Science in the Ancient World An Encyclopedia Russell M. Lawson Santa Barbara, California Denver, Colorado Oxford, England © 2004 by Russell M. Lawson All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lawson, Russell M., 1957– Science in the ancient world : an encyclopedia / Russell M. Lawson. p. cm. (History of science series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-85109-534-9 (acid-free paper)–ISBN 1-85109-539-X (eBook) 1. Science, Ancient—History—Encyclopedias. I.Title. II. Series: ABC-CLIO’s history of science series. 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Manufactured in the United States of America Contents Introduction, xi Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia A Asclepiades (floruit first century BCE), 26 Academy, 1 Asclepius/Asclepiads, 27 Aelian, Claudius (floruit early third Asia, East and South, 29 century CE), 2 Astronomy, 30 Agathemerus (floruit first century CE), 3 Athenaeus (floruit early third century Agriculture, 3 CE), 35 Alcmaeon (floruit early sixth century Athens, 35 BCE), 6 Atoms, 39 Alexander of Macedon (356–323 BCE), 7 Aurelius, Marcus (121–180 CE), 40 Alexandria, 9 Aurelius Augustine (354–430 CE), 42 Ammianus Marcellinus (325–395 CE), 11 Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (500–428 B BCE), 13 Babylon, 45 Anaximander of Miletus (610–540 BCE), Bronze Age (3500–800 BCE), 46 15 Anaximenes of Miletus (585–525 BCE), C 15 Caesar, Julius (100–44 BCE), 51 Apollonius of Perga (floruit 235 BCE), 16 Calendars and Dating Systems, 52 Archelaus of Athens (floruit fifth century Cato, Marcus Porcius (Elder) (234–149 BCE), 17 BCE), 55 Archimedes (287–212 BCE), 17 Celsus (floruit 25 CE), 56 Aristarchus of Samos (310–230 BCE), 19 Cicero (106–43 BCE), 57 Aristotle (384–322 BCE), 20 Columella (5 BCE–60 CE), 58 Arrian (89–180 CE), 25 Commentators, 58 vii viii Contents Constantinople, 59 H Constellations, 62 Hecataeus of Miletus (floruit 500 BCE), 101 D Hellanicus of Lesbos (floruit fifth century Democritus (460–370 BCE), 63 BCE), 101 Diogenes Laertius (floruit third century Hellenism, 102 CE), 65 Heraclides of Pontus (floruit fourth Diogenes of Apollonia (floruit late fifth century BCE), 103 century BCE), 65 Heraclitus of Ephesus (540–480 BCE), Dreams, 66 104 Hero (62–152 CE), 104 E Herodotus of Halicarnassus (490–430 Easter, 69 BCE), 105 Egypt, 69 Herophilus of Chalcedon (floruit third Eleatic School, 72 century BCE), 107 Elements, 72 Hesiod (floruit late eighth century BCE), Empedocles (495–435 BCE), 73 107 Engineering and Technology, 74 Hipparchus (190–120 BCE), 109 Epictetus (55–135 CE), 76 Hippo of Croton (floruit late fifth century Epicureanism, 76 BCE), 109 Epicurus (341–271 BCE), 77 Hippocrates (460–377 BCE), 109 Erasistratus (275–194 BCE), 78 History, 112 Eratosthenes (276–195 BCE), 78 Homer (floruit eighth century BCE), 115 Euclid (floruit 300 BCE), 79 Hydraulics, 117 Eudoxus of Cnidus (408–352 BCE), 81 Hypatia of Alexandria (370–415 CE), 119 Eunapius (floruit fifth century CE), 82 I F Iamblichus (250–325 CE), 121 Frontinus, Sextus Julius (floruit late first Ionians, 122 century and early second century CE), Iron Age, 123 83 Irrigation Techniques, 124 G J Galen (130–200 CE), 85 Julian (331–363 CE), 127 Gaza, 87 Geminus (floruit first century CE), 88 L Geography/Geodesy, 88 Later Roman Empire (180–565 CE), 129 Greek Archaic Age (800–500 BCE), 94 Leucippus (floruit fifth century BCE), Greek Classical Age (500–323 BCE), 95 131 Greek Hellenistic Age (323–31 BCE), 98 Life Sciences, 132 Contents ix Logos, 134 Philostratus (170–250 CE), 182 Lucretius (floruit first century BCE), Phoenicians, 183 135 Physical Sciences, 184 Lyceum, 138 Plato (427–347 BCE), 187 Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE), 190 M Pliny the Younger (61–113 CE), 193 Magi, 139 Plotinus (205–270 CE), 194 Magic, 140 Plutarch (46–120 CE), 195 Magna Graecia, 141 Polybius (208–126 BCE), 199 Marine Science, 142 Porphyry (234–305 CE), 200 Mathematics, 144 Posidonius of Rhodes (135–50 BCE), Maximus of Ephesus (floruit fourth 201 century CE), 145 Prometheus, 201 Medicine, 146 Psychology, 203 Mesopotamia (3500–550 BCE), 148 Ptolemaeus, Claudius (100–170 CE), 208 Meteorology, 152 Pythagoras (570–490 BCE), 209 Miletus, 153 Pytheas of Massilia (floruit late fourth Military Science, 155 century BCE), 211 Mountains, 158 Myth, 161 R Roman Principate (31 BCE–180 CE), N 213 Nearchus of Crete (ca. 360–312 BCE), Roman Roads and Bridges, 215 165 Rome, 217 Neoplatonism, 167 New Testament, 169 S Seneca, Lucius Annaeus (5–65 CE), 221 O Seven Sages, 222 Old Testament (Hebrew Bible), 173 Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, Oribasius (floruit fourth century CE), 223 175 Social Sciences, 224 Socrates (470–399 BCE), 227 P Solon (640–560 BCE), 228 Paganism, 177 Stoicism, 229 Palladius (floruit mid-fourth century Strabo (63 BCE–21 CE), 230 BCE), 179 Peripatetic School, 179 T Philo of Byzantium (260–180 BCE), 180 Tacitus (56–117 CE), 233 Philolaus (floruit fifth century BCE), 180 Thales (625–545 BCE), 234 Philosophy, 181 Themistius (317–388 CE), 235 xContents Theophrastus (370–286 BCE), 236 W Thucydides (460–400 BCE), 237 Women and Science, 247 Time, 238 X V Xenophanes of Colophon (570–478 Varro (116–27 BCE), 243 BCE), 249 Vesuvius, 243 Xenophon (430–355 BCE), 250 Vitruvius (floruit 25 BCE), 245 Chronology, 255 Bibliography, 261 Index, 269 About the Author, 291 Introduction Ancient science strove to understand the ori- above; the moon governed the fertility of gins and workings of nature and humanity. nature and woman. (See ASTRONOMY.) Science has encompassed many methods and Fertility symbols and statuettes of priestesses varied disciplines over time, occupying and mother goddesses dot the archeological human thought for millennia. The questions finds from the dozens of millennia BCE, that scientists ask tend to remain constant reminding us of the power women once had even as the answers differ according to time in ancient societies before the coming of male and culture.The strange and sometimes sim- gods reflecting male dominance. Rhea, ple explanations that the ancient Greeks and Cybele, Artemis, Hera, Isis, and Ishtar were Romans gave for natural phenomena appear early fertility goddesses representing the uni- less absurd to us when we consider that the versal mother image who brought life, love, answers of today may appear ridiculous to and death to her children, the humans. (See observers a thousand years from now.Among MYTH.) ancient scientists—from Mesopotamia, Ancient humans were animists who Persia, India, China, Egypt, Greece, and believed in a spiritual component to natural Rome—the Greeks were by far the leaders in phenomena and pantheists who saw in nature scientific inquiry because they asked the most something warm, maternal, and universal. penetrating questions, many of which still They lived in an environment wholly alive— elude complete answers. (See GREEK ARCHAIC with the surrounding woods, mountains, and AGE; GREEK CLASSICAL AGE; GREEK HELLENISTIC streams filled with life and spirit. Nature was AGE; PHILOSOPHY.) an unpredictable extension of self. Humans There is a temptation to view the past sought to charm the spirits of nature that according to the standards and precepts of were mysterious, yet very familiar. Nature the present.The historian encounters count- embraced early humans; it was all they knew. less similarities when comparing modern and Humans joined into communities to seek the ancient science. Clearly the building blocks of best means to yield life and happiness from today’s science were formed two to three the environment, which they were dependent thousand years ago in the ancient upon yet in competition with for food and Mediterranean region—in a preindustrial age shelter. (See PAGANISM.) before the dawn of Islam or Christianity, dur- The most rudimentary form of scientific ing a polytheistic, superstitious time. Magic thought occurred at some vague point in the and astrology were considered as legitimate distant past when the ancient human began to as medicine and astronomy. (See MAGIC.) The sense his self in his surroundings, to see other earth was the center of a finite universe; the humans as like himself, and to be aware of planets twinkled like gods watching from life—and of death. This awareness of self, of xi xii Introduction mortality, of birth, of the future, of the past, organs in the search for abnormal lobes and allowed ancient man to detach himself not other intestinal aberrations. Early humans only from nature but from the moment as also turned to the study of flora for the best well, to forge a weak notion of the past-pres- building materials and palatable food, such as ent-future continuum of time, to gain a nas- grains for bread and edible roots and flowers. cent historical perspective. Perhaps he did not Flower petals, stalks, and roots, as well as know time, but he knew the passing of days tree bark, leaves, twigs, and roots, largely and change of the seasons and the growth of composed the ancient materia medica, the the youth and decline of the aged. Indeed, potions and teas used to relieve pain, stop existence was sufficiently precarious to accept bleeding, reduce symptoms, and calm the only the here and now and avoid being over- hysterical.