A Dissertation Submitted for Partial Fulfillment Of

DIVERSITY OF NATURALIZED PLANT SPECIES ACROSS LAND USE TYPES IN MAKWANPUR DISTRICT, CENTRAL NEPAL

A Dissertation Submitted for Partial Fulfillment of the Requirmentment for the Master‟s Degree in Botany, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal

Submitted by Bhawani Nyaupane Exam Roll No.:107/071 Batch: 2071/73 T.U Reg. No.: 5-2-49-10-2010 Ecology and Resource Management Unit Central Department of Botany Institute of Science and Technology Tribhuvan University Kirtipur, Kathamndu, Nepal May, 2019

RECOMMENDATION

This is to certify that the dissertation work entitled “DIVERSITY OF NATURALIZED PLANT ACROSS LAND USE TYPES IN MAKWANPUR DISTRICT, CENTRAL NEPAL” has been submitted by Ms. Bhawani Nyaupane under my supervision. The entire work is accomplished on the basis of Candidate‘s original research work. As per my knowledge, the work has not been submitted to any other academic degree. It is hereby recommended for acceptance of this dissertation as a partial fulfillment of the requirement of Master‘s Degree in Botany at Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University.

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Supervisor Dr. Bharat Babu Shrestha Associate Professor Central Department of Botany TU, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Date: 17th May, 2019

LETTER OF APPROVAL

The M.Sc. dissertation entitled “DIVERSITY OF NATURALIZED PLANT SPECIES ACROSS LAND USE TYPES IN MAKWANPUR DISTRICT, CENTRAL NEPAL” submitted at the Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University by Ms. Bhawani Nyaupane has been accepted as a partial fulfillment of the requirement of Master‘s Degree in Botany (Ecology and Resource Management Unit).

EXAMINATION COMMITTEE

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External Examiner Internal Examiner

Dr. Rashila Deshar Dr. Anjana Devkota

Assistant Professor Associate Professor

Central Department of Environmental Science Central Department of Botany

TU, Kathmandu, Nepal. TU, Kathmandu, Nepal.

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Supervisor Head of the Department

Dr. Bharat Babu Shrestha Dr. Ram Kailash Prasad Yadav

Associate Professor Professor

Central Department of Botany Central Department of Botany

TU, Kathmandu, Nepal. TU, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Date: 22th May, 2019

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Bharat Babu Shrestha for his valuable comments, suggestions, courage and steering me in the right the direction whenever I needed it. I would also like to thanks Prof. Mohan Siwakoti for advices, inspirations and helping for plant identification. I would be glad to thanks Prof. Dr. Ram Kailash Yadav, Head of the Department for his insightful suggestions and motivation. I would also like to dedicate my heartily grateful to Dr. Bhaskar Adhikari for helping in identification as well as for his precious suggestions and helps. I also want to thank Dr. Lila Nath Sharma for helping in data analysis. My heartily thanks also goes to former senior scientist of Department of Plant Resources Dr. Keshab Raj Rajbhandari for monocot identification and Prof. Dr. Sangeeta Rajbhandary and Mr. Dhan Raj Kandel for Pteridophytes identifications. I can‘t wait to convey my acknowledgement to Dr. Chitra Bhadur Baniya, Dr. Anjana Devkota and Prof. Dr. Suresh Kumar Ghimire for their guidance during the thesis.

The data present in this thesis is a part of a research project „Science-based Interventions Reversing Negative Impacts of Invasive Plants in Nepal‟ funded by ‗Darwin Initiative Project, UK.‘ and implemented by Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Department of Plant Resources (DPR), Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, GoN, and the Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University.

I can‘t stop myself to thanks all the members of National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Lalitpur (KATH) and Central National Herbarium, Kolkata (CAL) for their assistance during plant identification. I am heartily grateful to my seniors Mr. Yagya Raj Paneru, Mr. Devi Ram Bhatt, Mr. Prabin Bhandari, Mr. Yadu Nath Poudel, Mr. Bishnu Rijal and Mrs. Sajita Dhakal for their endless support during thesis completion. I would also like to thanks my friends Sabana Parveen, Ashika Bhusal, Ganesh Joshi, Rasmi Paudel, Ajay Neupane, Ilina Bajracharya, Mameeta Shakya, Prativa Paneru. I would like to thanks my heartily grateful to my juniors Ashish Prakriti Dhital, Prativa Budathoki, Prithivi Raj Gurung and Mahesh Bist for their support during course of my study.

Date: 17th May, 2019 Bhawani Nyaupane

TABLE OF CONTENTS

RECOMMENDATION ...... ii LETTER OF APPROVAL ...... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... v LISTS OF FIGURES ...... vii LISTS OF TABLE ...... viii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...... ix CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background ...... 1 1.2 Rationale ...... 3 1.3 Hypothesis ...... 4 1.4 Objectives ...... 4 1.5 Limitations of the study ...... 4 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 5 2.1 Biological Invasions ...... 5 2.2 Community Invasibilty ...... 5 2.3 Naturalized Plants Diversity at Multiple Spatial Scale ...... 7 2.4 Naturalization and Invasiveness ...... 8 2.5 Naturalized Plants Diversity in Nepal ...... 8 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS ...... 11 3.1 Study area ...... 11 3.1.1 Physiography ...... 11 3.1.2 Climate ...... 13 3.1.3 Vegetation and land use pattern...... 13 3.2 Methods ...... 16 3.2.1 Study approach and data sources ...... 16 3.2.2 Preparation of checklist ...... 16 3.2.3 Voucher Specimens Collection and Identification ...... 17 3.2.4 Vegetation Sampling ...... 17 3.2.5 Categorization of Species ...... 19 3.3 Soil Analysis ...... 20

3.4 Data Analysis ...... 22 3.4.1 Comparison of native and naturalized plants diversity among land use types ...... 22 3.4.2 Detrended Corresponding Analysis (DCA) ...... 22 3.4.3 Canonical Corresponding Analysis (CCA) ...... 23 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS ...... 24 4.1 Vascular Plant Diversity ...... 24 4.2 Diversity of Naturalized Plant Species ...... 25 4.3 Species richness of naturalized and native plant species ...... 27 4.4 Plant Diversity across Land use Types...... 29 4.4.1 Coverage and Frequency of naturalized plants ...... 31 4.4.2 Distribution of sampling plots ...... 35 4.5 Influence of Environmental Variables on Naturalized non- invasive and Invasive Plants ...... 37 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION ...... 44 5.1 Floral Composition ...... 44 5.2 Naturalized Plant Species Composition and Distribution ...... 45 5.3 Land use Pattern and Species Composition ...... 47 5.4 Coverage and Frequency ...... 48 5.4 Influence of Environmental Factors on Naturalized Plant ...... 48 5.5 Diversity of Naturalized and Native Species ...... 50 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...... 51 6.1 Conclusion ...... 51 6.2 Recommendation ...... 52 REFERENCES ...... 53 APPENDICES ...... I Appendix 1...... I Appendix 2...... V Appendix 3 ...... XXXIV Appendix 4...... XXXIX Appendix 5...... XLI PHOTOPLATES ...... XLIII

LISTS OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Map of study area Figure 2. Average monthly temperature & precipitation of ten years (2008-2017) Figure 3. Modified – Whittaker Nested vegetation sampling plot Figure 4. Number of species belonging to ten rich families Figure 5. Contribution of different life forms to the total species recorded Figure 6. Taxonomic categorization of vascular plants of the district Figure 7. Number of naturalized species belonging to ten rich families Figure 8. Contribution of different life forms to naturalized plant species Figure 9. Taxonomic categorization of naturalized plants of the district Figure 10. Number of naturalized species and their native range Figure 11. Relationship of naturalized species with native species Figure 12. Relation between invasive species and native species Figure 13. Categories of plants according to land use types Figure 14. Mean species richness across different land use types. A. Total species richness B. Native species richness C. Naturalized non-invasive richness D. Invasive richness Figure 15. Coverage of naturalized plants across alnd use types A. Naturalized plants B. Invasive plants Figure 16. Frequency of invasive plants Figure 17. DCA diagram showing distribution of sampling plots Figure 18. CCA bipolots for invasive plants and environmental variables Figure 19. CCA bipolots for naturalized non-invasive plants and environmental variables

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LISTS OF TABLE

Table 1. Detail information of different land use type that were sampled

Table 2. Percentage sharing of naturalized non-invasive plants and invasive plants across different land use types

Table 3. Coverage of naturalized non-invasive plants in different land use types

Table 4. Coverage of invasive plants in different land use types

Table 5. Summary of DCA statistic table showing distribution of sampling plots

Table 6. A.Importance of environmental variables on naturalized non-invasive plants B. CCA ordination summary table

Table 7. A. Importance of environmental variables on invasive plants B. CCA ordination summary table

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ANOVA Analysis of Variance

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

CCA Canonical Correspondance Analysis

GPS Global Positioning System

IUCN The World Conservation Union

KATH National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories

Max. / Min. Maximum / Minimum

MFSC Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences

TUCH Tribhuvan University Central Herbarium

DCA Detrended correspondence analysis

ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development p Level of Significance

Spp. Species

ABSTRACT

Biological invasion is responsible for ecological damage as well as economic loss and major threat to biodiversity after the habitat destruction. Land use pattern is one of the important factors that influence the naturalization process and subsequent invasion. The present study has assessed the diversity of naturalized plant across land use types in Makwanpur District, Central Nepal using Modified-Whittaker nested sampling method (50m × 20m). Five plots were sampled in each of the six land use types (Sal forest, Mixed forest, Wetland land, Agricultural land, Fallow land and Grassland). Along with vegetation sampling, trail survey was also done to enumerate naturalized plants of the district and different factors governing the diversity of naturalized plants were also analysed. Total 894 vascular plants were recorded from the district, out of them 109 were naturalized. The district has high number of invasive plants. Out of 109 naturalized plants, 22 were invasive plants. Approximately 80% of naturalized plants were reported as native to American continents. The diversity of native species, naturalized non-invasive and invasive plants had varied significantly across land use types in the study (p≤0.05). Native species was recorded the highest in Mixed forest (31±4) and the least in Agricultural land (14 ± 1). Naturalized non-invasive plants were found maximum in Fallow land (8±2) and the least in Wetland (3±1). On other hand, invasive plants were found the highest in Wetland (12±2), followed by Grassland (9±1), Fallow land (9±1), Sal forest (6±1), Mixed forest (6±1) and Agricultural land (3±1). Invasive plants favor more disturbed land use types than less disturbed land use types. Naturalized non-invasive plants were found strongly favoured by nearer distance from the residential area, nearer distance from water course and slightly alkaline soil pH. Whereas, nearer distance from water course, high soil nitrogen, less tree canopy and slightly alkaline soil pH support the establishment of invasive plants. Therefore, along with land use types other environmental variables and disturbance also affects the establishment of naturalized plants and the process of biological invasions.

Keywords: Biological invasions, naturalized plants, Modified-Whittaker nested sampling method, native plant species, environmental variables

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Exotic plant species with self-sustaining populations are known as naturalized plant species and assumed to contribute significant role in loss of biodiversity and has been gathered the attention of many biologist (Rejmanek 2015). Exotic plants must oppose numerous barriers to enhance their capacity of invasion (Blackburn et al. 2011). Biological invasions are considered as second most important threat to biodiversity (Glowka et al. 1994) encouraged by disturbance (Kumar and Mathur 2014, Sharma and Raghubanshi 2010) which have great risk to native flora and ecosystem (CBD 2000, Pysek et al. 2012). To control and eradication of these species many countries have been concerned (Simberloff 2014). Increasing human movement and global trade have assisted the worldwide expansion of invasive plants (Sekar 2012, Seebens et al. 2017). Escalating anthropogenic disturbance favors the establishment of invasive plant species (Hui et al. 2011). Approx. 42% of U.S. endangered or threatened species are in risk due to exotic species (Wilcove et al. 1998) and in term of economic damage it cost $ 120 billion/year (Pimentel et al. 2005). European threatened species are also affected due to invasions (Genovesi et al. 2015). In China, US $ 15 billion annual losses have been attributed to biological invasions (Xu et al. 2012). Therefore, invasion is considered as worldwide challenge due to its catastrophic impacts. Invasive plants had caused the reduction of native plants in different geographic reasons. Land use change, anthropogenic disturbance, and climate change are the major factors that help to the introduction of invasive plant species (Lonsdale 1999). Communities with poor species have been found more influenced by invasion due to presence of unused resources (Davis et al. 2000), less competition (Fargione & Tilman 2005) and predation (Woods et al. 2012, Prior and Hellmann 2013). Scale is another factor that governs the relationship between diversity of native and exotic species (Guo 2015). In small spatial scale, high number of native species resists the establishment of exotic species (Levine et al. 2004, Brown and Peet 2003) but small community with low native diversity favors the invasion process (Zeiter and Stampfli 2012, Chun et al. 2010). However, in large spatial scale, habitat with high native diversity facilitates the establishment of upcoming exotic species (Stohlgren et al.

2008). However, the exact mechanism of habitat conversion due to exotic species is not clear yet. Biological invasions can alter the soil chemistry and ecosystem process (Gibbons et al. 2017). Soil nitrogen and other organic matter seem to upsurge due to invasion success (Vila et al. 2011). Community invasibility is mainly influence by a fluctuation of available resources in space and time (Vitousek et al. 1997, Li and Stevens 2017), climate, environmental disturbance (Milbau et al. 2013), competitive capability of native species (Lonsdale 1999), and previously established closely related species (Simerloff 2014). Propagule pressure, species trait and community characters altogether are responsible for community invasion (Erfmeler et al. 2013).

Rapidly changing land use pattern is another topic of debate. In one hand, it build up problem for native species to cope with changing environment, on the other hand it facilitates the establishment of the exotic species (Sax & Brown 2000). Highly modified land use types such as grassland and agricultural land are highly susceptible for biological invasions (Baral et al. 2017) due to elevated disturbance and human interference (Rastogi et al. 2015). Generally, dense forest stands consist of low number of invasive plant (Sapkota 2007).

Nepal is the one of the least developed countries having broad range of climatic variation from tropical to alpine (Tarai to High Himal). This broad range of climatic conditions in the country support the invasion process of diversity of species that are native to a wide range of climatic conditions. Nepal has 179 naturalized plant (Shrestha et al. 2019) species and 64 naturalized animal species (Budha 2015). Among these naturalized plants, 26 species are reported as invasive plants (Shrestha 2016, Shrestha et al. 2017). Because of the open trade, plants that are invasive to India can easily be introduced to Nepal. Lowe et al. (2000) reported 100 of the world‘s worst invasive alien species and the list has 4 out of total 26 plant species that are invasive in Nepal; they are Chromolaena odorata (Sperng) King and Robinson, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms, Lantana camara L. and Mikania micrantha Kunth.

1.2 Rationale

Invasive plants are major threat to the biodiversity of the world including Nepal. Nepal has at least 179 species of naturalized plant (Shrestha et al. 2019) and 26 of them have become invasive (Shrestha et al. 2017). Subtropical and tropical part of the country has been found more vulnerable to invasion, which might be due to the fact that almost ¾th of naturalized plants in Nepal have their origin in tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Tiwari et al. 2005, Bhattarai et al. 2014). Although many documentation works as well as impact analysis of invasive plants have been done in country level (Tiwari et al. 2005, Bhattarai et al 2014, Shrestha 2016), district wise study have not done yet. Furthermore, which land use type is more vulnerable to invasion than others is a controversial issue. Grassland and agricultural land were found more susceptible to invasion than other land use types in Panchase area, central Nepal (Baral et al. 2017). In Chitwan, central Nepal, Forest core and stands with dense canopy comprised a low number of invasive plant species (Sapkota 2007). In contrast, Divisek et al. (2018) reported a high number of invasive plants in forest, followed by grassland and fallow land in Central Europe. Therefore, additional data is needed from different regions to resolve this disputed issue. Hence, the study will help to recognize which land use type is more susceptible to invasion. Ultimately, it will help to identifying the land use type that needs to manage primarily.

The biotic resistance hypothesis is also under debate. Some researcher believe that community having high number of native flora or rich in biodiversity resists the establishment of exotic species (Levine et al. 2004, Brown and Peet 2003) but there are many evidences which showed that a high number of naturalized plant species can establish in communities which are highly diverse in native flora (Stohlgren et al. 2008). These contradictory issues create problem in the management of invasive plants. Testing this hypothesis in additional areas will help for proper management planning of the invasive species.

1.3 Hypothesis

Hypothesis of present the study was that Community having high richness of native species have low number of naturalized species.

1.4 Objectives

The broad objective of present research is to study the diversity of naturalized plant species across land use types in Makwanpur District, Central Nepal. Specific objectives were as follows: I. To prepare the checklist of naturalized vascular plant species of Makwanpur District. II. To analyse the diversity of naturalized plant species across the land use types in the study area. III. To identify environmental variables governing the diversity of naturalized species.

1.5 Limitations of the study

Major limitations of this study are as following 1. Data was taken only in one season; therefore, impact of seasonal variation on naturalized plant diversity could not be included. 2. Land use types sampled in this study may not represent all the land use types found in the district. 3. Weeding was done in two out of five sampling plots of agricultural land, which may decrease the number of naturalized plants in agricultural land.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Biological Invasions

Biological invasions are presently one of the most emerging issues and considered as second major threat to the biological diversity after the habitat destruction (Glowka et al. 1994). In case of plants, Biological invasions are considered as the fourth important driver of extinction (Bellard et al. 2016). Plants that arrived to non-native area and reproduce sufficiently to influence the ecosystem, economy and human health negatively are known as invasive plant species (CBD 2000). Every invading species does not show equal degree of invasiveness (Rejmanek and Daniel 2010, Freeman et al 2015). Evolving trade and transport network boost the species‘ movement beyond their native range (Sekar 2012, Seebens et al. 2017). Therefore, problem of invasion is not a local issue and attracted the attention of ecologists, farmers, agronomists, conservationists all around the world due to its devastating impacts on ecology as well as on economy (Saure 2012). Properties of species or plant community (Shea and Chess 2002) as well as physical environment (Higgins and Richardson 1998) are responsible for invasion. Increasing human induced disturbances also favor the growth and development of invasive plants (Hui et al. 2011). Several impacts of invasive plant species have been noticed around the world. The USA has a burden of $ 120 billion/year for direct and indirect impact of exotic species (Pimentel et al. 2005). Approximately 18% of European threatened species has been affected due to biological invasions (Genovesi et al. 2015). The USA and China along with developing countries such as Bangladesh and Nepal face threat of biological invasions in agricultural field (Paini et al. 2016). China losses annual US $ 15 billion because of invasive species (Xu et al. 2012).

