladder, women have less engineers are married to male scientists and representation. A large body of work deals with engineers, often in the same field. Also, the the various barriers faced by women in academia study provides caution about the call to serve on (e.g., Morley, 1994; Bagilhole, 2000; Rosser & more committees and to advise more students as O’Neil Lane, 2002; Gunter & Stambach, 2005; a result of being ‘the only one.’ The cumulative Niemeier & Smith, 2005; Fox & Mohapatra, impact for women in computer sciences can lead 2007; Wachs & Nemiro, 2007; Eriksson- to under-representation of women in STEM Zetterquist & Styhre, 2008; O’Connor, 2008). fields in general and computer sciences, in Similar studies from Eastern Europe exist but particular (Valian, 2000). are extremely scarce. Although the same Most research on women academics in narrowing effect towards the top is reported in computer sciences places women in a rather Eastern European universities, its amplitude is homogenous category. To address this issue, smaller than the world average (Gryaznova, Beyer and Haller (2006) looked at differences 1992; Kudryavtseva, 1992; Siemienska, 1992). between women majoring in computer sciences, The She Figures report (2006, 2009) defines men majoring in computer sciences, and women a statistical indicator to measure the glass ceiling majoring in other disciplines. Compared on a effect, the Glass Ceiling Index, which measures large number of variables, men and women the relative chance women have of reaching a computer sciences majors do not differ top position compared to men. For higher substantially, with the exception of hardware education, the Glass Ceiling Index is the ratio

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Women in Computer Science Ward, Dragne, & Lucas between the proportion of women in Grade A (Cooper & Strachan, 2006). Weiler (1988) positions to the proportion of women in all defines the theory of inter-subjectivity as “lived positions in academia (A+B+C). Grade A experiences and the significance of everyday represents the single highest position at which life” (p. 60). Narratives or stories of individuals research is normally conducted (equivalent to are explanations that openly express people’s full professor in most countries), Grade B experiences, which can teach, validate, and corresponds to the Associate/Assistant professor embody a collective wisdom that can enable level, or to readers and lectors, and Grade C women faculty in making their academic lives means the first position which a newly qualified more meaningful (Lieblich & Josselson, 1994; PhD graduate would normally be recruited (She Personal Narratives Group, 1989). Figures, 2006). A Glass Ceiling Index of 1 The study explores the professional lives of indicates that there is no difference between women academics teaching and conducting women and men being promoted. A Glass research in computer engineering, software Ceiling Index of less than 1 means that women engineering, and information technologies in six are over-represented, and a Glass Ceiling Index Romanian universities. The primary research of more than 1 indicates that women are under- question that guides the study is: What does it represented; in other words, the higher the Glass mean to be a female academic in these Ceiling Index, the thicker the glass ceiling, and disciplines in Romanian higher education? the more difficult for women to attain higher Secondary questions that guide the study are: academic or research ranks. Among the 25 and How gendered are the computer sciences later 27 European Union countries, Romania has disciplines? Are there large gender disparities? the second lowest Glass Ceiling Index, What difficulties do women experience in their surpassed only by Turkey, indicating that the professional lives? How do they balance glass ceiling effect is almost nil with -1.4 in professional and personal life? How does 2004 and 1.3 in 2007 (She Figures, 2006, 2009). gender play a role in upward academic mobility? Another valuable perspective on women’s academic role in Romania is informed by past Site and Participant Selection research, which suggests that academic women’s The study looks at two types of institutions: experiences are influenced by the socio-cultural comprehensive and technical universities. and political conditions most persistent in that Among these, six of the eight largest and most country (Cooper and Strachan, 2006). During prestigious institutions were selected; these are the industrialization of Romania, the communist equivalent to Research Extensive Universities in rule forced its women to prioritize working the Carnegie Classification system used in the outside the home, then taking an active part in United States. Institutions were selected from economic and societal activities, and lastly each of the four oldest universities in Romania. practicing the family role (Vese, 2004). In Participants were selected based on their Romania, communism preached and practiced specialty and on the courses they teach, the equality of both sexes, and the enduring and including software engineering (informatics) and entrenched peasant culture fostered the computer engineering/electronics. The sample definition of gender (Cooper & Strachan, 2006; includes an in-depth of analysis of the Harsanyi, 1993). Although the communist experiences of seven women faculty and was regime in Romania gave women the opportunity built to include different career stages (lectors, to hold leadership positions through a quota readers, and professors). We use English system, Romanian society still continues to be pseudonyms in reporting to ensure anonymity. patriarchal (Cooper & Strachan, 2006). Methods of Inquiry Research Design and Data Analysis The study utilizes qualitative approaches and relies on formal, face-to-face interviews. Research suggests that the theory of inter- Participants were identified through their subjectivity and narrative strategies explains the departmental websites and were invited to the shared experiences of women faculty in research study through email. The researchers had no

