Applied Ethnobotany: Case-Studies from the Himalayan Region

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING12 PAPER - SEPTEMBER 2003 This series of working papers

is intended to provide information and to generate fruitful Applied discussion on key issues Ethnobotany: in the sustainable and equitable use case-studies from the of plant resources.

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United Kingdom The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of WWF concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The opinions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors and do not commit any Organization.

Authors’ addresses:

Yildiz Aumeeruddy-Thomas 81 rue du Fbg Boutonnet 34090 Montpellier FRANCE

Pei Shengji Department of Ethnobotany Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences Heilongtan, Kunming Yunnan 650204 CHINA

Drawings on pages 22, 25, 30 and 31 reproduced with kind permission from “Concise flowers of the Himalaya” by Oleg Polunin and Adam Stainton. Oxford University Press India, 1990.

Cover: Meconopsis paniculata, Yildiz Aumeeruddy-Thomas

Published in 2003 by WWF

Edited by Martin Walters Design: Ivette Fabbri Layout: Martina Höft

Recommended citation: Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Y. and Pei Shengji. 2003. Applied Ethnobotany: case- studies from the Himalayan region. People and Plants working paper 12. WWF, Godalming, UK.

An electronic version of this document can be downloaded from http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/peopleplants/wp APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION

The People and Plants Initiative has, since 1992, reliant subsistence, and agroforestry based upon developed a series of field projects aimed at find- extremely diversified land use, bio-resources and ing appropriate conceptual frameworks, approach- human culture. This region is also characterized es and practices for the management of plant by secular trade exchanges between highlands resources, building both on indigenous local sys- and lower valleys. tems and on scientific knowledge. Applied eth- Regenerative biological resources have been nobotany using community-based approaches has managed since ancient times by local people in been used to address major conservation and relat- the mountain regions, for agriculture, horticul- ed development issues at each site. Case-studies ture, animal husbandry, forestry products, herbal giving precise descriptions of processes, methods medicine, hunting, rituals, cultural needs, and and approaches have been published in the People almost all of their subsistence needs. For them, and Plants working paper series, including work the mountain habitat provides a means of sur- undertaken in Indonesia (Aumeeruddy, 1994), at vival, not just an area from which resources can Bwindi National Park, Uganda (Cunningham, be exploited for short-term benefits. Over the 1996; Wild and Mutebi, 1996), in Loita, Kenya past two decades, however, environmental and (Maundu et al., 2001), and around Mt. Kinabalu, cultural changes, and economic development in Sabah, Malaysia (Martin et al., 2002). This work- the mountain region have accelerated, with a ing paper is a compilation of case-studies under- serious impact on its natural resources. taken under the People and Plants UNESCO-ICI- Practices of plant collection by local com- MOD Hindu Kush-Himalaya project, the major munities may be unsustainable and lead to over aim of which was to promote applied ethnobotany exploitation. For instance, a large number of in the Himalayan region and to encourage the sus- households in rural and remote areas of Nepal tainable management of plant resources. depend on the collection of non-timber forest It is important to emphasize that ethnobotany products (NTFPs), especially medicinal and aro- has an especially important role to play in the matic plants (MAPs) for sustaining livelihoods development of mountainous areas such as the through collection of these products for trade Himalayas. People in rural Himalayan societies (Edwards, 1996; Olsen and Helles, 1997). are highly dependent on natural resource use, due Evidence of overexploitation by commercial to isolation, and relatively poor access to arable collectors has been demonstrated in Dolpo lands. Over time, they have developed knowledge (Aumeeruddy et al., 2002) which contradicts the about the utilization of diverse biological assumption made by Olsen (1999) that collec- resources. They also possess substantial information by commercial collectors is sustainable and tion regarding soils, climates, vegetation types, that they regulate their practices, access to stages of ecological succession, land use, etc., and resources and regeneration of plant populations. in many cases have developed mechanisms or There is thus a need for balancing local knowl- techniques for maintaining biological diversity edge with scientific knowledge to ensure long- (Pei, 1994, 1998; Lama et al., 2002). Although term planning and conservation of plant they live in remote areas, Himalayan moutain resources. dwellers also have much ‘external knowledge’ of Traditional knowledge systems are hundreds the ways and habits of neighbouring societies with or even thousands of years old, and are still which they have interacted for trade or for political evolving. They involve not only the knowledge and cultural reasons over centuries (Fisher, 1987). of plants for medicine and food, but also include The economic system of the Himalayan strategies of protection for the utilization of plant region is characterized by self-sufficient and self- resources as well as management systems.

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 1 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Contents 1 Introduction 2 Contents 5 Part 1: Resource Management in the Himalayas: case-studies compiled and lessons learned (Y. Aumeeruddy-Thomas)

5 The ethnobotany of fruit plants and its role in conservation and community development in Drosh Valley, Chitral (Hindu Kush-Himalaya Region) of Pakistan, by D. F. Hussain

7 Ethnobotanical study on traditional shifting cultivation practices based on the alder tree (Alnus nepalensis) by the Naga tribes of Nagaland India, by S. Changija, A. Yaden and A. Aier

9 The use of indigenous knowledge in mountain natural resource management: a case-study of the Wancho community, Tirap District, Arunachal Pradesh, India, by A. Godbole

11 Preliminary studies in the ethnobotany of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh, and its linkage with biodiversity, by M. K. Alam and S. K. Khisa

13 The ecology and indigenous management techniques of tribal homegardens - a case-study of the Marma tribe in Rangamati Hill District, Bangladesh, by Dr M. Millat-e-Mustapha

15 A community-based case-study on the indigenous system of ‘sal’ (Shorea robusta) forest management, by S. Rajbandhary, N. Dongol and B. K. Karna

17 The application of indigenous knowledge of fodder trees in Kalikasthan, Rasuwa District, Nepal, by N. P. Manandhar and S. K. Archaya

19 General points and lessons learned

20 Part 2: Medicinal plant management: case-studies compiled and lessons learned (Pei Shengji)

20 Indigenous medicinal plants and their socio-economic and cultural significance in the Newar community of Nepal: a case-study of Bungmati VDC, Lalitpur, by M. Pokhrel, R. Shrestha and R. K. Sharma

23 Ethno-medicobotanical studies of the Gurung community of Bichuar Village in the Lamjung District of Nepal, by I. Shrestha

24 Indigenous knowledge of the Qiang community about the conservation and development of ethnomedical plants in Maoxian County of Western Sichuan, China, by Wu Ning

27 A study of the ethnobotany and conservation of Podophyllum hexandrum, Diphylleia sinensis and Fritillaria cirrhosa in the Zhongdian Tibetan Autonomous County in Yunnan, China, by Hu Zhihao and Qi Shunhua

29 An ethnobotanical survey of the propagation of rare medicinal herbs by small farmers in the buffer zone of the Valley of Flowers National Park, Chamoli, Garhwal Himalaya, India, by C. P. Kala

31 General points and lessons learned

34 General disscusion

36 References 38 Annex

2 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI In this respect, ethnobotany will play an nobiological methods (Johnson, 1980; Brush, important role in the future in documenting and 1980; Alcorn, 1984; Altieri et al., 1987; Balée describing traditional knowledge about medici- and Gely 1989; Aumeeruddy, 1994; Pei and nal and edible plants, and their uses in different Sajise, 1995). All these studies give much atten- ecological zones and human Himalayan societies tion to conservation practices underlying local as well as at the global level (Pei, 1996). practices, local institutional background, con- This paper aims to show how applied eth- flicts of worldviews and value systems. nobotany may lead to a better understanding of Since 1992, the People and Plants initiative resource management in this region. The authors has coined the phrase ‘applied ethnobotany’ of this working paper have attempted to draw which actually relates to studies and methods lessons based on their own understanding of which enable work with the knowledge holders resource use management in the Himalayas. in a participatory way, to analyse knowledge and set up improved management systems which build on local sets of practices and social Ethnobotany dynamics (Martin, 1995; Hamilton, 1997; Cunningham, 2001). Applied ethnobotany also What is it? strives to bridge the gap between traditional Ethnobotany is a multi-disciplinary science knowledge and scientific knowledge and to encompassing botany, anthropology, economics, understand the relationships between local prac- and linguistics, which studies the ways in which tices and knowledge systems and policies, rules a society relates to its environment. These rela- and economic trends at the national and interna- tionships can be social, economic, symbolic, reli- tional level. Work in applied ethnobotany in the gious, commercial, and artistic. Himalayas relates to the study of agroecosys- Ethnobotany was originally based largely on tems and shifting cultivation, medicinal and qualitative methods such as inventories of plants non-timber forest product (NTFP) management and their uses, with a major focus on the eco- (Jain, 1996; Shinwari et al., 1996; Shrestha et al., nomic importance of plants. This approach is 1998, Pei et al., 1997) and the cultural dimension largely associated with colonial periods in west- of resource use (Pei, 1994). The most recent ern countries when explorers and scientists had a work in applied ethnobotany in the Himalayan major interest in finding new plant resources region is a comprehensive case-study undertaken (Davis, 1991; Schultes and von Reis, 1995). by WWF Nepal at Shey Phoksundo National Ethnobotany moved on to the understanding Park. This explores the relationship between tra- of knowledge systems through the use of anthro- ditional health-care systems and plant conserva- pological methods and the work of Conklin tion, and demonstrates how local knowledge may (1954, 1957) who coined the word ‘ethno- be used to develop new creative management sciences’, and the work of the famous anthropol- systems (Lama et al., 2002). ogist Levi Strauss (1962) which highlighted the structural relationships between each society and Why is it important? its environment, followed by the work of many The contribution of applied ethnobotany is other anthropologists such as Berlin et al. (1974) not limited to pure science, but has an important and Ford (1978). Further avenues were explored role to play in understanding the dynamic rela- by other researchers who began to develop quan- tionships between biological diversity and social titative methods for estimating amounts of prod- and cultural systems and their development. ucts used, the distribution of useful species, or Ethnobotanists are in a position to collabo- the relative importance of different values of rate with a network of people from different cul- products to people (Prance et al., 1987; Phillips tural and social contexts, including academics, and Gentry, 1993 a and b; Caballero, 1992; Höft NGO workers, and government agencies, and et al., 1999). Besides developing quantitative can transcribe the knowledge of those who are methods, ethnobotany has moved towards a actually the local knowledge-holders. The role of wider approach, including other aspects of the ethnobotanists is therefore to bring a larger per- natural world. Ethnobotanists quite often identify spective, whilst remaining open about how the themselves more and more as ethnobiologists or knowledge recorded will be used in the future. It ethnoecologists because these disciplines offer is important that results are shared with the com- more opportunities to analyse human interactions munities at every stage of the research process. with the overall environment as well as people’s Participation as described by Pimbert and Pretty relation to external factors such as the impact of (1995) lies at many different levels, and ethnob- trade systems on local economies and ways of otanists should therefore decide jointly with the life (Lama et al., 2002). knowledge-holders what levels of participation Traditional management systems and their are actually most appropriate in order to reach relationships to larger economic systems have agreed objectives and prior consent as how the been the subject of numerous studies using eth- recorded knowledge will be used.

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 3 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Ethnobotany as an interdisciplinary science conservation and community development. This is in a position to contribute much to plant con- encompassed work in the following broad areas: servation. This includes a precise understanding (a) cultural context of natural resource man- of local social dynamics, institutions, and differ- agement; ent values attributed to resources. These values (b) over-exploitation of high-value non-timber may be symbolic, religious or political for a forest products, including medicinal plants; given society, whilst the same plant resources (c) traditional agroforestry systems; may represent only an economic value for other (d) people/protected area interface. societies or for other social groups within the The major thrust of the project has been on same society (Aumeeruddy, 1994). Maximum human resource development. The training in effort should be made to document and integrate ethnobotanical methods of young researchers indigenous knowledge about land use, vegetation and workers involved in conservation and com- and forest management, non-timber forest prod- munity development programmes at the field ucts, medicinal plants, agroforestry, home-gar- level was the most important objective of the dens, swidden agriculture, and biodiversity. project’s first phase. Ethnobotanical approaches enable the estab- Six, week-long training workshops on lishment of close dialogue and communication applied ethnobotany were attended by nearly two with local people, and may ultimately facilitate hundred participants. In addition, more than the elaboration of management plans which twenty-five investigators have been involved in ensure participation by local people and avoid the small grants and case-studies, and the result- having an adverse impact on their life and their ing projects have contributed to a greater under- environment (Martin, 1995; Pei and Sajise 1995; standing and recognition of various aspects of the Cunningham, 2001). ethnobotanical knowledge of the people (see references of workshop proceedings in Annex). The Hindu Kush-Himalaya Furthermore, over the three-year duration of the project, an informal regional network of eth- Ethnobotany Project nobotanists, conservationists, researchers, devel- The Hindu Kush-Himalaya Ethnobotany Project opment workers and protected area managers has started in July 1995 as a joint operation of the grown to more than 300 co-operating partici- UNESCO People and Plants programme and ICI- pants who are involved in exchange of informa- MOD (the International Centre for Integrated tion through publications, workshops and other Mountain Development) with funds-in-trust from channels. DANIDA (the Danish Agency for Development Assistance), for a duration of three years. Case-studies The Hindu Kush-Himalaya Ethnobotany Project had three major functions: providing Descriptions of all the case-studies which were training, supporting small case-studies, and net- carried out were compiled by the authors and working. were based on the original reports (for which full The project emphasized the application of references are given in the Annex). The discus- ethnobotany in community development and sion of the lessons learned from these case-stud- conservation. Over three years (1995-1998), the ies is important in order to improve future work following interrelated activities were carried out: in the subject area and to examine how ethnob- (a) organization of field training workshops on otany can actually contribute to the analysis of ethnobotany and the sustainable use of community-based management systems, particu- plant resources at a national and sub- larly medicinal plant resources. regional level, and the publication of pro- The impact of socio-cultural, economic and ceedings as resource material; environmental changes on the traditional use and (b) provision of small grants to young ethnob- management of medicinal plants is discussed, as otanists and research institutions to facili- are the possibilities for further projects which tate their involvement in community devel- could benefit community development and con- opment programmes; servation in the region. However, because time (c) provision of small grants to graduate stu- and available funds are limited for these case- dents for field research in ethnobotany and studies, this project is more of a learning process the sustainable use of plant resources; than standardized research. For more details (d) provision of travel grants to young regarding the ethnobotanical methods used in researchers from all over the region in these case-studies and suggestions for applica- order to facilitate greater professional inter- tions in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas, refer to a action and exchange. companion discussion paper by Ajay Rastogi A thematic approach was adopted for (1998). addressing important issues at the interface of

4 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Part 1

Resource management in the Himalayas: case-studies compiled and lessons learned

Yildiz Aumeeruddy-Thomas

The ethnobotany of fruit plants and its role in conservation and community development in Drosh Valley, Chitral (Hindu 1Kush-Himalaya Region) of Pakistan, by Dr F. Hussain