2.2 Community Invasibilty

Biological communities are vulnerable to invasion, which can be explained under three categories: propagule pressure, invasibility of community, & characters of alien species (Davis et al. 2000, Simberloff 2009, Erfmeler 2013). The characters that support the species to be invasive are highly reproductive output, short generation

time, and capacity of asexual reproduction (Bock et al. 2015). Dispersal mechanism of the species also play vital role in establishment of invasive species. Not only the trait of species help to be an invasive but community characters also influence the establishment and spreading of introduced species. Increase in community invasibility depends upon the various factors like fluctuation of available resource (Davis et al. 2000, Li and Stevens 2012, Li and Stevens 2017), presence of low biotic diversity of native flora (Tilman 1997), already established closely related species (Simberloff 2014) and disturbance (Milbau et al. 2013). Presence of high diversity of native species uses almost all available resources and cause resource deficiency to new species and ultimately creates problem to their establishment. Propagule pressure also has great influence to the establishment of invasive species. How many propagule enters into one episode (number) and how many propagule episode takes place (size) determine the success of biological invasions (Simberloff 2009). Demographic stochasticity has been overcome by propagule size whereas environmental stochasticity has overcome by propagule number (Simberloff 2009). Increase in both number and size of propagule together, increase the rate of invasion success (Lockwood et al. 2009, Simberloff 2009). But the exact mechanism that determines the invasion success due to propagule pressure has not been understood clearly but it has been supposed that a large number of propagule and habitat with less number of native species facilitates the invasion process or success (Britton-Simmons 2007, Liu et al. 2014).

Land conversion affects native biodiversity in different rate in different ecosystem (Simons et al. 2017). Rapid change in environmental condition create problem for native plant to cope with sudden changes; as a consequence native biodiversity declines (Shea and Chesson 2002). On other hand exotic species have been facilitated by getting niche opportunity (Sax and Brown 2000). Grassland, agricultural land, roadside and fallow land comprise high number of invasive plants in Panchase area, central Nepal (Baral et al. 2017). The invasive plants diversity seems low at core of forest and under covered canopy (Sapkota 2007). In contrast, according to the findings of Divisek et al. (2018) in Central Europe, forest ecosystem comprised higher number of invasive plants followed by grassland and wetland. On the other hand, naturalized non-invasive plant species were found the highest in the grassland (Divisek et al. 2018).

2.3 Naturalized Plants Diversity at Multiple Spatial Scale

Naturalized plant species are those alien species that can produce self-sustaining population in new habitat without human interference (Richardson et al. 2000). There are a number of naturalized plant species in the world and some of them are proved innocent (Thomas and Palmer 2015) while others are hazardous to native species and ecosystem and known as invasive (Castro-Diez et al. 2016, Matsuzaki 2016). Globally there are 13,168 naturalized plant species, which is equivalent to 3.9% of the extant global flora (Kleunen et al. 2015). North America has the highest number of naturalized plants and the Pacific island have the highest rate of colonization of naturalized plants (Kleunen et al. 2015). Among these naturalized species, some started to spread and replace the native flora while other are co-evolved with native species. Landscape of terrestrial as well as marine ecosystem is continuously changing now a day‘s due to human activities, which help to introduction and establishment of new species that are functionally and structurally different from those of native species (Richardson and Pysek 2012). Globalization and anthropogenic activities supports the introduction of exotic species (Seebens et al. 2017). Although every species naturalized to new environmental have not shown negative impact but in near future they may become invasive, if they produce sufficient fertile offsprings (Richardson et al. 2000). Interaction of biotic and abiotic factors determines the invasion process (Chun et al. 2010).

It has been found that species poor community is more susceptible to invasion because of the high availability of unused resources (Davis et al. 2000), less competition (Fargione and Tilman 2005) and predation (Woods et al. 2012, Prior and Hellmann 2013). But the exact relation between native species richness and invasion process is controversial because of its dependency on scale as well as ecosystem (Fridley et al. 2007, Guo 2015). Generally at small spatial scale high diversity of native species reduces the probability of exotic species establishment, and vice versa (Chun et al. 2010). At large scale, native and exotic species reveals positive relation (Stohlgren et al. 2003, Herben et al. 2004,). Some contradictory result had been reported for small spatial scale (Jauni and Hyvonen 2012, Zeiter and Stampfli 2012). Therefore, only one phenomenon or trait alone cannot describe the invasion success.

2.4 Naturalization and Invasiveness

In non-native habitat establishment of exotic plants determined by various factors such as avability of unused resources (Davis et al. 2000), propagule pressure (Simberloff 2009), climatic similarity with native region (Gallien et al. 2010) and disturbance (Kumar and Mathur 2014). Exotic plants that becomes wide spread and produce self-sustaining population in introduced habitat are known to be naturalized (Rejmanek 2015). Not all naturalized plants have negative effect on native biodiversity, some of them have not shown any noticeable impact on biodiversity of introduce range (Lane 1993). Those subsets of naturalized plant having self-sustaining population and become aggressive and spread beyond the manageable limit are known as invasive plant. These invasive plants have negative impact on ecology, economy and health (CDB 2000). Exotic plants must confront several barriers to become invasive (Blackburn et al. 2011). Therefore every naturalized plant are not categorized as invasive. Nepal has 179 naturalized plants (Shrestha et al. 2019) but only 26 plants have been reported as invasive plant from the country (Shrestha et al. 2017). For example, Axonopus compressus (Sw.), Scoparia dulcis L., Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit, etc. are some naturalized plants of Nepal but they are not reported as invasive plant for Nepal. According to rule of tens 10% of dispersed species can established in new habitat, amomg them 10% have chance to turn into naturalized and out of naturalized species 10% have chance to convert into invasive (Williamson and Fitter 1996).

2.5 Naturalized Plants Diversity in Nepal

Considering the threats to agriculture sector, Nepal has enlisted as third most threatened country from biological invasions out of 124 countries (Paini et al. 2016). Exotic plants have been introduced to Nepal for different purposes such as horticulture, gardening and other forestry uses (Kunwar 2003) or they might have come accidentally. Diverse climatic as well as physiographic conditions of the country support the new comer to establishment and spreading. Most of the exotic plants arrived Nepal from India due to open border and high dependency of the trade of Nepal with India. Higher numbers of naturalized plants have been reported from eastern and central Nepal than from the western Nepal and almost ¾th of them are native of Americas followed by Europe (Bhattarai et al. 2014). Recently Global

Register of Introduced and Invasive species listed naturalized plant species from 196 different countries and the list has reported the presence of 179 species of naturalized plants in Nepal (Shrestha et al. 2019). Documentation of invasive species in Nepal dates back to 1958 (Poudel and Thapa 2012). However, study of diversity of invasive plants had started first by IUCN and enlisted 21 invasive species in Nepal (Tiwari et al. 2005). The reported number of the alien plant species has increased over time in Nepal. Shrestha (2016) included additional four species (Galinsoga quadriradiata Ruiz & Pav., Ageratum conyzoides L., Erigeron karvinskianus DC. and Spermacoce alata Aubl.) in the list and more recently Spergula arvensis L. has also been included in the list of invasive plants of Nepal (Shrestha et al. 2017). Majority of invasive plants have been reported from low land of Nepal (Tiwari et al. 2005, Bhattarai et al. 2014) with maximum elevation range 2600 m for Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R. King & H. Rob. (Shrestha 2016) but Erigeron karvinskianus and Galinsoga quadriradiata are found in Mid Hills and low mountains (Shrestha 2016). Chromolaena odorata, Eichhornia crassipes, Lantana camara & Mikania micrantha that have been reported as invasive plants in Nepal, are among 100 of the world‘s worst alien invasive species (Lowe et al 2000). Land use types of lower elevation are more susceptible to biological invasions than that of higher elevation (Poudel 2011, Siwakoti et al. 2016). Invasion due to road expansion and land use pattern is more severe in lower elevation of central Nepal (Poudel 2015). Ageratina adenophora, Chromolaena odorata, Lantana camara & Mikania micrantha are considered as major threat to forest (MFSC 2014, Shrestha et al. 2017). Eichhornia crassipes and Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. have shown high impact in wetland. Ageratum houstonianum Mill. is most problematic in agricultural land and Parthenium hysterophorus L. is dominant near residential area and grassland (Siwakoti et al. 2016, Shrestha et al. 2017).

There are a few researches that have compared the naturalized plant diversity among land use types. Chataut (2017) had studied naturalized plant diversity across different forest types in three different types of forest situated at midhills of central Nepal, found shrubland, and disturbed Pinus roxburghii Sarg. forest consisted high number of naturalized plants in comparison to less disturbed forests. Likewise, Dhakal (2017) compared the vegetation wise naturalized plant diversity in Tarai and Siwalik region of central Nepal. The result showed Dalbergia forest of Siwalik region comprised the

highest number of naturalized plants but in case of Tarai grassland comprised the highest number of the naturalized plants. Banjade (2017) studied the naturalized plants in Modi river watershed of Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) and reported maximum number of naturalized species in Bombax-Schima forest as well as from sub-tropical mixed forest. On other hand, only one naturalized plant had been reported from a Alpine grassland. Similar type of study was conducted by Thapa (2017) in Marsyangdi river valley of the ACA. Altogether, 797 species were recorded from both primary and secondary sources, 5% of them were recorded as naturalized plants. Nine vegetation types had been considered for the study. Schima-Castanopsis forest (11%) consisted high naturalized plants followed by Bombax forest (8%) and Fir-Birch- Rhododendron forest as well as Blue Pine forest comprised the lowest naturalized plants. Bombax forest comprised the highest number of invasive plants.

CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Study area

3.1.1 Physiography The present study was done in Makwanpur district (area: 2,426 sq.km) in central Nepal. It extends from 84 41 to 85 31 E and 27 10 to 27 40 N which is surrounded by Rautahat, Bara and Parsa districts to the South, Lalitpur, Kavre and Sindhuli to the East, Chitwan district to the West and Dhading and Kathmandu districts to the North (RAIDP 2012). The district shows diverse elevation range from 166 m to 2584 m. Rapti, Lothar, Bagmati, Manahari and Bakaiya are the some major rivers of the district (DDC 2011).

Field sampling was done in Hetauda sub metropolitan city which is the headquarter of Makwanpur district and popularly known as ―Green city‖. Tribhvan highway and Mahendra highway are the major highways that pass through the city. It is also the temporary capital of Province 3. Map of the study area and distribution of sampling plots were given in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Study area map and distribution of sampling plots.

3.1.2 Climate The study area is a part of inner Tarai which lies in Churia region with sub-humid and hot climate (Hetuada Sub-Metropolitan City, 2017). The meteorological data recorded at the nearest weather station (Hetauda) for ten years (2008-2017) has been shown to characterise the climatic condition of the study area (Figure 2). Monthly average maximum temperature was recorded in April (approx. 35°C) and monthly average minimum in January (approx. 8°C). The precipitation was recorded the highest in August (approx. 599 mm) and lowest in November (less than 1 mm) (Figure 2.). Annual average precipitation was 2201 mm in Hetauda.

40 700 T. max (°C) T. min (°C) Precipitation(mm)

35 600

C) 500 ° 25 400 20 300 15

200 Temperature ( Temperature

10 (mm) Precipitation 5 100 0 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Months

Figure 2. Temperature and precipitation data from 2008 to 2017 showing monthly average maximum (T.max) and minimum temperature (T.min) as well as monthly average precipitation recorded from weather station of Hetauda, Makwanpur located on 27.25°N and 85.03°E with 474 m. elevation. (Source: Department of Hydrology and Meteorology/GoN, 2008-2017; data obtained on 15 July 2018).

3.1.3 Vegetation and land use pattern Makwanpur district has diverse type of vegetation due to variation on elevation which ranges from 166 m to 2584 m (DDC 2011). Therefore, the district has vegetation that is characteristics of tropical, subtropical and temperate regions. The study was conducted mainly in tropical region for vegetation sampling but voucher specimens were collected from both tropical as well as subtropical region. The study tried to

include maximum number of naturalized plants of the district for preparation of checklist. Therefore trail survey was done to collect voucher specimens from Thigan to Faparbari which includes both tropical and subtropical region of the district. On the otherhand, vegetation sample was done in tropical region because the study try to include more land use type situated in nearby area so that climatic variation could not affect the relation of land use pattern and naturalized plants diversity. Hence from the preliminary visit different land use were selected. Elevational range of our study was 225 m to 1242 m.

Tropical region (below 1000 m) is characterised by dominance of Shorea robusta Gaertn. forest and replaced by riverine forest along the side of rivers and stream. Sal forest extends throughout the flat land along with Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb., Terminalia chebula Retz., Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb., Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Brandis, Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth and Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. as dominant species. Riverine forest harbors mainly Senegalia catechu (L.f.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb., Dalbergia sissoo DC. forest, Bombax ceiba L., Mallotus nudiflorus (L.) Kulju & Welzen and Albizia julibrissin Durazz. (Liutel et al. 2014)

Subtropical region mainly comprises Schima - Castanopsis forest, Pinus forest and Alnus forest. Dominant species were Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth, Castanopsis indica (Roxb. ex Lindl.) A.DC., Engelhardia spicata Lesch. ex Bl., Pinus roxburghii Sarg, Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz, Wendlandia coriacea (Wall.) DC., Macaranga indica Wight and Alnus nepalensis D.Don (Chapagain et al. 2016).

The district comprised different land use types. Forest areas have occupied 59% of total area of the district. Second most dominated land use type is agricultural land, which occupies 25% of total area of the district followed by grazing land, and barren land occupies 9% and rivers and streams 7% (DFO 2002).

Sampling was done at Hetauda sub meteropolitan city, which is a important indusrtrial estate. Major higways such as highways such as Mahendra highway and Tribhuvan highway along with several small roads passed through the Hetuda which favors the dispersal of naturalized plants in the site. Road expansion and land use pattern facilitates the problem of invasion in central Nepal (Poudel 2015). Sal forest, mixed forest, agricultural land, Fallow land, Wetland and grassland were selected for sampling (Table 1).

Table 1. Detail information of different land use types that were sampled.

Plot Land use Eleva- Distur- Dominant Dominant invasive species No. types tion bance species (m) factors 1 Sal forest 445- Grazing, Shorea Lantana camara L., 449 grass robusta Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. cutting Gaertn., King & H. Rob., Mimosa Dalbergia pudica L. sissoo DC. 2 Mixed forest 517- Grazing, Shorea Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. 532 grass robusta King & H. Rob., Lantana cutting, Gaertn., camara L., wood Dalbergia Spermacoce alata Aubl. harvesting sissoo DC, Grewia optiva J. R. Drumm. ex Burret 3 Agricultural 498- Weeding, Zea mays L., Ageratum houstonianum Mill., land 507 Grass Glycine max Ageratum conyzoides L., cutting (L.)Merr., Spermacoce alata Aubl. Vigna mungo (L.)Hepper 4 Wetland 407- Grazing, Colocasia Mimosa pudica L., 418 human esculenta (L.) Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) trampling, Schott, Solms, Alternanthera cattle Saccharum philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. trampling spontaneum L. 5 Fallow land 431- Grazing, Axonopus Spermacoce alata Aubl., 440 human compressus Mimosa pudica L., trampling (Sw.) Mesosphaerum suaveolens (L.) P.Beauv., Kuntze Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.), Murdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan 6 Grassland 415- Grazing, Saccharum Mikania micrantha Kunth, 420 human spontaneum Spermacoce alata Aubl., trampling, L., Senna tora (L.)Roxb. vehicle Imperata movement cylindrica (L.) P.Beauv., Phyllanthus urinaria L.

Sal forest consisted as Sal as dominant species with association with Dalbergia sissoo. Lantana camara was very common shrub species in the Sal forest. Mixed forest comprised Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sissoo, Grewia optiva J. R. Drumm. ex Burret, Schima wallichii, Bauhinia variegata L. as major species. Whereas, Zea mays L. was dominant in agricultural land along with Glycine max (L.) Merr., Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper, Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. as cultivated plants and Ageratum houstonianum, Sida rhombifolia L., Euphorbia hirta L. were the most common weeds of agricultural land. Axonopus compressus was the most dominating species in fallow land associated with Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl and Murdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan. Mimosa pudica L., Sida rhombifolia, Euphorbia hirta, Mesosphaerum suaveolens (L.) Kuntze, Ageratum houstonianum and Spermacoce alata were dominant weeds. Saccharum spontaneum L. and Imperata cylindrica (L.) P.Beauv. were the major species of grassland. Desmodium microphyllum (Thunb.)DC., Phyllanthus urinaria L. and Murdannia nudiflora were abundant small herbaceous plants in grassland. Xanthium strumarium L. and Mesosphaerum suaveolens were some common weed species on the site. Wetland comprised Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott associated with Eichhornia crassipes and Pistia stratiotes L. as major species.

3.2 Methods

3.2.1 Study approach and data sources The study was done in two spatial scales; first in district level for preparation of the checklist of the native and naturalized vascular plant species, and second at the land use type level for vegetation sampling. The first field survey was done from 21 Nov to 30 Nov, 2016 and overall vascular plants including pteridophytes were collected from Faparbari to Thigan, mainly by trail survey method. Additional information required for the preparation of checklist was obtained from previous studies. Vegetation sampling was done in six land use types in Hetauda from 8 Sep to 17 Sep, 2017.

3.2.2 Preparation of checklist Checklist includes not all data from primary collection but also from secondary sources. Different literature were used for compilation of data such as Chapagain et al. (2016), Kunwar and Adhikari (2007), Luitel et al. (2014), Joshi (2014), Tamang and Chapagain (2016) Hasan et al. (2013) and Joshi and Siwakoti (2012). Primary data were collected from district level which was covered by trail survey from Thigan

to Faparbari as well as from sampling plots that were done in Hetauda Sub meteropolis. The detail information about checklist preparation was given in section 3.2.3.

3.2.3 Voucher Specimens Collection and Identification Herbarium specimens were collected from all vegetation sampling plots as well as from the region covered during trail survey (Faparbari to Thigan) (Photplates 1). All the specimens were collected with their reproductive parts but in case of plot sampling vegetative specimens were also collected if there were no reproductive parts. Monocots and pteridophytes were collected with roots. For each specimens field note were prepared during collection. Habit, habitat, location, latitude, longitude, elevation, color of flower, smell, flower characters, leaves characters, etc. were noted down. Each specimen was properly tagged and duplicated specimens were collected as far as possible. Collected specimens were pressed, dried and mounted on the herbarium sheet of size 43cm × 29cm with the herbarium label of 15cm × 10cm and deposited to TUCH.

Specimens were identified with the help of different literature and characters that were recorded during field visit. Polunin and Stainton (1984), Malla et al. (1986), Rajbhandari et al. (2016), Chapagain et al. (2016), and Fraser- Jenkins et al. (2015) were used for identification purpose. Some specimens that could not be identified by using literatures were identified with the help of experts and further confirmed by comparing the specimens that were placed in Tribhuvan University Central Herbarium (TUCH), National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH) and Central National Herbarium, Kolkata (CAL) (Photoplates 4). Nomenclature adopted the online database such as www.catalogueoflife.org, www.tropicos.org and www.theplantlist.org.