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Women in Computer Science Ward, Dragne, & Lucas previous connection with any of the respondents together in a meaningful way, while external and participation in the study was voluntary. heterogeneity means that the differences While a qualitative study does not try to build a between categories are clear (Patton, 2002). For statistically significant sample, the selection is the narrative analysis, we employed a bottom-up representative of Romanian women academics approach, in which the researcher derives in the fields of computer sciences and the study context-dependent cognitive units to produce an employs elements of trustworthiness to insure infrastructure that generates and explains a story rigor of the findings. (Manning & Cullum-Swan, 1998). Harding (1988) claims that a study is Data validation relied on several sources to feminist insofar as it is informed by feminist triangulate the data: previous research in theories. According to Reinharz (1992), feminist sociology, official documents from the research focuses on analyzing and understanding Romanian Ministry of Education and Research gender within the context of lived experiences, (MER), official documents related to the and is committed to social change as well as to Bologna process, reports, and statistical data. challenging researchers’ subjectivity. The study Important sources of data were the UNESCO aims to capture and interpret the communicable European Center for Higher Education experience, or what Benjamin (2006) calls (CEPES), the Organization for Economic Ehrfarung, of women academics who are also Cooperation and Development (OECD), the computer scientists. The result is both the work European Commission, the Romanian National of the storyteller and that of the listener. Institute for Statistics (NIS), the Romanian Interviews included open-ended questions to National Authority for Scientific Research guide the discussions along major dimensions of (NASR), and the Eurostat. Reports that proved interest, yet respondents had the latitude to especially useful were the Enlarge Women In engage in other topics. Guiding questions are Science to East (ENWISE) report (2003), the helpful to create openness to get a complete reports of the Helsinki Group on Women and picture of professional lives and issues Science (especially the She Figures Report associated with gender. Guiding questions can 2006), and the European Technology also help with the process of self-reflection in Assessment Network (ETAN) Report (2000). which one “begins to know that and how the Low-inference descriptors were employed to personal is political, that and how the subject is attain reliability which, in qualitative research is specifically and materially en-gendered in its understood in terms of “dependability”, social conditions and possibilities of existence” “credibility”, or “trustworthiness”, terms that are (De Laurentis, 1986, p. 9). often used instead of reliability (Golafshani, Interviews were transcribed, then analyzed 2003, p. 600). Low-inference descriptors involve and interpreted using narrative and conversation “recording observations in terms that are as analysis (Reisman, 1993). Conversation analysis concrete as possible, including verbatim is a method for “investigating the structure and accounts of what people say, […] rather than process of social interaction between humans. researcher’s reconstructions of the general sense As their empirical materials, conversation of what a person said” (Seale, 1999, p. 148). analysis studies use video and/or audio According to Seale (1999) and Silverman recordings made from naturally occurring (2005), detailed data presentations that make interactions” (Peräkylä, 2005, p. 875). This minimal inferences are always preferable to method of analysis allows the voices of the researcher’s presentations of their own, high- participants to illuminate the research question. inference summaries of their data. Although there were some initial guiding questions, the patterns, themes, and categories of Results data analysis emerged from the data. After the first coding, we identified whether the emerging Is Gender Relevant? categories were internally homogenous and Data analysis produced five major themes externally heterogeneous. Internal homogeneity and multiple sub-themes. We profiled each means that everything in one category holds respondent with biographical points of reference

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(see Table 1) and outline each major research career, balancing ‘personal and professional theme: representation, masculine image of life,’ and working in financial hardship. computer sciences, gender and the academic

Table 1: Profile of Participants

Pseudo- Type of Faculty Depart- Specialty Academ- Lead Age Marital Chil- nym Institution ment ic Rank er Status dren Ship - Posit ion Agnes Comprehen Inform Optimizat Numerical Analysis Lecturer - 43 Single 0 -sive -atics ion and Systems Theory (Asst. University Artificial Prof) Intelligen ce Dorothy Comprehen Math Informati Parallel and Professor Chair 43 Divorce 1 -sive -ematics cs Distributed of d University and Calculus Grid the Inform and Cluster Depa atics Architectures rt Numerical Models - Mathematical ment Software Computer Graphics Edith Technical Auto Computer Signal Processing Reader - 45 Single 0 University matics s Discrete Mathematics (Assoc. (Polytech- and Computer Prof.) nic) Comp Programming -uters Faye Comp- Math Informati Artificial Intelligence Reader - 41 Married 0 rehensive -ematics cs Computer (Assoc. University and Programming Prof.) Inform Computational atics linguistics Ingrid Technical Auto Computer Computer Lecturer - 37 Married 2 University matics Science Programming (Asst. (Polytech- and Computer Graphics Prof.) nic) Comp Graphical Processing -uter Systems Science Linda Technical Automat Automati Computer Professor - 45 Married 0 University ics and cs and Programming (Poly- Comp Applied Informatics technic) uters Informati Applications in cs Medicine Pamela Technical Auto Computer Image Processing Reader - 53 Married 1 University -mation Sciences High Performance (Assoc. (Poly- and Computing Prof,) technic) Comp Parallel Systems uter Computerized Science Graphics

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Representation All participants believed that during their The three most important attractors to a student years, which collectively covered two career in computer sciences were an inclination decades from 1970 to 1990, women academics for mathematics, passion for the fields of in computer sciences were greatly outnumbered mathematics, physics and/or computing, and by men. It is highly unlikely that the statistical family tradition. All accounts share several data between 1966 and 1990 is segregated on commonalities: a) secondary and high-school gender, as the ‘woman’s problem’ was thought years were decisive for developing a passion for to be resolved in socialism. science; b) they had role models, most often in According to research participants, 1990 their family; c) computer sciences enjoyed much represents a transition point in computer prestige; and, d) they have had extra training in sciences in Romania. This is when computer math above the school curriculum. During their sciences started to take shape as a distinct secondary and tertiary school cycles, almost all discipline in earnest, as well as when student respondents won local or national Mathematics numbers increased. The study reveals that the Olympiads. number of women academics in computer Four of the respondents were drawn to the sciences increased, especially in software academic profession by the prospect of teaching, engineering and informatics. Despite the and three respondents were attracted by the increase, men outnumber women by prospect of conducting research. Feelings vis-à- approximately 7 to 3 (see Table 2). As a rule of vis teaching varied from being passionate about thumb, in technical universities, offering it to not enjoying it much. Dorothy confesses computer engineering programs, the proportion that she likes teaching graduate students and of women academics is smaller than in conducting research better than the comprehensive universities which offer software undergraduate teaching load. As the head of her engineering programs. In technical universities, department and of a research institute, she now there are roughly 3 to 4 times more men has the opportunity to focus on the type of work academics than women. Comprehensive she enjoys the most. universities present a more diverse picture: Linda, Pamela, and Edith started their there are departments with slightly more women careers in research. Edith worked for many years than men, and departments where women in a research institute for seismic engineering represent less than 20% from the total (see Table and she moved into teaching after her research 2). In terms of students, there is visible gender institute closed. This change of a career in segregation, as women tend to prefer software research to a career in teaching recalls history engineering, while men tend to embrace that after 1990, many research institutes in computer engineering. Romania simply dismantled and numerous researchers moved into universities.

