8 I N V E S T I G A C I Ó N E N S A L U D of consciousness, Western views, Historical Historical views, Western changes. consciousness, of changesintheWesternsignificant zeitgeist. by determined been has shamanism and shaman post-modern in Western society. shamanism The apparent transformation of of the popularization a many indigenous populations. We can also observe in ceremonials shamanic of revival the witness we Today recognized. been now have rituals shamanic healing of efficacy psychotherapeutic the and practitioners shamanic of ability therapeutic The rituals their constitutes and a healers eurocentric The shamanic and of positivistic labeling pathology fallacy. psychopathological. as the rituals on shamanic based in notion a misinterpretation of altered states of consciousness condition; epileptic or psychiatric a with afflicted as considered generally mid-19th until the mid-20th century, the shaman was was condemned as daemoniac charlatan. From the consciousness of (ASC). states Before the altered Age of of Enlightenment, role the shaman the and Western notions of shamanism, the shamanic healer, A BSTRACT Keywords: This article documents the changes in the the in changes the documents article This Shamanism, Altered states states Altered Shamanism, W Altered StatesofConsciousness Western ViewsofShamanismand Transforming theShaman:Changing OLFGANG Artículo recibidoel 04/03/05,corregidoel25/03/05,aceptado el04/04/05 G.J ILEK Vol. VII•Número1 Abril 2005 R cambios históricos. occidentales, nociones conciencia, de modificados occidental. determinada por cambios es significativos chamanismo del del y “zeitgeist” chamán del transformación aparente La occidente. del post-moderna sociedad la en chamanismo del popularización la observar un de numero testigos de poblaciones indígenas. somos Además podemos día renacimiento de ceremonias Hoy chamánicas entre gran chamánicos. la curativos y rituales los de curanderos psicoterapéutica los eficacia de terapéutica habilidad la error eurocéntrico y positivístico; siendo reconocida los curanderos y rituales chamánicos constituye un como estados psicopatológicos. La chamánicos, etiqueta patológica de rituales los en modificados conciencia de estados los de interpretación mala la en basada noción una epiléptica; o psiquiátrica aflicción una de sufrir de acusado fue chamán el mediados del siglo XIX hasta mediados del siglo XX, fue condenado por charlatanismo demoníaco. Desde conciencia. Antes de la Era de Ilustración, el chamán chamán, y del papel de los estados modificados de occidentales acerca del chamanismo y del curandero ESUMEN aars clave: Palabras El artículo documenta los cambios de las nociones medigraphic chamanismo, estados estados chamanismo, Artemisa en línea I N V E S T I G A C I Ó N E N S A L U D 9 - - and a picture from J. Schefferus’ work “Lapponia” 1673 shows a helping Saami spirit shaman’s with horns and bat In wings. 17th drumscentury Swedish Lappland shaman’s for was drums such using and possessing confiscated, were bidden under penalty of death (6). TheOrthodox Russian Church in Siberia qualified shamanic spirits as maleficient ofdaemons portrayed shaman by Therank. Tungus lower later a feet; his on claws beastly features 1672 in Witsen N. scholar German a Gmelin, J.G. by described shaman, Tungus travelling through Siberia 1770-1784 in the service of the of Academy Russian has “devils” as spirit Science, helpers (7). Enforced mass baptism, persecution of shamans and impe the by sanctioned was ofparaphernaliaburning their one only is “There proclaiming Great ofthe edict Peter rial the earth”.However, on Czar one only and heaven in God ofshamanic outlawing and shamans ofSiberian persecution séances, which began toward the end of the 17th century ofimposition christianity, the orthodox with connection in czarist even Russians, many as shamanism, eradicate to failed and advice the for practitioners shamanic to turned officials, assistance of their supernatural (8). In powers the western Vol. VII • Número 1 • Abril 2005 1 • VII • Número Vol. Miguel Ángel López . ------voodoo Vagus-Tod HAMAN , or S THE