3.2.4 Vegetation Sampling Six different type of land use were selected for the study i.e. Sal forest, Mixed forest, Agricultural land, Wetland, Grassland and Fallow land (Table 1) (Photoplates 3). These land use types were selected so that study could include both natural as well as modified land use types. Natural land use types had included Sal forest, Mixed forest and Wetland and modified land use types consisted Agricultural land, Fallow land and Grassland. The study try to include more varieties of land use pattern and try to find

out how natural and modified land use types facilitates naturalized plants and which one is more susceptible for invasion. These land use types were dominant at study site that was also one of the reason for selection of the land use types. Each land use type had five sampling plots which were selected subjectively considering the topography and presence of common invasive plants in the study area. Altogether 30 plots were sampled in six land use types. The sampling was done by using modified- Whittaker‘s nested vegetation sampling method (Stohlgren et al. 1995). First of all, 50 m × 20 m plot was defined and further 13 subplots were located within the main plot. The center subplot was 20 m × 5 m and two 5 m × 2 m subplot were constructed at two diagonally opposite corners and 10 small subplots of 2 m × 0.5 m were sampled at periphery of the main plot (Figure 3). The plant species were collected from each subplots and their coverage were also recorded in six cover classes i.e. 1 (0-5%), 2 (5- 25%), 3 (25-50%), 4 (50-75%), 5 (75-95%) and 6 (95-100%) (Daubenmire 1959). The field data sheet used for the recording data has been presented in Appendix 1. The subplots were rectangular in shape which remove the subplot size shape interaction. Generally, rectangular plots perform better than square for recovering species- richness. Advantage of this plot is the ability to calculate species-area curve and species richness at different subplot level. Shackleton (2000) and Telwala et al. (2013) used modified- Whittaker‘s nested vegetation sampling method for vegetation sampling. Abella and Fornwalt (2015) also used this method for vegetation sampling in North America.

Canopy measurement 0.5 m× 2 m 2 m × 5 m

20 m 20 5 m × 20 m

50 m

Figure 3: Modified-Whittaker nested vegetation sampling plot (Stohlgren et al. 1995)

Diameters at breast height were measured for all the trees in 50×20 m plot which has diameter ≥ 5 cm at breast height (≥ 137 cm). Tree canopy covers were also recorded by visual estimation method. Soil sample was also collected from the same five points from 15 cm depth from the ground and then homogeneous mixture of soil was made. Latitude, Longitude, elevation, slopes, aspects, distance from road, distance from residential area, distance from river, disturbances like firing, logging, grazing, other disturbance, etc. were also recorded at plot level. Distances from water course, residential area and road were estimated by using ruler of Google Earth Pro version 6. Nearest distances from the GPS coordination of the plots were taken for analysis. For measurement of road distance nearest vehicles travelling road was considered and for distance of water course distance of nearest running water source was measured. Latitude, longitude and elevation were recorded with the help of GPS (model: Garmin eTrex 10). Slope and aspect were measured by using clinometer (model: SILVA MOD 15). Fire was record as ‗Yes‘ when any fire mark was observed within the plot, and ‗No‘ when there was none. Grazing was recorded on 0-3 scale; 0 represents no grazing, 1 represents low grazing, 2 represents medium grazing and 3 represents highly grazed area. Logging was also recorded as ‗Yes‘ or ‗No‘; if there was any symbol of logging then it was recorded as ‗Yes‘, otherwise ‗No‘. If there was any other disturbance then it was also recorded.

3.2.5 Categorization of Species Plants identified upto species level were classified into different categories (Richardson et al. 2000, Blackburn et al. 2011). Plants were primarily classified into native and naturalized (invasive+ naturalized non- invasive). Naturalized plants were further divided into naturalized non-invasive — those alien which spread in wild condition and produce offspring itself without human assistance but not reported as invasive in Nepal, and invasive — those naturalized plants which have shown negative impact to economy and environment and also reported as invasive in Nepal. Classification was done by using different sources (For invasive: Shrestha 2016, For naturalized non- invasive and native: Shrestha et al. 2019, www.cabi.org/, Plants of the World Online (www.powo.science.kew.org/), Encyclopedia of Life (www.eol.org/), Annotated Checklist of Flowering Plants of Nepal (Press et al. 2000). Global Biodiversity Information Facility (www.gbif.org/) was used to find the distribution range of the plants. Species, whose native range were not clear or showed

native distribution in more than one continent of different biogeographical area (e.g. Asia as well as Americas), had been categorized as Cryptogenic plants (Essl et al. 2018).

3.3 Soil Analysis

Soil parameters such as pH, organic carbon, and total nitrogen were analyzed in laboratory of the Central Department of Botany (Photoplates 2). Triplicate measurements were done for soil sample of each plot (Appendix 5). a) Soil pH Soil pH was determined in laboratory by using pH meter (model: PH 009). First of all mixture of soil and water was made in a ratio of 1: 2.5 (Gupta 2000) by mixing 10 g of soil with 25 ml of distilled water. After that, the mixture was stirred for almost 3 minutes and then allowed to settle for 30 minutes. Then the pH meter was dipped into the solution and pH was measured. The pH meter was calibrated with buffer solution of pH 4 and 7 and then washed with distilled water after each reading. b) Soil Organic Carbon

Soil organic carbon was measured by using Walkley- Black method (Walkley and Black 1934 as cited in Gupta 2000). Initially, 0.5 g of soil was taken in a conical flask and then 5 ml of K2Cr2O7 was added to it. After that 10 ml of conc. H2SO4 was added and stirred gently to make homogeneous mixture and kept it for 30 minutes for digestion. Subsequently, 100 ml of water and 5 ml of ortho-phosphoric acid were added one after another. Finally 0.5 ml of diphenylamine indicator solution was added to the mixture and stirred for few seconds, till the whole solution became dark blue. Then the solution was titrated against the 0.5 N ferrous ammonium sulphate solution until the dark blue color was turned into bright green. Volume of Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate used for titration was noted. Similar procedure was done for standardized blank solution (without soil). Soil carbon was calculated by using following formula.

Organic matter in this procedure was oxidized incompletely, thus organic carbon obtained was multiplied by factor 1.3 assuming that there was 77% recovery of organic matter (Gupta 2000). c) Soil Nitrogen

Total soil nitrogen was measured in laboratory by using MicroKjeldahl‘s method (Kalra 1998). Overall process was done in three steps i.e. digestion, distillation and titration. First of all, 1 g of soil was taken in a Kjeldahl digestion flask. After that, 3.5 g Potassium sulphate, 0.4 g Copper sulphate and 6 ml conc. H2SO4 were added to the flask sequentially. Then the flask‘s mouth was covered with cotton to prevent the evaporation of H2SO4. Then the flask was kept in the mantle and heated at low temperature until the bubbles disappeared. Afterwards, temperature was increased to boil the mixture and the heating was continued until the blackish color changed to brownish and ultimately greenish. The digested sample was allowed to cool for 15-20 minutes, then 50 ml of distill water was added to it and shacked well to mix the digested material with water properly.

In second step, the digested material was transferred to Kjeldahl distillation flask and set the apparatus properly. At first it was heated to lukewarm, then 30 ml of 40% sodium hydroxide solution was added to it and then temperature was elevated to boil the mixture. The distillated material was collected in conical flask containing 10 ml of boric acid indicator till it reached to 50 ml.

Finally, the distillated material was titrated against 0.1 N HCl solution till the bluish color changed into bright pink. The volume of HCl used for titration was recorded. Same procedure was done with blank sample (without soil) after every ten set of soil samples. The percentage of nitrogen in soil sample was calculated by using following formula:

3.4 Data Analysis

3.4.1 Comparison of native and naturalized plants diversity among land use types Statistical analysis was done only for plot level data. First of all, normality of total species richness, native species richness, non- invasive naturalized and invasive species were tested by using IBM SPSS version 20. Significant value of Sapiro-Wilk test was used to determine normality of data (if p ≥0.05, the data was supposed to be normal). All the data showed normal distribution therefore, One- Way ANOVA was done to compare mean species richness (total species richness, native species richness, naturalized non-invasive species richness and invasive species richness) across the different land use types. Turkey HSD test was used to grouping different land use into homogeneous subsets. Along with ANOVA some other general comparison was also done such as percentage of native, naturalized non-invasive, invasive and cryptogenic species in different land use types as well as sharing of naturalized non-invasive and invasive species out of total vascular plants. Each naturalized plant doesn‘t have similar type of effect on different land use types. Therefore, coverage of individual naturalized non-invasive and invasive plants among different land use types were calculated in order to disclose which land use type was more susceptible to which kind of naturalized plant. Similary coverage of overall naturalized species and invasive species were also calculated for different land use types. Coverage was calculate by using following formula:

Frequencies of individual invasive species were calculated in order to identify which invasive species was more frequent in the study area.

3.4.2 Detrended Corresponding Analysis (DCA) Detrended Corresponding Analysis (DCA) was done to display the sampling plots based on floristic composition, which grouped similar land use types close to each

other according to floral composition. The grouping was done by using CANOCO 4.5 and plots were designed by CANODRAW 4.5. Species that were repeated once or twice in overall sampling plots were removed.

3.4.3 Canonical Corresponding Analysis (CCA) Multivariate analysis was done by ordination to determine the influence of environmental variables and species richness on naturalized species. Among naturalized species, the naturalized non-invasive and invasive species were analyzed separately by combining coverage data of naturalized non- invasive and invasive one by one with environmental variables such as soil nitrogen, soil pH, soil carbon, tree canopy, distance from road, distance from residential area, distance from water course, grazing and species richness: total species richness, native species richness, naturalized non- invasive species richness and invasive species richness. Naturalized non-invasive species richness was used as environmental variable while invasive species composition were used as response variables and invasive species richness were used as environmental in case of naturalized non-invasive species composition were used as response variable. Firstly, unconstrained gradient analysis, Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA), was done for naturalized non- invasive species as well as for invasive species, which revealed gradient length 3.644 and 4.278, respectively. Therefore, Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was done for both naturalized non- invasive and invasive species distribution by using CANOCO version 4.5. All graphs were drawn by using CANODRAW 4.5.

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS

4.1 Vascular Plant Diversity

A checklist of 894 species of Makwanpur district was prepared from both primary data and secondary sources. There were additional 15 species of cultivated plants and 25 species known upto genus level only collected during vegetation sampling that were not included in the checklist. In additional, sixty three species could not be identified due to absence of reproductive parts in the herbarium specimens. Out of 894 species, 151 spp. were only from primary source, 187 spp. were from both primary and secondary sources, and 556 spp. only from secondary sources representing 149 families (Appendix 2 - 4). Dendrobium (17 spp.), Ficus (14) and Phyllanthus (11) were the dominant genus. Among families Orchidaceae comprised highest number of species (93 spp.) and Fabaceae occupied second position (72 spp.) followed by Poaceae (59 spp.) (Figure 4). Majority of these species had herbaceous life form (including grasses and ferns) (499 spp.) followed by trees (162 spp.), shrubs (156 spp.) and climbers (77 spp.) (Figure 5).

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20

Number of species Number 10 0

Family

Figure 4. Number of species belonging to ten rich families.

9% Herbs = 56% Trees = 18% 17% Shrubs = 17% Climbers = 9%

56% 18%

Figure 5. Life form of vascular plants (N = 894).

Almost ¾th vascular plants were dicotyledon (631 spp.) followed by monocotyledon (232 spp.), pteridophytes (27 spp.) and Gymnosperms (4 spp.) (Figure 6).

700

600

500

400

300

Number of species Number 200

100

0 Dicots Monocots Pteridophytes Gymnosperms

Figure 6. Different groups of vascular plants of the district.

4.2 Diversity of Naturalized Plant Species

Out of 894 species that were recorded from Makawanpur district, 109 species were naturalized species that included 87 naturalized non- invasive and 22 invasive plants (Appendix 3). These species belonged to 34 families (Appendix 2). Asteraceae (18 spp.), Fabaceae (12 spp.), Amaranthaceae (9 spp.), Solanaceae (8 spp.) and Poaceae (7 spp.) etc. were some major families (Figure 7). Herbaceous life form (including

grasses and ferns) (74 spp.) was the most dominant life form of naturalized species followed by shrubs (17 spp.), climbers (10 spp.) and trees (8 spp.) (Figure 8).

20 18

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2

0 Number of naturalized species of naturalized Number

Families

Figure 7. Top ten naturalized plants families based on the number of species present..

9% 7%

16% Trees Shrubs Herbs Climbers

68%

Figure 8. Different life forms to naturalized plant species.

Out of 109 naturalized plants majority were dicotyledonous plants (99 spp.) followed by monocotyledonous (9 spp.) and pteridophytes (1 spp.) (Figure 9).

120

100

40 Number of species Number

0 Dicots Monocots Pteridophytes

Figure 9. Different groups of naturalized plants of the district.

Most of the naturalized species are native to American continent and approximately one fourth were arrived from other continents (Appendix 3). After America, Africa is second continent for contribution of naturalized plants (Figure 10).

Australia, 3 Europe, 3

Africa & Europe, 3

Africa, 13

America, 87

Figure 10. Number of naturalized plant species and their native continents.

4.3 Species richness of naturalized and native plant species

Overall naturalized species as well as invasive plants richness did not vary significantly with increasing native species richness (p≥ 0.05) (Figure 11 & 12).

Although the relationship were not found significant, both naturalized and invasive plants had shown increasing pattern with increasing native species richness which does not supports the hypothesis of the study.

p = 0.199

)

2 (Species/m

(Species/m2)

Figure 11. Relationship between richness of naturalized species and native species

p = 0.534

)

2 (Species/m

(Species/m2)

Figure12. Relation between richness of invasive species and native species.

4.4 Plant Diversity across Land use Types

Number of native species, naturalized non-invasive species and invasive plants varied across land use types (Figure 13). The percentage of species that was native, naturalized, cryptogenic and cultivated across land use types has been given in the Figure 13.

Cultivated Cryptogenic Invasive Naturalized non-invasive Native 100

80 70 60 50 40

Percentage species of Percentage 30 20 10 0 Wetland Grassland Fallow land Agricultural Mixed forest Sal forest land Land use types

Figure 13. Proportion of different categories of plants according to land use types.

Here, number of native species (73 spp.) was the highest in mixed forest and the lowest in agricultural land (21 spp.). On other hand, fallow land (18 spp.) comprised the highest number and wetland (8 spp.) comprised the lowest number of naturalized non-invasive plants. But in case of invasive plants the wetland (16 spp.) comprised the highest number and agricultural land (6 spp.) comprised the lowest number.

Six different land use types did not have uniform species richness native species, naturalized non- invasive species and invasive plants. Their difference across the land use types were statistically significant (p≤ 0.05). Both mean total species richness and mean native species richness were found the highest in Mixed forest followed by Sal forest, Fallow land, Wetland, Grassland and Agricultural land (Figure 14A & Figure 14B). On the other hand, mean naturalized non-invasive plant richness was found the highest in Fallow land followed by Sal forest, Mixed forest, Agricultural land,

Grassland and Wetland (Figure 14C). In addition, mean invasive plants richness was recorded the highest in Wetland followed by Grassland, Fallow land, Sal forest, Mixed forest and Agricultural land (Figure 14D).

A. B.

D. C.

Figure 14. Species richness across different land use types. A. Total species richness, B. Native richness, C. Naturalized non- invasive richness, D. Invasive richness. Vertical error bars represents Standard deviation. The mean values were calculated by ANOVA followed by Tukey HSD homogeneity test. Similarly alphabet represent that the values are not significantly different at p = 0.05.

Percetage share of native plants, naturalized non-invasive plants and invasive plants in different land ue types has shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Percentage share of naturalized non- invasive plants and invasive plants across different land use types.

S. N. Land use Mean Mean no. Mean no. % of % of types no. of of of naturalized invasive vas. naturalized invasive non- plants plants non- plants invasive out of invasive plants out vas. plants of vas. Plants Plants 1. Mixed 52 6 6 11.54 11.54 forest 2. Sal forest 47 7 6 14.89 12.77 3. Fallow land 45 8 9 17.78 20.00 4. Wetland 42 3 12 7.17 28.57 5. Grassland 41 6 9 14.63 21.95 6. Agricultural 35 6 3 17.17 8.57 land *Bold number indicates the highest values.

4.4.1 Coverage and Frequency of naturalized plants Land use types differed in the dominant naturalized plants. Fallow land had Axonopus compressus, Spermacoce alata and Mimosa pudica as dominant species. Mixed forest had Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertnora, Sida rhombifolia, Chromolaena odrata and Lantana camara. Coverage of Sida rhombofolia, Lantana camara, Chromolaena odorata and Mimosa pudica were found high in Sal forest. Agricultural land was found to be highly affected by Ageratum houstonianum. Furthermore, some naturalized non-invasive plants that highly covered agricultural land were Sida rhombifolia and Syndrella nodiflora. Wetland was invaded by Eichhornia crassipes and Alternanthera philoxeroides. In addition to this many naturalized non-invasive plants had also reported from the wetland but their coverage was not in noticeable amount (Table 3 & Table 4).

Table 3. Coverage of Naturalized non-invavasive plants in different land use types.

S.N. Species Landuse types Sal Mixed Agricultur Wetl Fallow Grass fore forest al land and land land st 1 Sida rhombifolia L. 2.69 3.23 2.35 0.19 3.00 0.58 2 Euphorbia hirta L. 0.69 0.31 0.54 0.08 0.54 0.58 3 Corchorus aestuans L. 0.73 0.00 0.15 0.04 0.03 0.19 4 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. 0.04 0.46 0.00 0.08 0.04 0.00 5 Synedrella nodiflora 1.42 5.81 1.08 0.00 1.27 0.00 (L.) Gaertn. 6 Peperomia pellucida 0.35 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 (L.) Kunth 7 Cissampelos pareira L. 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 8 Setaria parviflora 0.35 0.35 0.04 0.12 0.38 0.65 (Poir.) Kerguélen 9 Evolvulus nummularius 0.42 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 (L.) L. 10 Paspalum distichum L. 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.35 0.15 11 Cyanthillium cinereum 0.12 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 (L.) H. Rob. 12 Oxalis corniculata L. 0.00 0.23 0.04 0.04 0.08 0.00 13 Psidium guajava L. 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.04 14 Leucaena leucocephala 0.00 2.69 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 (Lam.)de Wit 15 Stylosanthes humilis 0.00 0.31 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Kunth 16 Amaranthus viridis L. 0.00 0.00 0.58 0.00 0.00 0.00 17 Ludwigia hyssopifolia 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.04 0.00 (G. Don) Exell 18 Alternanthera sessilis 0.00 0.00 0.31 0.08 0.00 0.04 (L.) DC. 29 Drymaria cordata (L.) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.00 Willd. ex Schult. 20 Scoparia dulcis L. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.65 0.04 21 Mecardonia 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.46 procumbens (Mill.) Small 22 Dactyloctenium 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 aegyptium (L.) Willd. 23 Tridax procumbens L. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.92 0.12 24 Sida acuta Burm. fil. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 25 Axonopus compressus 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 17.65 0.00 (Sw.) P.Beauv. *Bold number indicates the highest values.