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Table 2: Number of Academics in Computer Science Departments in Selected Romanian Universities, on Gender, 2007

University University of Technical Alexandru Timisoara Gheo- West Total Bucharest University Ioan Cuza Technical rghe Univer- (includin Cluj University University Asachi sity g Lab Iasi Univer- Timiso Assistants sity Iasi ara and Doctoral Students) Academic Faculty of Faculty of Faculty Faculty of Faculty Faculty Rank Math and Automation of Automation and of of Math Informatics, and CS, CS Informatics CS, Automation Automa and Informatics Department and Applied tion and Inform- Department Informatics CS, CS atics Depart Inform- ment atics Depart ment M F M F M F M F M F M F M F Professor 4 2 9 1 9 0 12 1 4 2 4 1 42 7 Reader 1 1 6 3 3 1 0 0 2 1 2 5 14 11 (Associate Professor) Lecturer 1 2 15 9 8 3 5 3 6 0 6 2 41 19 (Assistant Professor) Assistant 1 4 11 6 1 1 14 3 0 0 2 3 29 17 Total 7 9 41 19 21 5 31 7 12 3 14 11 126 54 Academics Lab/ 1 1 31 9 11 11 5 1 10 2 6 2 64 26 Teaching Assistant /Doctoral student Percentage 43.75 56.25 68.33 31.66 80.76 19. 79.48 20.51 80 20 56 44 190 80 (without 24 Lab 70 30 assist/ PhD students)

Linda and Edith are computer engineers percentage is reversed”. Linda and Edith agree with different recollections about the gender on the fact that now there are lesser women than ratio in their departments. Linda recalls that men in computer engineering. In software “there were always fewer girls in this area engineering, the numbers of women and men [computer engineering]. Even when I undertook tend to be equal. the admission exams there were two groups of Figures from NIS and NASR show that in girls and three groups of boys. And the ratio has 2003 and 2004, women constituted rested somehow the same”. Edith recalls that, approximately 45% of the total number of during her undergraduate studies in the mid- employees and in 2005 approximately 47% in 1980s, women were preponderant: “Before 1989 research and development (R&D) in science and I studied Automatics and Computers, and we technology. Overall in the professional computer were 80 students, and 20 were boys. Now the science realm, women represent around 40% of

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Women in Computer Science Ward, Dragne, & Lucas the workforce (see Table 3). However, the women. Thus, in computer sciences in Romania, number of women and men in STEM women are under-represented, although not as professions requiring a university degree tends severely as in Western Europe or North to be equal. According to the Romanian America. The representation of women provides Statistical Yearbook 2008, 51.84% of specialists a ripe opportunity to explore gender in computer with intellectual and scientific careers were sciences and related fields. Table 3: Percentages of women in selected fields in Science and Technology in Romania, 2007

Occupation % of Women

Physicists, Mathematicians, and Engineers (including Scientific 32.91 Research) Researchers in Physics and Chemistry 54.25 Specialists in Informatics 38.89 Researchers and Assistant Researchers in Informatics 41.17 University Professors, Readers, Lectors, Assistant Professors 44.61 Researchers and Assistant Researchers in Technical Sciences 38.43 Source: Compiled by Authors from the Romanian Statistical Yearbook 2008

Respondents attribute the difference in general and computer sciences in particular,’ are women numbers in these sciences and domains that are considered by society to be engineering disciplines to three causes. The first more appropriate for men than for women. Edith is an economic context that is unfavorable to agrees, but also remarks that gender segregation engineering, due to the collapse of entire in the world of work led also to the industries after 1990. The second is that people ‘feminisation’ of entire industries, such as textile are now presented with professional options in engineering and food processing. Agnes is social sciences and humanities that were convinced that computer sciences are perceived nonexistent before. The third is that women do by society as a masculine domain, but she also not feel as responsible to contribute financially believes that Romanian women made durable to the family unit as in the past. Respondent inroads into the field. Pamela believes that these changes will reverse Faye does not agree that technology in after economic recovery. Faye posits that there general has an aura of masculinity in the are fewer women in information technologies Romanian society at large. Instead, she states due to the nature of the field, and not with traits that global information technology is still a of Romanian society. In fact, Faye believes that masculine domain, and that Artificial throughout the world, the nature of the field of Intelligence is clearly dominated by men information technologies is homogeneous which worldwide. She states: is the reason for the under- representation of women in this field. I believe it is an eminently masculine domain. I believe it is so precisely because The Masculine Image of Computer Sciences the majority of academics and of Faye’s remark opens up another theme researchers are men. And then, emergent from analysis: the ‘aura’ of automatically, a majority gives the tone in masculinity surrounding computer sciences. everything. There is no consensus among research participants about the issue of masculinity. A Faye believes that the perception of majority agree that the ‘technical sphere in masculinity is detrimental to women entering the