OF

, “one who is excited, moved, raised” (2), (2), raised” moved, excited, is who “one , saman mort psychosomatique AEMONIZATION , D HE NTRODUCTION At the same time, deceivers shamans and weretricksters clever often as described of naive “primitives”. The spirit helpers of Saami (Lapp) by angels” shamans“devil’s called inwere Scandinavia northern in S.Rheen by drawing A pastors. Lutheran 1671 depicts a Saami shaman drumming, together with his devil-figured helpers, T deriving from the verbal roots of “to dance, jump, shake, to shake, jump, ofdance, roots “to verbal the from deriving be excited” (3); the original term therefore seems to carry are shamans ofconnotation Typically, the dancing. ecstatic considered capable of travelling to the Otherworld, supernatural realm; the a dangerous journey in which they are retrieve to order in powers, and helpers spirit their by aided owners their to these restore and souls abducted or aberrant who have been made unwell by such loss. The term for shaman in the Salish Amerindian (4). of Halkomelem travel” course the on languageof souls “searcher from derives and journey” “soul the both that emphasizes (5) Hultkrantz the summoning of spirits in trance state are a genuine shamanic experience. The spirit helpers, guardian spirits and ofsupernaturalother tutelaries shamanic animal in represented usually practitioners, form, were in the past viewed by the es- ofentities as churches Christian tablished viewed so still are and provenance, infernal today by some fundamentalist Protestant groups. The shamans whoprofessed to have invariablypowerful supernatural clerical to subject therefore were assistants, cen 19th the in late Until condemnation. by persecution meant also often this tury, government authorities who were using the church to facilitate colonization, su ofacculturation and bordination aborigi shama in recognized who and peoples nal nism an important factor for the survival of indigenous cultures. The image ofChristian the shaman as a daemoniac belieffi common the by reinforced was gure held in many aboriginal societies, and by shamanic that themselves, shamans many powers can be used for healing or har ethnographic and anecdotal by also ming; i.e., reportsofspell”, “magic under death suggestion, collective and individual under a phenomenon variously labeled death I indigenouscall tra- to fashionable become has it Although ditional healers anywhere “shamans”, the present study is western the and Eurasia in shamanism genuine to confined hemisphere. Among the indigenous populations of these the continents, social roles of soul shamanic practitioners have ritualist, leader, spiritual ofhealer, that been traditionally guide, sacrificer, song reciter, and dramatic performer (1). Tungusic of origin: is Northeast-Asian “shaman” term The Manchu and 10 I N V E S T I G A C I Ó N E N S A L U D exhibits psychopathic traits.or is subject to epileptic fits”. To Casanowicz (19) stated that the candidate shaman “usually Siberia, “natives”the of of shamanism the on report nian Smithso his In societies. pre-literate in shamans epileptic regarding references many provide could he that assertion relieving his “neurotic temperament”. Gillin (18) made the “mummery” the is garb his while hysteria” “anxiety and that the shamanic medicine man suffers from “fear neurosis” teroepilepsy. Hambly (17) advanced the general hypothesis combined, the reminiscent 19th of century hys concept - of practitioners; often the “hysterical”terms and “epileptoid” shamanic behaviourof characterizethe haveto used been psychosis, and epilepsy,hysteria, of labels diagnostic The ted by the eminent American anthropologist Kroeber (16). individuals occupy the privileged shaman profession, as sta authors,day,scientific well-knowntheir in ill mentally that rewarded (14,15). The opinion was repeatedly expressed by cieties in which neurotic or psychotic symptoms are allegedly “primitive”in status so- privileged enjoyinga as presented been have ill mentally the that populations, tribal among is surprising to the present author who worked as psychiatristdevelopment to his neurotic predecessors and colleagues”. It which owed formulation the initial its and origin its accept to had shaman non-neurotic “the society of evolution the Eskimo.the With like groups organized simply in shaman the for qualification basic the possessed type” epileptoid “neurotic- the (13), Radin to According were.lunacy, it as was beginning the in times: pre-historic of ill mentally the in shamanism of origin very the sought even Some case. neuro-psychiatric a rather but figure daemoniac a longer no shaman the in sha saw who authors of scientific by re-definition manism a came century 19th the of world Western the in influence ecclesiastic of decline the With T (12). ashamanicauxiliary the roleof on takes now Spirit Holy the converts Amerindian whose costal South preachers America in for the Chaco region of Pentedo as Devil, the with spirits shamanic associate still remarkably. However, changed some has fundamentalistchurch ProtestantCatholic sectsthe of attitude the decades daemons in animal shape, provided by the Devil. In recent British Durieu Columbia of as Bishop by identified still were Indians Salish the of spirits guardian the 1800s late the In (11). RelationsJesuit the in daemons as condemned century were America 17th North in the Iroquois of tutelaries The 1530. in Herrera De Bishop by confirmed was America Central aboriginal of spirits guardian shamanic the of origin infernal The (10). as stated in the the work Franciscan of scholar De Sahagun power can only be obtained through a pact with the Devil, power;shamanic through animal they concluded that such the Indios that one can change into an of reality the belief the Spanish colonies the of western hemisphere accepted as deceive the ignorants (9). The early Catholic missionaries in the Daemon” in of their diabolic ceremonies used tricks to “ministers the while Satan” of “laws the under lived had America Hispanic of Indios the that Jesuit, century 16th prominent a Acosta, De of statements the in reflected is toward Amerindian belief systems during the colonialchurch Catholic the period of attitude prevailing the hemisphere HE P ATHOLOGIZATION

OF

THE S HAMAN spiritus familiaris, low-ranking Vol. VII•Número1 Abril 2005 - - - - T Pareto(28) hasshown. as sentiments” of “manifestations all, above are, acts ritual positivefor science, of criteria the by judged be cannot action, ritual other however,like rituals, Shamanic psychopathology. of testing reality poor the subsumed is which under error, and ignorance to due norms rational logico-experimental explanatory theories as departure from of framework the into fit not do which concepts and urs tion; (b) A (b) tion; criteria, ignoring the non-Western explana folk systems of data collected in non-Western cultures by modern Western A (a) fallacy: double a constitutes nomenclatures psychiatric Western of terms in behaviour shamanic of classification However,the societies”. primitive of public lay whole the also often but psychopathology, in involved “are insisted, he shamans”, the only “Not this: about doubt no left (16) Kroeber pathology.culture’s “primitive” his of exponent who engaged in this, the “mentally ill” shaman was only the shamanic practitioners, it can be stated that for the authors in theircognitive processes. identities” “basic and behavior their in similarities” “overt shamans,showingschizophrenicsand both betweenacute differences significant no are there that asserted Health tal sources, Silverman (27) at the U.S. National Institute limitedMen of selectionpsychoanalytically of inclined ethnological rather a From (26). psychotic” a even or neurotic severe a reason and no excuse for not considering the shaman to be of opus last his ethnopsychiatry he again emphasized: In “In brief, there is no (25). person” ill genuinely a trically the general thesis that the shaman is defender “psychiaof staunch a was anthropologist, oriented psychoanalytically environment. the arctic attributable to climatic and nutritional factors of hysteria” “arctic as cultures circum-polar the in originated shamanism all that hypothesize to (24) Ohlmarks to left assumed to suffer from “arctic hysteria” (17). It was finally associated with hysteria (23). The Eskimo shaman was also epilepsy (22); the psychical Tungushealing of shamans was and hysteria to related phenomenon psychopathological a insanity”. Tungusthe verge shamanism of was classified as to often excitable, and “nervous was shaman Siberian the the shaman’sria lies at the bottom of vocation”; she wrote Chukchee shamans. Czaplicka (2) averred that “arctic the hyste regarding (21) Bogoras by Yukaghir,and and Koryak authors; so by Jochelson (20) the regarding the shamans of early 20th century applied to Siberian shamanism by Russian the in hysteria”wasalready “arctic label audience.The the which at times triggered “nervous-psychic group attacks” in convulsive attacks and loss consciousnessof during séances, beria appear to suffer from a “psychic-nervous illness” with Alekseev (8) Si turkic-speaking the peoples shamans of of spirits, or to embody supernatural entities for the purpose purpose the for entities supernatural embody to spirits,or helping summon experiences,to vision through beings ral supernatu with communicate to (ASC), consciousness of Shamans may enter into “ecstatic” states, i.e., altered states S HE HAMANISM , insofar as it tries descriptivefallacy to interpret eurocentric R Concluding the section on psychopathology labeling of well-known Devereux, hemisphere, western the In OLE