Highlights of the study edgeable. The majority of them knew 4-8 fruits, while 3% of the respondents could list 11-12 At the southern fringe of Central Asia, at the fruits. Knowledge was related to educational sta- northernmost tip of Pakistan, lies the District of tus, and the illiteracy rate was 35%. Chitral. It lies between longitude 71°30’ and Ranking methods were used to analyse the 74°55’ east and between latitudes 35°15’ to fruits most preferred by the populations. The cri- 36°55’ north. It is bounded by Afghanistan to the teria used included good flavour, medical value north and west, by Ghizir District to the east, and and contribution to health in general, suitability by Swat and Dir Districts to the south. to climatic conditions, yield, price, storage life, The major aim of this study was to analyse as well as possible use of wood for furniture and local knowledge and practices about fruit trees construction. Grapes and apples were considered with a view to understanding the scope of the best fruits, followed by pomegranate, walnut, orchard development in this area. ‘tonge’ (pear), apricot, mulberry, and ‘nashpati’ A total of 728 respondents belonging to 36 (pear). villages were interviewed. The majority of them Agronomic practices such as propagation, were in the age groups 21-40 and 41-60. Most of the pruning and picking of fruits, use of agro- them were either illiterate or had only primary chemicals for protection against insects, diseases education. No women were included in the and pests, the role of grazing animals, and the use groups because of the veil system or shyness. of commercial fertilizers and organic manure The following six wild fruit plants were known were analysed. Post-harvesting methods, such as to the local community: storage and drying, were also explored. A low (1) Diospyros lotus, percentage of respondents used agrochemicals, (2) Eleagnus angustifolia, commercial fertilizers and organic manure for (3) Vitis vinifera, fruit plants. No preservatives were used during (4) Prunus dulcis, the storage and drying of fruits. The agronomic (5) Monotheca buxifolia and part of the work was mainly done by men, while (6) Ficus palmata. the storage and drying of fruits were carried out There were 19 cultivated species in the area, by women. and most appeared in at least two varieties. For The majority of the locals sold the fruits in grapes, the number of local varieties was fresh and dried condition either themselves, near between 10 and 20. The knowledge of the their houses or on the roadside, or in the nearby respondents was analysed by the method of free- grocery shops. A few sold to shopkeepers in the listing. It was found that the age groups between main bazaars and fruit markets. The fruits were 21 and 40 and 41 and 60 were the most knowl- sold ungraded.

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 5 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Fruit orchards in the Swat valley, a very similar situation to the adjoining Drosh valley in Northern Pakistan. Photo: Y. Aumeeruddy-Thomas

Many local preparations such as desserts, management, both in terms of pre-harvest (culti- herbal medicine, food, syrups, wines, and top- vation, propagation, pruning, etc.) and post-har- pings were made from fruits. Walnut and mul- vest techniques. However the whole system berry wood was used in furniture-making, while seems to be declining. One reason for this is that those of other species were used as beams, fire- higher-yielding varieties of fruit plants are replac- wood, thatching materials, and for making sheds ing older varieties, although it is probable that the or shelters. The leaves of most fruit plants were existing varieties are better adapted to local con- used as fodder, while dead leaves were com- ditions. They could possibly be used as stock for posted into organic manure. grafting new varieties, and the grafted plants There was a keen interest shown in the intro- could then be provided to the people in Chitral. duction of new tree species and good varieties of Another factor contributing to the decline is the fruits as well as training in post-harvest tech- problem of poor communications (roads), market nologies i.e. the preservation, drying and packing facilities, and lack of support from agricultural of fruits. More information was also needed extension services. This is therefore mostly an regarding the fruit market and industry, but the issue of national policy and priorities. majority of respondents were in favour of devel- This type of study may help in terms of the oping crop-cultivation areas in comparison to better recognition of local potential. A lack of fruit cultivation (probably because of the quick recognition of local potential at the national returns for crops). The area needs improvement level would eventually lead to the genetic ero- in the communication system, the construction of sion of the local fruit tree varieties of Chitral and roads and irrigation canals, and in educational to the related knowledge systems, and hence to a and health facilities. loss of material for improving fruit trees in Societal changes over the last 30-40 years Pakistan in general. In order to ensure that the show that the younger generations are beginning whole system evolves in the future, both record- to place more trust for their livelihood in modern ing of local knowledge and its continuing sup- developments rather than in the traditional port are essential. resources, hence beginning a process of knowl- Ethnobotanists may be instrumental in this edge erosion in the area. context through developing guidelines for the setting-up of community-based nurseries and Lessons learned gardens, with proper identification of the tree varieties and linking to central agricultural insti- This case-study successfully reveals an area of tutions such as the NARC (National Agricultural Pakistan which has a high potential for fruit culti- Research Council) for developing these tree vari- vation and a rich local knowledge about fruit tree eties ex situ.

6 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Ethnobotanical study on traditional shifting cultivation practices based on the alder tree (Alnus nepalensis), by the Naga 2tribes of Nagaland India, by S. Changija, A. Yaden and A. Aier Highlights of the study village land administered by the village council, clan land, and individual land. This ethnobotanical study on the use of alder by The methods used for investigation were: the Naga tribes of Nagaland was carried out with mapping the alder-growing area in the whole the objective of making a detailed survey of local state; identification of all species associated with practices related to the improvement of soil con- the alder-based farming system; and the collec- servation and fertility in shifting cultivation sys- tion of ethnobotanical, socio-economic and tems (‘jhum’). anthropological data through field observations Nagaland is one of the frontier states of and semi-structured and structured interviews. India. It is flanked by Myanmar in the east, Analyses of soil samples from alder-based farms Assam State in the west and north, and Manipur were carried out as well as biomass analysis of State in the south. The climate is monsoonal, alder coppice production. with an average rainfall of 2,500 mm per year Alder grows in the high altitudes of the and 85% relative humidity. The relief is moun- northern temperate belt. Alnus nepalensis fixes tainous, with relatively steep slopes, deep gorges, nitrogen by forming symbiotic associations with and narrow valleys. Land status in the state is as the nitrogen-fixing bacterium Frankia. It is follows: 7% of the geographical area is under drought- and frost-resistant, and is found on slop- government control and the rest is under the control of tribal communities. The state is inhabited by the Nagas, a mongoloid group, of which 16 different sub-groups are officially recognized, having diverse linguistic backgrounds. The society is organized into clans, which are exogamous units. The most common form of agriculture in the area is ‘slash-and-burn’ The 'jhum' shifting cultivation system with lopped Alnus nepalensis in Nagaland. agriculture called Photo: A. Rastogi ‘jhum’. It is estimated that 7,200 sq km of the state area is under ing ground from 800-2,500 meters, growing on a cultivation, i.e. 43.3% of the total area, with an wide range of soils. It coppices readily (100-200 annual increase of about 750 sq km. The second coppice shoots per tree), and coppicing encour- type of agricultural system is wet rice cultivation, ages suckering. Alder is a pioneer species of which is restricted to a relatively small area degraded land. which has potential for cultivation - 1,790 sq km As the study shows, it is a multi-purpose for the whole state. species used as a shade tree, for timber and fur- Indigenous agroforestry systems are also niture, and as firewood. The leaves and twigs practiced by the Nagas in the form of bamboo make an excellent green manure, the ash is and palm groves mixed with various fruit and spread as fertiliser in the ‘jhum’ fields, the thick timber tree species. The main purpose of the bark is used for extracting a dye for clothes, the agriculture is to sustain livelihood systems; how- juice of young bark is medicinal, mushrooms and ever, social prestige is claimed on the accumula- borers growing on the wood are eaten, and the tion of sufficient surplus to afford large feasts. larva of the long-horned beetle which colonizes Three types of land ownership system are found: the twigs is a delicacy for the Nagas.

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 7 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Alder-based farming is typically managed in jenkinsiana, bamboos, species of Caryota, peren- four- to ten-year cycles in Nagaland. Alder trees nial vegetables, and medicinal and ornamental are either protected or planted, and a wide varia- plants. The fast growth of alder controls the suc- tion in individual tree age has been created with- cession of other species, and the need for weed- in alder stands. ing is kept to a minimum. Alder displays other characteristics noted by The net income over two years is 18,711Rps, local farmers: the wood is easy to split and can be which is a comparatively higher rate than that of burnt the next day after cutting, the stumps are non alder-based ‘jhum’ fields in Nagaland state. relatively fire-resistant, and cultivation areas underneath alder trees always give better yields Lessons learned than those where there is no alder. The process of alder-based ‘jhum’ cultiva- This study is important as it very clearly shows tion is outlined below. The alder in a ‘jhum’ plot how the use of Alnus nepalensis can actually is pollarded just before slash-and-burn, and inter- improve the shifting cultivation system in this cropping with a number of food crops is con- region. Since this species is widespread through- ducted for two consecutive years. The ‘jhum’ out the Himalayas, this could represent a good plot is then left to recover for at least two years. model for other areas. From a purely agricultural The most appropriate height for pollarding is perspective it does indeed seem more efficient about two meters; this is out of the reach of ani- than a non alder-based system. However, this mals, is above the fire level and does not hamper study does not show the benefits of non-’jhum’ the growth of the crops. A sharp hatchet is need- systems in terms of, for example, non-timber ed to cut the trunk the first time the tree is pol- products and hunting, and the expansion of alder- larded, so as not to split the stool head. It is then based cultivation systems could in the long run plastered with mud, and a stone stab placed on affect the useful biodiversity of the area. Indeed, top to prevent the head from sustaining frost as has been pointed out in this study, the quick damage, and to orient the shoots in a more hori- growth of alder controls the succession of other zontal direction. According to practitioners, it is species. Ideally, complex agroforestry systems not advisable to keep the coppice shoots longer including all useful species should be developed than six years because the weight of old coppice side-by-side, as this would prevent the erosion of shoots affects the stump during periods of high useful products in the area. winds. After the first pollarding, it is also advis- Ethnobotanists could help in this context in able during the next winter season to carry out assessing jointly with local communities the use- selective thinning of the coppice shoots in order ful biodiversity and interrelationship with habitat to keep only about six shoots growing. Alder and other non-useful species, discuss with the trees may be associated with a large number of communities the relevance of these products to crops. A total of 60 crop species have been their livelihood, and jointly plan a model of land recorded growing in alder-based ‘jhum’ cultiva- use which includes alder-based ‘jhum’ systems, tion. Many wild vegetables and fruit-bearing permanent agroforestry systems and intensified plants are also conserved on the field, including irrigated agricultural lands as well as communi- useful tree and palm species such as Livistona ty-protected forests.

Alnus nepalensis in ‘jhum’ shifting cultivation systems in Nagaland. Photo: Pei Shengji

8 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI The use of indigenous knowledge in mountain natural resource management: a case-study of the Wancho community, Tirap 3District, Arunachal Pradesh, India, by A. Godbole

Highlights of the study fishponds during the three to four months after rice harvesting. Opium cultivation is an impor- This case-study aims at documenting the indige- tant economic activity, though the product is nous knowledge and related resource management mostly used at the household level. system of the Wancho tribes living in the south- In Zadua, the decision regarding the selec- eastern corner of Arunachal Pradesh, as well as tion of resource areas for ‘jhum’ is taken by the identifying the factors affecting biodiversity and community with consent of the ‘wangham’ (vil- indigenous knowledge systems in that area. lage customary chief) and his council. Certain Arunachal Pradesh is India’s most eastern rituals are performed as part of the selection pro- province, and is characterized by its remoteness cedure. The criteria for selection are based on the and its very high biological and cultural diversi- maturity of fallow, an understanding of the pre- ty (about 30-35 major ethnic groups). This work vious ‘jhum’ cycles, and the distance of the on the Wancho tribal community is an effort to resource area from the village. The practice understand the complex mechanisms involved in called ‘honeyem’ consists of keeping the natural resource management and to find out how seedlings of two species, ‘puak’ (Macaranga these systems could be used effectively in denticulata) and ‘puakmi’ (Mallotus today’s context. A multi-method approach has tetracoccus), to grow in the rice fields during the been adopted, including participant observation, second year of ‘jhum’ cultivation. The advan- informal survey along transect walks and in the tages of this practice according to local percep- villages, biodiversity inventory, resource map- tions are the following: it increases soil fertility, ping, and the quantification of ethnobotanical checks soil erosion, and produces good fuelwood knowledge through the method of pair-wise and timber within four to five years. ranking. ‘Jhum’ fallows are sometimes transformed Shifting cultivation, locally called ‘zang’ into palm groves called ‘loham’, especially with and more widely known in this region as ‘jhum’, Livistona jenkinsiana, a most useful species (the is the major subsistence activity of the Wanchos leaves are used for thatching). Similarly, well- as well as of most other tribal groups of north- developed bamboo groves are maintained around east India. The major problems identified in the the village, mainly on individual lands. area are: a high rate of deforestation presumably Five community forests are located within due to population growth, and a reduction in the the Zadua village territory and represent a major cycle of shifting cultivation (eight to ten years source of timber, fuelwood, game, and non-tim- instead of ten to twelve years); depletion of first ber forest products. These forests are strictly class timber species from Wancho territories due under the control of the village council, except to commercial timber exploitation; the fact that for small patches which may be owned individu- the practice of ‘honeyem’ (a traditional practice ally. Logging and large-scale extraction are not which involves maintaining fuelwood species of allowed in the community forests though timber good quality in the fallows) is declining; and the extraction seems to have occurred more recently. spread of Christianity and tribal development The role of these community forests is also to practices which is affecting the culture and avoid disputes between different communities; resource use system. they are also burial grounds. Some twelve The following land-use systems are found in species of mammal are found in these forests, as the Wancho tribal areas: ‘jhum’ cultivated and well as numerous bird species. fallow areas, wet rice-cultivated terraces, home- The role of women in resource management gardens (‘sawat’), opium plots, and community has been explored. Though they are not represent- forests (‘lings’). ed in the village council and have no formal deci- The study conducted in one village, Zadua, sion-making power, they are much more involved shows that the Wanchos are maintaining a ten- in resource management than the men. Women year ‘jhum’ cycle, which is a sufficient time to are solely responsible for all the activities, except allow biodiversity to recover in the successional cutting for ‘jhum’ cultivation and transporting har- vegetation phases, and which also allows recov- vests to the village. Women also do most of the ery of soil fertility. In rice terraces, only one crop terrace cultivation. On the other hand, it is mostly is produced in a year, and terraces are used as men who are involved in opium cultivation.