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Women in Computer Science Ward, Dragne, & Lucas field and is difficult to overcome; as long as occurs at the level of individual consciousness women constitute a minority, this view will rather that at a collective, societal level. Agnes persist. All participants are of the opinion that it agrees with the view that traditional values is up to women to change the masculine image preceding communism place the woman surrounding information technologies by ‘naturally’ in the private domain; these values participating in larger numbers. However, they are embraced by some men and by some shy away from recommending that other women women, therefore they do not depend on gender. follow in their footsteps. Faye responded: She calls them mentalities and preconceptions and she even speaks, like Faye, of certain Now, I do not encourage anyone to embrace misogyny of Romanian society. Edith also my life style and do what I have done and to points out that women often create limitations renounce what I have renounced, because for themselves. She calls them “self-imposed not everyone obtains satisfaction from the walls,” and considers these to be the most same thing, or equal satisfaction. Hence, I difficult barriers to overcome. abstain from advice. Speaking about the fact that software engineering attracts more women than computer One of the key reasons for not engineering, Ingrid believes the more hands-on, recommending her field to women is because it practical side of computers is more attractive to is a man’s world, it may be misogynist. Perhaps men. She does not think these inclinations are nothing illustrates better the interplay of innate, but rather believes they are acquired. She masculinity and under-representation in attributes them to the way boys and girls are academia as Dorothy’s recollection: socialized from early childhood. Faye expresses the view that the characteristics that would make And at one of the conferences – it was in one a good candidate for the work in Poland – it happened some time ago, at a information technologies – to be cerebral, conference on parallelism, which is a anchored in reality, to love exact sciences – domain I am interested in and in which there depend on one’s individual nature. However, she aren’t many women...I was in a room with does not eliminate the possibility that women are some 40 persons, and the speaker said: innately less inclined towards hard sciences. She “Dear Lady and Gentlemen” [laugh], and I insists that individuality is the most important didn’t realise, then, I saw that in fact I was factor, which overpowers gender. She also the single woman. And all heads turned to believes that it is in the feminine nature to me, I started to feel not at ease…. . develop more facets of personality and cultivate more interests. Women tend to be less Dorothy is of the opinion that there should unidirectional, and as a result, less successful in be a distinction between software and hardware, the world of computing. Faye expanded on this, the latter being perceived as masculine and the stating: former not masculine any longer, due to women’s presence in large numbers. Linda is the I rather believe that boys spend more hours single participant who did not link women’s in the night [working], they don’t have numerical participation with the perceived interests related to fashion, etc.…inherent masculinity of the field. Although she feminine interests. Hence boys have more acknowledged that men traditionally outnumber time, they are readier to spend it in totality women in computer engineering, she did not for work and this, combined with a certain draw a relation of causality between numbers intelligence and power – which girls poses and people’s perceptions about the field. too, but I believe girls cultivate it less. A When speaking of gender stereotyping and woman, after all, has a larger area of social conditioning, Edith considers that interests. Regardless if it is good or not, centuries-old mentalities place all domestic ultimately it is normal to have a larger area responsibilities with women. Yet, she considers of interests, not all related to the profession. that occupational engendering is a process that Boys that do only this, and eventually

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soccer, and of course that… [are more their women colleagues will accept them, and successful]. Girls also implicate themselves they usually do. Dorothy, for example, agrees to more in family relations. I think this is part perform these tasks, although she is the head of of the feminine nature in general. Not only her department, because she also believes that in Romanian society. I believe that this is the girls display more patience than boys. case in the majority of societies. And automatically a woman is busier. Influence of Gender on the Academic Career All research participants share the belief that Gender influenced Dorothy’s decision to there is no systemic gender bias in Romanian return from a German university. While working universities, and no gender-based discriminatory there, she had the opportunity to communicate mechanisms embedded in their institution or in with German women in Informatics. At first, the Romanian system of higher education. Dorothy was shocked by meeting so few Therefore, if cases of gender bias occur, they are women. In time, she realized that the general isolated and attributable to individuals and not mentality in society regarding women has to do systems. However, all participants encountered with the fact that there are so few women. She more or less overt forms of gender bias during agrees with Faye that women tend to have a their careers, which were considered by them to larger range of interests, which is at odds with be isolated incidents that were uncharacteristic the European trend to ultra-specialization within of the system. Gender bias embraces more higher education. Dorothy assigns certain visible forms at higher hierarchical levels. masculinity to ultra-specialization. There is Although the participants see nothing in the some research in the US context that posits that system that raises supplementary barriers to women work more in interdisciplinary fields women, they are also of the opinion that, than specialization which supports Dorothy’s through their nature, women are usually less assertion about specialization (Rhoten & able to meet the requirements for advancement, Pfirman, 2007). which are equal for all. The main reason is that From her experience as a teacher, Dorothy women tend to have more extra-professional notices differences in favor of men in practical responsibilities. The fact that requirements are abilities, such as who scores higher on practical equal for all is supported by participants and tests, as do Agnes and Pamela. Like Faye, considered to be fair. Pamela does not totally reject the thesis that One of the themes that emerged from technical domains may appeal more to boys than interviews is that, in general, women have to to girls. While career choice depends on gender, make extra efforts to prove themselves. All performance does not. Pamela points out that respondents agree that the academic while male students tend to score better in environment is a competitive world, which practical assignments, female students tend to places high demands on everyone. However, outperform them in tasks that require one to be there is a common feeling that a woman patient and meticulous, so that overall male encounters a greater degree of reticence about students do not perform better or worse than professional performance when she starts her female students. This study finds that, in academic career. Another commonality is the general, women professors are more inclined to idea that it is the woman’s individual academic reject biological determinist views than to responsibility to dispel the feelings of reticence embrace them; however, they exclude no she encounters. There is a general consensus that possibility. women, if they want to be successful academics, Collaboration practices can draw substance should make extra efforts to fit in, to gain a good from gender stereotypes. One such practice is to opinion, and dispel mistrust. Feelings of assign more clerical tasks to women based on reticence come more often from colleagues than the view that innately women are equipped with from students. As the woman teacher earns more patience than men; therefore, women will respect from her peers and from students, her suffer less in doing tedious and boring tasks. gender starts to pass un-noticed, much as a Men tend to avoid clerical tasks in the hope that diminished imperfection. Yet no woman