OF , insofar as it considers behavioconsiders it as insofar , fallacy positivistic

A AND LTERED

THEIR S M TATES ISINTERPRETATION

OF C ONSCIOUSNESS

IN

------I N V E S T I G A C I Ó N E N S A L U D 11 - - - , sometimes joiku ) in shamanic ceremonials. In Saami (Lapp) (Lapp) Saami In ceremonials. shamanic in ) The death-and-rebirth experience through alteration or or alteration through experience death-and-rebirth The Amanita muscaria Amanita beast as his shaman spirit (37) TheEskimo Caribou (37) future spirit shaman his as beast shaman had to “die a little” in extreme privations, or by dissociating effect on the mental apparatus. In experiments experiments In apparatus. mental the on effect dissociating conducted by Neher (31), drumming rhythms in, or close ofrange electro-encephalogramfrequency the theta the to, (4-7cps) were most effective in inducing ASC, variously associated with somatic sensations, auditory illusions and visual imagery. The drum is the shamanic instrument par excellence, and rhythmic drumming is prominent in most “initiatory termed phenomenon The ceremonials. shamanic sickness” by Eliade (32) seemed to support the psychopa the by corroborated appeared also which hypothesis thology sickness Initiatory ofshamans. behaviour practicing séance and recovery was often experienced and presented by the shamans as a form of death and rebirth; being reborn to archetypal The person. changed a as vocation shamanic the in discerned be can resurrection ofand pattern death ritual is, shamanism which in cultures of most initiations shamanic illness shamanic of this accounts Personal practiced. was, or by Siberian and Central Asian shamans repeat the theme of a nearly lethal culminating illness in life or crisis, severe of symptoms The spirits. tutelary with encounters visionary this “initiatory often interpreted were as “absen- sickness” reportedto been have of afflicted ces so The (3). soul” the of loss of “insanity”, attacks fits”, “nervous so-called suffer experiences also convulsions, “epileptic” and consciousness only occurred Recovery dismembered. or apart torn ofbeing to starting by shaman a become to “call” the accepting after drum and compose usually shaman under songs, guidance would, shamans practicing Later-on practitioner. senior of a for major ritual performance, re-enter an ASC similar to an attenuated initiatory state. In the past, some aboriginal mushrooms hallucinogen-containing used peoples Siberian ( shamanism, according to historical Scandinavian sources, dominant themes were the “ecstasy”, i.e., the ASC, of the spirits assistant of the role the and shaman-to-be, designated who first visited him when alone in the woods and whose beha shaman future the Thereupon repeat. to had he songs agonizing suffered and madman” a “like time some for ved the himself to surrendered he when only ended which pains ofsecrets He profession. the into the initiated be to spirits, then learned to “dive”, i.e., to enter an ASC while beating the “magic drum”, journeying to the land of the dead to return a soul sick client’s to its owner (33). embark To on an into up themselves worked shamans Saami travel”, “soul ASC by drumming, dancing, and singing unconscious (34). until they fell down the ofofin importance was loss paramount consciousness formation of The future Eskimo shamans. Eskimo (Inuit) miraculous a and death apparent an through passed shaman return to life which suggested “the acquisition of take a could shaman senior A (35). soul” new powerful more and the life of a potential candidate and give him the life of a shaman (36). Related to the death-and-rebirth theme was himselfsee to ability the which skeleton, a as shaman’s the concen meditative by master to had novice Eskimo Iglulik An accidental helpers. obtain spirit could he tration before near-death experience with fainting due to animal attacks could also qualify a hunter as shaman, with the attacking - - - - - Vol. VII • Número 1 • Abril 2005 1 • VII • Número Vol. of acting with their special powers. Western observers often often observers Western powers. special their with of acting of expressions and actions from psychopathologyinferred candida of shaman ASC; an such in practitioners shamanic tes during their initiatory period and of performing shamans shamans of performing and period initiatory their during tes during their séances. In the case of the shaman candidate this ASC results either from the involuntary experience of severe stress in a physical, psychological or social crisis si- somatic ASC-inducing stressful undergoing from or tuation, shamanic for quest the during conditions psychological and spirit In power. the case of shamanic séances this ASC is self-induced by the shamanic practitioner on the basis of learning, experience, can, and through practitioner the shamanic the specific time techniques same the At below. listed in ASC induce purposes, social or religious therapeutic, for clients or audience by suggestive influences, varying from indirect suggestion through skillful manipulation of cultu always suggestion, hypnotic direct to symbols validated rally facilitated by the traditional collective belief in shamanic enter To powers. an ASC is possible due to the - physiolo gical capability of the central nervous system to dissociate ofapparatus mental the selfthe systems more or two into of relational experience. From the accounts of shamanic practitioners and initiates it can be deduced that shamanic ASC are associated with selectively degreesof focussed various suggestibility, heightened and analgesia, attention, culturally prescribed behaviour experienced as not under voluntary control and often not remembered due states to non- ofsuch concomitants frequent Other amnesia. organic image body perceptions, illusional sense, time altered an are special which to experiences emotional intense and changes, be may experiences subjective Such attached. is significance interpretedcultural tradition as according to the prevailing super other or spirits guardian or helping with encounter an or as rebirth, or enlightenment; natural revelation, powers, in with and believed ineffable essentially be to are felt they unshakable conviction. In most traditional non-Western cultures and in historical European cultures, ASC are or were interpreted either as a special state of the individual permitting of close interaction with supernatural entities, visions, in them perceive messages, their receive to order in and acquire power from them; or as a state of possession in which a supernatural entity or power acts through the possessed individual. These two cultural variants of ASC have been designated “trance” and “possession trance”, respectively, by Bourguignon (29) who also mapped the global distribution of differ in termswhich states these of cultural definition but not in terms of the underlying neu ofTheinduction process. temporaryropsychological such changes of waking consciousness in candidates motivated is facilitated by the experimentally known somatopsychic effects of specific conditions which in shamanic cultures, according to ethnographic reports and according to own spirit arduous through created either are (30), observations initiation in employed techniques special through or quests ceremonials shamanic in utilized again later be to procedures, requiring an ASC. These conditions are: hyperventilation; sensory deprivation; sleep dehydration; and hypoglycaemia deprivation and restricted mobility alternating with hyper motility; pain stimulation; temperature stimulation; and, most rhythmic importantly, acoustic stimulation which, in direct a exerts duration, and intensity frequency, appropriate 12 I N V E S T I G A C I Ó N E N S A L U D tutelaries in forceful and intensive vision experiences. In the red effort to greater obtain powers from several or specific motivated youths of in general but lasted longer and requi- wasthat shamans-to-be to similar of quest spirit The (11). complex” spirit “vision-guardian the with associated was Plateau, and the Northwest Coast culture areas, shamanism andmomentarilylyingtheremotionless.a lastcry he to returns this world, jumping down to the with ground the shaman enters an ASC that ends after many hours when us spirits, bobbing the to gong-drum, the rhythmic beat of Otherworld. Continuously chanting and shouting at malicio shaman “rides on