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 9 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI bling or smoking. Tribal welfare schemes also have an impact today as they can introduce practices which are not necessarily appropriate to local conditions, such as the introduction of chicken hybrids which are highly susceptible to diseases. Due to the need for more cash income, timber is now extracted at a larger scale than before, thus endangering the very existence of the community forests and important products available during periods of scarcity. The main recommendations from this study are: to introduce more cash-oriented crops into the ‘jhum’ system; and to support and develop the ‘morung’ as a means of raising awareness among the Wanchos of the importance of their own knowledge system. This would also help to facilitate dialogue with project-implementing agencies. Other species can be introduced based on the ‘honeyem’ system. Community forests degraded due to the logging of timber should be replanted with local species such as Duabanga grandiflora and fast-growing timber species such as Gmelina arborea. The practice of ‘loham’ and the plantation of bamboo groves are proving to be very complementary to ‘jhum’ and should not be abandoned.

Lessons learned This study shows the importance of indigenous knowledge systems in the management of ‘jhum’. It is also useful in demonstrating the Store of fuelwood originating from shifting cultivation complementary aspects of other land use sys- areas in Arunachal Pradesh. Photo: A. Rastogi tems such as ‘loham’, bamboo groves, and community forests. Through the method of free-listing, it was Through addressing the role of women in found that 42 species used for fuelwood are agriculture, it shows that they are the primary known by the women. Preferences for specific workers in agriculture, and therefore represent a fuelwood species were analysed by the method of particular target group to work with in the future. pair-wise ranking. This is a fastidious and time- As pointed out by the study, ‘morung’ are impor- consuming method, based on criteria selected, by tant places for the transfer of knowledge, but are women, in a preliminary phase. The criteria are only for men. Understanding how these practices availability, heat-producing capacity, burning are affected in the modern context enables us to time, and light-producing capacity. The highest think of possible avenues for the future. ranking was given to three species: ‘gnut’ Future work by ethnobotanists could concen- (Dendrocalamus species), ‘puak’ (Macaranga trate on modes of knowledge-transfer among denticulata), and ‘puakmi’ (Mallotus women, and on the creation of a forum whereby tetracoccus). women can express their opinions on their precise Major changes affecting biodiversity and its needs as a group, without too much interference related knowledge systems are outlined below. from men. Specific study methods for understand- There are changes in land-use systems in that ing women’s knowledge still need to be devised, some areas for ‘jhum’ are being transformed into and these need to be less time-consuming as plantations for tea, a cash crop. A traditional type women are generally too busy with everyday of club known as a ‘morung’ has long been tasks. Two major ways of working with women important as a place where young boys, and adult are with ‘participant observation’ or in special and elderly men would gather for the transfer of group workshops which are appropriately sched- knowledge and art and to take part as a group in uled according to their timetable during the year community work. Today, the role of these ‘clubs’ and use a number of methods and exercises which is fading, and they are sometimes used for gam- define in advance the possible concrete outputs.

10 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Preliminary studies in the ethnobotany of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh, and its linkage with biodiversity, by 4M. K. Alam and S. K. Khisa

Highlights of the study (fuelwood), ‘daru’ (medicine), ‘mida’ (sweet), ‘tida’ (bitter), ‘khoro’ (sour), ‘mod’ (country The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) region is liquor). located in the south-east corner of Bangladesh In the same way, a whole set of different and lies between 21°25’ and 23°45’ north lati- terms have been analysed as used in the Mara tude and between 91°40’ and 92°50’ east longi- and Tripura tribes. Local taxa may differ from tude. The area is characterized by its hilly relief scientific taxa. The Tripura tribe for instance dif- and high ethnic diversity. Ten major ethnic ferentiates four taxa of plantain bananas accord- groups are recognized to be living in the area. ing to a set of characteristics including habitat, The traditional utilization of biologically diverse height, clump size and number of off-sets, pseu- resources in the hill region is related to the dostem sheath, position of fruiting bunch, leaf diverse use pattern. This study aims to under- texture, flowering period, taste of inflorescence stand the indigenous knowledge system and how and pith. These taxa are locally called: ‘tampoi- it relates to biodiversity resource management. thali’, ‘jati-thali’, ‘liarang-thali’, ‘jati- The methods used to explore the indigenous laiphengthali’. The texture of leaf laminas and knowledge are: semi-structured interviews in the the extent to which they split easily are also field with small groups of people including men important characteristics as the leaves are used and women; indoor or village level free-listing for making plates and for wrapping. Scientific exercises to list all species known in each use studies in the past, however, differentiated only category (timber, fruit trees, ‘jhum’ species etc.); two taxa of wild plantain: Musa sapientum var. village market surveys; surveys of species grow- sylvestris, and M. ornata. ing on the homestead; and collections of herbar- Local perceptions were analysed in order to ium voucher specimens. distinguish the criteria governing the choice of The results of the investigation show that each category of wild plant used by the local some 185 species from 60 families were found to tribes. These criteria are the following: be used for different purposes. These species (a) fruit: sweet and acidic taste (they generally range from Pteridophytes to Gymnosperms, and eat most fruits eaten by monkeys, squirrels Angiosperms including both Dicotyledons and and birds); Monocotyledons. Specific use categories are: (b) edible fruits, leaves and shoots: tenderness, fruits, leaf and shoot vegetables, fuelwood, house not acrid, low fibre content, no bad smell, posts, furniture, and health-care. containing essential oils (it is generally A study of the folk taxonomy reveals that thought that leaves eaten by cattle and buf- hill people use different nomenclature or terms to falos are edible); indicate different categories of plants according (c) fuelwood species: ease of felling (splits to growth habit, habitat, and part used. Thus, suf- easily, dries quickly, burns uniformly with fixes are added to plant names to indicate their little smoke and no sparks from the char- utility or where they grow or what part of the coal); plant is used. (d) fuelwood species: not prone to attack by For example, the Chakma tribe uses the suf- termites during storage and not containing fix ‘lodi’, and the Marma tribe the suffix ants; ‘noi’/’nui’ to indicate that a plant is a climber. (e) house posts: should have a straight bole, be The following words in Chakma may be associ- easy to fell and should not be prone to ated to the name of a plant in order to determine insect attack; its characteristics: ‘mura’ (hill), ‘jhar’or ‘tarum’ (f) furniture-making: should be light to moder- (forest), ‘jhum’ (shifting cultivation), ‘brikkha’ ately heavy, with a straight grain, be easy to (tree), ‘jhoop’ (shrub), ‘chotogach’ (herb), ‘shag’ work, and have natural colours; (leaf vegetable), ‘lodi’ (climber), ‘dhela’ (g) medicine: plants should have a bitter taste, (branch), ‘phul’ (flower), ‘gola’ (fruit), ‘shigor’ mucilaginous properties and/or soft-tex- (root), ‘dhan’ (paddy), ‘baj’ (bamboo), ‘darboa’ tured leaves.

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 11 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI A variety of trees grow in the homestead Lessons learned area. These include fruit trees, timber trees, and different species grown for obtaining housing This study shows that local biodiversity percep- materials, such as bamboos. A number of plants tions can be understood through the analysis of producing spices, tubers and beans are also local nomenclature and vernacular classifica- found. tions. Too often it is assumed, in studies of local An important tree-felling practice related to knowledge systems, that a simple list of species biodiversity-management was recorded. Trees known to the population will adequately describe are always cut for ‘jhum’ above 1-1.5 m. The local knowledge. However, only through the reasons for this are that stumps at this height analysis of local nomenclature can a precise develop better coppice shoots which remain out vision of the local perception and use of biodi- of reach of animal browsing, boles developed versity be attained. Moreover, as is shown in this from coppice shoots are straight, and stumps study, the recording of criteria on which local along with newly-developed shoots can be used preferences are based can reveal local rationale as supports for yams and other creeping vegeta- based, in turn, on practical aspects, which may bles. This practice helps in the quick develop- also be related to religious or cultural beliefs. ment of secondary forest from coppices when the Finally, this study shows that precise ‘jhum’ field is abandoned after cultivation. descriptions of local practices (such as the felling Previous studies by Khisa also showed that system of trees in this area) which may at first some species are not felled when encountered in sight not be understood are appropriate to local the ‘jhum’ fields. This also contributes to quick conditions. regeneration, and controls soil erosion. There are The important point about this type of study other reasons for keeping trees in the ‘jhum in Bangladesh is that it is innovative and sheds fields’, including religious belief (particularly new light on the usefulness of tribal practices. associated with Ficus species), for keeping a Conducting this type of study in the future may stock of seeds which will facilitate regeneration, help to change national policies. to improve the growth of paddy and other annu- Meanwhile, sharing the results of the al crops (Albizzia and Derris particularly), and research with the communities may also help for providing resting places, in the case of large them to acquire a sense of pride regarding their specimens. knowledge, which might in the past have been ‘Jhum’ cultivation is important in terms of considered primitive and inappropriate. biodiversity-management from the point of view of wild crop domestication; some twelve species of Dioscorea are grown in the Chittagong Hills. In the ‘jhum’ agroecosystem, maintenance of biodiversity is also due to the fact that people collect a large number of products in different habitats and at different seasons. Small amounts of each product can be collected without putting too much pressure on the resource.

12 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI The ecology and indigenous management techniques of tribal homegardens - a case-study of the Marma tribe in Rangamati 5Hill District, Bangladesh, by Dr M. Millat-e-Mustapha

Highlights of the study The results of this study show that ‘jhum’ is the major agricultural activity in the area in asso- The Rangamati Hill district of Chittagong Hill ciation with the collection of non-timber forest Tracts is one of the major hilly regions of products. However, due to shortage of land, the Bangladesh. The district covers an area of ‘jhum’ fields are used on a continuous five to six 6,116.13 sq km, has a total population of 0.401 year cycle. The size of the homegardens is inde- million, and is inhabited by twelve ethnic com- pendent of the respondents’ annual income, munities of different cultures and lifestyles. The which is mostly based on the size of the ‘jhum’ tribal population represents about 56% of the land to which they have access. This may vary total population. This case-study is based on the from 9 ha for the richest to 1 ha for the poorest. assumption that tribal community knowledge of In all cases, homegarden size is about 0.02 ha. the species and their uses represents an important The size of flat croplands varies from 0.25 ha for resource in itself and is now recognized as sig- the richest to 0.04 ha for the poorest members of nificant for scientific research, biodiversity con- the community. All the respondents of the poor servation, and the development of alternative farm category and 30% of the medium farm cat- economic options. egory reported that they were deficient in rice for Agriculture represents the main production some period during the year. Income from the system among the tribal communities. sale of timber/fuelwood was a major activity dur- Agricultural areas are used variously for ‘jhum’ ing this period. cultivation, flat croplands, and homegardens. A total of 19 perennial species was recorded This case-study looks at how local indigenous from the set of 30 homegardens surveyed. knowledge is applied in the management of Among these, 13 (69%) were food and fruit-pro- homegardens. The Marma tribe, which is the sec- ducing species, five (26%) were timber species, ond biggest tribe in the district, has been chosen and one (5%) was an ornamental. A pair-ranking to conduct this study. The Hapchori community exercise with ten common species including in the sub-district of Kaptai was chosen random- Aegle marmelos, Areca catechu, Bambusa vul- ly for the study site. garis, Carica papaya, Citrus grandis, Cocos A preliminary socio-economic survey, based nucifera, Gmelina arborea, Hibiscus rosa-sinen- on a structured questionnaire, was carried out in sis, Moringa oleifera and Tamarindus indica, order to determine socio-economic parameters of showed that Gmelina arborea was the most pre- the study village and to select respondents for ferred species, followed by Cocos nucifera, detailed survey. Based on total annual income, Areca catechu, Carica papaya, and Bambusa farmers were categorized into three groups: rich vulgaris. (income more than Tk 50,000); medium (income The plants were raised either from seeds, Tk 36,000-50,000); and poor (income less than seedlings, or vegetative propagules. Seeds were Tk 36,000). Ten homegardens were sampled ran- sown purposely for some species and collected domly from each of the farm categories in which from other species which regenerated naturally, vegetation surveys were conducted, by listing for example teak. Most of the fruit and food-pro- species present. A tree-use matrix was then used ducing and timber species were propagated from with each farmer and his family. This was fol- seeds and seedlings. Only Moringa oleifera, lowed by a semi-structured interview, with ques- Bambusa vulgaris and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis tions related to: were propagated vegetatively. As far as the sup- (a) origin and type of planting materials (cut- ply of planting material is concerned, farmers tings, seedlings, seeds, etc.) found in the depend on three different sources: hill, homegar- homegarden; den, and market. Almost three quarters of the (b) criteria for the selection of mother trees; planting material is obtained free from homegar- (c) other management practices such as weed- dens, hills, or as gifts from friends. No specific ing, lopping, pruning, thinning, coppicing, mother tree was sought by the farmer when seek- pollarding, manuring, and watering. ing planting material. Weeding was carried out in Daily activity and seasonal calendars were the homegarden in order to clear the ground and also used to assess overall activities and gender- thus decrease encounters with snakes and poiso- specific ones. nous insects.