Table 4. Coverage of Invasive plants in different land use types.

S.N. Species Land use types Sal Mixed Agricultural Wetland Fallow Grassland forest forest land land

1 Mimosa pudica L. 3.88 0.04 0.08 5.15 16.12 1.19 2 Ageratum houstonianum Mill. 1.77 2.50 9.00 1.04 2.58 2.31 3 Senna tora (L.)Roxb. 0.58 0.04 0.04 0.62 1.08 2.31 4 Lantana camara L. 6.00 5.08 0.00 3.38 1.31 0.23 5 Bidens pilosa L. 0.27 0.46 0.00 0.42 3.27 0.12 6 Ageratum conyzoides L. 0.27 0.46 1.42 0.00 0.50 0.19 7 Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. King & H. Rob. 4.35 9.73 0.00 1.62 0.35 0.08 8 Senna occidentalis (L.)Link 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.12 0.62 9 Spermacoce alata Aubl. 0.00 3.08 1.27 0.00 17.42 2.65 10 Mesosphaerum suaveolens (L.) Kuntze 0.00 0.31 0.00 1.12 12.12 0.04 11 Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. 0.00 0.00 0.04 4.65 0.00 0.00 12 Leersia hexandra Sw. 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.35 0.00 0.00 13 Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.69 0.00 2.19 14 Parthenium hysterophorus L. 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.85 0.15 0.00 15 Pistia stratiotes L. 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.65 0.00 0.04 16 Mikania micrantha Kunth 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.69 0.00 5.38 17 Xanthium strumarium L. 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.23 0.04 0.00 18 Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R. King & H. Rob. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 *Bold number indicates the highest values.

Coverage of naturalized plants and invasive plants varied according to land use types. Fallow land had the highest coverage of naturalized plants followed by Wetland, Mixed forest, Sal forest, Grassland and Agricultural land (Figure 15 A). Likewise, invasive plants almost pursue the similar pattern as naturalized plants but in the case of invasive plants Grassland had higher coverage than Sal forest (Figure 15 B).

100 90 80

70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Coverage of naturalized species of naturalized Coverage 0

Land use types

Figure 15. A. Coverage of naturalized plants across land use types.

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

0 coverage invasive species of coverage

Land use types

Figure 15. B. Coverage of invasive plants across land use types.

Out of 22 invasive plants frequency of Ageratum houstonianum (97%) was found to be the highest (Figure 16). It was present in each land use types. Mimosa pudica (73%) and Lantana camara (73%) were the second most frequent species recorded during vegetation sampling. Ageratina adenophora (3%) was the least frequent species which was recorded from only two plots. Eichhornia crassipes (17%), Pistia stratiotes (13%) and Leersia hexandra (10%) were found only in Wetland

100

Frequency 40

Invasive species

Figure 16. Frequency (%) of invasive species in the study area.

4.4.2 Distribution of sampling plots Distribution of sample plots in different land use types and floral composition has been shown in Figure 17 and explained in Table 5. DCA diagram showed that Fallow land, Grassland and Wetland were closely related to each other. On the other hand, Agricultural land was very different from the rest of the land use types. During field work it was noted that Fallow land, Wetland and Grassland were more disturbed than other land use types.

Table 5. Summary of DCA statistical table (total inertia = 3.539).

Axes 1 2 3 4

Eigenvalues : 0.415 0.181 0.12 0.085

Lengths of gradient : 2.795 2.082 1.67 1.477

Cumulative percentage variance of species data : 11.5 16.6 19.9 22.3

DCA Axis 2 Axis DCA

DCA Axis 1

Figure 17. DCA ordination diagram showing distribution of sample plots.

4.5 Influence of Environmental Variables on Naturalized non- invasive and

Invasive Plants

The CCA ordination explained the linkage between environmental variables and species richness with naturalized non-invasive plants (Table 6A). Distance from water course and residential areas, and the soil pH were the most influencing factors (p = 0.0001) for naturalized non-invasive plants distribution. Similarly, native richness and invasive plants richnesss also showed a significant effect on distribution of naturalized non- invasive plants (Table 6A & Table 6B).

Table 6 A. Importance of environmental variables on distribution of naturalized non- invasive plants analysed based on CCA analysis. F and p values were obtained using Monte Carlo Permutation test with 9999 replicates.

S. N. Environmental Abbreviation F values p- values variables 1. Distance from water Ds.riv 4.352 0.0001 course (m.) 2. Distance from settlement Ds.res 3.576 0.0001 (m.) 3. Soil pH So.ph 3.440 0.0001 4. Richness of native Na.ric 2.495 0.0008 species 5. Richness of invasive In.ric 2.085 0.0088 species 6. Distance from road (m.) Ds.roa 1.278 0.1935 7. Grazing Graz 1.171 0.2686 8. Soil carbon So.car 1.001 0.428 9. Tree canopy Tr.can 1.907 0.5177 10. Soil nitrogen So.nit 0.516 0.8991 *Bold alphabet indicates statistically significant p-values.

Table 6B. Summary table of CCA ordination (total inertia = 3.829, sum of all canonical eigenvalues = 2.101)

Axes 1 2 3 4

Eigenvalues : 0.661 0.523 0.271 0.228 Species-environment correlations : 0.971 0.937 0.921 0.752 Cumulative percentage variance

of species data : 17.2 30.9 38 43.9 of species-environment relation: 31.4 56.4 69.3 80.1

Relationship between environmental variables and naturalized non-invasive species were more clarified by figure 18.

Sty_hum 1.0 Leu_leu

Ecl_alb Ds.roa

Ds.res

Graz Dac_aeg

Axo_com Na.ric Dry_cor Evo_num Tr.can Sco_dul Oxa_cor In.ric Set_par Pas_dis Psi_gua CCA Axis 2 Axis CCA So.nit Cya_cin Lud_hys Sid_rho Sid_acu Syn_nod Tri_pro Eup_hir Pep_pel So.car Alt_ses Ama_vir Mec_pro Cor_aes Ds.riv

So.ph

Cis_par -1.0 -1.0 1.0 CCA Axis 1

Figure 18. CCA biplots for naturalized non-invasive species and environmental variables. Environmental variables abbreviations are represented as given in Table 6A. and species represented by concatenated forms of first three letters of generic name and specific epithet. Triangle represents species name and arrow represents strength of environmental variables and relation with other variables.

The Eigen value of CCA first axis (0.661) indicated that there was effective separation of species along main gradient (Table 6B.). Species that showed positive relation with distance from water course shows negative relation with grazing (Figure 18). Approximately 17.2% variance of species data and 32.4% variance of species-

environment relationship were explained by axis 1 while approx. 30.9% variance of species data and 56.4% of variance of species-environment relationship were explained by axis 2 (Table 6B.). Environmental variables like distance from river, soil carbon and soil nitrogen showed closer connection with each other‘s. Likewise, distance from residential area and native species richness also showed nearer correlation with each other. This means correlated environmental variables have similar type of influence on distribution of naturalized non- invasive plant.

CCA diagram revealed that Synedrella nodiflora (Syn_nod), Alternanthera sessilis (Alt_ses) increased near water course and decreased with increased grazing. Whereas, Axonopus compressus (Axo_com) seemed to be increase with accelerating grazing and declined as the distance from water course increased. Cissampelos pareira (Cis_par) was tended to be distributed along the high soil pH sites.

In case of invasive plants, the CCA ordination disclosed the relationship between invasive plants and environmental variables. Environmental variables such as distance from water course, soil nitrogen, soil pH and tree canopy were found to be the most significant (p≤0.05) variables that governed for invasive plants (Table 7A.). Summary of CCA ordination has shown in Table 7B.

Table 7A. Importance of environmental variables on invasive plants distribution analysed based on CCA analysis. p-values and F values were determined by Monte Carlo Permutation test with 9999 replicates.

S. N. Environmental variables Abbreviation F values p-values 1. Distance form water Ds.riv 5.495 0.0001 course (m.) 2. Soil nitrogen So.nit 6.390 0.0001 3. Tree canopy Tr.can 5.246 0.0001 4. Soil pH So.ph 4.288 0.0001 5. Richness of naturalized Nt.ric 1.40045 0.1614 non- invasive species 6. Grazing Graz 1.178 0.2935 7. Richness of native species Na.ric 1.147 0.3139 8. Distance form road (m.) Ds.roa 0.630 0.7736 9. Soil carbon So.car 0.716 0.6810 10. Distance from residential Ds. res 0.540 0.8340 area (m.) *Bold alphabet represents statistically significant p-values.

Table 7B. Summary table of CCA ordination (total inertia = 2.872, sum of all canonical eigenvalues = 1.8)

Axes 1 2 3 4

Eigenvalues : 0.526 0.483 0.353 0.251

Species-environment correlations : 0.969 0.979 0.931 0.889

Cumulative percentage variance of species data: 18.3 35.2 47.5 56.2 of species-environment relation: 29.2 56.1 75.7 89.7

Relationship between invasive plants and environmental variables was more visible by the following graphs (Figure 19).

Ds.riv

Tr.can So.car 0.8 Chr_odo

Age_hou Age_con Alt_phi Lan_cam Ds.res Mik_mic Na.ric Pis_str So.nit Eic_cra

Lee_hex Age_ade So.ph

Par_hys CCA Axis 2 Axis CCA

Ds.roa Sen_occ Sen_tor Xan_str Bid_pil Mim_pud Spe_ala Nt.ric Mes_sua

-0.8 Graz -1.0 1.0

CCA Axis 1

Figure 19. CCA biplots for invasive species and environmental variables. Abbreviation of species are represented by first three alphabets of generic name and specific epithet and for environmental variables as given in (Table 7A). Triangle represents species name and arrow represents strength of environmental variables and relation with other variables.

CCA Ordination showed that Soil nitrogen and distance from residential area had positive influence on distribution of invasive species (Figure 19). Eigenvalue (0.526) of CCA first axis indicated that there was worthwhile separation of invasive plants along the main gradient (Table 7B). Approximately 18.3% variance in species data and 29.2% variance in species environment relationship were explained by axis 1.

While about 35.2% of variance in species data and 56.1% of variance in species- environment relationships were explained by Axis 2 (Table 7B).

High numbers of invasive plants were found in plots with high soil nitrogen and their distribution was high near to the residential area. Species like Ageratina adenophora (Age_ade), Leersia hexandra (Lee_hex), Eichhornia crassipes (Eic_cra) etc. showed positive correlation with soil nitrogen and negative correlation with road distance. Spermacoce alata (Spe_ala), Bidens pilosa (Bid_pil) were found abundantly, where the grazing was high (Figure 19).

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION

5.1 Floral Composition

Floral composition of any place depends upon various factors such as soil, climate, topography, biotic interaction etc. Therefore species composition of certain place can be able to define physiochemical as well as climatic condition of that physiographical region. Makwanpur, which is one among 77 districts, comprises wide range of flora due to high range of elevational variation from 166 m to 2584 m. Total 894 vascular flora consisting 149 families were reported from the district. Orchidaceae (93 spp.), Fabaceae (72 spp.), Poaceae (59 spp.), Asteraceae (51 spp.), Lamiaceae (37 spp.), Rubiaceae (29 spp.), Acanthaceae (22 spp.), Urticaceae (18 spp.), Cyperaceae (17 spp.) and Moraceae (17 spp.) were the top-ten families comprising highest number of species. However, Chapagain et al. (2016) had reported 1,068 species of flowering plants comprised 23 gymnosperms and 1,045 angiosperms represented altogether 171 families. Orchidaceae had the highest number of species (118 spp.), so the district has known as center of orchidaceous species (Chapagain et al. 2016). Fabaceae (70 spp.) and Asteraceae (65 spp.) occupied second and third position respectively. Accordingly, Tamang and Chapagain (2016) reported 510 plant species from three botanical gardens (Brindavan BG, Tistung BG and Mountain BG) of Makwanpur belonging to 130 families. Asteraceae (38 spp.), Fabaceae (35 spp.), Orchidaceae (22 spp.) were found to be three top most dominating families. Dominancy of Fabaceae might be because of high dispersal ability and nitroten fixing efficiency of the spcies belongs to this family (Arianoutsou et al. 2013). Asteraceae comprise various species that can grow in almost all terrestrial ecosystems (Funk et al. 2005). Wide range of dispersal vectors such as insects, birds, wind, etc. might be the reason of high dispersal of Asteraceae (Faegri and van der Pijl 1979). Chataut (2017) also reported Asteraceae and Fabaceae as dominant families of vascular plants in central mid-hill of Nepal. Out of different life forms, herbaceous (including grasses and ferns) (499 spp.) were the most dominating life form followed by trees (162 spp.), shrubs (156 spp.) and climbers (77 spp.). Tamang and Chapagain (2016) found corresponding result whereas Chapagain et al. (2016) had reported identical pattern for life form except for shrubs and trees, which constitute almost same number i.e. 211 spp. and 210 spp. respectively.

5.2 Naturalized Plant Species Composition and Distribution

Naturalized plants bear approx. 12.19 % of total recorded vascular flora. Total 109 species of naturalized plants had recorded from the district; among these approx. 20% (22 out of 109 naturalized species) were invasive plants. According to ―rule of tens‖, out of total introduced species 10% have chance to turned into naturalized and among that naturalized species 10% have chance to turned into invasive and the range of turned into invasive is 5-20% (Williamson and Fitter 1996). The present study showed 20% of naturalized plants have turned into invasive which follows the rule of tens. In case of national data out of 179 naturalized plants (Shrestha et al. 2019), 26 had reported as invasive (Shrestha 2016, Shrestha et al. 2017). That means 15% of naturalized plants had turned into invasive, which shows consistency with estimated range of ―rules of tens‖. Accordingly, Chataut (2017) recorded 34 naturalized plants from mid hills of central Nepal, out of those naturalized plants approx. 29%, were turned into invasive, which is slightly greater than predicted tens rule. Similarly, Banjade (2017) reported approx. 30% of naturalized plants turned into invasive in Modi Watershed of Annapurna Conservation Area that is also slightly greater than predicted tens rule. Corresponding, Thapa (2017) concluded < 1% of naturalized plants turned into invasive in Marsyangdi River Valley, Central Nepal, which is less than predicted tens rule.

Asteraceae was the most dominating family consisting 18 species followed by Fabaceae (12 spp.), Amaranthaceae (9 spp.), Solanaceae (8 spp.), Poacaea (7 spp.), Convulvulaceae (6 spp.) and so on. This finding showed consistency with Siwakoti (2012) who reported Asteraceae, Solanaceae, Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Cyperaceae and Amaranthaceae as six dominating families, which contributed not less than 57% of total naturalized plants. Bhattarai et al. (2014), Dhakal (2017), Thapa (2017), Chataut (2017) and Bhattarai (2018) which revealed Asteraceae as the most dominating family found similar type of result. Massive seed production and efficient seed dispersal mechanism may be the reason of large-scale distribution of Asteraceae (Rastogi et al. 2015, Faegri and van der Pijl 1979). Moreover, species belongs to Asteraceae have high reproductive rate and high grazing resistance ability (Arianoutsou et al. 2013), which might be the reason for Asteraceae containing high number of species.

Majority of naturalized plants have reported from tropical and subtropical region of Nepal because almost 75% of naturalized plants are native to tropical and subtropical region of the world (Tiwari et al. 2005, Bhattarai et al. 2014). Similarly, Dhakal (2017) reported 69% of naturalized plants were of American Origin from Tarai and Siwalik region. Correspondingly, Thapa (2017) also conducted similar type of study in Marsyangdi River Valley, Central Nepal and found 63% of naturalized plants were native to tropical America. Likewise, a study in Mediterranean Basin revealed that most of the naturalized plants were originated from American continents (Arianoutsou et al. 2013). Study conducted by Rastogi et al. (2015) in Uttarakhanda, India revealed that most of the invasive plants were originated from American continents followed by Africa. Present study revealed consistency with previous findings. Approx. 80% of the naturalized plants were found native to American Continent in Makwanpur district. Naturalized plants of American native might found similar climate condition in study area having tropical and subtropical climatic condition. This similar climatic condition allows the introduced plants to establish and sustain in the study site.

Majority of naturalized plants were dicot. Except, Leersia hexandra, Eichhornia crassipes and Pistia stratiotes all invasive species were dicotyledonous. Therefore, it can be said that dicotyledonous plants are more invasive in nature due to production of phyotoxin and allelopathic chemical and out compete native plant species by reducing their food, reproduction and growth (Callaway and Ridenour 2004).

Chromolaena odorata, Lantana camara, Mikania micrantha and Eichhornia crassipes have been reported among 100 of the world‘s worst invasive alien plant species (Lowe et al. 2000). Ageratina adenophora, Chromolaena odorata, Lantana camara, Mikania micrantha, Eichhornia crassipes and Ipomoea carnea ssp. fistulosa are reported as high-risk invasive species of the country (Tiwari et al. 2005). These species were also reported from the study area. Out of 26 invasive plants of Nepal, 22 invasive plant were reported from the district which reveal that Makwanpur district may be badly affect due to invasive but the exact impact assessment of overall invasive species has not done in the district.

5.3 Land use Pattern and Species Composition

Number of native, naturalized non-invasive and invasive species differed across the land use types. Among six land use types, forest vegetation (Mixed and Sal forest) consisted of higher number of species (total as well as native species) than other land use type. Wetland comprised the highest number of invasive species followed by Grassland, Fallow land, Sal forest, Mixed forest and Agricultural land. This might be due to high disturbance and anthropogenic activities in Wetland, grassland and fallow land. The invasive species tends to occur in frequently disturbed sites (Rastogi et al. 2015). Wetland was disturbed by flood at the sampling time, which may help for dispersal of invasive species. Since it was near the grassland, it consisted of grassland species at the edges of wetland. Human as well as livestock movement also influenced the site. These all might be the reason of highest number of invasive species in Wetland. Natural ecosystem such as Sal forest and Mixed forest had low invasive species than modified land use types such as Grassland and fallow land. This result resembled with finding of Shrestha (2016) which revealed impact of invasive species was high in anthropogenic land use type than that of natural because land use change decline the native diversity and facilitate the exotic species by providing niche opportunity (Sax and Brown 2000). According to Shrestha et al. (2017) agricultural land consisted highest number of invasive plants, which showed contradiction with finding of this study. Weeding had done in two of the agricultural plots few days before sampling might be the cause of less number of invasive plants in the site. Fallow land had maximum number of naturalized non-invasive plants. This might be because the site was near to the residential area and road was also not so far, human activities and grazing observed at the site. For exotic plants grazing fallow land, provide reservoir (Tyser and Worley 1992). Fallow land is first successional stage of Agricultural land. It supports high number of ruderal species and after further modification of land; some of the species become competitive and aggressive and ultimately replace the already existing species. Exotic plants initially establishe in fallow land before dispersal in other ecosystem (Tiwari et al. 2005). High amount of unused resources in grassland facilitate the community invasibilty of grassland (Davis et al. 2000) and grazing in fallow land and grassland decrease the competitive potential of appetizing native species and smooth the way for colonization of non- appetizing invasive species (Bisht et al. 2016).