the spirit horse”, i.e., Hmong woodenthe force, life i.e.,bench, client’s“soul”, ill an toretrieve to the or client troubled a for negotiate to order In Otherworld. and gong-drum take the candidate on the first “ride” to the the beat will who teacher” “shaman a obtains and calling The afflicted person may “waste spirits. away” until he/she accepts the of visions and convulsions shaking, and/or consciousness, alteration or loss through of spells of itself manifests spirit shaman a by chosen person a of illness” with this author (46), indicated that the initiatory “shaman’s collaboration professional in Hmong Laotian the of ners andchanting (45). drumming in themselves and in clients, facilitated through continuous ceremony, nocturnal extended an require ASC induce they However,manipulation. symbolic and cases difficult when suggestion using rites curing brief conduct shamanesses shaman’sTamangpractice,a daily use In to urge drum. an provenance,ancestral and or divine possessed of assistant spirit a by being of experiences behaviour, bizarre with nesses enter the vocation after an initiatory state associated hypnotic influence. up.Even scientific observers could summoned sometimes not escape he such monsters and spirits the felt and saw into an animal, and heard, or witnessed his transformation around flying him perceived influence, suggestive indirect and direct shaman’s the under audience, the Then ASC. an into i.e.,“autohypnosis”, or “trance” into thongs,went drumming and chanting, the shaman, tied down with strong rhythmicby Accompanied (40,41,42,43,44): huts or igloos crowded in happenings dramatic to attest regions Eskimo shamanic séances shaman. throughout Descriptions the of giant causing him to “die” would bring him back to life as a spirit a or life; new a to again out wouldspit he be animal, supernatural a by devoured be might adept the Although might find him a worthy shaman of and become his helper. who spirit a encountered he consciousness lost or altered of state a in finally until fear; and cold hunger, hardships, endure stones, rubbing as such actions monotonous on out for the an echo,arctic solitude, sing or cry concentrate into far wander would man young A shaman. become to aspiring anyone to open was spirit tutelary a for quest the Among Eskimo groups from West Alaskaform. animal toin them East to Greenlandappearing mostly spirits, helping several attract to sought shamans Eskimo (39). spirits to attractive skeletons” “shining become to holes ice down pushed were Alaska North in novices Shaman (38). again life to called was he before holes, ice through submersion Among North American Indians of the Plains, the the Plains, the of Indians American North Among Recent information gathered from shamanic practitio shama contemporary Nepal of Tamangthe Among Vol. VII•Número1 Abril 2005 - - - of shamans-to-be in other Amerindian nations of British of nations Amerindian other in shamans-to-be of Dance Society appears to have influenced the presentation songs and dances (49). The model the of Kwakiutl Cannibal bytamed through be to had bite spectators; he to motions madness” “holy in urges cannibalistic demonstrated spirit, tutelary his by who,possessed novice the by performance the Kwakiutl was an elaborate ritual with dramatic ciety of So- Dancer Cannibal the to Initiation (48). body” his with trembles who and faints who one “the waysof the taught was he there shamans”; made be to wish who sick, be to pretend who go those which Dancer...to Cannibal the of red to learn the waysshaman” was of led to the “house him (47). Among the Kwakiutl, the young man “who desi- through trance visions in which his spirit-aides appeared to nic death power was said to be to transported the verge of shama seeking Tsimshianshaman-to-be the Still, pattern. formalized a followed spirits tutelary by “possession” and was integrated in the initiation to a privileged secret powersociety shamanic of acquisition the coast, Northwest the of nations Amerindian organized hierarchically the for.In questing are dancers the experience ce,vision the facilitate frequencies close to those recorded in the Salish Spirit Dan drumming ceremonial, Dance Sun the During neophytes. during initiation procedures when ASC were predominant induced in the entirely were electroencephalogram, the in in the theta range, which lead to auditory driving responses frequencies that the revealed in ceremonial, Dance drums Spirit many Salish of beating rhythmic the of records our of analysis Physical vision. spirit a in received finally in the strenuous dance power,ritual quest for supernatural pain and thirsting, fasting, by ordeal dream, visionary a in “calling” with initiation shamanic a of characteristics the tribes in Wyoming, Idaho, Utah, Colorado and Alberta, has Amerindian the 1960s as the major religious movement of in revived also Dance, Sun The dance. and song in power spirit guardian displaytheir publicly chanting,to and ming - drum rhythmic under ASC an in encounter spirit initial the again experience and season winter every Dance Spirit the in participate ancestor,they honoured an of name the “Reborn”new rewardingto a existence under Amerindian vision encounter with a their in guardianpower spirit spirit and (“powersong animal”).find they until waters, icy and chanting; then they are rushed by the ritualists through bush under heavy blankets, listening to and rhythmic drumming sweating and motionless lying fasting, and “sacrifice” of regime strict a to submit They house. ceremonial the of cubicle dark a to confined daysseveral for are they before ritualist shamanic the by death to clubbed symbolically initiates is female and male the of ” self old “diseased The the ceremonial is considered the only cure “spirit of illness”. to Initiation ceremonial. shamanic a of features the all has whichrevivedDance the Spirit Salish of process initiation the into incorporated been has power spirit guardian ning secret spirit quests in the wild are no longer possible, obtai nowadaysSince spirit. guardian the of visions in obtained also self-scarification, until the desired shaman powers were swimming gation, and diving in ice cold waters, sometimes or on lonely beaches, fasting with forced vomiting and wilderness pur the in vigils extended and roaming solitary of such a quest demanded the of young candidate long periods traditional culture the of Salish the of Pacific Northwest (4), - - - - I N V E S T I G A C I Ó N E N S A L U D 13 - - On the individual and interpersonal level, shamanic identified identified 95 scientific publications that in recent decades and of management neurotic therapeutic effective reported psychosomatic disorders, reactive depression, and alcohol and drug dependence, through shamanic and other tradi- tional healing practices among non-Western peoples (52). ofDuring decades he came work, psychiatric transcultural to personally know shamanic practitioners described several publications, viz., in shamanic ritualists of the North healers shamanic Amerindian (4,66); Salish Coast American in Ecuador and Peru (67); Tamang shamanesses in Nepal Southeast in of Hmong the shamanesses and shamans (45); Asia (46); and can unequivocally state that there were no disorder of psychiatric or a personality of unstable signs an in these intelligent practitioners. and capable practitioners, unlike Western-trained health professionals, combine the confidence-inspiring reputation of a charis a and supernaturalpowers to access with personality matic ofbeliefunderstanding clients’ culture-congenial their and Western-trained unlike practitioners, Shamanic system. value health professionals, utilize certain psychotherapeutically effective methods: they perform suggestive ritual acts images by symbolic validated of culturally manipulation skillful and arcane paraphernalia; relieve theyand anxiety conduct alleviate rites ofsupernaturals, the sacrificeappease which guilt feelings; they arouse emotional responses facilitating catharsis and psychodramatic abreaction, and they induce suggestive the ofenhance states that altered consciousness mystic with audience and clients provide and ofcuring effect On the experiences. supra-individual shamanic level, prac titioners uphold the cultural heritage and identity of their - - - - Vol. VII • Número 1 • Abril 2005 1 • VII • Número Vol. Miguel Ángel López - - - - HAMAN S THE