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 13 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Most plants grown in homegardens were found to have multiple uses. The women are largely responsible for maintaining the homegardens. Even though some of the homegarden plants have medicinal properties it was found that people preferred the medicinal plants originating from ‘jhum’ areas. Major conclusions of this study are that homegardens require very little labour input and are very cost effective as most of the planting material comes from the homegardens themselves. Fertility level is also maintained through the accumulation of leaf lit- ter. Homegardens are therefore seen as having the potential for expansion and for increasing economic benefits. This is particularly so because of the decreasing soil fertility of the ‘jhum’ areas which is leading to a decline in their production. Lessons learned As in many other studies conducted in homegardens throughout the world, this work shows that they are very appropriate for the cultivation of a large number of species directly useful to the household. A common feature shared by homegardens in general is the high level of fertility due to permanent tree cover and manure from livestock and kitchen waste. As women are the main caretakers of the house and the children, they are also mainly responsible for the homegardens, as is shown in this study. The expansion suggested in this study is constrained by the land available around the homestead, and the small size of homegardens is precisely due to limited available land. The transformation of ‘jhum’ lands on the other hand into permanent agroforestry systems could be envisaged. Elements of these agroforestry systems can already be detected in the ‘jhum’ areas, where trees regenerating naturally are sometimes kept, and other tree species are occasionally cultivated. Changes from shifting cultivation systems to permanent agroforestry systems have occurred in other parts of the world, many examples of which are found in Indonesia (Aumeeruddy and Sansonnens 1994). Experience in Indonesia, however, shows that the establishment of agroforestry systems is generally accompanied by intensifi- cation in the use of flat, irrigated land areas in order to supplement the food crops which may no longer be cultivated in the shifting Harvesting medicinal plants. Well preserved forest is of utmost cultivation areas. importance for the collection of medicinal plants. Photo: A. Rastogi

14 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI A community-based case-study on the indigenous system of ‘sal’ (Shorea robusta) forest management, by S. Rajbandhary, 6N. Dongol and B. K. Karna

Highlights of the study level contained sections on socio-economic and demographic information; past and present Shorea robusta (‘sal’) forests used to extend forestry practices; people’s participation in throughout the Terai and Siwalik regions of forestry management; the utilization of ‘sal’ Nepal as well as in the fringes of the hills. parts; the role of indigenous knowledge in forest Degradation of these forests over the last two management; and the relationship between decades has been mainly due to timber extraction indigenous and community forest management. for commercial purposes, resettlement of large The data obtained were analysed either through populations from the mid-hills, and a lack of con- percentage or using standard deviation or chi- trol of these forests by the agencies concerned. square methods. ‘Sal’ is known to be one of the most impor- This study shows that until around 1957 the tant tree species of Nepal as it provides good and forests in the study site area used to be protected highly-priced timber as well as a number of other by the Talukdars or Mukhyia acting as village useful products, including fuelwood, fodder for heads. Mukhiya (Talukdar) were appointed by livestock, good compost, oleoresin and oil from the king to collect taxes and revenue and were the bark and seeds, and leaves which are highly responsible for law and order in the area includ- valued for making plates. It also has strong reli- ing enforcing control over the forests, in particu- gious significance as it has been argued that Lord lar the extraction of timber. Once transportation Buddha was born and attained salvation under a facilities were established, people from the tem- ‘sal’ tree. An important characteristic of ‘sal’ is perate and high alpine region started migrating that it is highly resilient and coppices readily; it into the area, resulting in high levels of forest also resists burning and is adapted to relatively destruction. This took place between 1962 and poor soil conditions. 1985. At the beginning of the 1980s, some Community forestry is a system established forests were handed over to the Panchayats (dis- in Nepal in which it is recognized that the com- trict level institution), but this system did not munities should participate in and bear the work, and the forests continued to be exploited. responsibility for the management and utilization The nationalization of all forests between 1957 of their nearby forest resources. The history of and 1987 also led to a situation of open access to the community forestry system and its present the forest resources as everybody tried to maxi- status have been extensively documented by a mize their own personal benefits, and the Forest large number of scholars and foresters in Nepal. Department did not have sufficient man-power to This particular case-study aims at analysing the control this. historical background, indigenous forest man- By 1987 the forests had been so destroyed agement practices and the relation between the that initiatives emerged from the local level as indigenous and community forestry practices in people realized that their resources were disap- five community forests (Chuchekhola, Betkholsi, pearing. This consisted mainly in the establish- Chitrepani, Neureni/Chisepani, and Pragatishil/ ment of forest management committees, which Pradampokhari) out of the 45 community forests restricted access to the forest at the community of Makawanpur District. The study area is locat- level. Though the forest started regenerating, ed in the district of Makawanpur, which has a women had to face the problem of having to go population of 315,588, consisting mainly of long distances to collect firewood. migrants of different ethnic origins. Population Again in 1989-90, political instability in the growth is 2.63% per year. The main occupations country led to a new wave of destruction of the in the area are agriculture and livestock rearing. forest. While the initial forest protection commit- In the area ‘sal’ grows mostly in pure stands. tees were dissolved at Nureni and Chisepani (two However a number of other species are also pre- villages from the study site), in Chitrepani the sent, such as Terminalia tomentosa, T. bellirica, study revealed women-initiated protection prac- Adina cordifolia and Schima wallichii. tices of the forest around 1986. These resulted in The information was obtained through for- the quick regeneration of ‘sal’ coppices to the mal and informal interviews with key informants extent that growth of other species such as and at household level, and through field obser- Eugenia operculata, Terminalia chebula and T. vations. The questionnaire for the household bellirica was greatly affected.

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 15 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Finally in 1991, Chuchekhola was handed recently through the implementation of commu- over by the Forest Department to the communi- nity forestry. The recommendations are that peo- ty, according to a management plan jointly ple should plant multipurpose trees in and around developed by the users and the foresters. This the forest and on private lands. Systems such as was followed by the establishment of communi- the use of improved stoves should be established ty forestry in 1992 at Betkholsi and in 1996 at to minimise the amount of fuelwood collected. Chitrepani and Pragatishill Padampokhari. Women should be included more in the decision- Community forestry management covers the making processes. protection, utilization and distribution of forest products as well as the institutional or organiza- Lessons learned tional arrangements by which they are carried out. While indigenous management consisted mainly Community forestry in Nepal and joint forest in complete protection from grazing, illicit cutting management in India have been extensively doc- of fuelwood and fodder collections, the new man- umented. This case-study is interesting because it agement system introduced the practices of thin- successfully shows the importance of previously ning, singling, weeding, and specific access existing indigenous knowledge, and the impor- regimes. The access rules, the penalty structure tance of people’s participation. and forest protection provision were adapted to Reading between the lines, however, it is those in practice before, but were now presented clear that indigenous knowledge in these cases in a written form. Under the new rules, anyone was not sufficient for managing the forests prop- cutting ‘sal’ trees could be fined Rps.100, where- erly. Although it succeeded in protecting the as those cutting Terminalia tomentosa would be nearby forest, the pressure was only transferred fined only Rps.5. The hunting of birds and other to neighbouring forests which were not under animals resulted in a fine of Rps.100. Village for- control. New problems for the women were also est guards were appointed, just as was the case created, and political instability led to a collapse with the previous community level system. of local initiatives. Management practices such as thinning, “Why did this happen?” is probably the major pruning, weeding, and selective logging were question which still lacks an answer. One hypoth- conducted according to specific management esis is that social cohesion was not very high in prescriptions in specific forest compartments and these new communities. There was a high percent- following a particular schedule. For example, age of migrants, and people acted mostly on an fuelwood and fodder are collected only on individual basis. As is stated in the study, the situ- Tuesday from October to May in Chitrepani. ation of free access in times of political disruption Species other than ‘sal’ can be cut for fuelwood, or nationalization had a very negative impact as whereas only branches of ‘sal’ or coppices there was no control except through local initia- through the thinning process can be collected for tives which were not sufficiently mature. fuelwood. Many of these activities are conducted Possible avenues for the future may consist as a group. The main functions of the forest pro- in trying to address some of the issues raised. tection committee are to appoint forest watchers, This study shows that both the resiliency of ‘sal’ arrange meetings, implement rules and regula- as a species, together with management practices tions, and make decisions. From this study it which consisted in cutting all other species, have appears that people’s participation in the protec- actually contributed to the impoverishment of tion of the forest can be traced at least ten to these forests in terms of biodiversity conserva- twelve years back before the establishment of tion, converting these community forests into community forestry. almost pure ‘sal’ stands. However, knowing the Information from the study area shows that importance of trees such as Terminalia bellirica ‘sal’ is used in a variety of ways, as follows. and Terminalia chebula in the Ayurvedic, Plates for rituals and ceremonies are made from Chinese and Tibetan medical systems, it could leaves. This work is carried out mainly by well be in the interest of the communities also to women, from the collection, to the stitching of the protect these trees. These are new avenues for leaves. The oleoresin from the bark is used as investigation in the future. incense and as a disinfectant fumigant. The resin Another question which arises is: “Would is used against diarrhoea and dysentery - the gum community forestry have succeeded if the major soothes burnt skin, and the oil cures skin disease. species did not have such a level of resilience”? Juice from the bark is administered in cases of In other words, can community forestry succeed stomachache. Paints and dyes are made from an in regenerating complex forests comprising extract from the bark. The leaves are used for ani- species more vulnerable or less resilient than mal bedding, and afterwards for making compost. ‘sal’? A discussion of this subject is given, by It was concluded from this case-study that all Cunningham, in the People and Plants working the study area had a past history of indigenous paper on Joint Forest Management in India management which had been improved more (Aumeeruddy-Thomas et al., 1999).

16 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI The application of indigenous knowledge of fodder trees in Kalikasthan, Rasuwa District, Nepal, by N. P. Manandhar and 7S. K. Archaya

Highlights of the study and pastures, and forest foliage are the main sources of fodder. Kalikasthan is 85 km north-west of Kathmandu. Due to the depletion of the forests, people in The study area covers six wards, a ward being the Kalikhastan started introducing forest fodder smallest administrative unit of the Village trees in the agricultural lands a few decades ago. Development Committee (VDC). The area is Twenty-one fodder tree species have been found hilly, and the altitude ranges from 700-1,500 m. to be growing on the farms, of which the majori- The whole area is well linked by road. Average ty are from the family Moraceae, including six annual rainfall is about 995 mm, and the temper- Ficus species: Ficus auriculata, F. hispida, F. ature varies from 12° to 23°C. The vegetation of neriifolia, F. racemosa, F. semicordata, F. sub- the area ranges from tropical to sub-tropical. The sincisa, and Artocarpus lakoocha. Three species aims of this study are to: are from the Araliaceae: Brassaiopsis hainla, (a) identify farmers’ management practice and Schefflera venulosa, and Trevesia palmata, and knowledge in relation to tree plantation on two are legumes from the family Fabaceae: private land; Bauhinia purpurea and Milletia extensa. (b) record the important fodder trees in terms Most of the fodder trees are multipurpose of quality, production, and preference; species yielding a variety of products including (c) suggest measures for improving the fodder fruits, edible leaves and flowers, and fibres for situation in the study area; making ropes. A number of other species present (d) assess the role of livestock in the local on the homestead area are mostly used for animal economy; bedding and ultimately as compost. Among these (e) identify the role of the people in the con- there are large trees (e.g. Castanopsis indica), servation and development of agroforestry. shrubs (e.g. Eupatorium adenophorum), herba- In Nepal, livestock raising is a major charac- ceous ferns (e.g. Nephrolepis cordata), hemiepi- teristic of agriculture, and people are highly phytes (e.g. Rhus wallichii), and small trees (e.g. dependent on the forest for fodder collection. Schima wallichii). The planting of fodder trees on agricultural lands The agroforestry system follows a pattern of to meet local needs is seen as a possible alterna- planting rows of trees along the edge of terraced tive to the rapid destruction of forests, which is fields. Spacing between the trees is arranged so related to general population and livestock that the trees do not hamper each other. In addi- increase. Indigenous agroforestry systems tion, by lopping off tree branches for fodder the including fodder species have existed for a long canopy is maintained according to the farmer’s time, an example of which is described in this requirement and does not overshade crops grow- study. ing on the terraces. Information was collected using household In general, lopping is heaviest at the bottom surveys based on a structured questionnaire, and and becomes gradually lighter towards the top. informal surveys with local workers (school Trees are selected by each farmer according to teachers, community leaders, and shopkeepers) the following characteristics: capacity for retain- and government officials (VDC chairman, staff ing leaves for a long duration, suitability for use of agriculture and forestry sectors). Direct obser- as feed during the flush stage, a positive impact vation in the field and a collection of herbarium on milk production, and improvements in quali- samples added to the study. The area was visited ty, nutrition and taste of milk. Artocarpus four times in order to analyse people’s activities lakoocha for instance keeps its leaves during the at different periods. dry season and is therefore considered a good The study shows that land holdings in the species. area have an average size of 0.76 ha, varying Trees are categorized according to three from 2-40 ropanis (1 ropani = 0.05 ha). Major types: very good (A), good (B) and normal (C). crops are rice (cultivated in low, irrigated areas), An additional set of criteria was found to be used wheat, mustard and potatoes (on the hillsides), for selecting trees: fast growth and quick regen- and maize and millet (in the upper hill areas). eration, all-year-round availability, ability to be Agricultural yields are very dependent on the lopped more than once a year, high moisture con- amount of manure produced by the livestock. tent, suitability to be mixed with all grades of By-products of agriculture, grass from the fields fodder, and suitability for animal bedding. PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 17 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Trees are mainly regenerated from seedlings der crops with ginger and turmeric which are growing spontaneously, and from vegetative cut- more shade-tolerant. This agroforestry system in tings (mainly for Ficus sarmentosa and Kalikhastan should be used as a model for other Schefflera venulosa). Any branches bearing parts of Nepal in the form of a farmer-to-farmer fruits in the highest part of the canopy may be exchange. saved on specific trees in order to collect new seeds for establishing tree nurseries. The tree Lessons learned rows are maintained over time by planting seedlings in places where the farmer thinks the This useful study shows the potential for tree tree should be replaced in the future. This shows domestication in Nepal. The richness of this the intimate knowledge that farmers have of tree study lies in the precise record of the tree species growth and turnover rate. and their particular uses. It also shows a manage- There are some side effects of agroforestry ment system which relies on farmers’ knowledge on agriculture. One is that the tree rows have of tree growth patterns. Such agroforestry sys- some border effects through delaying ripening tems, which are typically based on the growing stages of the crops. There is also an increase in of alternative rows of food crops and trees, have disease attacks and a decrease in overall produc- been described extensively in other parts of the tivity (crops grow too high and thin due to world and have been catalogued by ICRAF shade). But these problems are balanced by the (World Agroforestry Centre) according to the increase of profit made from livestock, and also specific ICRAF guidelines for the description of the feeling of self-sufficiency. Besides compost, agroforestry systems. manure can also be produced with this type of This particular case-study would benefit from these guidelines as some major aspects, such as the economic benefits of this system, have not yet been fully assessed. These data would also be useful for demonstrating the economic sustainability of such a system, and its constraints, before it can actually be used as a model for the country. A list of the fodder tree species, their ecological requirements, general growth patterns, and the types of vegetation from which they originate, could be included to enhance the study.

system, and this helps to maintain the overall fertility of the agricultural lands. Fuelwood needs are also met by collecting dried fodder branches, by- products of crops, and dried animal dung. The farmers estimate that one fodder tree is sufficient to feed one cow or buffalo for one month. Any surplus of milk, curd and ghee (clari- fied butter) is sold in the local market. Following this multiple-criteria system, a diversity of species is planted according to each farmer’s requirements. Other reasons for keeping trees on the homestead are because forests are some distance from the homestead and because of the fear of forest guards. The major recommendations of this study are to guide farmers in the management of tree nurseries for sale and to encourage them to replace bor-

18 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI General points and lessons learned

Based on the analysis of each case study and detailed lessons learned, as drawn above, the general issues identified are: (a) Genetic erosion of local agrobiodiversity and related knowledge, as shown in the study in Chitral, Northern Pakistan. This issue is directly linked to the following: lack of communications, market facilities and agricultural extension services which recognize local potentials, and very little (c) Women play a major role in resource man- interaction between central research insti- agement, but have little decision making tutions and local resources and needs. power nor representation as a group. This (b) Shifting cultivation systems once sustain- is shown in the study on Wancho commu- able from an ecological and economic nities in Arunachal Pradesh, India, as well point of view are no longer sustainable due as in Community Forestry of ‘sal’ in to high population pressure. Among the Nepal. Their interests need to be affirmed, major findings of the different case-studies especially in the context of changes in land which deal with ‘jhum’ cultivation systems use patterns and management practices is the alder-based improved ‘jhum’ cultiva- which are taking place due to societal tion system as well as local initiatives for changes. Women need to be integrated in tree-planting in ‘jhum’ which indicates the all processes of planning and change since potential for shifting cultivation to be they are the primary workers, both in agri- transformed into permanent agroforestry culture and in natural resource use man- plots. agement. (d) Community forestry has been a success story both in Nepal and India. It is a model for other South Asian countries. However, community forestry still needs to challenge the problem of biodiversity conservation as most community forests in the region show relatively low levels of diversity. (e) Agriculture is part of an agroecosystem including a number of components such as swidden fields, community forests, etc. This is important for planning future changes as all parts of this puzzle contribute to local livelihood systems. (f) Domestication of useful crop and tree species is a dynamic process in the Himalayan region, as is shown in the study on agroforestry in Kalikhasthan, Nepal. This is also part of the agrobiodiversity of the region and needs to be supported as living systems and not solely through written records or through ex situ conservation. IPGRI (International Plant Genetic Resources Institute) has a number of programmes in the region which aim at in situ conservation. At the national level, the active support of government agencies is In agroforestry systems in Nepal, Ficus species are lopped needed. for producing fodder. Photo: Y. Aumeeruddy-Thomas