5.4 Coverage and Frequency

Fallow land had highest number of naturalized plants as well as invasive plants. High vulnerability of fallow land might be due to most of the ruderal species are able to easily establish in the Fallow land. Exotic species first colonized and established in Fallow land then after it introduced to other ecosystems (Tiwari et al. 2005). Fallow land serves as a reservoir for exotic plants (Tyser and Worley 1992). Grazing Fallow land decrease the competitive ability of native plants and supports the exotic plants to establish in new habitat which ultimately facilitates Fallow land for biological invasion (Bisht et al. 2016). Agricultural land consisted less coverage of both naturalized plants and invasive plants. Timely weeding decreases the number of naturalized plants that ultimately decreases the coverage of Naturalized and invasive plants in Agricultural land. Ageratum houstonianum was the most frequent species reported during the vegetation sampling. Ageratum houstonianum can invade almost every land use types including agricultural land – which was more susceptible to this species (Shrestha et al. 2017, Shrestha 2016). Ageratum houstoniamum can produce high number of tiny seeds that may disperse easily by wind or water and dispersal by attaching in clothes, by animals, contaminated soils, and vehicles (www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/3573). These characteristic might be the reason for high frequency of Ageratum houstonianum.

5.4 Influence of Environmental Factors on Naturalized Plant

Naturalized non-invasive and invasive species have been governed by many factors. CCA ordination revealed that of abundance of naturalized non-invasive plants were not govern by only one factor; majority of naturalized non-invasive plants were attracted toward closer distance from residential area, slightly alkaline soil pH and increasing native richness, etc. Positive relation between native and naturalized non- invasive plants may be due to similar type of environment factors supports both native and naturalized non-invasive plants, which showed resemblance with the finding of Brown and Peet (2003), Harrison et al. (2006), Davies et al. (2007). Naturalized non- invasive plants and native plants that share same niche may bear same species trait (Divisek et al. 2018). Abundance of invasive species was favored by nearer distance from water course, increasing soil nitrogen and slightly alkaline soil pH. Abundance of Eichhornia

crassipes, Leersia hexandra seemed to increase with increasing soil nitrogen and closer distance to residential area but negative relation with distance from road. Kirpluk and Bomanowska (2015) found highest number of invasive species near to settlement area. Whereas, Bidens pilosa, Mesosphaerum suaveolens and Spermacoce alata found abundantly near to roadside area. Roadside harbors high number of exotic plants (Dar et al. 2015). It might be due to high anthropogenic activities, less competition with native competitors, sufficient amount light resource and nutrient enrichment near roadside area (Christen and Matlack 2006, Barbosa et al. 2010). Increasing resource availability facilitates the invasion success (Blumenthal et al. 2008, Li and Steven 2012, Li and Steven 2017). In this study, richness of invasive species and some of the naturalized non-invasive plants found to be increase with increasing soil nitrogen. Nitrogen assists the highly competitive species meanwhile suppress the weaker ones (Hofmeister et al. 2009, Molder and Schneider 2011). Therefore, invasive species was found the highest at wetland where soil nitrogen was recoded high. Increasing resource might be due to high input or less utilization of already available resources because of low number of native species in a community, which might be because of disturbances. Fast decomposing invasive plants return the soil nutrient to the site more rapidly and facilitate the further colonization of invasive species (Anning et al. 2016). Soil pH play vital role in plant community because of its effect on other soil properties, microorganism activities and plant‘s attributes (Jiang et al. 2017). Plant nutrient are supposed to be available in high amount at intermediate or slightly acidic pH, which assist the growth and development of plants (Jensen 2010). Ambrosia artemisiifolia, one of the invasive species of Europe, found abundantly in sub acidic to moderately alkaline pH condition (Essl et al. 2015). Li et al. (2013) also found similar type of result. Invasive species can tolerate wide range of pH than native plant species (Kopp et al. 2011, Hao et al. 2017). Consequently, invasive species can establish at that sites where native species have problem to survive (Sarateanu et al. 2010). Hence, aversion of plant community to invasive species can be increase by balancing the soil pH (Vasquez et al. 2008). Both naturalized non-invasive plants and invasive species revealed strong correlation with nearer distance from water course and the reason might be out of six sampling sites, three were located near the water body. Therefore water course play significant role for dispersal of naturalized non-invasive plants and invasive species in this study. In addition, water body often acts as corridor for exotic species dispersal (Burkart 2001,

Zajac et al. 2011). This showed that dispersal of all invasive species had not governed by similar type of environmental variables.

5.5 Diversity of Naturalized and Native Species

Diversity of naturalized and native plant species depends upon scale (Fridley 2007, Guo 2015). In small spatial scale, richness of native plants armors the site against the biological invasions and decreases the naturalized plant diversity by decreasing the resource availability to new invaders (Tilman 1997, Levine et al. 2004, Brown and Peet 2003). In contrast, small spatial scale also consist of high naturalized plants diversity if there are less number of native plant species (Chun et al. 2010, Jauni and Hyvonen 2012, Zeiter and Stampfli 2012). On the other hand, Lonsdale (1999) and Stohlgren et al. (2008) showed positive relationship between richness of native and naturalized plant species. In large spatial scale, communities are not fully saturated, therefore naturalized plants can easily establish there (Stohlgren et al. 2008). However, in this study there was not significant correlation between native and naturalized plant species. This may be due to insufficient number of sampling plot or richness of naturalized species depends on other factors (Sax 2000). Sax (2000) had reported no significant relationship between herbaceous native and exotic species. Therefore, hypothesis of the study was not supports by the result.

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Conclusion

Total 894 vascular plant species were recorded from both primary and secondary sources including 109 naturalized species (87 naturalized non-invasive and 22 invasive species). Majority of naturalized plants belonged to family Asteraceae followed by Fabaceae. Out of total recorded vascular flora, naturalized plant comprised approx. 12% and invasive species comprised nearly 2%. Altogether 22 invasive species (out of 26 recorded from Nepal) were recorded from the Makwanpur district that revealed high susceptibility of the district to invasion. Approximately 80 % of recorded naturalized plants found to be American native. Richness of total species, native species, naturalized non-invasive and invasive species were significantly different among six different land use types. Native plant richness was found high in forest (Sal forest and Mixed forest). Fallow land had the highest number of naturalized non-invasive, whereas maximum number of invasive species was found in Wetland followed by grassland and fallow land. More disturbed land use types favor more number of naturalized plants. Nevertheless, individual species of naturalized plant respond different with different environment variables. Nearer distance from water course, increasing soil nitrogen and moderately alkaline soil pH had shown significant effect on abundance of invasive plants. This may concluded that land use pattern and environmental factors combinedly affect the abundance of naturalized non-invasive plants and invasive species. The study could not find the significant relationship between naturalized plants and native plants. The study concluded that modified land use types with high disturbance supports the more naturalized plants and subsequent invasion. Therefore, these land use type should be kept in priority for management of naturalized species.

6.2 Recommendation

 More disturbed land use types are more susceptible to naturalized plants. Therefore, management of naturalized plants should be focused on more disturbed land use type.  Wetland, Grassland and Fallow land need regular monitoring and controlling of invasive species for reduction of invasive species risk in near future. Otherwise, these land use type will act as source of propagules of invasive species.  The hypothesis of this study was neither accepted nor rejected. Therefore in future more similar type of study should be conducted to find the relationship between native spceis richness and naturalized species richness.

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Field data sheet for vegetation sampling in Makwanpur district,Central Nepal (2017). Naturalized plant species across landuse types (Darwin Initiative project)

SN. ……… Date: …… Site: …………………………………Land use: ……………

Plot No.: …….. Latitude: …………… Longitude:………………..Elevation:…….

Slope: ……… Aspect: ………….. Tree canopy (%):…../……/……./……./.. =…….

Fire marks: Y/N Grazing: 0 / 1 / 2 / 3 Logging: Y/N. Other disturbances………………

Inventory of species in 0.5 m × 2 m plots (herb, shrubs, tree seedling, and tree saplings)

SN Name of Habit Cover class of species in plot no Species # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

# Habit, H: herb, S: shrub, Sd: tree seedling, Sp: tree sapling

* Daubenmire Cover class— 1) 0-5%, 2) 5-25%, 3) 25-50%, 4) 50-75%, 5) 75-95%, 6) 95-100%

Name of field investigator:………………………………

Inventory of species in 2 m×5 m plots (All life forms)

SN Name of the Habit Cover SN Name of the Habit Cover # class*in # class*in species species plot plot

1 2 1 2 plot plot 1 15 2 16 3 17 4 18 5 19 6 20 7 21 8 22 9 23 10 24 11 25 12 26 13 27 14 28

#Habit, H: herb, S: shrub, Sd: tree seedling, Sp: tree sapling

*Daubenmire Cover class – 1) 0-5%, 2) 5-25%, 3) 25-50%, 4) 50-75%, 5) 75- 95%, 6) 95-100%

Remarks…………………………………………………………………………… .

Diameter of tree species at breast height (DBH, 137 cm) in 50m × 20m plot (DBH ≥ 5cm)

SN Species DBH (cm)

Remarks:

Name of investigators: ………………………………..

III

To be filled as early as possible after returning back from the field Attribute Value Number of invasive alien plant species Number of naturalized$ plant species Number of native species Number of fern species Number of herbaceous species Number of shrub species Number of climber species Number of tree species Average number of species in 0.5m × 2m plot Average number of species in 2m × 5m plot Total number of vascular plant species Total number of trees with DBH ≥ 5cm

$Naturalized species include all alien species which are regenerating without human assistance. This includes both invasive as well as non invasive species.

Remarks:

Appendix 2. Checklist of native vascular plants recorded from Makwanpur district. S.N. Collectio Scientific name Family Life Sources n No. Form 1 Andrographis paniculata (Burm. fil.) Nees Acanthaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 2 M037 Barleria cristata L. Acanthaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6 3 Barleria strigosa Willd. Acanthaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 4 M155 Dicliptera paniculata (Forssk.) I.Darbysh. Acanthaceae H 5 Echinacanthus attenuatus Nees Acanthaceae H Ref.1 6 Eranthemum pulchellum Andr. Acanthaceae S Ref.1/Ref.2 7 M009 Eranthemum purpurascens Wight ex Nees Acanthaceae S Ref.1 8 Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. Acanthaceae H Ref.1 9 M142 Justicia adhatoda L. Acanthaceae S Ref.1/ Ref.3/ Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 10 Justicia gendarussa Burm. fil. Acanthaceae S Ref.1 11 M493 Justicia procumbens (L.) Nees Acanthaceae H Ref.1 12 Lepidagathis incurva Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Acanthaceae H Ref.1 13 Phlogacanthus pubinervius T. Anders. Acanthaceae S Ref.1 14 Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees Acanthaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 15 Strobilanthes atropurpureus Nees Acanthaceae H Ref.1 16 Strobilanthes auriculata Nees Acanthaceae H Ref.1 17 M277 Strobilanthes penstemonoides (Nees) T. Anderson Acanthaceae H 18 M278 Strobilanthes saccata J.R.I. Wood Acanthaceae H 19 Strobilanthes tomentosa (Wall. ex Nees) J.R.I.Wood Acanthaceae S Ref.1/ Ref.6 20 M253 Strobilanthes violifolia T. Anderson Acanthaceae H 21 M344 Thunbergia coccinea Wall. Acanthaceae C Ref.1/Ref.7 22 M280 Thunbergia fragrans Roxb. Acanthaceae C Ref.1 23 Gynocardia odorata R. Br. Achariaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2 24 Saurauia napaulensis DC. Actinidiaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7

25 M193 Sambucus javanica Reinw. ex Bl. Adoxaceae S Ref.7 26 Viburnum cylindricum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Adoxaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6 27 Viburnum erubescens Wall. Adoxaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 28 Viburnum mullaha Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Adoxaceae S Ref.1 29 M509 Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.5/ Ref.6/Ref.7 30 M036 Achyranthes bidentata Bl. Amaranthaceae H Ref.1 / Ref.3/ Ref.5/ Ref.6/Ref.7 31 Cyathula capitata Wall. ex Moq. Amaranthaceae H Ref.1 32 Allium wallichii Kunth Amaryllidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/ Ref.5/Ref.6/Ref.7 33 Crinum amoenum Ker Gawl. ex Roxb. Amaryllidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 34 Buchanania cochinchinensis (Lour.) M.R.Almeida Anacardiaceae T Ref.6 35 Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B.L. Burtt & A.W. Anacardiaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 Hill 36 Dobinea vulgaris Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Anacardiaceae S Ref.1 37 M508 Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7/Ref.5/Ref.2 38 Rhus chinensis Mill. Anacardiaceae T Ref.6 39 M145 Semecarpus anacardium L. fil. Anacardiaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 40 Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz Anacardiaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 41 M535 Toxicodendron succedaneum (L.) Kuntze Anacardiaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 42 Toxicodendron wallichii (Hook. fil.) Kuntze Anacardiaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 43 Miliusa velutina (Dunal) Hook. f. & Thomson Annonaceae T Ref.1 44 Bupleurum hamiltonii Balak. Apiaceae H Ref.1 45 M228 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Apiaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3/ Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 46 Hydrocotyle himalaica P.K. Mukh. Apiaceae H Ref.1 47 M492 Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam. Apiaceae H 48 M312 Hymenolaena candollei DC. Apiaceae H 49 Pimpinella anisum L. Apiaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 50 Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Apocynaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/ Ref.5/Ref.6/Ref.7

51 M483 Calotropis gigantea (L.) W. T. Aiton Apocynaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 52 Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. Apocynaceae C Ref.1 53 M475 Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G.Don Apocynaceae T Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 54 M096 Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) W. T. Aiton Apocynaceae C 55 Marsdenia roylei Wight Apocynaceae C Ref.1 56 M481 Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz Apocynaceae S Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 57 Ilex excelsa (Wall.) Hook. fil. Aquifoliaceae T Ref.1 58 Arisaema costatum (Wall.) Mart. Araceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 59 Arisaema erubescens (Wall.) Schott Araceae H Ref.1 60 M250 Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott Araceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 61 M520 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae H Ref.1 62 M241 Pothos chinensis (Raf.) Merr. Araceae C Ref.1 63 Rhaphidophora decursiva (Roxb.) Schott Araceae C Ref.1/Ref.7 64 Rhaphidophora glauca (Wall.) Schott Araceae H Ref.1 65 Brassaiopsis hainla (Buch.-Ham.) Seem. Araliaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 66 Macropanax dispermus (Blume) Kuntze Araliaceae T Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 67 Schefflera venulosa (Wight & Arn.) Harms Araliaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 68 Calamus tenuis Roxb. Arecaceae C Ref.1/Ref.7 69 Phoenix acaulis Roxb. Arecaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 70 Phoenix dactylifera L. Arecaceae S Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 71 M111 Phoenix loureiroi Kunth Arecaceae S Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 72 Wallichia oblongifolia Griff. Arecaceae S Ref.1 73 Asparagus filicinus Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Asparagaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 74 M107 Asparagus racemosus Willd. Asparagaceae S Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.5/Ref.2/Ref.4/Ref.6/R ef.7 75 Chlorophytum nepalense (Lindl.) Baker Asparagaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7

VII

76 M401 Chlorophytum tuberosum (Roxb.) Baker Asparagaceae H 77 Ophiopogon intermedius D. Don Asparagaceae H Ref.6 78 Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle Asparagaceae H Ref.1 79 Rohdea nepalensis (Raf.) N.Tanaka Asparagaceae H Ref.6 80 M103 Acilepis squarrosa D. Don Asteraceae H 81 M258/22 Adenostemma lavenia (L.) Kuntze Asteraceae H 6 82 M306 Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham.) Hand.-Mazz. Asteraceae H Ref.1/ Ref.5/ Ref.6/Ref.7 83 Anaphalis contorta (D. Don) Hook. fil. Asteraceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.7 84 Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims) C. B. Cl. Asteraceae H Ref.1/ Ref.5/ Ref.6/Ref.7 85 M191 Artemisia dubia Wall. ex Bess. Asteraceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 86 M443 Artemisia indica Willd. Asteraceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 87 Baccharoides anthelmintica (L.) Moench Asteraceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 88 Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC. Asteraceae S Ref.1 89 Blumea lacera (Burm. fil.) DC. Asteraceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 90 Caesulia axillaris Roxb. Asteraceae H Ref.1/Ref.6 91 Cirsium verutum (D. Don) Spreng. Asteraceae H Ref.1 92 Cirsium wallichii DC. Asteraceae H Ref.6 93 M301 Conyza stricta Willd. Asteraceae H 94 Dichrocephala benthamii C. B. Cl. Asteraceae H Ref.1 95 M031 Duhaldea cappa (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Pruski & Asteraceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 Anderberg 96 M466 Elephantopus scaber L. Asteraceae H Ref.1/Ref.5/Ref.6/Ref.7 97 Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. ex Wight Asteraceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 98 Eschenbachia japonica (Thunb.) J.Kost. Asteraceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 99 Gymnanthemum extensum (Wall. ex DC.) Steetz Asteraceae S Ref.1 100 Gynura cusimbua (D. Don) S. Moore Asteraceae H Ref.1 101 Laggera alata (D. Don) Sch. Bip. ex Oliv. Asteraceae H Ref.1