OF

CCREDITATION A HE T manic medicine-men received the call in a state of “hysteria” of“hysteria” state a in call the received medicine-men manic among and (50), spirits cannibalistic by possession through the Shuswap (Interior Salish) whose (51). shamans spirit “acted guardian cannibal like a by possessed when madmen” America South and Mesoamerica in populations Indigenous have always been using plants with proven hallucinogenic properties in traditional ceremonials and curing rites (52). Shamanic practitioners utilized have such plants to induce ASC, in themselves to facilitate contact with supernatural in and curing; and divination performance, ritual for entities shama of the impact suggestive the enhance to clients their collective a promote and catharsis facilitate performance, nic Shamanic intervention. supernaturalof experience positive Mexi for documented been has plants ofhallucinogenic use America (53,54,55,56,57,58). Central and South co, The psychopathology hypothesis was most plausibly refuted refuted plausibly most was hypothesis psychopathology The appear may behavior shamanistic in “What (59): Leighton by the to is, psychiatrist Western the to psychotic or hysterical people concerned, a time-honored ritual through which practitioners heal sick people or divine the future. Hence of ‘symptoms’ the ofresult the be fact in shaman may the learning and practice”. With regard to the much abused Siberian shaman, Eliade (32) remarked that the ofsign no shows shaman Asian “Northdisintegration.mental His memory of and his power self-control are distinctly above sha Eskimo Alaska assessed (60) J.M.Murphy average”. the mans as mentally “exceptionally healthy”. Opler’s (61) field field (61) Opler’s healthy”. “exceptionally mentally as mans Ute the on also and tribes Apache Eastern on data research and of Colorado Paiute Southern and Utah showed that shamanism could not be correlated with any rates of deviant behavior. Working among the Washo of western Nevada and eastern California, Handelman (62) rejected as highly inadequateexplanation of anyshamanic practice in terms of neurotic defenses. For the Amerindian cultures of contradic the(63) Drucker North Coast, Pacific were shamans that assumption the ted recruited from among the emotio nally unstable. Heinze (64) provided information on more than hundred Thai in mediums spirit and shamans were of these none Malaysia; and land of dates the the at look A ill. mentally literature on shamanism reveals that in changed statements characterizing daemonization from century 19th the to psychopathology labeling, which was mostly corrected by the second half of the 20th century and finally gave way to the acknowledgement ofofskills therapeutic the shamanic practitioners and medicine men, as sha “The (65): Hoppál by expressed man is rather a psychotherapist than a psychopath”. The present author Columbia; Columbia; so among the Carrier (Athapascan) whose sha 14 I N V E S T I G A C I Ó N E N S A L U D have in essence become essence in have ideological needs Amerindian of nations, these ceremonials Rocky Mountains. In response social to and contemporary the of east ceremonial religious pan-Amerindian major a today is and Mexico from northward spread which Cult Peyote the Canada; and States United the in tribes other Cheyenne, and Arapaho, which subsequently reached many Kiowa,the among Dance Dakotas;Comanche,Gourd the the Colorado,and Wyoming,Idaho,Utah, of populations in the Pacific the Northwest; Sun Dance among aboriginal (68,69). Examples are the Winter Spirit Dances the of Salish America aspects,North therapeutic throughout important reflected in the revitalization traditional of ceremonials with is renaissance indigenous pressure.acculturation This zing Westerni- under populations indigenous American North among especially ceremonialism, and rituals healing manic However, beyond mere survival we witness a revivalsha authorities. of ecclesiastic and governmental by suppression practices among indigenous peoples in spite centuries of of ethnic group. All this mayshamanic explain the survival of this historicalprocess. by affected deeply been have sciences Westernsocial also tern domination. Not only Western thinking and sentiment, Wes the others global and occured retreat in of the context of self of evaluation occidental the in change palpable but ever civil, (71). The religious and intellectual progress” step, backward no races, Indian and Anglo-Saxon the of mingling no been has aborigines.There the exterminating and expelling Pacific, the to Atlantic the from civilization carrying dominated, has race Anglo-Saxon the America Washington,in Society D.C., North “In likethese: phrases Geographic National prestigious the of President the of Who would nowadays expect to hear in the annual address and academic literature can be demonstrated in this regard. image. A rather drastic change in the tenor popular both of self- Western glorious once the of deflation concomitant a with ethnicities,and non-Westernand cultures of image This process is associated with an up-grading the of Western superiority claims in favoura postulated of human equality. Western a of relinquishing the of and view world abandonment eurocentric the War: World 2nd the of end the since place taken has that Westernzeitgeist prevailing the of change profound a by accompanied decolonization, of aftermath the in occurred this coincidence no is It tures. cul- indigenous of renaissance general the of aspect an is urban middleclass. the by attended well countries, Western most in courses training and workshops shamanic with enterprise global a shamanic his practices disciples have made the teaching of and He Harner.Michael anthropologist the owesmuchto professional