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Women in Computer Science Ward, Dragne, & Lucas considers this attitude as a form of gender bias. in information technologies, because a woman Faye explains the initial attitude she encountered cultivates more interests: in the following terms: I never suffered from the fact that I am a It is a problem of respect in the end. If you woman when the problem of advancement know to earn respect for yourself in the was put forth. Now, I cannot generalize, profession, until the end they will forget that because I don’t know how it is in general in you are a woman. No, I cannot say that I the academic environment. But to us, maybe ever felt wronged because I am a woman. It also because we are an exact science faculty is clear that in the beginning they give you [laugh], I don’t know, to us the atmosphere less credit because of it. This is clear. And is pretty sober. There is a standard for that they make your psychological situation advancement, which is extremely hard, but more difficult. which applies equally to everyone. Through the nature of things, as a woman is more Faye’s experience is shared by all difficult to correspond to the standard, participants. None of them feel that gender because you have all these additional influences one’s opinions about how work is interests we spoke about. As a woman is appreciated, and none questions how standards more difficult to correspond, but if you do, if of good work are established. Edith believes that you meet the conditions set by the faculty, in universities, “there aren’t any politics to reject and which apply to everyone, and then you or to place supplementary barriers to women”. won’t have any problem. Thus, not the fact Like Edith, Agnes considers that the system is that I am a woman may be a handicap. not conducive to gender bias and the atmosphere Rather the different life of a woman, the of respect depends solely on the individuals nature of things, in certain moments may comprising the collective. She describes the drag her down. atmosphere in her faculty in the following terms: Asked if it is more difficult for a woman Relationships with male colleagues and with than for a man to advance in the university’s women colleagues are different. You cannot hierarchy, Linda argues: say that a woman is like a man. But I never felt, here at least, any discrimination, Only if she, internally, sets to herself neither from male nor from female different priorities; let’s say, if the family colleagues. No. The atmosphere is very has priority in front of academic career, and good. I would even say encouraging. But this is an option that you can respect. But encouraged are all the others, as well. the environment, I do not believe that … [it makes it more difficult for a woman]. Regarding barriers to advancement, Ingrid concludes that gender only indirectly plays a According to research participants the role when coupled with family responsibilities. clarity of requirements for advancement to the She does not consider the lack of women in top next academic rank makes the process less prone administrative positions and the fact that only to foster forms of gender bias than the process of one woman is a professor in her department securing a leadership position. The findings (with nine male professors) as reasons to from the study indicate that in the latter case, conclude that women face supplementary indirect exclusionary practices, such as hidden barriers. Rather, she believes the main cause is workloads or stereotyping, may hamper the imbalance in the number of women women’s upward mobility and that sometimes academics in the past. Faye also rejects the idea there are even cases that may be labelled that gender influences career advancement in her discrimination. The individual acts of gender department. In her opinion, it is natural for a bias accumulate to create systems that can stifle woman to encounter more difficulties in career progression. Edith clearly makes this corresponding to the high professional standards

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Women in Computer Science Ward, Dragne, & Lucas distinction between professoriate and academic turn of mind. No, no, I don’t see it as a fight, leadership when she speaks about advancement: as a matter of legislation, or as a program. These always produce adversities and I I think there are two issues here. Once, for a don’t know how well this is. Maybe in a first leadership position, here indeed I think stage and after a step forward…I don’t discrimination takes place, almost openly I know for sure. But here I think what works would say. Thus, in what’s concerning best is: you have to do your job, woman or leadership positions; when we talk about man, but if you are woman you have to do it being chairperson, dean, rector. There is a as well as possible, to demonstrate that it is certain holding back, I would say, vis-à-vis possible, that you are competent in your women. Thus, if a woman and a man field. And the more numerous we will be, candidate, regardless how good the woman maybe the more we’ll be appreciated and is, in let’s say 90% of cases, because there accepted. Therefore I believe more in a are exceptions too, the man wins. About the silent version [of seeking gender equity] professoriate, there are some criteria that than in a vocal one. must be met and this depends again on each person and on how tenacious you are to Balancing the Professional and the Personal solve your problems. Although each woman has her own story, these women share common experiences: the Agnes considers that women who are act of balancing is one of the most significant seeking leadership nominations have to fight challenges that they face. The study reveals that harder to prove their worth, although fighting is balancing professional and personal life can be not necessarily in a woman’s nature. She goes summed up by one word: sacrifice. A successful on to share examples of former women leaders academic career requires extensive dedication to who encountered an inhospitable climate. She the profession, thus sacrifices from all aspects of thinks this is because they were too ‘inflexible’ extra-professional life including family. and did not conform to men’s views. Yet Agnes Likewise, motherhood is perceived as sacrificing does not conclude that this is a form of gender a career. The difficulties of combining raising bias; rather, she feels it is the perpetuation of a children with a successful academic career state of affairs borne of convenience, because it increased in time, as the complexity and is simpler for men leaders to be among dynamic of the computer sciences profession themselves (which itself is a form of gender increased. All participants agree that being bias). childless constitutes an important competitive Dorothy is of the opinion that any barriers to advantage, and many women academics choose advancement are self-imposed. In general to sacrifice motherhood. Asked whether an respondents are not in favor of positive aspirant to an academic career in her field today discriminatory practices, although the idea is not would need to make sacrifices, Faye is totally rejected. Agnes’s view on how gender categorical: equity should be sought is a sentiment shared by all: Enormous. In her personal life, as a woman. But if she is ready to make them, if she There are certain mentalities that must be knows to make them and not to be marked changed and I don’t know if an attitude by this and to find satisfactions in her career towards conflict, towards self- and in what is related to her career, if she is aggrandisement can help. I don’t know. a person that can find satisfaction in it, then Here I am the adept of a rather peaceful, she has sufficient chances, I would say non-warrior-like attitude, let’s say. To almost equal to the chances of young men. change mentalities takes a long time; it […] I do not have children precisely cannot be done overnight. It is an aim that because this is a very difficult career, very will take some time and I think it depends a demanding, at very high standards, and this great deal on women to change people’s is the cause I married later, after I took my