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 19 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Part 2 Medicinal plant management: case-studies compiled and lessons learned Pei Shengji

Indigenous medicinal plants and their socio-economic and cultural significance in the Newar community of Nepal: a case-study of Bungmati VDC, Lalitpur, by M. Pokhrel, 1R. Shrestha and R. K. Sharma

Highlights of the study Bungmati villagers use 33 species as food plants. Likewise 36 plant species are used for This study discusses the status of indigenous fodder, the most easily available species being medicinal plants and their role in the traditional Grewia optiva, Arundinaria sp., Cyperus rotun- health-care practice system of Bungmati Village. dus and Imperata cylindrica. This village lies on the southwest edge of the Altogether twelve plant species are used as Kathmandu Valley, and is well known in Nepal as fuelwood, the preferred species being the com- the dwelling place of Lord Machhindranath. The monly found Grewia optiva, Melia azedarach, population of Bungmati is about 6,000, of which and Spondias auxillaris. Seven species of tree are 80% are Newars, and the rest are Chhetris, used for timber, the most common being Melia Tamangs, Brahmins, and others. As regards reli- azedarach, Alnus nepalensis, Schima wallichii, gion, some 70% are Buddhist, and 30% are Hindu. and Grewia optiva. Agriculture provides the main economy for Among the identified plants, several species the majority of the inhabitants of Bungmati. such as ‘chutro’ (Berberis asiatica), ‘sugand- Rice, maize and wheat are the dominant crops hawal’ (Valeriana jatamansi), ‘ketuki’ (Agave grown in ‘khet’ (irrigated land) while maize, mil- americana), ‘titepati’ (Artemisia indica), and let, pulses, mustard, and beans are cultivated in ‘nigalo’ (Arundinaria sp.) are abundant and ‘ban’ (unirrigated land). Woodcarving, the weav- have commercial value. However, because of a ing of traditional mats and baskets from locally lack of market information, the only plants available plant resources, the trading of a few known to be used commercially are ‘nigalo’ and commercial plants, and the rearing of livestock ‘sugandhawal’. are supplementary economic activities. The liter- Almost 40% of the local people use herbs for acy rate is about 30%. self-treatment, 8% go to the herbal healer (‘baid- The investigation has generated much infor- hya’), and 28% to the faith healer. Some 24%, mation regarding the availability, usage and mostly the younger generation, use modern med- importance of indigenous plants in the study icine. Until ten years ago, most of the population area. More than 144 plant species have been of Bungmati put great faith in traditional herbal investigated, out of which 50 species were medicines and used indigenous plants extensive- reported as being used for medicinal purposes. ly for treating different diseases. They would use Important medicinal plants found in this area are herbal medication in the treatment of such dis- Artemisia vulgaris, Justicia adhatoda, eases and ailments as malarial fever, jaundice, Achyranthes aspera, Bergenia ciliata, Acorus asthma, elephantiasis, eye diseases, colic etc. calamus, and Celtis australis. Nowadays, however, due to the introduction of Altogether 26 species of plants are used for allopathic medicines, people are turning to mod- ceremonial purposes in different religious and ern medicine. This trend is very common cultural activities. Amongst the most commonly amongst the younger generations of all ethnic used species are Buddleia asiatica, Ficus reli- groups. However, people still retain a strong giosa, and Cynodon dactylon. belief in traditional faith healing.

20 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Self-treatment with herbs, and consultation remaining 40% do not have the relevant knowl- with a herbal or a faith healer are the major meth- edge. This may be due to a decrease in natural ods of traditional treatment. The extent of depen- resources as well as the introduction of modern dence on faith healing is related to literacy level medicine. The survey has also revealed that older and to the degree of contact with the outside people are most familiar with plants and their world. Those who are literate and in contact with uses and, as knowledge is no longer being trans- the outside world choose modern medicine first, ferred from one generation to another, young traditional medicine next, and faith healing last. people are becoming increasingly ignorant about Conversely, those who have less contact with the the subject. outside world, choose faith healing first, tradi- The knowledge of and beliefs regarding tional medicine next, and modern medicine only indigenous medicinal plants vary amongst differ- when the first two have failed. There is a similar ent community groups. Knowledge about plant correlation between choice of healer and level of resources is greater in the Tamang and Chhetri income. On average, it was found that people communities than in the Newar community. The with low income are more inclined towards the women of Newar and Chhetri communities were traditional health-care system. They are general- found to be more knowledgeable about the use of ly more comfortable with it as their ancestors indigenous medicinal and cultural plants than have practiced this method for generations, and their male counterparts. In the Tamang commu- expense is not an issue. In the Newar communi- nity, the reverse is true. ty of Bungmati, it is clear that people with good The people of Bungmati were heavily depen- incomes and resources prefer allopathic medi- dent on medicinal plants until 1961. Due to the cines to the traditional health-care system. If any introduction of allopathic medicines, the tradi- disease persists for a long time or recurs after tional use of medicinal plants has been neglected allopathic treatment, then people turn to faith by the new generation because they believe there healers rather than to herbal healers. However, is no benefit. people with low incomes choose herbal self- Another reason for the decline in traditional treatment first, a faith healer or a herbal healer knowledge about plants is the continuous next, and an allopathic doctor only if not cured decrease in the number of valuable medicinal by the other methods. There are ten herbal heal- plants. These are becoming less available, main- ers in Bungmati. ly because of habitat loss and land use change. Around 60% of people are familiar with The protection and conservation of valuable medicinal plants and their value, whilst the plants are being neglected.

View of the village of Bungmati near Kathmandu. Photo: Y. Aumeeruddy-Thomas

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 21 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Moreover, the bulk of traditional medicinal knowledge is limited to a few persons of the older generation, who seldom reveal their secrets. Due to a lack of dissemination and transfer of knowledge, the secrets of traditional herbal medicine are becoming lost with the demise of herbal practitioners. Even healers who do wish to share their knowledge have been unsuccessful in doing so because of the lack of interest shown by the younger generation. The unwillingness of young people to take over herbal practice stems from the fact that the low incomes involved are not sufficient to sustain them. The decrease in the popularity of this practice is also due to the difficulty involved in the growing of the required herbal medicines in the area. Furthermore, patients have started adopting allopathic treatment as an altemative to traditional herbal medicine. Only ten years ago, many people outside of Bungmati Village used to visit Surya Muni Baidya, a renowned herbal healer of Bungmati, to consult about various diseases. Nowadays very few patients visit him. Although Bungmati is not far from the afflu- ent and developed capital city, most of the villagers are very poor and therefore cannot afford allopathic medicines. They had previously depended on natural forest resources, but now depletion of the forest is causing severe lifestyle problems. According to herbal healers and local people, many important medicinal plants were found in Karyabinayak Forest, which fifty years ago was still dense. Now, reckless grazing practices and deforestation have led to the loss of important and valuable medicinal plants such as ‘dronapushpi’ and ‘amaltas’, which have become extinct from this area. Plants which had been abundant, such as ‘asuro’ (Justicia adhatoda), ‘titepati’ (Artemisia indica), ‘sugandhawal’ (Valeriana jatamansi), and ‘chutro’ (Berberis asiatica) have declined drastically over a few years. According to one herbal healer, ten years ago he would prepare herbal medicines from the plants that were locally available. Now he has to buy several medicinal plants from outside. This is another reason for the unwillingness of the younger generation to adopt herbal healing practices. In addition to the study summarized above, the research group initiated a project with the Bungmati Village Development Committee on the cultivation of 32 species of economically useful medicinal plants in a demonstration area situated within the premises of the Tri Ratna Valeriana jatamansi Cooperative School.

22 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Ethno-medicobotanical studies of the Gurung community of Bichuar Village in the Lamjung District of Nepal, by I. Shrestha Highlights of the study Twenty-four people from Bichaur VDC and nine from Dudhpokhari are recognized as traditional 2There are many remote areas in the Himalayan healers involved in the health-care of the people region where modern medical health-care sup- of Bichaur. port is not available. Therefore, traditional heal- The heterogeneous community in Bichaur ing systems play an important role in maintaining VDC consists of Gurungs, Tamangs, Brahmins, the physical and psychological wellbeing of the Chhetris, Newars, Kamis, and Damais. The vast majority of people in such areas. It has been Gurung and Tamang communities are found to observed that when allopathic health-care is be much more influenced by traditional healing introduced into a village, the idea that the two systems. It was found, however, that the local systems can be integrated is not emphasized. In traditional healers use medicinal plants which are fact, there is a certain level of mistrust towards not found in the locality. These herbs are collect- the traditional medical system. ed from higher altitudes. It became clear that, This project focused on the current use pat- although many medicinal herbs do occur in many tern of herbal medicines, and the problems of parts of the region, local people do not know how ‘dhamis’ and ‘jhakris’ (local healers). A local to conserve and preserve them and so are not workshop was also organized to build two-way benefiting fully from the traditional system. Thus communication between ‘dhami-jhakri’ and allo- the study has strongly recommended that the pathic health-care workers; to promote appropri- development of traditional healing systems in ate and to discourage inappropriate traditional many remote areas of Nepal be emphasized. health practices. Another objective of the work- The results of this study show that cuts, shop was to enhance awareness of prophylactic wounds and bone fractures are the most common- measures such as immunization, family plan- ly occurring ailments of the inhabitants of Bichaur ning, nutrition, and environmental hygiene. VDC. This is partly due to the geo-topographical The study, led by Ms Ila Shrestha of the variation of the locality. However, during the Nepalese Society for Systematic Collection, also summer, water-borne diseases such as typhoid, produced a detailed inventory of all the medici- cholera, dysentery, and jaundice occur predomi- nal plants, together with a herbarium collection. nantly. During the winter, pneumonia, asthma, Those involved in the study conducted house- colds, coughs, and high fever are reported. hold surveys using structured questionnaires, An effective allopathic treatment or modern identified and interviewed key informants, and health-care system has not yet reached remote carried out interest group meetings. areas of Nepal, including Bichaur, where a vari- Gurungs are hardy hill people living along able number of medicinal herbs still exist. As the southern slopes of the Anapurna Himalayas illustrated in many of the case-studies, most of in west central Nepal. Their tribal territories the diseases occurring in the villages have always extend from Gorkha District east through been treated with traditional healing systems, Lamjung and Kaski to the Syangja District, in the using medicinal herbs. Gandaki Zone. Their economy is based mainly Knowledge about the healing system is trans- on agriculture and sheep breeding. They grow ferred orally from generation to generation without rice, wheat, maize, millet, and potatoes. The any written documentation, and many of the tradi- lower parts of their terraced fields are irrigated tional methods have a superstitious element. and sown with rice in summer and wheat in win- Moreover, lack of documentation of traditional ter. In addition to growing cereals and potatoes healing methods has resulted in confusion amongst they keep sheep as a source of meat and wool. users. Thus, the report has strongly recommended A great majority of Gurungs joined the the necessity of proper documentation of the actu- Indian and the British armies, working in various al healing methods, along with the main character- parts of India, Malaysia and England. A small istic features of the medicinal plants. Furthermore, number joined the Royal Nepal Army. Gurungs it is suggested that a proper scientific study of the who are not enrolled in army service stay at traditional healing system is carried out. home to look after their fields and livestock, and Altogether 127 species of 119 genera of make trips to the border regions of Tibet to medicinal plants belonging to 62 families have exchange salt for food grain, and vice versa. been reported as used by Gurung communities, Some people take ghee to exchange for Tibetan including the traditional healers of Bichaur. sheep wool and Himalayan goat hair. Among these species, six are monocotyledons This study is designed to improve the tradi- and eight are pteridophytes. Of the dicotyledons tional healing system, with a view to improving the majority (16 in number) belong to the the health of the people in remote areas of Nepal. Asteraceae and 11 are members of the Fabaceae.

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 23 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Indigenous knowledge of the Qiang community about the conservation and development of ethnomedical plants in Maoxian County of Western Sichuan, China, by Wu Ning

3 these belong to 184 families. From 1992 to 1996 Highlights of the study the Public Health Bureau of Maoxian collected In China, Tibetan medicine (Sowa Rigpa), and documented 118 folk recipes, which contain Mongolian medicine, Uguar medicine, and Dai references to about 190 medicinal plants, 12 ani- medicine are officially recognized as traditional mal products and four mineral medicines. During medical systems in addition to Chinese almost the same period, the Sichuan Institute of Traditional Medicine (Zhong Yi), and are for- Traditional Chinese Medicine investigated the mally included in public health-care. However, distribution of Qiang medicine in the entire there are more than 20 traditional herbal medi- region inhabited by the Qiang people. It was cine systems being practiced in different ethnic reported that there are 2,301 species of medicinal minority areas. The Qiang’s traditional herbal plants in the region, belonging to 586 genera and medicine is one of these. 182 families. The use of medicinal plants and animals in The plants popularly used by the Qiang peo- Chinese traditional systems varies from one sys- ple can be categorized into 103 families, 136 tem to another. At the same time, the traditional genera and 225 species, among which there are medicine systems of minority communities are 204 species of medicinal plants and 4 mineral poorly represented in the major ‘Zhong-yi’ medicines (such as plaster stone). It was found (Chinese medicine) system prevalent in China. through the analysis of these reports that many Communities such as the Qiang ethnic communi- species are particularly concentrated in this area ty are undergoing rapid transition. This, together because of the unique environmental conditions. with an overall trend of decline in the biodiver- For example, there are 14 species of medicinal sity of medicinal plants, is fast leading to erosion plants belonging to the Compositae, 11 species of the knowledge base. A systematic record of of Umbelliferae, 10 species of Ranunculaceae, the Qiang’s traditional health-care system is very 10 species of Crassulaceae, 10 species of sparse as most of the knowledge is passed down Liliaceae and 5 of the Gentianaceae, among orally, and the community have their own writ- which many species are typical of the ing script. Furthermore, most of the young peo- Himalayas. ple learn to read and write in the main Chinese In the Qiang area, the collection of wild language of Mandarin. medicinal plants for sale is also a traditional This study aims to document the Qiang’s source of income. According to records in the indigenous knowledge with a view to promoting “Annals of Maozhou’, at the beginning of this a wider understanding and legitimization of the century the sale volumes of some medicinal traditional skills and health-care practices of the plants were very high. For example, the sales community. As briefly outlined in the following volume of Rheum officinale per annum was 10- framework, Dr Wu Ning of the Botany Division 15 tons; Astragalus membranaceus (together of Chengdu Institute of Biology used various with other Astragalus species) 10 tons; methods of investigation. Notopterygium incisium (including N. fonsesii) The major findings of the research are sum- 15-20 tons; Bupleurum chinensis (including B. marized in the following paragraphs: microcephalum) 25-30 tons; Heracleum candi- cans and H. hemsleyanum five tons; Vladimiria (1) The diversity of medicinal plants and souliei five tons; and Fritillaria, thousands of human dependency kilograms. In addition, some medicines came from traditionally exported products, such as In the ‘Herbal Encyclopedia’ compiled by musk, and the fungus Cordyceps sinensis. The Ben Cao Jin, reference is made by Tao Hong-jin trading of products collected from mountains to about 20 Qiang medicinal plants from western was carried out in the free market in the county Sichuan. These include species of town. Private traders would transport these prod- Notopterygium, species of Heracleum, ucts to urban centers by way of Guanxian County Astragalus membranaceus, Rheum officinale, (now called Dujiangyan City). and Angelica sinensis. The ‘Annals of Maozhou’, published in the Qing Dynasty, (2) Localized medicinal knowledge recorded the distribution and efficacy of Notopterygium, Rheum officinale, species of In the Qiang area, plants have historically Fritillaria and Saussurea, and others. There are been the principal source of drugs used in the 574 species of medicinal plants in Maoxian and cure and prevention of illness. Only recently,