institutions. The popularizationshamanism of world view, rationalist and who and no longer trust in the traditions established clerical and religious both lost have Westernerswho for psycho-guide post-modern a become has shaman idealized Castaneda’s Carlos The semi-fiction. by encouraged shamanism, Age” “New society: Western phenomenon unheard has of appeared in the hitherto post-modern a 1970s, the Since contact”(70). in societies the between inequality of situation a in culture its of aspects tempts on the a part society’sof members to revive selected The revival of shamanic healing and ceremonialism and healing shamanic of revival The nativistic movements, nativistic “organized at “organized Vol. VII•Número1 Abril 2005 - - - 31. Jilek W.G. Therapeutic use of altered states of consciousness in con in consciousness of states W.G.altered Jilek 31. of use Therapeutic 30. Bourguignon E. Introduction: A framework for the comparative study 28. Silverman J. Shamans and acute schizophrenia. G.Devereux 27. 29. Pareto V.Pareto 29. 26. Devereux G. 25. Ohlmarks A. A. Ohlmarks 25. the Tungus.S.M. Psychomental24. Shirokogoroff Complex of 23. kov K.M. Enisejskie Tungusy [Jenissei Tungus], 22. Ry V. Bogoras 21. V.I. Jochelson 20. 19. Casanowicz I.M. Shamanism the of natives Siberia of In: J.societies.Gillin preliterate 18. Personalityin 14. Linton R. Linton 14. 7 Hml W. D. Hambly 17. 10. De Sahagun B. 3 Rdn P. Radin 13. of Toba the among power and shamanism, P.G. “Dream, Wright 12. 11. Benedict R.F. “The Concept the of Guardian Spirit in North America”. 1. Hoppál M. 16. Kroeber A.L. A.L. Kroeber 16. 15. KroeberA.L. Å. Hultkrantz 5. W.G.Jilek 4. 3. Hamayon R.N. 2. Czaplicka M.A. 6. Kasten E. E. Kasten 6. 8. Alekseev N.A. Alekseev 8. 7. Hoppál the M. Eurasian Changing shamans.image of In: A-L.Siikala & 9. De Acosta J. Acosta De 9. B IBLIOGRAPHY Perspective. editor. temporary North American Indian dance ceremonials”. In: C.A Ward, University Press;1973:3-35. Change Social and Consciousness of States Altered consciousness. altered In: states E.Bourguignon, of editor. of 1935. Harcourt-Brace; Chicago Press;1980:14. Chicago Printing Office; 1961:262. U.S.Washington,DC, 175. Bulletin Ethnology, American of Bureau 1967;69:21-31. Vitenskaps Selskap;1939:17. Paul-Trench-Trubner; 1935:337. 1922:3-4. 1904-1910:415. Stechert; York,E.J.BrillG.E.New Leiden, Vol. / 7. Expedition, Pacific North Jesup the F.Boas.by of edited Publications History,Vol.11; Natural 1905-1908:416. York,Stechert; Brill/New Leiden, Vol.6. Expedition, Pacific North Jesup the of F.Boas.Publications by edited Vol.10;History, Natural 30, 1924,Washington, Government PrintingOffice, 1925:415-434. the theRegents Board of Smithsonianof of Institution 1939;4:681-702. Macmillan; 1926:219. mas; 1956:98. 1957;131:108. Press; 1952:317-318. de Cultura Económica Biblioteca Americana; 1962:264 (1 1962:264 Americana; Biblioteca Económica Cultura de 1590). D.F., 1977:129(1 EditorialPorrua; Mexico Press;1992:149-172. America. South in Shamanism - Power E.J.M.In: Province”. Formosa G.& Langdon Baer, editors. Association theAmericanAnthropological Memoirs of Today. Surrey, BC, Hancock House;1982,p.145. Sociétéd’ethnologie;1990,p.142.Nanterre, Clarendon Press;1914,p.197. for ShamanisticResearch; 2000,p.10. 1992, p.19. Traditions. Religious American North Native in logical Society&Budapest,AkadémiaiKiadó;1992:176-181. editors.M.Hoppál, p.114. Schletzer; 1987:273. Altered States of Consciousness and Mental Health: A Cross-Cultural Cross-Cultural A Health: Mental and Consciousness of States Altered Newbury Park, Publications; 1989:167-185. Newbury CA,Sage Indian Healing - Shamanic Ceremonialism in the Pacific Northwest Northwest Pacific the in Ceremonialism Shamanic - Healing Indian Shaman Traditions in Transition rmtv Rlgo, t Ntr ad Origin. and Nature its Religion, Primitive , Vol. 1: Vol. Society, and Mind The Culture and Mental Disorders.Mental and Culture Kulturwandel bei den Samen. den bei Kulturwandel Mohave Ethnopsychiatry and Suicide. Smithsonian Institution, Historia natural y moral de las Indias. las de moral y natural Historia h Chukchee. The La Chasse à l’âme - Esquisse d’une théorie du chamanisme sibérien. Basic Problems of Ethnopsychiatry of Problems Basic Shamanic Healing and Ritual Drama - Health and Medicine and Health - Drama Ritual and Healing Shamanic Anthropology. Aboriginal Siberia - A Study in Social Anthropology. Studien zum Problem des Schamanismus. Schamanismus. des Problem zum Studien Schamanismus der Türken Sibiriens. Türken der Schamanismus Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España, Vol.3. México The nature of culture. culture. of nature The h Koryak. The rgn o dcto aog rmtv Peoples. Primitive among Education of Origins . Helsinki, Finnish Anthropo Finnish Helsinki, Shamanism. on Studies eor o h Aeia Msu o of Museum American the of Memoirs NewYork, Brace;1948:300. Harcourt, eor o h Aeia Msu o of Museum American the of Memoirs st Albuquerque, University of New of University Albuquerque, published1560). Chicago, University of Chicago Chicago of University Chicago, Berlin, Dietrich Reimer; 1983, 1983, Reimer; Dietrich Berlin, Springfield, Ill. Charles C.Charles Ill. Springfield, Tho . Budapest, International Society Non-logical Conduct Non-logical , Review Sociological American New York, Crossroad; Crossroad; York, New hcg,Uiest fof University Chicago, . . Columbus, Ohio,State Columbus, . for the Year ending June American Anthropologist Zemlevedenie , 1923;29:32-35. México D.F.,México Fondo Hamburg, Reinhold Hamburg, e Yr, Dover; York, New London, Kegan Lund, Konglige Konglige Lund, Annual Report . New York, New . st (Moscow), published London, London, otl fof Portals Oxford, Religion, - - - ,