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doctorate, and I decided not to have to date. After a two years break, you can children. Thus, not because I did not want retire. Thus, even if the state offers me this to, or because I would not like children, or I facility, I choose not to take advantage of it. couldn’t have them, I felt that I cannot do I do not want to take advantage of it, them both well. Thus, not for a moment I because it can be fatal for me in my thought that I could beneficiate from some profession, in my career. form of institutional help for a woman […]. It is a competition in which I engaged elbow Ingrid also reports that institutional support, at elbow with my colleagues, who are male while nevertheless welcome, cannot constitute in their majority, and if you want to resist, an easy solution to the career-motherhood you must be competitive, regardless who you conflict. All participants made the point that are. motherhood is difficult to ‘outsource’, especially when children are young. Questioned about how At the time of the research, only one she manages the personal side, Linda replies: participant, Ingrid, had young children. Two “I…we…do not have children…this is a participants have one grown-up child each, and relief…well, it is sad on one hand; from the four participants do not have children. All professional point of view, of course, we do not participants stated that family takes priority over have the load…”. Asked the same question, career. All respondents agree that it is mostly Edith replies in a similar manner, stating that she women who will set aside time for children, is not married and does not have children; as a regardless of the impact this has on their result, she is free to dedicate as much time as she professions. Dorothy believes that it is normal wants to work at the university. The study for a woman to “put family first” and therefore suggests that it is almost impossible to be both a to have less time for her work at the university. good mother and to excel professionally. As a She also considers that her male colleagues are result, more and more women who embrace an less likely than her female colleagues to “put academic career in these fields choose not to family first”. Ingrid, who chose to combine have children. These findings are consistent with career and motherhood, often works to her research in other cultural and national settings limits. Speaking about the influence her two that position work and family as at odds with young children have on her career, Ingrid makes one another (e.g., Ward & Wolf-Wendel, 2012). the point that being a mother constitutes a Progress for women academic in computer competitive disadvantage: science related fields (and but STEM fields in general), call for perspectives that can see more There are ladies my age who up to now did compatibility between work and family. not make a family and who work hard and of Whether it is about help with domestic course that they will have conditions to responsibilities or about showing understanding advance. For sure faster than me, this is for the demands of the profession, all clear. Thus, not necessarily gender is a respondents mention the support of their family barrier; if you do not have the personal side members as essential for their careers. developed… Participants have no expectations of institutional help, on the grounds that institutions cannot Faye explains in clear terms why she afford supplementary expenses. considers a career in information technologies incompatible with raising children, with or Working in Financial Hardship without institutional support: Higher education in Romania takes place in a context of financial adversity. According to But in the university environment, two years respondents, lack of proper funding is the major break may be deadly. And in a domain like problem affecting the work of academics. Due to informatics it may be fatal, because here in the nature of computer sciences, education and every month there are new things, and if you research necessarily require certain resources, do not master them, you must at least be up without which activity cannot take place. Faye

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Women in Computer Science Ward, Dragne, & Lucas explains that she cannot buy the programming industry, information technologies [all of language that is absolutely necessary to her which have very high salaries, way higher, course. She understands clearly the scarcity that than in university] no matter what you the whole country experiences. Faye has been would work in industry, the salary is much asked by her department to be patient and wait higher than the salary of an assistant in the for another semester with her request for first stage [of his or her career]. And to software. Because she understands the situation, reach a somehow decent salary in Romania she was patient for two semesters, but she you have to become professor. Thus, until cannot ignore the fact that “another year has then, [the academic life] is a material passed”. In software engineering, to be one year sacrifice (Edith). behind is extremely detrimental. Both Edith and Faye point out that, in information technologies, At the PhD level, many students leave not having timely access to information is Romania, often for good. There are mixed and particularly detrimental to one’s career, even contradictory feelings about this “brain undermining all efforts and hard work. drain.” It is generally perceived in academia as a Research in Romania is seen as luxury and negative phenomenon, and yet it is a source of takes place intermittently. The Romanian professional pride for many teachers. To be able Ministry of Education and Research (MER) to secure positions with prestigious companies attempts to finance as many projects as possible, or to study in internationally renowned scholarly yet the total budget for research is meagre and centers is considered proof of good mentorship. projects funded by MER rarely allow for paid Faye states that: employment for graduate students. More serious financing comes from European sources where I have enormous satisfaction when I see the competition is extremely fierce. many ex-students that are very well to do Except for professors, all other academic abroad and very satisfied, and I noticed, and ranks are severely underpaid. One mechanism I like this at the young generation, at least at employed to cope with the low wages is to take our students I noticed, everywhere they say more ‘teaching loads’ than normally expected, they are Romanians, that they graduated in either in the same university or in another Romania. My ex-students are in their vast institution of higher education. Multiple majority in US, they had PhDs in Artificial employments in teaching drastically reduces the Intelligence, and they went there with time dedicated to research, which leads to less doctoral bursaries. And all of them say that publishing productivity and delays in meeting they graduated in Romania, and not only the requirements to advance on the academic they do not feel embarrassed, but I think ladder. There is consensus that, due to financial they are even proud of it, precisely because hardship, a career in higher education becomes of the Romanian reputation in information unattractive. Offering low wages, universities technologies. And for me this is a great have difficulty in maintaining the younger satisfaction (Faye). generation of scientists. Some participants also speak about difficulties in hiring. Dorothy calls Dorothy speaks extensively about how she the salary for a young person ‘offensive’, which derives satisfaction from working with students leads to a high turnover of teaching assistants, that plan to finish their PhDs abroad. On the research assistants, and faculty: other hand she also tells about her department’s effort to attract them back after graduation: Many of our lab assistants or teaching assistants have a second job because The greatest satisfaction is to see students otherwise they would not be able to survive. embracing research. Unfortunately, they In other words, who embraces this career cannot do it in Romania. The majority leave makes a financial sacrifice. The satisfaction abroad with bursaries. Some come back, is intellectual, not material. Because, at which is something that makes me very glad. least in our domain: computers, software Thus we have now several colleagues who