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102 Picris hieracioides L. Asteraceae H Ref.6 103 M220 Pseudognaphalium adnatum (DC.) Y.S.Chen Asteraceae H 104 Pseudognaphalium affine (D. Don) A.A. Anderberg Asteraceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 105 M308 Sigesbeckia orientalis L. Asteraceae H Ref.1 106 Sonchus arvensis L. Asteraceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 107 Sonchus oleraceus L. Asteraceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 108 Sonchus wightianus DC. Asteraceae H Ref.6 109 Tragopogon gracilis D. Don Asteraceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 110 M068 Youngia japonica (L.) DC. Asteraceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.8 111 Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. Athyriaceae H Ref.4/Ref.6 112 Impatiens bicornuta Wall. Balsaminaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 113 M276 Impatiens insignis DC. Balsaminaceae H 114 Impatiens jurpia Buch.-Ham. Balsaminaceae H Ref.1 115 Basella alba L. Basellaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 116 M501 Begonia sikkimensis A.DC. Begoniaceae H 117 Berberis aristata DC. Berberidaceae S Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 118 Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC. Berberidaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 119 Berberis napaulensis (DC.) Spreng. Berberidaceae S Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 120 Berberis wallichiana DC. Berberidaceae S Ref.1 121 Podophyllum hexandrum Royle Berberidaceae H Ref.6 122 M339 Alnus nepalensis D.Don Betulaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 123 Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz Bignoniaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 124 M440 Cynoglossum zeylanicum (Vahl) Thunb. ex Lehm. Boraginaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 125 Rorippa indica (L.) Hiern Brassicaceae H Ref.6 126 M150 Garuga pinnata Roxb Burseraceae T Ref.1/Ref.2 127 Mesua ferrea L. Calophyllaceae T Ref.1 128 Lobelia heyneana Schult. Campanulaceae H Ref.1

129 Lobelia pyramidalis Wall. Campanulaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 130 Lobelia seguinii H.Lév. & Vaniot Campanulaceae H Ref.1 131 Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae H Ref.1/Ref.5/Ref.6/Ref.7 132 Celtis australis L. Cannabaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6 133 Crateva religiosa Forst. fil. Capparaceae T Ref.1/Ref.4 134 Crateva unilocularis Buch.-Ham. Capparaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 135 Valeriana hardwickei Wall. Caprifoliaceae H Ref.1 136 Valeriana jatamansi Jones Caprifoliaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.7 137 Drymaria diandra Blume Caryophyllaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 138 M281 Stellaria monosperma Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Caryophyllaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 139 Euonymus echinatus Wall. Celastraceae C Ref.1 140 M167 Arivela viscosa (L.) Rafin. Cleomaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 141 Disporum cantoniense (Lour.) Merr. Colchicaceae H Ref.1 142 Combretum roxburghii Spreng. Combretaceae C Ref.1 143 Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth Combretaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 144 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. Combretaceae T Ref.1 145 M338 Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Combretaceae T Ref.1/ Ref.3/ Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 146 M295 Terminalia chebula Retz. Combretaceae T Ref.1/ Ref.3/ Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 147 M295 Commelina benghalensis L. Commelinaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 148 M506 Commelina diffusa Burm. f. Commelinaceae H 149 Commelina maculata Edgew. Commelinaceae H Ref.1 150 M591 Cyanotis cristata (L.) D.Don Commelinaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 151 Cyanotis fasciculata (B.Heyne ex Roth) Schult. & Commelinaceae H Ref.1 Schult.f. 152 Cyanotis vaga (Lour.) Schult. & Schult.f. Commelinaceae H Ref.1 153 M175 Floscopa scandens Lour. Commelinaceae H Ref.1 154 Murdannia divergens (C.B.Clarke) G.Brückn. Commelinaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7

155 M504 Murdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan Commelinaceae H 156 Argyreia hookeri C. B. Cl. Convolvulaceae C Ref.1 157 Argyreia nervosa (Burm. fil.) Bojer Convolvulaceae C Ref.1 158 Camonea vitifolia (Burm.f.) A.R.Simões & Staples Convolvulaceae C Ref.1 159 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Convolvulaceae C Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.7 160 Dinetus grandiflorus (Wall.) Staples Convolvulaceae C Ref.1 161 Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. Convolvulaceae C Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 162 M218 Merremia hirta (L.) Merr. Convolvulaceae C Ref.1 163 M332 Poranopsis paniculata (Roxb.) Roberty Convolvulaceae C 164 Coriaria nepalensis Wall. Coriariaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 165 Alangium chinense (Lour.) Harms Cornaceae T Ref.1 166 M152 Hellenia speciosa (J.Koenig) S.R.Dutta Costaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 167 M505 Cucumis maderaspatanus L. Cucurbitaceae C 168 M136 Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C. Jeffrey Cucurbitaceae C 169 Herpetospermum pedunculosum (Ser.) C.B. Clarke Cucurbitaceae C Ref.6 170 M106 Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi Cucurbitaceae C Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6 171 Trichosanthes tricuspidata Lour. Cucurbitaceae C Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 172 Trichosanthes wallichiana (Ser.) Wight Cucurbitaceae C Ref.1/Ref.6 173 Zehneria maysorensis (Wight & Arn.) Arn. Cucurbitaceae C Ref.1 174 Cycas pectinata Buch.-Ham. Cycadaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 175 M259 Carex baccans Nees Cyperaceae H 176 M246 Carex baccans Nees Cyperaceae H 177 Carex cruciata Wahlenb. Cyperaceae H Ref.1 178 Carex vesiculosa Boott Cyperaceae H Ref.1 179 M120 Cyperus diffusus Vahl Cyperaceae H 180 M552 Cyperus flavidus Retz. Cyperaceae H 181 M050 Cyperus iria L. Cyperaceae H

182 Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 183 M546 Cyperus sanguinolentus Vahl Cyperaceae H 184 M322 Erioscirpus comosus (Wall.) Palla Cyperaceae H 185 Fimbristylis aestivalis (Retz.) Vahl Cyperaceae H Ref.1 186 M275 Schoenoplectiella juncoides (Roxb.) Lye Cyperaceae H Ref.1 187 Dillenia indica L. Dilleniaceae T Ref.1 188 Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. Dilleniaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 189 M515 Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscoreaceae C Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 190 Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb. Dioscoreaceae C Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 191 Dioscorea hamiltonii Hook.f. Dioscoreaceae C Ref.1/Ref.6 192 Dioscorea hispida Dennst. Dioscoreaceae C Ref.1/Ref.6 193 Dioscorea kamoonensis Kunth Dioscoreaceae C Ref.1/Ref.6 194 M585 Dioscorea pentaphylla L. Dioscoreaceae C Ref.1/Ref.6 195 Dioscorea prazeri Prain & Burkill Dioscoreaceae C Ref.1 196 M110 Dioscorea pubera Blume Dioscoreaceae C Ref.1 197 M472 Shorea robusta Gaertn. Dipterocarpaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 198 Drosera peltata Thunb. Droseraceae H Ref.1 199 Dryopteris cochleata (D. Don) C. Chr. Dryopteridaceae H Ref.4/Ref.6 200 M319 Polystichum lentum (D. Don) Moore Dryopteridaceae H 201 M153 Diospyros kaki L.f. Ebenaceae T 202 Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. Ebenaceae T Ref.1 203 Cordia dichotoma G. Forster Ehretiaceae T Ref.6 204 Ehretia acuminata (DC.) R. Br. Ehretiaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 205 Elaeagnus infundibularis Momiyama Elaeagnaceae S Ref.6/Ref.7 206 Elaeagnus parvifolia Wall. Elaeagnaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 207 Elaeocarpus serratus L. Elaeocarpaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 208 Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Klotzsch & Garcke Ephedraceae S Ref.3/Ref.1/Ref.7

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209 M125 Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Equisetaceae H Ref.6 210 Gaultheria fragrantissima Wall. Ericaceae S Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 211 Gaultheria hookeri C.B. Clarke Ericaceae S Ref.1 212 Gaultheria nummularioides D. Don Ericaceae S Ref.6 213 Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude Ericaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 214 Pieris formosa (Wall.) D. Don Ericaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 215 Rhododendron arboreum Sm. Ericaceae T Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.7 216 Rhododendron lepidotum Wall. Ericaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 217 Vaccinium nummularia Hook. fil. & Thoms. ex C. B. Ericaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 Cl. 218 Euphorbia royleana Boiss. Euphorbiaceae S Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 219 M186 Euphorbia wallichii Hook.f. Euphorbiaceae H 220 Falconeria insignis Royle Euphorbiaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 221 M325 Macaranga denticulata (Blume) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae T 222 Macaranga indica Wight Euphorbiaceae T Ref.1 223 Mallotus nudiflorus (L.) Kulju & Welzen Euphorbiaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 224 M126 Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 225 Albizia chinensis (Osbeck)Merr. Fabaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 226 Albizia julibrissin Durazz. Fabaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 227 Albizia lebbeck (L.)Benth. Fabaceae T Ref.1 228 Albizia procera (Roxb.)Benth. Fabaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 229 Bauhinia malabarica Roxb. Fabaceae T Ref.5 230 Bauhinia purpurea L. Fabaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 231 M336 Bauhinia semla Wunderlin Fabaceae T 232 Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn. Fabaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 233 M438 Bauhinia variegata L. Fabaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 234 Butea monosperma (Lam.)Taub. Fabaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7

XIII

235 M524 Cajanus scarabaeoides (L.)Thouars Fabaceae C Ref.6 236 Cassia fistula L. Fabaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 237 Cochlianthus gracilis Benth. Fabaceae C Ref.1 238 M024 Crotalaria alata D.Don Fabaceae H Ref.6 239 Crotalaria albida B. Heyne ex Roth Fabaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6 240 M016 Crotalaria prostrata Willd. Fabaceae C 241 M112 Crotalaria sessiliflora L. Fabaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6 242 M087 Crotalaria spectabilis Roth Fabaceae H 243 M293 Crotalaria tetragona Andrews Fabaceae H 244 Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. Fabaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 245 M439 Dalbergia sissoo DC. Fabaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 246 M252 Desmodium confertum DC. Fabaceae S Ref.6 247 Desmodium elegans DC. Fabaceae S Ref.1 248 M118 Desmodium gangeticum (L.)DC. Fabaceae S 249 M098 Desmodium heterocarpon (L.)DC. Fabaceae S 250 M598 Desmodium microphyllum (Thunb.)DC. Fabaceae H Ref.6 251 Desmodium multiflorum DC. Fabaceae S Ref.1 252 Desmodium oojeinense (Roxb.)H.Ohashi Fabaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6 253 Entada phaseoloides (L.)Merr. Fabaceae S Ref.1 254 Erythrina arborescens Roxb. Fabaceae T Ref.1 255 Erythrina stricta Roxb. Fabaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 256 M011 Flemingia chappar Buch.-Ham. ex Benth. Fabaceae S 257 Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.)Merr. Fabaceae S Ref.1/Ref.2 258 M032 Flemingia strobilifera (L.)W.T.Aiton Fabaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 259 Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Fabaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3 260 M123 Indigofera cassioides Rottl. ex DC. Fabaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6 261 Indigofera heterantha Brandis Fabaceae S Ref.1

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262 M573 Indigofera linifolia (L.f.)Retz. Fabaceae H 263 Meizotropis buteiformis Voigt Fabaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 264 Millettia extensa (Benth.)Baker Fabaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 265 Millettia fruticosa (DC.)Baker Fabaceae C Ref.6 266 Mimosa rubicaulis Lam. Fabaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 267 Mucuna monosperma Wight Fabaceae C Ref.1/Ref.7 268 Mucuna pruriens (L.)DC. Fabaceae C Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 269 M007 Phyllodium pulchellum (L.)Desv. Fabaceae S 270 Piptanthus nepalensis (Hook.)D.Don Fabaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 271 Pueraria tuberosa (Willd.)DC. Fabaceae C Ref.1 272 M094 Senegalia catechu (L.f.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb. Fabaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/ Ref.5/ Ref.6/Ref.7 273 Senegalia pennata (L.) Maslin Fabaceae T Ref.1/ Ref.5/ Ref.6 274 Senegalia rugata (Lam.) Britton & Rose Fabaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 275 Senna alexandrina Mill. Fabaceae S Ref.1 276 M582 Smithia ciliata Royle Fabaceae H 277 Spatholobus parviflorus (DC.)Kuntze Fabaceae C Ref.1 278 M431 Tadehagi pseudotriquetrum (DC.)Y.C.Yang & Fabaceae H P.H.Huang 279 M532 Uraria lagopodoides (L.)DC. Fabaceae H 280 Vicia bakeri Ali Fabaceae H Ref.1 281 Vicia hirsuta (L.)Gray Fabaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 282 Vicia sativa subsp. nigra (L.)Ehrh. Fabaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 283 M486 Zornia gibbosa Span. Fabaceae H 284 M184 Castanopsis indica (Roxb. ex Lindl.) A.DC. Fagaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 285 Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm.) A.DC. Fagaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 286 Quercus glauca Thunb. Fagaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 287 Quercus lamellosa Sm. Fagaceae T Ref.1

288 Quercus lanata Sm. Fagaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 289 M017 Canscora alata (Roth) Wall. Gentianaceae H 290 M033 Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Gentianaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 291 Geranium nepalense Sweet Geraniaceae H Ref.1 292 Chirita pumila D. Don Gesneriaceae H Ref.1 293 Corallodiscus lanuginosus (Wall. ex R. Brown) B.L. Gesneriaceae H Ref.1 Burtt 294 Didymocarpus albicalyx C.B. Clarke Gesneriaceae H Ref.1/Ref.5/Ref.7 295 Didymocarpus pedicellatus R. Brown Gesneriaceae H Ref.6 296 Lysionotus serratus D. Don Gesneriaceae H Ref.1 297 Rhynchoglossum obliquum Blume Gesneriaceae H Ref.1 298 Hydrangea aspera Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Hydrangeaceae S Ref.1 299 Hydrangea febrifuga (Lour.) Y.De Smet & Granados Hydrangeaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6 300 M479 Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle Hydrocharitaceae H 301 Hypericum elodeoides Choisy Hypericaceae H Ref.1 302 M233 Hypericum japonicum Thunb. Ex Murray Hypericaceae H Ref.1 303 Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 304 M402 Molineria capitulata (Lour.) Herb. Hypoxidaceae H Ref.1 305 Natsiatum herpeticum Buch.-Ham. Icacinaceae C Ref.6 306 Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 307 Juncus wallichianus Laharpe Juncaceae H Ref.1 308 M269 Anisochilus pallidus Wall. Lamiaceae H 309 M002 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze Lamiaceae H Ref.6 310 M108 Clerodendrum indicum (L.) Kuntze Lamiaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 311 M536 Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Lamiaceae S Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 312 Clinopodium piperitum (D.Don) Murata Lamiaceae H Ref.6 313 Clinopodium umbrosum (M.Bieb.) K.Koch Lamiaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6

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314 M291 Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. Lamiaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 315 Colquhounia coccinea Wall. Lamiaceae S Ref.1 316 M263 Elsholtzia blanda (Benth.) Benth. Lamiaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6 317 Elsholtzia eriostachya (Benth.) Benth. Lamiaceae H Ref.1 318 Elsholtzia flava Benth. Lamiaceae H Ref.1 319 M288 Holmskioldia sanguinea Retz. Lamiaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 320 M522 Isodon coetsa (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) Kudô Lamiaceae H 321 M285 Isodon lophanthoides (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) H.Hara Lamiaceae H Ref.1 322 Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Spreng. Lamiaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 323 M334 Leucas decemdentata (Willd.) Sm. Lamiaceae H Ref.1 324 M023 Leucas decemdentata var. angustifolia (Wall. ex Lamiaceae H Benth.) V. Singh 325 Leucosceptrum canum Sm. Lamiaceae S Ref.1 326 Nepeta hindostana (B.Heyne ex Roth) Haines Lamiaceae H Ref.1 327 M178 Ocimum americanum L. Lamiaceae H 328 Ocimum gratissimum L. Lamiaceae H Ref.1 329 Orthosiphon incurvus Benth. Lamiaceae H Ref.1 330 Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton Lamiaceae H Ref.1 331 M270 Platostoma coloratum (D.Don) A.J.Paton Lamiaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6 332 Platostoma hispidum (L.) A.J.Paton Lamiaceae H Ref.1 333 Pogostemon benghalensis (Burm.f.) Kuntze Lamiaceae S Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 334 Pogostemon glaber Benth. Lamiaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 335 Premna barbata Wall. ex Schauer Lamiaceae T Ref.6 336 Pseudocaryopteris bicolor (Roxb. ex Hardw.) Lamiaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 P.D.Cantino 337 M092 Rotheca serrata (L.) Steane & Mabb. Lamiaceae S 338 Salvia plebeia R.Br. Lamiaceae H Ref.6 339 M485 Scutellaria discolor Colebr. Lamiaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7

XVII

340 M267 Scutellaria repens Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Lamiaceae H Ref.1 341 M072 Scutellaria scandens D.Don Lamiaceae H 342 Teucrium quadrifarium Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Lamiaceae H Ref.1 343 M211 Vitex negundo L. Lamiaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 344 M290 Callicarpa arborea Roxb. Lamiaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 345 M238 Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl Lamiaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 346 Gmelina arborea Roxb. ex Sm. Lamiaceae T Ref.1 347 M510 Orthosiphon rubicundus (D.Don) Benth. Lamiaceae H 348 Stauntonia latifolia (Wall.) Christenh. Lardizabalaceae C Ref.1/Ref.6 349 Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl Lauraceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 350 Cinnamomum glaucescens (Buch.-Ham. ex Nees) Lauraceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 Hand.-Mazz. 351 M448 Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) Th. G. G. Nees Lauraceae T Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 352 Lindera neesiana (Wall. ex Nees) Kurz Lauraceae T Ref.1/Ref.5/Ref.6/Ref.7 353 Lindera pulcherrima (Nees) Benth. Lauraceae T Ref.1 354 Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers. Lauraceae T Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.7 355 Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Rob. Lauraceae T Ref.6 356 M513 Litsea monopetala (Roxb. ex Baker) Pers. Lauraceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 357 Machilus duthiei King ex Hook. fil. Lauraceae T Ref.6 358 Neolitsea umbrosa (Nees) Gamble Lauraceae T Ref.1 359 Careya arborea Roxb. Lecythidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 360 Lilium nepalense D.Don Liliaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 361 M488 Reinwardtia indica Dumort. Linaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 362 Bonnaya antipoda (L.) Druce Linderniaceae H Ref.1 363 M490 Bonnaya ciliata Spreng Linderniaceae H 364 Vandellia anagallis (Burm. fil.) T. Yamaz. Linderniaceae H Ref.1 365 M243 Odontosoria chinensis (L.) J. Sm. Lindsaeaceae H

XVIII

366 Strychnos nux-vomica L. Loganiaceae T Ref.1 367 M165 Dendrophthoe falcata (L.fil.) Bl. Loranthaceae C 368 Scurrula elata (Edgew.) Danser Loranthaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 369 Scurrula parasitica L. Loranthaceae S Ref.6 370 Lycopodium japonicum Thunb. ex Murray Lycopodiaceae H Ref.6 371 M051 Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. Lygodiaceae H 372 Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw. Lygodiaceae H Ref.4/Ref.6 373 Ammannia baccifera L. Lythraceae H Ref.1 374 Duabanga grandiflora (Roxb. ex DC.) Walp. Lythraceae T Ref.1 375 Lagerstroemia indica L. Lythraceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 376 Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. Lythraceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 377 M465 Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz Lythraceae S Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 378 Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre Magnoliaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 379 Bombax ceiba L. Malvaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 380 Gossypium arboreum L. Malvaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 381 M458 Grewia optiva J. R. Drumm. ex Burret Malvaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6 382 Malva verticillata L. Malvaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 383 M451 Sida cordata (Burm.fil.) Borss. Waalk. Malvaceae H 384 Sterculia villosa Roxb. Malvaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2 385 M163 Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalzell & A. Gibson Malvaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6 386 M066 Triumfetta annua L. Malvaceae H . 387 Triumfetta pilosa Roth Malvaceae S Ref.1 388 M463 Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. Malvaceae S 389 M044 Urena lobata L. Malvaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 390 M595 Marsilea quadrifolia L. Marsileaceae H 391 M231/22 Mazus pumilus var. delavayi (Bonati) T.L. Chin ex Mazaceae H 6 D.Y. Hong