24 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI with the advances in synthetic chemistry, have (1) to observe the inner spirit and the outside clinics begun to break away from their depen- shape of the patient; dence on plant-based cures. Generally, the fea- (2) to auscultate and to smell the patient; tures of Qiang medicinal knowledge and technol- (3) to ask the patient the causes of the disease; ogy are based upon the local biological and and socio-cultural background, which is different (4) to take the pulse of the patient. from that of the Hans and the Tibetans. The Han These methods can be found not only in the system typically uses roots or rhizomes, whereas Chinese health-care system but also in Tibetan in Qiang medicine, flowers and whole plants are medicine. preferred. For example, Rhododendron cepha- lanthum is used to cure dropsy, Meconopsis (3) Current practices and trends quintuplinervia to cure diseases of the stomach and lung as well as muscle contraction, and In the last four decades, the region inhabited Delphinium kamaonense var. glabrescens for the by the Qiang people has changed, both ecologi- Cordyceps sinensis, the treatment of ringworm. Of the drugs mentioned, cally and in terms of the Qiang way of life. Local parasitic fungus which 70% of them are typically distributed on the east- people now depend less on the traditional health- infects Hepialus moth caterpillars is highly ern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Some plants, such care system than in former generations. valued in China. Photo: as Fritillaria spp., Notopterygium incisium, N. Nowadays, fewer and fewer young indigenous Y. Aumeeruddy-Thomas forbesii, Astragalus membranaceus, and Rheum people have the traditional knowledge of herbal officinale, grow at their best in this location, healing practices used by their great-grandfa- although they also occur in other parts of the thers. This knowledge is in danger of disappear- Plateau. ing altogether. The methods and forms of using medicine Until the 1950s, the traditional healers of this are unique. Most of the medicines are indigenous mountainous region played an important role in and use fresh herbs. Some medicinal herbs which curing both physical and spiritual illnesses. are limited by their growing season are collected Medicinal plants collected from the wild lands or and processed at the appropriate time. Poisonous cultivated in home gardens were used not only by medicines are prepared using suitable methods. folk doctors but also by the farmers themselves. Qiang’s folk doctors prescribe the plants of the In the 1950s, employed doctors increased from Ranunculaceae, Papaveraceae and Solanaceae as 31 to 198, and hospital beds from 40 to 155. a refrigerant, febrifuge, sedative or pain remedy. These figures indicate a rapid development in the They recommend various poisonous herbs, such modern health-care system, which has undoubt- as Corydalis edulis, Cimicifuga sp. and Physalis edly played an important role in the public health sp. for curing fever. In general, poisonous herbs of rural areas. are used more frequently in Qiang medicine than During this process there has been a decreas- in Chinese medicine. Plants such as Aconitum ing dependency upon the traditional health-care spp. and Viola spp. are common in recipes for system. Fortunately, this tendency was recog- remedying pain. Many local species are used in nized by the scientific world. In 1992 the tonic preparations, more than 20 of these deriv- Institute of Qiang Medicine was established in ing from Astragalus and Codonopsis. The impor- Maoxian, and the government sponsored a pro- tant cash crop for this region, wild pepper, is also ject with the aim of collecting and documenting a commonly used medicine among Qiang people. traditional recipes. The cultivation of some All of its fruits, roots and leaves can be used as a endangered and marketable medicinal plants has refrigerant, sedative, anthelmintic, and for stom- been encouraged for the purpose of integration ach invigoration. Most Qiang medical prescrip- into ongoing reforestation projects. Thus traditions are composed of compound ingredients, tional health-care practices and knowledge are in made up into pills, tablets, and powders, but the the process of rejuvenation. prescriptions themselves are distinctly different from those of Chinese medicine. (4) The cultivation and trading of However, the influence between cultures is medicinal plants reflected in Qiang recipes. Through the analyses of 118 recipes collected by the Public Health In addition to the collection of existing Bureau of Maoxian, it was found that many plants, there is also a strong tradition among the Chinese medicines are used in Qiang remedies; Qiang people of growing trees and medicinal about one-third of Qiang medicines come from species. The history of cultivating medicinal Chinese medicine, and many are supplied locally. plants in home gardens or communal woodlands A similar relationship with Tibetan medicine can goes back thousands of years. There are refer- also be found in these recipes. As for the diagno- ences in chronicles to communal tree-planting Astragalus himalayanus sis of diseases, cultural mutual exchange is also practices, and home gardens planted with medic- apparent. Traditionally, four methods are used by inal plants and fruit-bearing trees. For example, Qiang’s folk doctors in diagnosis. These are: Qiang people traditionally like to plant several

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 25 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI varieties of medicinal plants, such as Rheum their fields and did not become an important cash officinale, R. palmatum, Astragalus mem- crop until the 1950s. At present, the cultivation branaceus, A. norielus, Paeonia veitchii, of wild pepper on barren slopes in dry valleys has Gastrodia elata etc., in their home gardens or on not only become one of the most important marginal lands, for self-consumption or market- sources of income for the villagers, but has also ing. These strong traditions have given environ- increased vegetation coverage. In conjunction mental stability to large parts of the mountains. with the national conservation project, about 600 However, research into medicinal plant cul- thousand pepper trees were newly cultivated in tivation processes has revealed that most of the Maoxian on slopes with an elevation below methods were developed on a large scale only in 2,600 m during the period of the ‘Eighth Five- last three decades. A good example is the pro- year Plan’ (from 1990 to 1995) and, by 1995, duction of Chinese angelica (Angelica sinensis) there were 6.4 million pepper trees in this coun- and wild Asiabell (Codonopsis pilosula). In ty, with a yearly yield of 186 tons. Maoxian County, Chinese angelica had begun to With the advent of substantial improvements be planted as a crop from 1963, and Asiabell in biotechnology and insufficient naturally from 1964, when there were not enough occurring plants to meet the increasing demands resources for collection. In the 1970s, when of the medical markets, more wild medicinal state-owned enterprises felt the shortage of wild plants with promising economic value have been resources, cultivation of some valuable herbal identified and cultivated. Among these, wild yam medicines was encouraged in order to meet the (Dioscorea spp.) is a good example. The discov- increasing demands in the markets. Thus, the ery of diosgenin, a steroidal sapogenin that yield of Chinese angelica in the entire Qiang occurs naturally in very high levels in some yam region reached 20 tons in the late 1980s and species, led to a revolutionary means of synthe- made up 50% of the provincial total; the yield of sizing birth control agents. Since the strict Birth Asiabell was about 8 tons and amounted to 70% Control Plan was carried out in China from the of the provincial total. 1970s onwards, demands for contraceptive pills Another example is milkvetch (Astragalus increased very rapidly, leading to the investiga- membranaceus), which is a traditional herbal tion, analysis, cultivation, and processing of medicine among the Qiang people. The yams. Over-exploitation has threatened yams in processed roots of milkvetch are traditionally the wild and they are now being cultivated in sold in the domestic markets and Southeast Asia. western Sichuan especially for diosgenin produc- This herb is always planted by villagers in the tion. From 1996 until about 2000, the number of mountain forests, where the shade of the forest households in Maoxian County involved in the canopy and the humus-rich soil provide a suit- cultivation of wild yams rose to around 1,000. able habitat for its growth. Yield of milkvetch Due to the simple skills required, a minimal input has increased by a factor of fifteen from the of labour, a guaranteed output of products, and 1950s to the 1990s. the fact that farming field space did not have to Western Sichuan is an important area for the be taken up, more and more farmers are involved production of tendril-leafed fritillary (Fritillaria in this industry on a voluntary basis. This scheme cirrhosa). Owing to its high price in markets and has contributed to farmers’ participation in great demands for its medical uses, plants have development projects sponsored by government been rooted out in huge quantities. The purchas- or development agencies aiming at poverty alle- ing amount in Aba Prefecture increased 5.74 viation in this region. times from 24,348 kg in 1975 to 139,680 kg in The cultivation of high-value wild or intro- 1988. This then fell to 72,084 kg in 1990, which duced plants by farmers has played an important indicates a decrease in the resource base. By the role in their economy. Meanwhile, the policy of 1970s people realized the urgency of conserving encouraging diversified economic activities, as and developing this regional resource. Seven adopted by the provincial government in 1980, species of fritillary were tested for planting with has also had a positive impact on the develop- seeds or bulbs in Maoxian. In 1983 the fields for ment of sideline production. When the state fritillary cultivation covered on area of 0.77 ha. monopoly for the purchasing and marketing of The state-owned stations set an example for the all specialized local products (except musk) was improved household cultivation of fritillary at rescinded in 1985, the farmers perceived this as a the end of the 1980s. In 1995 the planted area in crucial incentive to exploit wild plant resources. Maoxian reached 20 ha. Subsequently, business organizations at all levels Wild pepper (Xanthoxyllum bungeanum) is (including private peddlers) have been engaged not only a traditional flavouring of southwestern in the purchasing and marketing of all medicinal China, but also a traditional Qiang medicine. Its plants. Indigenous agro-ecosystems have played leaves and fruits are used in many traditional pre- an important role in the conservation of biodiver- scriptions. Wild pepper was being cultivated sity, and some ethnobotanical practices of agro- about 300 years ago, but it was only planted forestry management have been integrated into occasionally by mountain farmers on the edge of the reforestation projects. 26 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI A study of the ethnobotany and conservation of Podophyllum hexandrum, Diphylleia sinensis and Fritillaria cirrhosa in the Zhongdian Tibetan Autonomous County in Yunnan, China, by 4Hu Zhihao and Qi Shunhua

Highlights of the study This project was undertaken by Mr Qi Shunhua of Yunnan University under the supervi- North-west Yunnan covers an area of 72,531 sq sion of Professor Hu Zhihao. With the help of a km and is located in the Hengduan Mountains semi-structured questionnaire, they interviewed (29°N; 98°E). The eastern appendages of the local traditional health-care practitioners and Himalayas consist of the Dali Bai Autonomous Tibetan doctors working at the local hospital. They Prefecture, Lijiang Prefecture, and Diqing made personal observations and interacted with Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Yunnan several farmers in the village, encouraging them to Province, and link up the Tibetan plateau in the take up the cultivation of the three plants. north and the Yunnan-Guizhou plateau in the Phytochemical analysis, from the collected rhi- east. The altitude ranges from 1,200 to 6,700 m zomes and seeds, was carried out in the laboratory above sea level. Mountains and river valleys Over one year of case-study work on the three occur alternately, stretching from north to south species of Tibetan medicinal plants, their classi- and forming an undulating terrace. Zhongdian is fication, botany, biology, ecology, and distribu- a Tibetan-inhabited district in Northwest tion patterns were studied. It became clear that Yunnan. natural resources can meet the needs of tradition- The collection of medicinal plants from al medical usage, but cannot meet the rapidly mountain forests, pastures and other ecosystems expanded demands of the modern pharmacy is a common practice amongst mountain commu- industry. These resources are diminishing, rare, nities in the area. In addition, the cultivation of and even threatened. These findings provide certain medicinal plant species in herbal gardens opportunities for developing the local economy, and farmlands has a long tradition in the local but also issue a danger-signal in terms of the pos- villages. This includes the production of plant sible over-harvesting of wild resources from nat- drugs for marketing in the area. ural habitats. Historically, this area is well known for its Among the three medicinal plants, exceptionally rich diversity of medicinal plants, Fritillaria cirrhosa is most familiar to local peo- and as an important provider of crude drugs (of ple, and is being studied more in detail. The nat- both plant and animal origin) for Chinese medi- ural environment and technical foundation nec- cines. Almost 600 species of medicinal plants essary to develop Fritillaria for cultivation are used in Tibetan medicines are reported from available in the Zhongdian area. Zhongdian. Two species, Podophyllum hexan- Podophyllum hexandrum is also known drum and Diphylleia sinensis, were scientifically among villagers, but many do not understand validated a decade ago to contain anti-cancerous why they should grow it rather than collecting it compounds. This led to a very high level of for medicinal use. They dislike growing this demand for these two species for chemical plant in their gardens because the economic ben- extraction. There is an urgent need to supplement efit is very low. The same applies to Diphylleia the availability of this drug from cultivated sinensis. The strategy is therefore to protect the sources. Fritillaria cirrhosa is considered one of germplasm resources in situ and/or ex situ (espe- the best wide-spectrum medicines for the treat- cially the plants of Diphylleia sinensis), and to ment of respiratory diseases. set up conservation areas to protect local popula- The aims of this project were to document tions of the species. For local economic develop- the local classification and use of the three ment based on modern pharmacology and tech- species and to set up demonstration plots in farm- niques, it is necessary to form new medicine- ers’ fields to standardize and promote their culti- manufacturing lines and to organize the market vation and marketing. Important questions about in order to open the way for the raw material the economic viability of the small-scale and products. Only market demands can encourage decentralized production of medicinal plants the local people in the cultivation of medicinal were also addressed. plants in the area.