I N V E S T I G A C I Ó N E N S A L U D 15

, , - - - Ethnology, Helsinki, Transcultural Transcultural 1943;45:230- National Geographic Diogène (UNESCO) New York, Macmillan; New York, San Chandler; Francisco, EthnomedizinMedizingesund Studies on Shamanism. Magic, Faith, Magic, Faith, and Healing - studies in American Anthropologist. American , 1978;9:32-39. Phoenix Journal of Transpersonal Anthropology . New York, Free Press; 1964:53-83. Free . New York, ILEK G. J Cultures of the North Coast. Pacific , 1891;3:1-29. . Berlin, Verlag Mensch und Leben; 1983:297-310. und Leben; Mensch . Berlin, Verlag Causes ofofCauses Review 1959. A Knowledge Disorders: Mental Epidemiological OLFGANG pulations indiennes de l’Amérique du Nord”. Psychiatric Research ReviewPsychiatric , 1978;15:117-147. therapeutic ceremonials among North American Indians”. Indians”. American North among ceremonials therapeutic 1992;158:78-91. rikanischen Heilkulten. In: J.Sterly, editor. editor. J.Sterly, In: Heilkulten. rikanischen New York, Milbank Memorial Fund; 1961:341-365. Milbank New York, Island, Alaska. In: editor. A.Kiev, primitive psychiatry today chichte Culture and Mental Health - Cross- cultural studies. 1959:97-117. In: 240. Finnish Anthropological Society & Budapest - 1992:117-131. Akadémiai Kiadó; Cross-cultural collaboration with traditional Amerindian therapists”. Journal of Operational Psychiatry 1967;6:444-464. 1965:92. states of consciousness”. 1982;6:25-44. In: A.-L.Siikala & M.Hoppál, editors. Magazine W FRCP(C) M.A., Dipl.Psych., M.Sc., M.D., Clinical Professor Emeritus of Psychiatry of Canada University Vancouver, British Columbia, Correspondence 571 English Bluff Road Canada V4M 2M9 Delta, B.C., +1-604-9431295 Tel.: [email protected] Conflicto de interés no declarado 70. Jilek “LaW.G. renaissance des danses chamaniques dans les po 69. Jilek W.G. “Native renaissance: The survival and revival of revival and indigenous survival The renaissance: “Native W.G. Jilek 69. 71. Linton R. “Nativistic movements”. movements”. “Nativistic R. Linton 71. 61. Murphy J. M. Psychotherapeutic aspects of shamanism on St. Lawrence Lawrence St. on of shamanism aspects Psychotherapeutic M. J. Murphy 61. Latein-Ame in Synkretismus Therapeutischer W.G. Jilek & L. Jilek-Aall 68. 62. Opler M. Dream analysis in Ute Indian In: therapy. M.Opler, editor. 63. Handelman D. “The development of a Washo shaman”. 72. Hubbard G.G. “Annual address by the President”. “Annual 72. Hubbard G.G. 67. Jilek G. W. & Jilek L. “The psychiatrist and his shaman colleague: 64. Drucker P. 64. Drucker P. of definition different a Towards - mediums or “Shamans R.-I. Heinze 65. 66. Hoppál M. Shamanism: an archaic and/or recent system of beliefs.