XIX

392 Mazus surculosus D. Don Mazaceae H Ref.1 393 Paris polyphylla Sm. Melanthiaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 394 Melastoma malabathricum L. Melastomataceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 395 Osbeckia chinensis L. Melastomataceae S Ref.1/Ref.6 396 M030 Osbeckia nepalensis Hook. Melastomataceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 397 Osbeckia nutans Wall. Melastomataceae S Ref.6 398 M203 Osbeckia stellata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Melastomataceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 399 M262 Oxyspora paniculata (D. Don) DC. Melastomataceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 400 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae T Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 401 Cipadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq. Meliaceae T Ref.1 402 Dysoxylum mollissimum Blume Meliaceae T Ref.1 403 M469 Melia azedarach L. Meliaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 404 Toona ciliata M. Roem. Meliaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 405 M514 Stephania elegans Hook. fil. & Thoms. Menispermaceae C Ref.1 406 Stephania glandulifera Miers Menispermaceae C Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 407 Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Menispermaceae C Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 408 Nymphoides hydrophylla (Loureiro) Kuntze Menyanthaceae H Ref.1 409 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Moraceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 410 M575 Artocarpus lacucha Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Moraceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 411 Cudrania cochinchinensis (Lour.) Yakuro Kudo & Moraceae S Ref.6 Masamune 412 Ficus auriculata Lour. Moraceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 413 Ficus benghalensis L. Moraceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 414 Ficus benjamina L. Moraceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 415 Ficus concinna (Miq.) Miq. Moraceae T Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 416 Ficus elastica Roxb. Moraceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 417 Ficus hederacea Roxb. Moraceae S Ref.1/Ref.7

418 M516 Ficus hirta Vahl Moraceae T 419 Ficus hispida L. fil. Moraceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 420 Ficus hookeriana Corner Moraceae T Ref.1 421 Ficus neriifolia Smith Moraceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 422 Ficus racemosa L. Moraceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 423 M602 Ficus religiosa L. Moraceae T Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.7 424 Ficus sarmentosa Buch.-Ham. ex J.E. Smith Moraceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 425 M450 Ficus semicordata Buch.-Ham ex J.E. Smith Moraceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 426 Morella esculenta (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) I.M.Turner Myricaceae T Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 427 M300 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 428 Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston Myrtaceae T Ref.1 429 Syzygium nervosum DC. Myrtaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 430 Chrysojasminum humile (L.) Banfi Oleaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 431 Fraxinus floribunda Wall. Oleaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 432 M213 Jasminum multiflorum (Burm.f.) Andrews Oleaceae S Ref.1 433 M232 Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. Oleaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 434 Epilobium cylindricum D. Don Onagraceae H Ref.1 435 Ophioglossum nudicaule L. fil. Ophioglossaceae H Ref.6 436 Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatt. & McCann Orchidaceae H Ref.1 437 Acampe rigida (Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.) P.F.Hunt Orchidaceae H Ref.1 438 Aerides multiflora Roxb. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 439 Aerides odorata Lour. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 440 Anthogonium gracile Wall. ex Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 441 Arundina graminifolia (D.Don) Hochr. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 442 Brachycorythis obcordata (Lindl. ex Wall.) Summerh. Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 443 Bulbophyllum affine Wall. ex Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 444 Bulbophyllum careyanum (Hook.) Spreng. Orchidaceae H Ref.1

XXI

445 Bulbophyllum cariniflorum Rchb.f. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 446 Bulbophyllum cauliflorum Hook.f. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 447 Bulbophyllum leopardinum (Wall.) Lindl. ex Wall. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 448 Bulbophyllum polyrrhizum Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 449 Bulbophyllum purpureofuscum J.J.Verm., Schuit. & Orchidaceae H Ref.1 de Vogel 450 Bulbophyllum reptans (Lindl.) Lindl. ex Wall. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 451 Bulbophyllum roseopictum J.J.Verm., Schuit. & de Orchidaceae H Ref.1 Vogel 452 Bulbophyllum sunipia J.J.Verm., Schuit. & de Vogel Orchidaceae H Ref.1 453 Calanthe plantaginea Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 454 Calanthe tricarinata Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 455 Chiloschista usneoides (D.Don) Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 456 Cleisostoma filiforme (Lindl.) Garay Orchidaceae H Ref.1 457 Cleisostoma simondii (Gagnep.) Seidenf. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 458 Coelogyne cristata Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 459 Coelogyne flaccida Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 460 Coelogyne nitida (Wall. ex D.Don) Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 461 Coelogyne prolifera Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 462 Coelogyne punctulata Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 463 Coelogyne stricta (D.Don) Schltr. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 464 Crepidium acuminatum (D.Don) Szlach. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 465 Crepidium mackinnonii (Duthie) Szlach. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 466 Cryptochilus sanguineus Wall. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 467 Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 468 Cymbidium iridioides D.Don Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 469 Dendrobium amoenum Wall. ex Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 470 Dendrobium anceps Sw. Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7

XXII

471 Dendrobium aphyllum (Roxb.) C.E.C.Fisch. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 472 Dendrobium densiflorum Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6 473 Dendrobium eriiflorum Griff. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 474 Dendrobium fimbriatum Hook. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 475 Dendrobium formosum Roxb. ex Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 476 Dendrobium fugax Rchb.f. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 477 Dendrobium longicornu Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 478 Dendrobium macraei Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3 479 Dendrobium moniliforme (L.) Sw. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 480 Dendrobium monticola P.F.Hunt & Summerh. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 481 Dendrobium moschatum (Banks) Sw. Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 482 Dendrobium ochreatum Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 483 Dendrobium peguanum Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 484 Dendrobium plicatile Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 485 Dendrobium pulchellum Roxb. ex Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 486 Diplomeris hirsuta (Lindl.) Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 487 Eria biflora Griff. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 488 Eria coronaria (Lindl.) Rchb.f. Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 489 Eria lasiopetala (Willd.) Ormerod Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 490 Eulophia densiflora Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 491 Eulophia herbacea Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 492 Gastrochilus calceolaris (Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.) D.Don Orchidaceae H Ref.1 493 Habenaria arietina Hook.f. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 494 Habenaria commelinifolia (Roxb.) Wall. ex Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 495 Herminium clavigerum (Lindl.) X.H.Jin, Schuit., Orchidaceae H Ref.1 Raskoti & Lu Q.Huang 496 Herminium edgeworthii (Hook.f. ex Collett) X.H.Jin, Orchidaceae H Ref.1 Schuit., Raskoti & Lu Q.Huang

XXIII

497 Herminium lanceum (Thunb. ex Sw.) Vuijk Orchidaceae H Ref.1 498 Herpysma longicaulis Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 499 Liparis cordifolia Hook.f. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 500 Liparis odorata (Willd.) Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 501 Liparis petiolata (D.Don) P.F.Hunt & Summerh. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 502 Liparis resupinata Ridl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 503 Liparis viridiflora (Blume) Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 504 Nervilia concolor (Blume) Schltr. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 505 M592 Oberonia acaulis Griff. Orchidaceae H 506 Oberonia ensiformis (Sm.) Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 507 Oberonia falconeri Hook.f. Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 508 Oberonia pachyrachis Rchb.f. ex Hook.f. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 509 Papilionanthe teres (Roxb.) Schltr. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 510 Papilionanthe uniflora (Lindl.) Garay Orchidaceae H Ref.1 511 Pelatantheria insectifera (Rchb.f.) Ridl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 512 Phalaenopsis difformis (Wall. ex Lindl.) Kocyan & Orchidaceae H Ref.1 Schuit. 513 Phalaenopsis taenialis (Lindl.) Christenson & Orchidaceae H Ref.1 Pradhan 514 Pholidota imbricata Hook. Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 515 Pholidota pallida Lindl. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 516 Pinalia amica (Rchb.f.) Kuntze Orchidaceae H Ref.1 517 Pleione praecox (Sm.) D.Don Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 518 Rhynchostylis retusa (L.) Blume Orchidaceae H Ref.1 519 Satyrium nepalense D.Don Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6 520 Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 521 Thrixspermum pygmaeum (King & Pantl.) Holttum Orchidaceae H Ref.1 522 Thunia alba (Lindl.) Rchb.f. Orchidaceae H Ref.1

XXIV

523 Thunia alba var. bracteata (Roxb.) N. Pearce & P.J. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 Cribb 524 Vanda ampullacea (Roxb.) L.M.Gardiner Orchidaceae H Ref.1 525 Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Hook. ex G.Don Orchidaceae H Ref.1 526 Vanda testacea (Lindl.) Rchb.f. Orchidaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 527 Vandopsis undulata (Lindl.) J.J.Sm. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 528 Zeuxine strateumatica (L.) Schltr. Orchidaceae H Ref.1 529 M432 Centranthera cochinchinensis var. nepalensis (D. Orobanchaceae H Don) Merr. 530 Lindenbergia grandiflora (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Orobanchaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 Benth. 531 Lindenbergia indica (L.) Vatke Orobanchaceae H Ref.1 532 Pandanus furcatus Roxb. Pandanaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 533 Dactylicapnos macrocapnos (Prain) Hutch. Papaveraceae C Ref.1 534 Eurya acuminata DC. Pentaphylacaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 535 Eurya cerasifolia (D. Don) Kobuski Pentaphylacaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 536 Antidesma acidum Retz. Phyllanthaceae T Ref.6 537 M200 Breynia retusa (Dennst.) Alston Phyllanthaceae S Ref.1 538 M176 Bridelia retusa (L.) A.Juss. Phyllanthaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 539 Phyllanthus clarkei Hook.f. Phyllanthaceae S Ref.1 540 M254 Phyllanthus emblica L. Phyllanthaceae T Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 541 Phyllanthus lanceolarius (Roxb.) Müll.Arg. Phyllanthaceae T Ref.1 542 Phyllanthus parvifolius Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Phyllanthaceae S Ref.6 543 M304 Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. Phyllanthaceae S 544 M519 Phyllanthus urinaria L. Phyllanthaceae H 545 Phyllanthus velutinus (Wight) Müll.Arg. Phyllanthaceae T Ref.6 546 M518 Phyllanthus virgatus G.Forst. Phyllanthaceae H 547 Cedrus deodara (Lamb.) G. Don Pinaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6

XXV

548 Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Pinaceae T Ref.3/Ref.1/Ref.7 549 Piper longum L. Piperaceae C Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 550 M299 Piper pedicellatum C. DC. Piperaceae C 551 Piper wallichii (Miq.) Hand.-Mazz. Piperaceae C Ref.6 552 Hemiphragma heterophyllum Wall. Plantaginaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 553 Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora Pennell Plantaginaceae H Ref.3 554 Plantago asiatica subsp. erosa (Wallich) Z. Y. Li Plantaginaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 555 M273 Plantago major L. Plantaginaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 556 M041 Arthraxon hispidus (Thunb.) Makino Poaceae H 557 M065 Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst. Poaceae H 558 M207 Arundinella bengalensis (Spreng.) Druce Poaceae H 559 M208 Arundinella nepalensis Trin. Poaceae H Ref.1 560 Bambusa tulda Roxb. Poaceae S Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 561 M404 Bothriochloa bladhii (Retz.) S.T.Blake Poaceae H 562 M415 Bothriochloa pertusa (L.) A.Camus Poaceae H 563 M071 Cenchrus flaccidus (Griseb.) Morrone Poaceae H 564 Cenchrus pedicellatus (Trin.) Morrone Poaceae H Ref.1/Ref.2 565 M424 Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin. Poaceae H 566 Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin. Poaceae H Ref.1 567 Coix lacryma-jobi L. Poaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 568 M209 Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf Poaceae H Ref.2 569 Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) W.Watson Poaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.7 570 M085 Cymbopogon iwarancusa (Jones ex Roxb.) Schult. Poaceae H 571 Cymbopogon martini (Roxb.) W.Watson Poaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 572 Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt ex Bor Poaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 573 M419 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 574 M503 Dendrocalamus giganteus Munro Poaceae S

XXVI

575 Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees & Arn. ex Munro Poaceae S Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 576 M502 Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees Poaceae S Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 577 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf Poaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3 578 M015 Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler Poaceae H 579 M410 Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers. Poaceae H 580 M551 Digitaria ternata (A.Rich.) Stapf Poaceae H 581 Drepanostachyum falcatum (Nees) Keng f. Poaceae S Ref.1 582 Drepanostachyum intermedium (Munro) Keng f. Poaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 583 M083 Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv. Poaceae H 584 M423 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 585 M422 Eragrostis amabilis (L.) Wight & Arn. Poaceae H 586 M223 Eragrostis atrovirens (Desf.) Trin. ex Steud. Poaceae H 587 M428 Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Poaceae H 588 Eulaliopsis binata (Retz.) C.E.Hubb. Poaceae H Ref.1/Ref.2 589 M255 Garnotia tenella (Arn. ex Miq.) Janowski Poaceae H 590 M409 Hackelochloa granularis (L.) Kuntze Poaceae H 591 M495 Hemarthria compressa (L.f.) R.Br. Poaceae H 592 M453 Imperata cylindrica (L.) P.Beauv. Poaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 593 M093 Ischaemum rugosum Salisb. Poaceae H 594 M313 Miscanthus nepalensis (Trin.) Hack. Poaceae H 595 M550 Panicum curviflorum Hornem. Poaceae H 596 M412 Paspalum scrobiculatum L. Poaceae H 597 M416 Perotis indica (L.) Kuntze Poaceae H 598 M236 Pogonatherum crinitum (Thunb.) Kunth Poaceae H 599 Saccharum ravennae (L.) L. Poaceae H Ref.1 600 M146 Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.7 601 M411 Sacciolepis indica (L.) Chase Poaceae H

XXVII

602 M425 Setaria flavida (Retz.) Veldkamp Poaceae H 603 M407/40 Sporobolus diandrus (Retz.) P.Beauv. Poaceae H 6 604 M185 Sporobolus fertilis (Steud.) Clayton Poaceae H 605 M507 Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Honda Poaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3//Ref.2/Ref.7 606 Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene Polygonaceae H Ref.1 607 Koenigia mollis (D.Don) T.M.Schust. & Reveal Polygonaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 608 M070 Persicaria barbata (L.) H. Hara Polygonaceae H Ref.1 609 M215 Persicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) H. Gross Polygonaceae H Ref.1 610 M190 Persicaria chinensis (L.) Nakai Polygonaceae H Ref.1/Ref.5/Ref.7 611 Persicaria nepalensis (Meisn.) H. Gross Polygonaceae H Ref.1 612 Persicaria perfoliata (L.) H. Gross Polygonaceae H Ref.1 613 M531/M Persicaria posumbu (Buch.-Ham. Ex D.Don) H. Polygonaceae H Ref.1 172 Gross 614 M180 Persicaria strigosa (R. Br.) Nakai Polygonaceae H 615 Polygonum plebejum R. Br. Polygonaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6 616 M310 Rumex hastatus D. Don Polygonaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 617 M271 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Polygonaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 618 Polypodium vulgare L. Polypodiaceae H Ref.1 619 M100 Pyrrosia lanceolata (L.) Farw. Polypodiaceae H 620 Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae H Ref.6 621 M124 Ardisia elliptica Thunb. Primulaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 622 Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. & Schult.) A. DC. Primulaceae S Ref.1 623 M260 Maesa chisia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Primulaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 624 Myrsine seguinii H. Lév. Primulaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6 625 Myrsine semiserrata Wall. Primulaceae T Ref.1 626 Aleuritopteris albomarginata (C. B. Cl.) Ching Pteridaceae H Ref.6 627 M284 Coniogramme fraxinea (D. Don) Diels Pteridaceae H

XXVIII

628 M173 Onychium siliculosum (Desv.) C. Chr. Pteridaceae H 629 M309 Pteris biaurita L. Pteridaceae H Ref.4/Ref.6 630 M321 Pteris vittata L. Pteridaceae H 631 Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Seringe Ranunculaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3 632 Aconitum heterophylloides (Brühl) Stapf Ranunculaceae H Ref.6 633 Aconitum lethale Griffith Ranunculaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3/ Ref.6/Ref.7 634 Clematis buchananiana DC. Ranunculaceae C Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 635 M189 Clematis javana DC. Ranunculaceae C 636 Delphinium denudatum Wall. Ranunculaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3 637 Eriocapitella vitifolia (Buch.-Ham. ex DC.) Nakai Ranunculaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.5/Ref.6/Ref.7 638 Thalictrum foliolosum DC. Ranunculaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6 639 M320 Ziziphus incurva Roxb. Rhamnaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 640 M133 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Rhamnaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 641 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. fil.) Wight & Walk.-Arn. Rhamnaceae S Ref.1 642 Ziziphus rugosa Lam. Rhamnaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6 643 M216 Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb. Rosaceae H 644 Argentina lineata (Trevir.) Soják Rosaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 645 Eriobotrya dubia (Lindl.) Decne. Rosaceae T Ref.1 646 Fragaria nubicola Lindl. Rosaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 647 Neillia thyrsiflora D. Don Rosaceae S Ref.1 648 M219 Potentilla indica (Andr.) Wolf Rosaceae H 649 Prinsepia utilis Royle Rosaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 650 Prunus cerasoides D. Don Rosaceae T Ref.1 651 Prunus cerasoides D. Don Rosaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 652 Prunus cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) Steud. Rosaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 653 Pyracantha crenulata (D. Don) M. Roemer Rosaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 654 Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Rosaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7

XXIX

655 Rubus acuminatus Smith Rosaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6 656 M202 Rubus ellipticus Smith Rosaceae S Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 657 Rubus niveus Thunb. Rosaceae S Ref.6 658 Spiraea bella Sims Rosaceae S Ref.1 659 M461 Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Brandis Rubiaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 660 M581 Catunaregam longispina (Link) Tirveng. Rubiaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 661 M597/M Dimetia scandens (Roxb.) R.J.Wang Rubiaceae S Ref.1 247 662 Exallage ulmifolia (Wall.) Bremek. Rubiaceae H Ref.6 663 Galium hirtiflorum Req. ex DC. Rubiaceae H Ref.1 664 Himalrandia tetrasperma (Wall. ex Roxb.) T.Yamaz. Rubiaceae S Ref.1 665 M248 Hyptianthera stricta (Roxb. ex Schult.) Wight & Arn. Rubiaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6 666 M571 Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC. Rubiaceae H 667 Luculia gratissima (Wall.) Sweet Rubiaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 668 Mussaenda frondosa L. Rubiaceae S Ref.1 669 Mussaenda macrophylla Wall. Rubiaceae S Ref.1 670 M156 Mussaenda roxburghii Hook.f. Rubiaceae S 671 Neohymenopogon parasiticus (Wall.) Bennet Rubiaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 672 Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser Rubiaceae T Ref.6 673 Neonauclea purpurea (Roxb.) Merr. Rubiaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 674 M511 Oldenlandia corymbosa L. Rubiaceae H 675 M127 Paederia foetida L. Rubiaceae C Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 676 Pavetta indica L. Rubiaceae S Ref.1/Ref.2 677 M028 Pavetta tomentosa Roxb. ex Sm. Rubiaceae S 678 Rubia cordifolia L. Rubiaceae C Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 679 M523 Scleromitrion diffusum (Willd.) R.J.Wang Rubiaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 680 M237 Scleromitrion verticillatum (L.) R.J.Wang Rubiaceae H