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came back from USA and from Austria after The study finds that, in Romania, women they completed their dissertations and we constitute lesser in percentage than that of men hope to create here a nurturing environment in computer engineering, while in software for their return. And this is something we do engineering, women tend to equal men in right now here, some projects for percentage of participation. Software postdoctoral studies, through which we engineering is considered a profession invite, we welcome people back. Recently we ‘appropriate’ for a woman. Thus, an hired a boy who came back from France engendering process is at play within the after [his] PhD and we hope to have another computer sciences in Romania. The study also four openings for PhD graduates. suggests that the existing constructs of gender act upon one’s career decisions; this finding The study suggests that, even in conditions supports the feminist critique of science and of severe under-funding, people in academia technology. Therefore, in Romania, the social struggle to keep the common passion alive. Too construction of gender places software often though, a tension arises between the desire engineering within the sphere of femininity. to help people develop successful careers and The social construction of gender during the work in research and the desire to retain them to long socialist period (1947–1989) led to the work in computer sciences and related fields. large number of women in STEM. Science and technology were deemed as the main force for Discussion and Conclusion building communism; thus natural sciences and engineering disciplines were favored. In Equality or Equity? Opportunity or addition, communist ideology stressed that one’s Outcome? most important identity is constituted by being a Research participants draw a strict productive member of the society. Therefore, demarcation line between their identity as social status and privilege followed from women and their identity as academics. Family participating in what was considered most life was initially considered to lie outside the important for the economy. As the study realm of the study, since the study was interested suggests, the school system, which never in their professional life, but the findings suggest claimed to be politically innocent, was an that personal life shapes career decisions. For important conduit that steered girls towards Ingrid, the single mother of young children, in science and engineering. The findings from the particular she talks about the complications of study support the feminist thesis that early and juggling career and family life. Although the ongoing social influences may be decisive for study participants were interested in gender one’s career choice, and that participation in equity, and this is why they accepted to STEM is a cultural product (Barker & Aspray, participate in a study focused solely on women, 2006; Barker et al., 2006). Further, experiences the participants lack a feminist view of gender of gender bias throughout different stages of and of gender relations. In part, this can be schooling and the academic career can attributed to a national culture that is persistent accumulate to make careers in certain disciplines in Romania, a culture that generally posits and subfields to be unattractive (Valian, 1999). equality of both sexes (Cooper & Strachan, Like Miller (2005) and Rosser (2005), we 2006; Harsanyi, 1994). However, in male- conclude that, despite their presence in larger dominated environments, even when there is an numbers than in the West, women who enter overall cultural commitment to gender equality computer sciences careers in Romania must and the micro level the findings reveal that make extra efforts to fit into the academic milieu women continue to face gender bias and and face additional barriers related to their exclusion based on being women (Evetts, 1994). gender. Unlike previous work on the culture of Hence, in STEM male-dominated environments, computing (Beyer & Haller, 2006; Major et al., women are likely to face disconnection between 2007), our findings do not suggest that women their professional and personal identity. feel permanently rejected by the culture of computing. Also, unlike Rosser (2004), we find

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Women in Computer Science Ward, Dragne, & Lucas that women do not tend to leave the profession; improve parity, but to also address equity as they tend to leave is academia for the industry, well. Too often conversations about women in for financial reasons. STEM fields gravitate to representation (parity) In the context in which the departments of and not enough focus on recalibrating cultures to computer sciences, computer engineering, and be more reflective of men and women (equity). software engineering are relatively new, it is The ongoing advance of women in STEM fields hard to conclude whether the glass ceiling effect needs to include both perspectives. is present or not based on numbers alone, When it comes to leadership positions where because the vast majority of women academics real power is attached, exclusionary practices are are too young. All requirements for advancing to clearly at work, although most often, they take a superior academic rank being equal and on subtle forms. Indirect exclusionary practices spelled out in legislation, this study finds that it grounded in power relations still hamper is more difficult for women to meet these women’s upward mobility. At the top, standards. The main deterrent is the fact that Romanian higher education is strongly women suffer more from time poverty. If we dominated by men. Contributing to this also take into account the previous finding that ‘holding-back’ of women’s promotion is a women need a larger dose of assurance and model of leadership that is masculine in nature. convincing of the value of their work, it As a result, women have fewer chances to meet becomes clear that equal requirements this model of a good leader simply by being a disadvantage women. While women academics woman. Consequently, many women choose not are aware to various degrees that it is somehow to apply for leadership positions. The glass harder not only for them, this is considered to be ceiling perspective is at play (Bain & the inherent nature of things for women in Cummings, 2000; Toren, 2000; Rosser, 2004; general. The solution they seek is to conform to Gunter & Stambach, 2005; Niemeier & Smith, the standards by working harder and by 2005; Fox and Mohapatra, 2007; Wachs and suppressing other interests. While the findings Nemiro, 2007; Eriksson-Zetterquist & Styhre, show some progress in terms of numbers and 2008; O’Connor, 2008). The women in the study fewer leaks in the pipeline in terms of women talk about leadership and can see it, but don’t leaving computer sciences, there continues to be feel it is attainable based solely on gender. The challenges associated with structural study findings suggest that, when we account for discrimination and participants’ experiences discipline, we obtain a more diverse picture than with gender bias and sexism. the one offered by the Glass Ceiling Index being The findings from the study also suggest close to the number one. Therefore, it is the best there is still progress to be made in the interest of an institution to assist faculty to be formulation of discrimination policies. All successful at all levels of the academic participants confessed that they know little about progression ladder and not just in early career. the ethical reasoning behind affirmative action; Higher education leaders such as provosts have however, they also expressed mistrust in the idea the responsibility to put policies in lace that, that of creating advantages based on gender. The provide a climate favorable for women faculty to study suggests that women feel the need to balance work and family and to simply be advance their cause, but they also reject the women (Ward & Wolf-Wendel, 2012). More confrontational mode. They consider, moreover, importantly, deans and department chairs should that positive discrimination undermines know policies and utilize them in ways that can collegiality and respect among peers. Women help women navigate career advancement. prefer to adopt a masculine standard rather than Research based in Romanian environments be seen as trouble-makers. The women in the sheds particularly interesting light on the study seek individual change rather than frequent discussions about the lack of women in structural change. While the individual approach STEM related fields. The findings from the is admirable and also understandable given some study point to how the critical mass of women in of the challenges people have encountered, the work environment positively affects structural change is necessary to not only experience of women faculty (Etzkowitz,