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 27 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Cultivation of Podophyllum hexandrum in Zhongdian, China. Photo: A. Rastogi

28 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI An ethnobotanical survey of the propagation of rare medicinal herbs by small farmers in the buffer zone of the Valley of Flowers National Park, Chamoli, Garhwal Himalaya, India, by 5C. P. Kala

Highlights of the study (Bhyundar, Ghangaria and Pulna) have traditionally used a total of 112 species of medicinal The Valley of Flowers (VOF) National Park is a plants. Of these, herbs were the most numerous high-altitude protected area in Garhwal (92), followed by shrubs (ten), trees (seven) and Himalaya. The park and its buffer zones are rich ferns (three). Of the 54 total rare and endangered in medicinal plants, and the local people of this species of the VOF and its environs, 31 species area have a considerable knowledge of ethno- were used for medicinal purposes, of which five botany. These people are gradually shifting from species are listed in the Red Data Book of Indian a subsistence to a market economy, mainly due Plants. Out of 31 rare medicinal plants, 23 to enhanced tourism and mountaineering activi- species were recently categorized for rarity ties. In addition to adverse impacts on the habi- according to new IUCN Red List Criteria laid out tats, over-extraction of medicinal plants for com- in the Conservation and Management mercial purposes due to increased demand has Assessment Plan (CAMP) meeting held in exerted tremendous pressure on the existing Lucknow, UP, of which 12 are critically endan- plant populations. In all, 112 species of medici- gered, four are endangered, and seven are cate- nal plants have been recorded as used by the gorized as vulnerable. local population. Of these, 23 species are rare The VOF and its environs harbour almost and endangered, including five species listed in 600 plant species, of which 112 were used for the Red Data Book of Indian Plants. medicinal purposes by the local people. Some of This study was carried out by Mr C. P. Kala, the rare medicinal herbs, for example Picrorhiza Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, under the kurrooa, Fritillaria roylei and Cyananthus inte- guidance of Dr G. S. Rawat. He collected eth- ger, were found only in the park and not seen in nobotanical information using semi-structured the Khiron Valley or buffer zones of the park. and unstructured questionnaires as well as direct This is possibly due to various anthropogenic observations in the field. Each household was pressures, such as grazing, burning, over-collec- surveyed for information on the quantity of their tion, and deforestation. It is estimated that in the extraction of medicinal plants from the wild. high altitudes of Garhwal Himalaya, the under- Data were verified by repeated interviews with ground parts (roots, tubers and rhizomes) of more than one informant. To study the effects of these medicinal herbs are used in the highest various anthropogenic activities on the popula- number of cases (45%), followed by the leaves tion of medicinal plants, 25 quadrats of 50 x 50 (26%). Most of the alpine plants reproduce veg- cm were laid out in the different pressure zones. etatively by tubers, rhizomes, and roots, and their Various landscape elements in each of the pres- populations decline severely if the underground sure zones were identified. The entire study area parts are extracted. Exploitation of rhizomes and was stratified into three broad pressure zones: tubers at a commercial scale has led to substan- (1) the Valley of Flowers, being a protected tial loss of medicinal plants from their habitats in area, considered as a control site; many parts of the Garhwal Himalaya. (2) the buffer of the park, which is under severe pressure due to tourism and live- (2) Traditional knowledge about medicinal stock grazing, taken as a high pressure zone plants among the villagers and; (3) Khiron Valley, which is grazed mostly by Among the youth, who formed 23% of the sheep and goats, taken as a moderately dis- total population, 95% had no knowledge of med- turbed (grazed) area. icinal plants, and only 5% had some knowledge. The major findings of this case-study are Adults formed 29% of the total population, and highlighted below: of these 68% had no knowledge of medicinal plants, 27% possessed adequate knowledge, and (1) Status of medicinal herbs 5% had good knowledge. Elders formed only 19% of the total population; 35% had no knowl- The inhabitants of the project area in the edge of medicinal plants, 52% had adequate Khiron Valley and the buffer zone of the VOF knowledge, and 13% had very good knowledge.

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 29 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI In compari- (3) Dependency of local people on son with men, medicinal plants women were less knowl- Three main medicinal herbs, ‘faran’ (Allium edgeable humile), ‘choru’ (Angelica glauca), and ‘dolu’ about medicinal (Rheum australe), were collected by local people plants. However, among the from the adjacent areas. These herbs were col- elders, both men and women had lected for personal use and would be offered by almost equal knowledge (1:1) of the villagers to their relatives and friends as gifts. use of medicinal plants. This supports Besides these herbs, men also collect ‘mitha’ the hypothesis that old people have (Aconitum balfourii), ‘balchhadi’ (Arnebia ben- more knowledge of medicinal thamii), ‘hathajan’ (Dactylorhiza hatagirea), plants than the younger genera- ‘salam mishri’ (Polygonatum verticillatum), tions. The attitude of the ‘mamira’ (Thalictrum foliolosum) etc. The bark young towards the tradi- of ‘thuner’ (Taxus baccata) is also collected, tional healing system was mainly for making tea. It was noticed that the neutral. They are keen to dependency of local people on medicinal plants pursue other business has decreased over the past 10-15 years due to professions which may the easy availability of allopathic medicines and seem less tedious than rapid socio-economic changes in this region. The the pastoral and agri- younger generation now has a greater belief in cultural practices in allopathic medicine but still trusts many medici- this region of the nal plants for curing certain diseases. For Himalayas. instance, the use of Thalictrum foliolosum is still The villagers had a considerable in practice for curing eye complaints and skin faith in medico-religious and religious diseases, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Eulophia plants. Saussurea obvallata is collected dabia and Gymnadenia orchidis are considered on occasions of deity worship, especial- good tonics, and also effective for curing gynae- ly in offering to a local Goddess, Nanda cological disorders, and Picrorhiza kurrooa is Betula utilis Devi. The bark of ‘bhoj patra’ (Betula used for example in cases of fever and headache. utilis) is known to have been used as paper in ancient times. Sometimes ‘mantra’ or spells are (4) Cultivation of medicinal plants and written on the bark of this tree in red ink by a enterprise development priest or saint. It is given to the devoted, preserved in a small casket and is believed to cure The success of medicinal plant cultivation certain diseases. Cannabis sativa is another reli- initiated at Bhyundar village could not be gious plant. Hindu Shiva devotees relish the assessed during the project tenure. Farmers have drink prepared from its dried seeds. The flowers shown a keen interest in taking more trials and of Jasminum humile are offered especially to following other methods in the event of failure. Lakshmi (the wife of Lord Vishnu) in the months The medicinal herbs selected for the present pro- of Chaitra (March-April) and Baisakh (April- ject are: May). Devotees write the names of gods or (1) Dactylorhiza hatagirea deities on the leaves, sometimes count the flow- (2) Rheum australe ers, and prepare garlands to offer to gods and (3) Podophyllum hexandrum goddesses. For enterprise development in the study area, An old tree of Morus serrata, located in the local communities, the Forest Department, Block middle of Joshimath town, has a special signifi- Development authorities, the Herbal Research cance in this region. It is called ‘Kalpavriksha’ Institute at Gopeshwar (Headquarters of Chamoli (tree of eternity). Lord Sankaracharya is said to District), the High Altitude Plant Physiology have meditated under this tree 800 years ago. Research Centre, Srinagar Garhwal, Co-opera- The root of Hedychium spicatum has a special tive societies, and many local social workers religious significance at marriage ceremonies. Its were approached. The following points emerged decoction is applied to the body of the bride and during discussions with them: groom to keep them cool. Origanum vulgare is another medico-religious plant which is offered to Lord Vishnu and Shiva in Badn’nath and Kedarnath temples.

30 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI (a) About 12-15 medicinal herb species were Cannabis sativa collected from the wild by the villagers in the region before 1992 and supplied to the co-operative societies without any restric- tions from the Government. (b) A second problem in the medicinal plants trade is the inadequacy of the market. (c) Despite these challenges the farmers are keen to cultivate the medicinal herbs. A total of 112 medicinal plants were known to local people. Before 1992 the local inhabitants would collect 15-20 species of medicinal plants for commercial purposes, but now this collection from the wild has been stopped by order of the Government. Local people then collected three species. To relieve the pressure on these medicinal plants the need was felt to cultivate them in order to: (a) promote ex situ conservation of these herbs; (b) encourage small farmers to use the village wastelands and; (c) develop local enterprises for the farmers. Local inhabitants were keen to cultivate these medicinal plants, so a short project was launched in Bhyundar Valley, funded by the HKH ethnobotany project, and attempts were made to cultivate the three medicinal herbs, known locally as ‘hathajari’, ‘bankakri’ and ‘dolu’. Attempts are also being made to develop local enterprises and rationalize prices with the help of local institutions, and so far these have yielded encouraging results.

General points and lessons learned

The ethnobotanical information generated from these five case-studies is very useful; the mes- sages from community herbal doctors, practitioners and healers, and rural people are important, and the field observations, experimentation and studies of medicinal plants are meaningful in terms of the sustainable utilization and conservation of medicinal plants in the mountain areas of the region. The case-studies demonstrated a general trend in approach. Most of the researchers started by reviewing secondary information and data and then visiting the site for informal discussions and personal observations to sharpen research questions. These unstructured interviews were followed by the administration of semi-structured or structured questionnaires, largely at the Dactylorhiza hatagirea. household level. In the process, a number of key Photo: Y. Aumeeruddy-Thomas

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 31 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI informants were identified for detailed discus- laid on measuring and physically carrying out sion on particular traditional practices and various methods to verify and supplement the aspects of indigenous knowledge. The collected information collected through interviews. information was analyzed. This approach can be Unfortunately, only a few researchers followed described as a ‘Rapid Rural Appraisal’ method. this advice. An additional important aspect of ethnobotanical The need to prepare maps, walk transects, studies is the inventory of useful plants, and so and conduct ecological surveys in the various due effort was spent by researchers on floral col- resource areas of the local community was also lections, herbarium preparation, and identifica- highlighted during the training workshops, but tion. Some researchers also attempted to draw these aspects have also been largely neglected by resource maps, seasonality calendars and walk most researchers. The reasons given for this were transects, so complementing the information that these were time-consuming and required a from market surveys. A summary of the various good rapport with the community, which needed methods used by the researchers is presented certain special skills such as negotiation and con- below. flict resolution. Above all, such exercises would raise certain levels of expectations amongst the Methods used people, which would have required follow-up after the study. In most cases, researchers came (1) Review of secondary information; from academic institutions or organizations far (2) Personal observation; away from the place of research and thus had lit- (3) Setting up site-selection criteria; tle confidence in any concrete contribution to be (4) Socio-economic and resource surveys made beyond the level of research. (these include interviews and question- Another important factor that has come to naires, seasonality calendars, looking at the light is that there has been little discussion with division of family labour and gender roles, all the stakeholders; this would have presented a informant identification, and preference more balanced and complete picture of the issues ranking); related to the thematic subjects of the research. In (5) Case-studies; general it is true that all traditional societies are (6) Market surveys; going through some rapid changes in their value (7) Floral inventories (free-listing, herbarium systems. These changes affect the ways in which collections, local classification systems); resources are used, as well as ideas and opinions (8) Demonstration trials for the cultivation of about their use. It is therefore essential to assess medicinal plants. all the issues from as many aspects as possible, In general, the four most widely used tools are: and to discuss them with all the major stakehold- (a) review of secondary information, ers and decision-makers. Researchers have tend- (b) making personal observations, ed to concentrate on the custodians of indigenous (c) introducing key informants, and knowledge only and have not sought the opinions (d) preparing a herbarium collection. of other interested parties. This approach seems to have been the most These are some of the lessons that can be popular one. While many more methods were learned from the process and the results of these discussed in the training workshops, only a few case-studies and study grants. Bearing these in investigators used a variety of methods systemat- mind, and emphasizing the need to generate a ically, although the participants seemed to think spatial understanding of the resource environ- that all the methods discussed would be useful. ment and the way in which it is used (particular- It appears that the aptitude of all the mem- ly important in mountain areas), methods such as bers of the research team was important. For participatory mapping, resource dependence pro- those researchers who were associated with uni- filing, the making of profile diagrams, and the versities, the interest of their academic supervi- systematic collecting of data for statistical analy- sors and their understanding of how the work sis should be considered in future studies. should be carried out played an important role. The most important factor relating to any Another important factor is that most of the applied research with the community is that the researchers were not residents of the place where results of the study should be useful to them. the research was conducted. They visited the site There were very few public meetings at which as frequently as they could and stayed for some people could have learned about the nature of the time, at best several weeks per visit. During these work they would be doing and, at the same time, visits the emphasis was on data collection by the only limited efforts were made to return the quickest means. Therefore the use of question- results of the study to the community. It is impor- naires and interviews was popular, as a wealth of tant to reinforce these as key principles for information could be accumulated in a short researchers working on applied ethnobotany in time. In training workshops due emphasis was future.

32 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Medicinal plants market in Arunachal Pradesh. Photo: A. Rastogi

Relevance of the studies Himalayan region. It involves a diversity of indigenous knowledge and cultural beliefs and to future work constitutes an important basis for the develop- The case-studies mentioned above have, in gen- ment of society. eral, been successfully implemented, and identi- Due to rapid changes in socio-economic, fy some of the important issues involving indige- environmental and cultural beliefs in the region, nous medical systems in the Himalayas. They the use of herbal medicine is in transformation. provide good examples, showing that traditional The impact on societies of introduced allopathic societies in this mountain region are highly medicines and modern medical systems has var- dependent upon traditional medicine. ied, but the general trends are that: Ethnobotany can make a positive contribu- • traditional knowledge of herbal medicine is tion by facilitating community participation in disappearing; the development of the rural health-care system. • traditional healers are becoming rare and This can be accomplished by identifying locally less respected; available plant resources, indigenous knowledge, • medicinal plants are over-harvested; and traditional healers, by strengthening local • changes in land-use patterns are resulting in institutions through capacity building, by provid- the degradation of natural ecosystems. ing training opportunities for community mem- The conservation of medicinal plants and bers, and by supporting development projects traditional medicinal knowledge run in parallel such as those for the cultivation of valuable med- and are important and interrelated. Necessary icinal plants. factors include: Development activities which put indige- • nous knowledge into the context of natural community participation in in situ conser- resource management are particularly important. vation; These can start with a focus on medicinal plants • the cultivation of economically important and with the training of younger villagers in tra- medicinal plants; ditional medical knowledge. • support to a younger generation of healers Proper documentation of the healing meth- at community level. ods, including the main features of the health- Traditional and modern medical practices care system and the basic characteristics of plants must be integrated into a new medical system. used is also recommended by the case-studies. Important factors include: Such work has been carried out in initial eth- • development of new drugs based on herbal nobotany studies in many countries, but remains medicine; far from complete. Therefore, future studies are • training of doctors with the skills both of a needed in order to establish a medicinal plant traditional healer and of amodern physi- information database in the countries of the cian; Himalayan region. • law-enforcement to support the establishment of integrated institutions which would Conclusion include pharmacopoeia, hospitals, training centres, pharmaceutical companies, drug The use of herbal medicine has a long tradition stores, and research centres. amongst all mountain communities in the