. . - - - Shaman, . Budapest, Vol. VII • Número 1 • Abril 2005 1 • VII • Número Vol. Treatment of Mental . Report of the Fifth Fifth of the Report . Oslo, Johan Grundt Tanum; Tanum; Grundt Johan Oslo, Alucinógenos y Chamanismo en el New York, Oxford University University Oxford York, New . Report of the Canadian Arctic Arctic Canadian of Report the . . København, Nationalmuseets edited by H.Ostermann.Medde by edited Garden City NY, Natural History Press; History Natural NY, City Garden . Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press; Portals of Portals America South Power:in Shamanism Northern Religions and Shamanism ; edited by H.Ostermann. Report of the Fifth Flesh Flesh of the Gods - The Ritual Use of Hallucinogens. Albuquerque, Albuquerque, Perspectives. Cross-cultural Hallucinogens: The Chugach Eskimo The Alaskan Eskimos as described in the Posthumous Notes Knud Rasmussen’s Posthumous Knud Notes Rasmussen’s on the Life and Doings Santa Cruz de la Sierra (Bolivia), (Bolivia), Sierra la de Cruz Santa Magia. y Cultura Locura, Observations on the Intellectual Culture of the Caribou Eskimos of Culture Caribou the Intellectual the on Observations Intellectual Culture of the Iglulik Eskimos ofIglulik Culture the Intellectual The Eskimos - Their Environment and Folkways. Hamden, Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian The North Alaskan Eskimo - A Study in Ecology and Society. Medicine-men on the North Pacific Coast. National Museum publ. 1888). Über die Lappen und ihre Kultur. ihre und Lappen die Über Hallucinogens and Shamanism. and Hallucinogens st The CarrierofThe Indians and Social Their - Valley River Bulkley the The Life ofEskimos Life Copper The the Shamanism - Archaic Techniques of Techniques Archaic - Shamanism Routledge London, Ecstasy. The Netsilik Eskimo. Netsilik The The Central Eskimo Washington, DC, WHO/OMS & American Psychiatric Press; Press; Psychiatric American & WHO/OMS DC, Washington, The . Shuswap Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural Akadémiai Kiadó; 1992:139-141. Akadémiai Kiadó; Albuquerque, University of University Albuquerque, New Mexico Press; 1992. gen, Gyldendalske Boghandel Nordisk Forlag; 1930:51. Nordisk Forlag; gen, Boghandel Gyldendalske of Dr. Knud Rasmussen Thule Expedition 1921-24, Vol.10, No.3. ThuleCopenhagen, No.3. Expedition Gyldendalske 1921-24, Vol.10, 1952:130. Boghandel Nordisk Forlag; Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 171. Bulletin of Bureau Ethnology, Institution American Smithsonian Institution Press; 1959:318. Smithsonian Washington, Thule Expedition 1921-24, Vol.7, No.1. Copenhagen, Gyldendalske y 120. 1929:111 Boghandel Nordisk Forlag; Copenha No.2. Vol.7, 1921-24, Expedition Thuleof Fifth Report the 1964:37. 1969:439. Conn., Archon; 1961;13:449-451. Neurophysiology, EEG and Clinical subjects. 1964:33. & KeganPaul; & J.Pentikäinen, editors. ofTimes; Olden in Greenlanders East the lelser om Grønland, Vol.109, No.1. København, C.A.Reitzel Forlag, 1938;94. 2002;10:83-112. of Canada Bulletin 152; No. Anthropological Series 42. No. Ottawa, Department of Northern 1958. Resources Affairs and National Press; 1930, p.6. Columbia University York, Indians”. In: Institution for the Year ending June 30, 1895. Washington, Government 1897:311-738. Printing Office; ofBureau EthnologyInstitution, American Smithsonian Life. Religious Gover U.S. Washington, No.25. Papers Anthropological 133, Bulletin Praeger; 1972:3-54. New York, Press; 1973. Expedition 1913-18, Vol. 12. Ottawa, King’s Printer; 1922:192. King’s 12. Ottawa, Expedition 1913-18, Vol. Publikationsfond; 1953:12. 1970:226. of Journal in Nepal”. Pakistan Clinical Psychiatry, 1995;5:123-126. movements among the Hmong people of Southeast Asia”. 1943:567. nment Printing Office; History, Vol.2; edited by F.Boas. Publications G.E.Stechert; ofYork, New / E.J.Brill Leiden, Vol.7. Expedition, the Pacific Jesup North 1900-1908:615. editors. G.A.German, Girolamo;G.Andrews; G.de Disorders. 1993:341-390. editor. In: P.T.Furst, 1961:185 (1 University ofUniversity New Mexico Press; 1984. Lima, El Virrey; 1985. Contemporáneo. Perú Centro de Salud mental; 1991. 35. Nesheim A. Nesheim 35. 32. Neher A. Auditory driving observed with scalp electrodes in normal 60. Leighton A. H. & Hughes J.H. Cultures as causative of mental disorder. disorder. of mental causative as Cultures J.H. Hughes & H. A. Leighton 60. 40. Rasmussen K. 41. Rasmussen K. 38. Rasmussen K. K. Rasmussen 38. K. Rasmussen 39. 36. Weyer E. M. 37. Spencer R.F. 33. Eliade M. M. Eliade 33. 34. Hultkrantz Å. Aspects of Saami (Lapp) shamanism. In: M.Hoppál 43. Jenness D. D. Jenness 43. 42. Boas F. 48. Barbeau M. 49. The Boas Religion F. of the Kwakiutl Indians, Part II, New Translations. Kwakiutl of the societies secret the and organization social “The F. Boas 50. D. Jenness 51. M.J. Harner 55. M. Rios de Dobkin 56. 44. Birket-Smith K. A. Balikci 45. healing ofTamang principles “Psychotherapeutic W.G. Jilek & D. Eigner 46. & Jilek-Aall L. “Shamanic 47. Jilek beliefs, practices, and W.G. messianic 52. Teit J. In:N.Sartorius; medicine to relevant Traditional psychiatry. 53. Jilek W.G. hemisphere. western the in of hallucinogens overview An R.E. Schultes 54. 57. Chiappe M., Lemlij M. & Milliones L. M.G. Hollweg 58. 59. Langdon E.J.M. & Baer G. G. Baer & E.J.M. Langdon 59.