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681 M596 Spermacoce articularis L.f. Rubiaceae H 682 M099 Spermacoce pusilla Wall. Rubiaceae H 683 M311 Spermadictyon suaveolens Roxb. Rubiaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6 684 Uncaria sessilifructus Roxb. Rubiaceae C Ref.1 685 M316 Wendlandia coriacea (Wall.) DC. Rubiaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 686 M132 Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa Rutaceae T Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.2/ Ref.5/Ref.6/Ref.7 687 M327 Boenninghausenia albiflora (Hook.) Rchb. ex Meisn. Rutaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 688 M534 Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. Rutaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 689 Murraya paniculata (L.) Jacq. Rutaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 690 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Rutaceae S Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 691 M470 Casearia tomentosa Roxb. Salicaceae T 692 Flacourtia indica (Burm. fil.) Merr. Salicaceae S Ref.1/Ref.2 693 Xylosma controversa Clos Salicaceae S Ref.1 694 Osyris wightiana Wall. ex Wight Santalaceae S Ref.1 695 Santalum album L. Santalaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 696 M027 Viscum album L. Santalaceae S Ref.1/Ref.5/Ref.6 697 Acer oblongum Wall. ex DC. Sapindaceae T Ref.1 698 Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken Sapindaceae T Ref.6/Ref.7 699 M342/M Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) H.J.Lam Sapotaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 003 700 Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Saururaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 701 Astilbe rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Saxifragaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 702 Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Saxifragaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 703 Illicium verum Hook. fil. Schisandraceae T Ref.1 704 Buddleja asiatica Lour. Scrophulariaceae S Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 705 Verbascum thapsus L. Scrophulariaceae H Ref.1 706 M129 Selaginella fulcrata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Spring Selaginellaceae H

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707 M289 Brucea javanica (L.) Merr. Simaroubaceae T Ref.1/Ref.7 708 Smilax aspera L. Smilacaceae C Ref.1/Ref.7 709 Smilax lanceifolia Roxb. Smilacaceae C Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 710 Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. ex D.Don Smilacaceae C Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 711 Smilax perfoliata Lour. Smilacaceae C Ref.1 712 Smilax zeylanica L. Smilacaceae C Ref.1 713 Solanum anguivi Lam. Solanaceae S Ref.1/Ref.7 714 M058 Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 715 M323 Solanum virginianum L. Solanaceae H Ref.1 716 Symplocos kuroki H. Nagamasu Symplocaceae T Ref.1 717 M245 Tectaria fauriei Tag. Tectariaceae H 718 Tectaria gemmifera (Fée) Alston Tectariaceae H Ref.4/Ref.6 719 M274 Camellia kissii Wall. Theaceae T Ref.1 720 M444 Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth. Theaceae T Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.6/Ref.7 721 M174 Christella dentata (Forsk.) Brownsey & Jermy Thelypteridaceae H 722 M138 Pronephrium nudatum (Roxb. ex Griff.) Holtt. Thelypteridaceae H 723 Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. Thymelaeaceae S Ref.1 724 M292 Boehmeria densiflora Hook. & Arn. Urticaceae S Ref.1/Ref.6 725 Boehmeria depauperata Wedd. Urticaceae T Ref.1 726 Boehmeria ternifolia D. Don Urticaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 727 M460 Boehmeria virgata subsp. macrophylla (Hornem.) Urticaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 Friis & Wilmot-Dear 728 Boehmeria virgata var. rotundifolia (D.Don) Friis & Urticaceae S Ref.1 Wilmot-Dear 729 M294 Debregeasia longifolia (Burm. fil.) Wedd. Urticaceae S 730 Debregeasia saeneb (Forssk.) Hepper & Wood Urticaceae S Ref.1 731 Elatostema sessile J.R. Forster & G. Forster Urticaceae H Ref.1 732 M324 Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis Urticaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7

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733 Lecanthus peduncularis (Wall. ex Royle) Wedd. Urticaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 734 Leucosyke puya (Hook.) den Baaker & Mabb. Urticaceae S Ref.1 735 Pilea glaberrima (Bl.) Bl. Urticaceae H Ref.1 736 Pilea scripta (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Wedd. Urticaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 737 Pouzolzia hirta (Bl.) Hassk. Urticaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 738 Pouzolzia rugulosa (Wedd.) Acharya & Kravtsova Urticaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 739 Pouzolzia sanguinea (Bl.) Merr. Urticaceae S Ref.1 740 M489 Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. & R. Br. Urticaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 741 Viola pilosa Bl. Violaceae H Ref.6 742 Ampelocissus divaricata (Wall. ex Lawson) Planch. Vitaceae C Ref.1/ Ref.5/Ref.6 743 M572 Cayratia trifolia (L.) Domin Vitaceae C 744 M525 Cissus javana DC. Vitaceae C Ref.6 745 Cissus quadrangularis L. Vitaceae C Ref.1/Ref.7 746 Cissus repens Lam. Vitaceae C Ref.1 747 M109 Leea asiatica (L.) Ridsdale Vitaceae T Ref.1/Ref.6 748 Leea macrophylla Roxb. ex Hornem. Vitaceae H Ref.1 749 Tetrastigma serrulatum (Roxb.) Planch. Vitaceae C Ref.1/Ref.7 750 Cautleya spicata (Sm.) Baker Zingiberaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 751 Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Zingiberaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6 752 Globba clarkei Baker Zingiberaceae H Ref.1 753 Globba racemosa Sm. Zingiberaceae H Ref.6 754 Hedychium coronarium J.Koenig Zingiberaceae H Ref.1 755 Hedychium ellipticum Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. Zingiberaceae H Ref.1 756 Roscoea purpurea Sm. Zingiberaceae H Ref.1 757 Tribulus terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6

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Appendix 3. Checklist of naturalized vascular plants recorded from Makwanpur district.The plant list with * indicates invasive plants and rest of the plants are naturalized non-invasive.

S.N. Collection Scientific name Family Life Native Source No. Form Continent 1 Sambucus canadensis L. Adoxaceae S America Ref.1 2 M473 Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb.* Amaranthaceae H America 3 M476/M0 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC. Amaranthaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.4/ 76 Ref.5/Ref.6/Ref.7 4 Amaranthus blitum L. Amaranthaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.7 5 M056 Amaranthus spinosus L.* Amaranthaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.4/ Ref.5/Ref.6/Ref.7 6 M600 Amaranthus viridis L. Amaranthaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.7 7 M168 Celosia argentea L. Amaranthaceae H Africa Ref.1 8 Chenopodium album L. Amaranthaceae H Europe Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 9 Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Amaranthaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 Clemants 10 Gomphrena globosa L. Amaranthaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.7 11 Annona squamosa L. Annonaceae T America 12 Asclepias curassavica L. Apocynaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.7 13 Rauvolfia tetraphylla L. Apocynaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.7 14 M482 Pistia stratiotes L.* Araceae H America 15 M484 Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R. King & H. Asteraceae H America Ref.1/ Ref.5/ Rob.* Ref.6/Ref.7 16 M487 Ageratum conyzoides L.* Asteraceae H America Ref.1/ Ref.5/ Ref.6/Ref.7 17 M527 Ageratum houstonianum Mill.* Asteraceae H America Ref.1/Ref.7 18 M464 Bidens pilosa L.* Asteraceae H America Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 19 Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson Asteraceae H America Ref.1

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20 M459 Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. King & H. Rob.* Asteraceae S America Ref.1/Ref.2/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 21 M188 Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore Asteraceae H Africa Ref.1/Ref.7 22 M499 Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H. Rob. Asteraceae H America Ref.1 23 M462 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. Asteraceae H America Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 24 Galinsoga parviflora Cav. Asteraceae H America Ref.1/Ref.7 25 M196 Galinsoga quadriradiata Ruiz & Pav.* Asteraceae H America 26 M480 Mikania micrantha Kunth* Asteraceae C America Ref.1/Ref.7 27 M084 Parthenium hysterophorus L.* Asteraceae H America Ref.1/Ref.7 28 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Asteraceae H Europe Ref.6 29 M494 Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae H America Ref.1 30 Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray Asteraceae H America Ref.1 31 M020 Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae H America Ref.1 32 M491 Xanthium strumarium L.* Asteraceae H America Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 33 Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton Brassicaceae H Africa & Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 Europe 34 M452 Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex Schult. Caryophyllaceae H America Ref.1/ Ref.3 35 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Caryophyllaceae H Europe Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 36 Combretum decandrum Jacq. Combretaceae C America Ref.1 37 M528 Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L. Convolvulaceae H America 38 M117 Ipomoea carnea subsp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Convolvulaceae S America Choisy) D.F.Austin* 39 Ipomoea mauritiana Jacquin Convolvulaceae C Africa & Ref.1 America 40 Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth Convolvulaceae C America Ref.1 41 Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth Convolvulaceae C America Ref.1 42 M045 Ipomoea quamoclit L. Convolvulaceae C America Ref.1/Ref.7 43 Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. Crassulaceae H Africa Ref.1/Ref.7

XXXV

44 Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt Cucurbitaceae C Africa Ref.1/Ref.7 45 Euphorbia heterophylla L. Euphorbiaceae H America Ref.1 46 M599 Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae H America Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 47 Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae T America Ref.1/Ref.7 48 Manihot esculenta Crantz Euphorbiaceae S America Ref.1/Ref.7 49 M183 Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae H Africa Ref.1/Ref.7 50 Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae S America Ref.1/Ref.6 51 Lathyrus aphaca L. Fabaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6 52 M170 Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.)de Wit Fabaceae T America Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 53 M442 Mimosa pudica L.* Fabaceae H Africa Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 54 Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.)Benth. Fabaceae T America Ref.1 55 M079 Senna alata (L.)Roxb. Fabaceae S America Ref.1/Ref.7 56 M445 Senna occidentalis (L.)Link* Fabaceae S America 57 M446 Senna tora (L.)Roxb.* Fabaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 58 Sesbania grandiflora (L.)Pers. Fabaceae S Australia Ref.1/Ref.7 59 Stylosanthes guianensis (Aubl.)Sw. Fabaceae S America Ref.1/Ref.2 60 M075 Stylosanthes humilis Kunth Fabaceae H America 61 Trifolium repens L. Fabaceae H Africa & Ref.1/Ref.7 Europe 62 M436 Mesosphaerum suaveolens (L.) Kuntze* Lamiaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.6 63 Lycopodium clavatum L. Lycopodiaceae H America Ref.3 64 M441 Corchorus aestuans L. Malvaceae S America Ref.1/Ref.7 65 M158 Malvastrum americanum (L.) Torr. Malvaceae H America 66 M497 Sida acuta Burm. fil. Malvaceae S America Ref.1/Ref.6 67 Sida cordifolia L. Malvaceae H Australia Ref.1 68 M498 Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae S Africa Ref.1 69 M400 Cissampelos pareira L. Menispermaceae C Africa Ref.1/Ref.5/Ref.6/Ref.7

XXXVI

70 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Myrtaceae T Australia Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 71 M449 Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae T America Ref.1/Ref.2/Ref.7 72 Mirabilis jalapa L. Nyctaginaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.7 73 M474 Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G. Don) Exell Onagraceae H America Ref.1/Ref.7 74 M005 Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven Onagraceae H America 75 M435 Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 76 Oxalis latifolia Kunth Oxalidaceae H America Ref.1 77 Argemone mexicana L.* Papaveraceae H America Ref.1/Ref.7 78 Papaver somniferum L. Papaveraceae H Africa Ref.1/Ref.7 79 Phyllanthus acidus (L.) Skeels Phyllanthaceae T America Ref.1 80 Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. Phyllanthaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.7 81 Phyllanthus niruri L. Phyllanthaceae H America Ref.1 82 M529 Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth Piperaceae H Africa & Ref.1 America 83 M235 Mecardonia procumbens (Mill.) Small Plantaginaceae H America 84 M526 Scoparia dulcis L. Plantaginaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 85 M417 Axonopus compressus (Sw.) P.Beauv. Poaceae H America 86 Cenchrus purpureus (Schumach.) Morrone Poaceae H Africa Ref.1/Ref.2 87 M420 Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. Poaceae H Africa 88 M478 Leersia hexandra Sw.* Poaceae H America 89 Melinis minutiflora P.Beauv. Poaceae H Africa Ref.1/Ref.2 90 M547 Paspalum distichum L. Poaceae H America 91 M421 Setaria parviflora (Poir.) Kerguélen Poaceae H America 92 M447 Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms* Pontederiaceae H America Ref.1 93 Lysimachia arvensis (L.) U.Manns & Andreb Primulaceae H Africa & Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 Europe 94 Galium aparine L. Rubiaceae H America & Ref.1 Europe

XXXVII

95 M496 Spermacoce alata Aubl.* Rubiaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.7 96 M182 Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Sapindaceae C America Ref.1 97 Sapindus saponaria L. Sapindaceae T America Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.7 98 Brugmansia suaveolens (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Solanaceae H America Ref.1 Willd.) Bercht. & Presl 99 Cestrum nocturnum L. Solanaceae S America Ref.1 100 Datura metel L. Solanaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.7 101 Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae H America Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 102 Nicotiana tabacum L. Solanaceae H America Ref.1 103 M057 Physalis angulata L. Solanaceae H America 104 Solanum aculeatissimum Jacquin Solanaceae H Africa Ref.6 105 M329 Solanum erianthum D. Don Solanaceae S America 106 Tropaeolum majus L. Tropaeolaceae C America Ref.1 107 M471 Lantana camara L.* Verbenaceae S America Ref.1/Ref.7 108 M268 Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E.Br. ex Britton & Verbenaceae S America P.Wilson 109 Duranta erecta L. Verbenaceae S America Ref.1

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Appendix 4. Checklist of cryptogenic vascular plants recorded from Makwanpur district.

S.N. Collection Scientific name Family Life form References No.

1 Acorus calamus L. Acoraceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.6/Ref.7 2 Trianthema portulacastrum L. Aizoaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4 3 M500 Acmella paniculata (Wall. ex DC.) R.K. Jansen Asteraceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 4 M538 Bidens bipinnata L. Asteraceae H 5 M063 Cyperus articulatus L. Cyperaceae H 6 M405 Cyperus brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk. Cyperaceae H 7 M256 Cyperus esculentus L. Cyperaceae H Ref.1 8 M542 Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl Cyperaceae H 9 M119 Fimbristylis ovata (Burm.f.) J.Kern Cyperaceae H 10 Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott Dryopteridaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3 11 M521 Euphorbia thymifolia L. Euphorbiaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 12 M434 Aeschynomene indica L. Fabaceae S Ref.6 13 M433 Torenia crustacea (L.) Cham. & Schltdl. Linderniaceae H 14 M303 Palhinhaea cernua (L.) Carv. Vasc. & Franco Lycopodiaceae H 15 Ammannia auriculata Willd. Lythraceae S Ref.1 16 M122 Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae H Ref.1/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 17 Peperomia tetraphylla (G. Forst.) Hook. & Arn. Piperaceae H Ref.1 18 M512 Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell Plantaginaceae H 19 M115 Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae H Ref.1/Ref.6/Ref.7 20 M257 Echinochloa colona (L.) Link Poaceae H 21 M287 Oplismenus compositus (L.) P.Beauv. Poaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 22 M148 Adiantum philippense L. Pteridaceae H

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23 M517 Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Pteridaceae H 24 Ranunculus sceleratus L. Ranunculaceae H Ref.1 25 Dasiphora fruticosa (L.) Rydb. Rosaceae H Ref.1/Ref.7 26 Typha angustifolia L. Typhaceae H Ref.1 27 M314 Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae H Ref.1/ Ref.3/Ref.4/Ref.6/Ref.7 28 M477 Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene Verbenaceae H Ref.1

Note

Ref 1. = Chapagain et al. (2016) Ref. 2 = Kunwar and Adhikari (2007) Ref. 3 = Hasan et al. (2013) Ref. 4 = Joshi and Siwakoti (2012) Ref. 5 = Luitel et al. (2014) Ref. 6 = Joshi (2014) Ref. 7 = Tamang and Chapagain (2016)

Appendix 5. Soil pH, carbon and nitrogen in different land use types.

S.N. Land use types Plot pH Total nitrogen Organic carbon 1 Sal forest 1 7.9 0.11 2.92 2 2 7.8 0.11 4.96 3 3 7.9 0.10 3.98 4 4 8 0.10 3.51 5 5 7.9 0.10 3.94 6 Mixed forest 1 7.4 0.07 1.80 7 2 7.3 0.07 3.24 8 3 7.3 0.07 3.06 9 4 7 0.07 2.64 10 5 7.2 0.07 2.76 11 Agricultural land 1 7.8 0.10 4.32 12 2 7.7 0.18 4.38 13 3 7.6 0.08 3.12 14 4 7.7 0.10 3.66 15 5 7.6 0.10 3.48 16 Wetland 1 7.4 2.47 3.21 17 2 7.3 2.71 3.53 18 3 7.3 2.34 3.05 19 4 7.6 2.26 2.94 20 5 7.8 3.04 3.95 21 Fallow land 1 7.3 0.04 2.35 22 2 7.3 0.04 2.14 23 3 7.5 0.04 1.28 24 4 7.2 0.06 2.24

XLI

25 5 7.3 0.04 1.20 26 Grassland 1 8.1 0.04 1.39 27 2 8.2 0.04 1.50 28 3 8 0.04 1.07 29 4 8 0.04 1.39 30 5 8.1 0.04 2.78

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PHOTOPLATES

Photoplates 1. Different activities during field visit.

A. Data collection in Fallow land B. Herbarium preparation

C. Plot sampling in grassland D. Identification of invasive plant Photoplates 2. Lab Analysis

A. Carbon analysis B. Nitrogen analysis

XLIII

Photoplates 3. Sampling site

A. Sal forest B. Mixed forest

C. Agricultural land D. Fallow land

E. Wetland F. Grassland

XLIV

Photopates 4. Plant identification

A. Plant identification B. Plant identification at CAL Photoplates 5. CAL visit and attendending conference

A. Visit CAL for plant B. Presentation at conference identification

C. Attending conference at MoChWo

XLV