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 33 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI General discussion

The Himalayan region cy and economic opportunity for local people. It can also lead to resource management problems The Himalayan region is characterized by its in conservation areas, as they can become focal diverse biophysical environment and by the points for the harvesting of selected species, extremely rich cultural milieu of its inhabitants, resulting in a loss of diversity, and growing con- who belong to hundreds of ethnic groups and flict between resource users and resource man- indigenous communities. Though many systems agers. of exchange exist between the numerous soci- Mountain systems in the Himalayas have eties of the Himalayan region, it remains very long been neglected by the rest of the world marginalized politically and economically. This because of their inaccessibility and poverty. As is because firstly the small societies living in the fundamental building blocks for develop- remote mountain environments are not well rep- ment, biological resources provide the basis for resented in centralized political governments, the subsistence of mountain people and the and secondly because its remoteness does not potential for the development of mountain facilitate access to education, health services or economies. Mountain people use a wide variety significant industrial or agricultural develop- of species, and communities manage the envi- ments. Major religions prevailing in the ronment as a whole, integrated system rather Himalayan region include Buddhism, Hinduism than as separate ecosystems. From such percep- and Islam, as well as more local religions often tions and practices over time, mountain people based on the cult of ancestors or Shamanism. have constructed a system for the use and maintenance of natural resources. This is referred to Plant resource management as the ‘informal knowledge system’ or the ‘indigenous knowledge system’. Plant resource management is the way plants are Modern systems of resource utilization and used, harvested, cultivated or protected on the methods of economic development compete for basis of a common knowledge system and spe- resources from the natural environment by using cial rules shared by the members of a given soci- formal knowledge and modern technology. ety. Management implies a system which aims at Operations under these systems concentrate on conserving the resource base: indeed exploitative exploiting a particular species with a high eco- and extractive methods which lead to the destruc- nomic value, either in wild harvesting or in agri- tion of the resource base are the result of mis- culture, and neglect the important variations of management. use of cultural mountain society traditions. This Management also implies a sound empirical has resulted in the degradation of the mountain if not scientific knowledge of a plant’s biological environment and its resources. characteristics, i.e. its ecology, rate of regenera- The traditional utilization of biologically tion, seasonality and phenology, as well as a diverse resources in the mountain region of the sound understanding about the amount of plants Himalayas reflects a diverse resource use pattern or plant parts which can be extracted without and thus diffused exploitation of one species. affecting the plants’ populations (Peters, 1994). Natural resource management systems are local- Other aspects of sustainable management relate ized systems which form the basis for decision- to the society level, i.e. how all members of one making for rural people. Since the majority of society co-ordinate their efforts to achieve sus- land-based production systems in the Himalayan tainable management. This implies the existence region operate under indigenous knowledge sys- of specific rules governing access to the tems, they are of value not only to the cultures resources whilst maintaining proper limitation from which they evolve, but also to scientists and and control systems. planners striving to improve conditions in rural societies. However, there is tremendous pressure Biological resources for socio-economic change. With this the ethno- ecological knowledge and cultural traditions of the Himalayas which have been continuously developed and Wild plant resources provide a variety of basic transferred from generation to generation are needs to rural and urban communities, such as beginning to be lost. building materials, fuel, food supplements, mate- The natural settings of the Himalayas have rials for crafts, and medicines. They are also a also influenced resource management. Biophysi- source of income. The depletion of favoured cal characteristics include hills ranging from plant resources results in a loss of self-sufficien- slopes to very steep highlands, mild to extreme

34 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI temperatures, relative aridity, fragmented land- The Himalayas host the three largest tradi- scapes, and high variations in altitudinal range tional medical systems in the world: Ayurvedic and sun exposure. All these characteristics give medicine, Chinese medicine, and Unani medi- rise to a number of ecozones, within which is cine. This region is the only geographical area found a large diversity of microclimates and among the world’s large mountain systems (e.g. microenvironments. Biological resources are the Himalayan, Andean, African, and European very varied; vegetation types are highly diverse, mountain systems) that possesses both rich and endemism is high (Shrestha and Joshi, 1996). medicinal plant diversity and great traditional Due to a scarcity of resources, together with cli- medical knowledge. It has been documented in matic constraints, mountain societies frequently literature from ancient times, allowing methods exploit different ecozones at different periods of for treating illness to be passed down from gen- the year, or rely on two or more types of activity eration to generation. The traditional manage- such as agriculture, herding, trade, and natural ment of medicinal plants and practices of herbal resource use. medicine are built on the basis of local knowl- As a result of these natural and socio-eco- edge. There is a long tradition of using medici- nomic constraints, people depend heavily on nat- nal plants for both preventive and curative ural resources, and future development is tied health-care by rural societies. Local people have into their sustainable use. Decentralized commu- developed reliable knowledge and effective nity-based management systems are vital in this methods to identify, harvest, utilize, maintain region. However, any attempts to develop com- and preserve medicinal plants and their habitats munity-based management systems should not for sustainable use and protection. The ethno- remain isolated; such experiences should be medical and ecological knowledge, and cultural exchanged and shared, on a horizontal level with traditions involved, have been continuously other societies sharing either common biophysi- developed, and transferred from generation to cal or cultural settings, and vertically in order to generation. include scientific, developmental and conserva- The transition from centuries of isolation to tion views from the national level. Today all intense interaction with the outside world since societies are linked to the more global environ- 1950 has been rapid and abrupt. Traditional sys- ment, especially through trade, which was prob- tems of knowledge, including medicine, have ably the first industry to reach the remotest disintegrated in the mountainous areas of the places of the world. Networking for the exchange region. Modern development interventions, of knowledge and information related to trade as access to modern allopathic medicine and well as technologies and opportunities is essen- improved health-care facilities have resulted in tial for the Himalayan societies. population growth. These have furthermore caused changes in the consumption pattern of medicinal plants amongst mountain societies, Traditional use and manage- from home and local use in small quantities to ment of medicinal plants massive harvesting for marketing in large quanti- in the Himalayas ties. Changes in resource tenure systems resulting in uncontrolled over-harvesting of wild med- Medicinal plants play an important part in the icinal plants and the loss of traditional knowl- health-care systems of traditional mountain soci- edge about medicinal plants and conservation eties. In the Himalayan region, it is estimated that traditions are further consequences. 70-80% of the rural population depend on tradi- Field-based research and community partici- tional medicine for primary health-care today, pation in the documentation, application and pro- even though allopathic medicine is available in liferation of indigenous knowledge about medic- many parts. Food, health-care and wood-energy inal plant resources and their management can be are the basic needs of mountain people. There are a part of the process for coping with such no alternative resource options to ensure the sur- changes, without losing valuable local tradition vival of traditional mountain communities under and biodiversity. Hence the importance of eth- the harsh conditions which characterize the nobotany applied in conservation and communi- region. ty development. Understanding the indigenous Medicinal plants are also an important knowledge of mountain people in relation to bio- source of income in this region, contributing to diversity resource management and cultural tra- the economic development of mountain commu- ditions is important for the development of the nities, and supporting modern industrial develop- Hindu Kush-Himalayan region. It is necessary to ment both inside and outside the region. The total identify changes in resource management, cul- number of medicinal plants in the Himalayas is ture, decision-making, and tenure systems, as approximately 7,500 species (Pei, 1998). These well as overall changes in the social and eco- plants play an important role in the biodiversity nomic relationships to resources in order to face of the region and have great conservation value the changing realities of mountain societies in the for global biodiversity. region. PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 35 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI References

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PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 37 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Annex: Case studies and Proceedings

Case Studies (1) Hussain F. 1998. Ethnobotany of fruit plants and its application for conservation and community development in Drosh Valley, Chitral (Hindu Kush-Himalaya Region) of Pakistan. Unpublished report, ICIMOD, Kathmandu.

(2) Changkija, S.; Yaden, A. and Aier, A. 1997. Ethnobotanical study on traditional sustainable cultivation based on Alder tree (Alnus nepalen- List of Proceedings published sis) practices by the Naga tribes of Nagaland, India. Unpublished report, ICIMOD, from the Project on Applied Kathmandu, 39 pp. incl. annexes and pl. Ethnobotany in the Hindu

(3) Godbole, A. 1997. The use of indigenous Kush-Himalayas (1995-1998) knowledge in mountain resource management: a Applied Ethnobotany case study of Wancho community, Tirap Proceedings of sub-regional Training Workshop District, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Unpublished on Applied Ethnobotany at Bangladesh Forest report, 69 pp. incl. annexes and pl. Research Institute, Chittagong, (December 17- 22, 1997), Editors: R. L. Banik, M. K. Alam; S. (4) Alam, M. K. and Khisa, S. K. 1997. J. Pei and A. Rostogi. Published by Bangladesh Preliminary studies in ethnobotany of Chittagong Forest Research Institute 1998. Hill Tracts, Bangladesh, and its linkage with biodiversity. Unpublished report, ICIMOD Ethnobotany for Conservation and Kathmandu, 25 pp. Community Development Proceedings of the National Training Workshop (5) Millat-e-Mustapha, M. 1998. The ecology in Nepal (January 6 -13, 1997), Editors: K. K. and indigenous management techniques of tribal Shrestha, P. K. Jha, Pei Shengji, A. Rastogj, S. homegardens - a case study of Marma tribe in Rajbhandary and M. Joshi. Publisher: Rangamati Hill District, Bangladesh. Ethnobotnical Society of Nepal (ESON) 1998. Unpublished report, ICIMOD Kathmandu 30 pp. Applied Ethnobotany (6) Rajbandhandary, S.; Dangol, N. and Karna, Proceedings of the National Training Workshop B.K. 1997. Community based case study on on Applied Ethnobotany in China, Editors: Pei indigenous system of Sal (Shorea robusta) forest Shengji & Long Chun-lin. Yunnan Nationality management. Unpublished report, ICIMOD, Press, China 1998. Kathmandu, 64 pp. incl.annexes and pl. Applied Ethnobotany in Natural Resource (7) Manandhar N.P. & Archarya S.K. 1997. Management - Traditional Home Gardens Application of indigenous knowledge of fodder Highlights of Training Workshop held at trees in Kalikhastan, Rasuwa District, Nepal. Kohima, Nagaland, India, 18-23, June 1997; Unpublished report, ICIMOD, Kathmandu, 27 Editors: A. Rastogi, A. Godbole and Pei pp. incl. annexes and pl. Shengji. Published by International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development. Kathmandu, Nepal 1998.

Proceedings, First Training Workshop on Ethnobotany and its Application to Conservation, September 16-21, 1996, Editors: Z. K. Shinwari, B. A. Khan and A. A. Khan. Published by: National Herbarium/PASA, 1996.

38 PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 12, SEPTEMBER 2003 APPLIED ETHNOBOTANY: CASE-STUDIES FROM THE HIMALAYAN REGION Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS & PEI SHENGJI Already published in this series:

1. Cunningham, A. B. 1993. African medicinal plants: Setting priorities at the interface between conservation and primary healthcare. (This publication is also available in Spanish.)

2. Cunningham, A. B. and Mbenkum, F. T. 1993. Sustainability of harvesting Prunus africana bark in Cameroon: A medicinal plant in international trade.

3. Aumeeruddy, Y. 1994. Local representations and management of agroforests on the periphery of Kerinci Seblat National Park, Sumatra, Indonesia. (This publication is also available in French and Spanish.)

4. Cunningham, A. B. 1996. People, park and plant use: Recommendations for multiple-use zones and development alternatives around Bwindi Impenetable National Park, Uganda. (This publication is also available in French.)

5. Wild, R. and Mutebi, J. 1996. Conservation through community use of plant resources: Establishing collab- orative management at Bwindi Impenetrable and Mgahinga Gorilla National Parks, Uganda. (This publication is also available in French.)

6. Höft, M., Barik, S. K. and Lykke, A. M. 1999. Quantitative ethnobotany: Applications of multivariate and statistical analyses in ethnobotany.

7. Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Y., Saigal, S., Kapoor, N. and Cunningham, A. B. 1999. Joint management in the making: Reflections and experiences.

8. Maundu, P., Berger, D., Saitabau, C. ole, Nasieku, J., Kukutia, M., Kipelian, M., Kone, S., Mathenge, S., Morimoto, Y., Höft, R. 2001. Ethnobotany of the Loita Maasai: Towards community management of the Forest of the Lost Child. Experiences from the Loita Ethnobotany Project.

9. Martin, G. J., Lee Agama, A., Beaman, J. H. and Nais, J. 2002. Projek Etnobotani Kinabalu. The making of a Dusun Ethnoflora (Sabah, Malaysia).

10. Cunningham, A. B., Ayuk, E., Franzel, S., Duguma, B. and Asanga, C. 2002. An economic evaluation of medicinal tree cultivation: Prunus africana in Cameroon.

11. Hamilton, A. C., Pei Shengji, Kessy, J., Khan, Ashiq A., Lagos-Witte, S. and Shinwari, Z. K. 2003. The purposes and teaching of Applied Ethnobotany. The People and Plants Initiative was started in July 1992 by WWF, UNESCO and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew to promote the sustainable and equitable use of plant resources through providing support to ethnobotanists from developing countries.

The initiative stems from the recognition that people in rural communities often have detailed and profound knowledge of the properties and ecology of locally occurring plants, and rely on them for many of their foods, medicines, fuel, building materials and other products. However, much of this knowledge is being lost with the transformation of local ecosystems and local cultures. Over- Contact addresses: harvesting of non cultivated plants is increasingly common, caused by loss of habitat, increase in local WWF International Plants Conservation Unit use and the growing demands of trade. Long-term WWF-UK conservation of plant resources and the knowledge Panda House, Catteshall Lane, associated with them is needed for the benefit of the Godalming local people and for their potential use to local Surrey GU7 1XR communities in other places. UNITED KINGDOM Fax: 44 1483 426409 The diversity of traditional plant-resource management practices runs through a spectrum from “cultivation” through to gathering “wild” plants, all of which are included in the People and Plants approach. Division of Ecological Sciences UNESCO Ethnobotanists can work together with local people to 7 Place de Fontenoy study and record the uses of plant resources, identify 75352 Paris Cedex 07 SP cases of over-harvesting of non-cultivated plants, find FRANCE sustainable harvesting methods and investigate Fax: 33 1 45685804 alternatives such as cultivation.

The People and Plants initiative is building support for ethnobotanists from developing countries who work with local people on issues related to the The Director conservation of both plant resources and traditional Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew ecological knowledge. Key participants organize Richmond participatory workshops, undertake discussion and Surrey TW9 3AB advisory visits to field projects and provide literature UNITED KINGDOM on ethnobotany, traditional ecological knowledge and Fax: 44 181 3325278 sustainable plant resource use. It is hoped that a network of ethnobotanists working on these issues in different countries and regions can be developed to exchange information, share experience and collaborate on field projects.

Please visit our website at: http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/peopleplants