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Kemelgor, Neuschatz, Uzzi, & Alonzo, 1994). administration-shared governance and Such critical mass can be attained only when leadership, impact of technology in higher more women faculty are recruited and a stable education institutions, retention of women mass of women academics is maintained in faculty in STEM disciplines, globalization, academic departments, despite the attrition of national, and workplace culture. women faculty. Yet, critical mass alone is not enough to not just include women numerically References but to include them as women. At this point, there is no feminist project of institutional American Association of University Women- change at work in higher education in Romania. AAUW, (2010) Why so few? Women in Although there is much discussion and debate science, technology, engineering, and about policy in education been drafted as a new mathematics, American Association of Law of Education, there is no public discussion University: Women Research Report. about what universities can do to facilitate Bagilhole, B. (2000). Too little too late? An women’s success and lessen their sacrifices. assessment of national initiatives for Romanian higher education does have a long list women academics in the British university of laws, policies, and guidelines which ban system. Higher Education in Europe, gender bias and gender discrimination and are 25(2), 139-145. based on the idea of gender equality of Bain, O. & Cummings, W. (2000). Academe’s opportunity. In light of our findings, we suggest glass ceiling: Societal, professional- that serious public discussion and much further organizational, and institutional barriers to research should be dedicated to the following the career advancement of academic question: In what measure does equality of women. Comparative Education Review, opportunity lead to equality of outcome, and 44(4), 493-514. which will be sought by the Romanian higher Barker, L. J. & Aspray, W. (2006). The state of education system? We suggest that, in the research on girls and IT. In J. M. Cohoon current cultural and socio-economic and W. Aspray, Eds., Women and environment in which resources are extremely Information Technology: Research on scarce, organizing based on gender may create a underrepresentation. Cambridge: MIT space in higher education for honest debate and Press, 3-54. lead to a reduction and eventual elimination of Barker, L. J., Snow, E., Garvin-Doxas, K. & lingering gender inequities. Weston, T. (2006). Recruiting middle school girls into IT: Data on girl’s Author Biographies perceptions and experiences from a mixed-demographic group. In J. M. KELLY WARD is the Chair of the Department Cohoon and W. Aspray, Eds., Women and of Educational Leadership, Sport Studies, and Information Technology: Research on Educational/Counseling Psychology and Underrepresentation. Cambridge, Professor of Higher Education at Washington Massachusetts: The MIT Press. State University, USA. Her research focuses on Becker, J. R. (1990). Graduate education in the academic careers, work and family, and mathematical sciences: Factors community engagement. influencing women and men. In L. Burton, Eds., Gender and Mathematics: An CORNELIA DRAGNE is an independent International Perspective. London: scholar in Canada. Cassell Educational Limited, 119-130. Benjamin, W. (2006). Walter benjamin: Selected ANGELINA J LUCAS is a doctoral student in writings, 3, 1935-1938. Cambridge, the Department of Educational Leadership, Massachusetts: Belknap Press. Sport Studies, and Educational/Counseling Beyer, S. & Haller, S. (2006). Gender Psychology at Washington State University, differences and intra-gender differences in USA. Her research focuses on higher education computer science students: Are female CS

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majors more similar to male CS majors or economies: Power, careers, and female non-majors? Journal of Women sacrifices. Maryland: Lexington Books. and Minorities in Science and De Laurentis, T. (1986). Feminist studies/critical Engineering, 12, 337-365. studies: Issues, terms and context. In T. de Beyer, S., Rynes, K., Perrault, J., Hay, K., & Laurentis, Eds. Feminist Studies/Critical Haller, S. (2003). Gender differences in Studies, Bloomington, IN: Indiana computer science students. ACM SIGCSE University Press, 1-19. Bulletin, 35(1), 19-53. Diekman, A.B., Brown, E.R., Johnston, A.M., & Blickenstaff, C. J. (2005). Women and science Clark, E. K. (2010). Seeking congruity careers: leaky pipeline or gender filter? between roles and goals: A new look at Gender and education, 17(4), 369-386. why women opt out of STEM careers. Bilimoria, D., Perry, S.R., Liang, X., Stoller, Psychological Science, 21(8), 1051–1057. E.P., Higgins, P., & Taylor, C. (2006). Drago, R. (2007). Harvard and the academic How do female and male faculty members glass ceiling. Chronicle of Higher construct job satisfaction? The roles of Education, 53 (30), C3. perceived institutional leadership and Dweck, S. C. (2006). Mindset: The new mentoring and their mediating processes. psychology of success. Random House, Journal of Technology Transfer, 31, 355- Ballantine Books. 365. Ecklund, H. E., Lincoln, E. A., & Tansey, C. Callister, R. R. (2006). The impact of gender (2012). Gender segregation in elite and department climate on job satisfaction academic science. Gender and Society, and intentions to quit for faculty in science 6(693). Retrieved from and engineering fields.The Journal of http://gas.sagepub.com/content/26/5/693 Technology Transfer, 31(3), 367-375. Eisenhart, M. A. & Finkel, E. (1998). Women's Carter, R. & Kirkup, G. (1990). Women in science: Learning and succeeding from engineering. New York University Press, the Margins. University of Chicago Press, New York, NY. Chicago: Ill. Ceci, S. J., & Williams, W. M. (2007). Why Enlarge Women In Science to East, (2003). aren't more women in science? Top Waste of talents: Turning private struggles researchers debate the evidence. In S. J. into public issue. Expert Group Report on Ceci. and W. M. Williams, Eds. Women and Science in The ENWISE Washington D.C.: American countries. Psychological Association Books. Eriksson-Zetterquist, U. & Styhre, A. (2008). Cohoon, J. M., & Aspray, W. (2006). Women Overcoming the glass barrier: Reflection and information technology: Research on and action in the women to the top underrepresentation, 1, The MIT Press. programme. Gender, Work and Committee on the Participation of Women, Organisation, 15(2), 133-160. (2003). Improving the persistence of Etzkowitz, H., Kemelgor, C. Neuschatz, M., & women in graduate mathematics. Joint Uzzi, B. (1992). Athena unbound: Barriers Meeting of the American Mathematical to women in academic science and Society and the Mathematical Association engineering. Science and Public Policy, of America. Baltimore 7667: MD. 19(3), 157-179. Cooper, J., & Strachan, J. (2006). Women Etzkowitz, H., Kemelgor, C., Neuschatz, M., ground for women faculty in academe: An Uzzi, B., & Alonzo, J. (1994). The international perspective. Advancing paradox of critical mass for women in Women in Leadership Online Journal, 21. science. Science, New Series, 266(5182), Retrieved from 51-54. http://www.advancingwomen.com/awl/su Etzkowitz, H., Kemelgor, C., & Uzzi, B. mmer2006/index.html (2000). Athena unbound: The Currie, J., Thiele, B., & Harris, P. (2002). advancement of women in science and Gendered universities in globalized technology. Cambridge University Press.

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